19

History of
Life on Earth
The universe is estimated to be formed about 13.7 billion years ago. The planet
Earth which is home to all the life, came into being about 4.6 billion years aon
and life existed on Earth for about 3.8 billion years. Geologists have attempted in
various ways to estimate the age of the layers of rocks. The entire lifespan of Earth
is called the geological time. Plants and animals have changed gradually during the
passage of geological time and present a chronological sequence of events, which
led to the evolution of more and more complex forms from the simple ones. These
evolutionary changes are read in the form of fossils that are found in succeeding
rock beds or strata.
An English geologist William Smith (1769-1839) realised that in a series of
undisturbed rock layers, the bottom layer must be the oldest and the fossils of plants
and animals found in lower layers must have existed at an early date than those
found above them or in the new rocks. Also a given rock mass is distinguished from
the earlier and later rock masses by the type of fossils it contains. It postulated that
rocks having fossils of simpler plants and animals represent older rocks and those
having more complex forms are comparatively recent.
19.1 GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE
By studying the fossils present in the rocks, the geologists have divided the geologea
time into intervals, which are characterised by significant changes that
the organisation of organisms from time to time. These divisions are occuteu of dierent
durations and of different categories. The major divisions of geological the
known as eras, These in turn are divided into periods, which are further subdivided
into epochs.These eras, periods and epochs are arranged on the time Se
order of their age, and this arrangement is called
Notes 'geological time scale
19.1.1 Divisions of Geological Time Scale
The first geological time scale was developed by Govanni A
Arduino in 1760. He
proposed that the rocks of the Earth can be divided into primary (oldest), secondary
 absence and geonical TheEóns
Cly
absence ptozoicgeologists
Cryptozoic 19.1.2
of
4.6 (intermlediimitsate)
gives
life major
billion
tinto
wO
become
Fossils of Eon time us
abundant fossils.
Plants years pretty
good aand
or fEon and
presence scale,
am
i np
vahd
ibe ians tertiary
invade
also
Phanerozoic
land the
FIG. I nand
sects
It long
consisting
the
Man includescalled
19.1: land beginsrepiies
of (youngest)
divisions,period
idea
beRegcinosrdedhumhafiinrssttory simple
Age
of Precambrian Eon.
ogical Mesozoic ap 1/4
pears the of of of
Age living the
reptiles of at Azoic twocalled
Earth's
Evolution
ends
midnighstecond groups.
A 5P.M. 6 ginsmarDeg ofAge sequence
time nammals Coenozoic or
before 11.59 PM
forms and
moreEons.
scale. Eon geological TheHistory
and 211211 Noon 17
12
Midnight 10 Archeozoic
whose of
is eras. An geological
the events
A.M. 6 23 of
9 fossils The Eon time
Life
pansio of
lite 8 Origin
of
period in
life
Era, two is thetime on
are
thescale
characterised Eons
of largest historyscale Earth
not rarity is
available. are divided
division of
within
ofnamed
life Earth. 447
by by its
448Phanerozoic Eon (Gk.Biology
D Evolutionary phanero, visible + zoon, life) is the period of visible life-
forms and abundance of their fossils, It is divided into three major eras: Palacozoic,

Mesozoic and Coenozoic Era.

The names of the units or divisions or subdivisions have their own significance.
where particular
name of the place,
rocks
These were either in abundance (Permain, after the name of city Perm of type
are found based upon the
Sovietof
Union) or where these rocks were first noted, or after the name of a particular
group of people who were residing there where the rocks of that period were
Ordovician, an ancient
recognised (0rdovician after the name of tribe that
first in that part of Wales where Ordovician rocks were discovered). Otherwise,
Iived
the name designates some particular characteristic of the period. Carboniferous
coal bearing period is named so because a great deal of coal was formed
or represents the fossils of
during this period and Palaeozoic Era of ancient lfe
primitive forms in abundance.
which
The geological time scale has been broadly divided into six major divisions
are called eras. There are evidences that each era was ended by widespread geolog
ical disturbances called revolutions. Each revolution includes changes like upheaval
of the Earth surface in certain regions (to form mountains) and lowering of land in
other regions, which resulted in the formation or elimination of inland seas. These
revolutions changed the distribution of sea and land and also of organisms living
there in. They wiped out many of the previous forms causing major extinctions.
So far five major extinctions have occurred and each of them defines the end of
an era. The most famous is Cretaceous extinction. During each of the eras, there
were lesser events, which were less widespread and less far reaching in their efects
than the revolutions responsible for the separation of eras. These events are called
disturbances in the Earth crust. These disturbances also marked definite breaks in
the geological and fossil records and divide an era into periods and epochs.

19.1.3 The Eras

The eras are divisions of geological time that stand between the eon andthe period
These indicate the characteristic stages of development of fossils borne bythemand
the degree of evolutionary advancement of life.
The various eras are:
Azoic Time of no life
H Archeozoic Time of initial or beginning of life
JH Proterozoic Time of earliest life
w Palacozoic Time of ancient life
Mesozoic Time of middle life
W Coenozoic Time of recent life
19.1,4 The Periods
Aperiod is the subdivision of an era of geological time distinguished by a particula
system of rocks and fossils) The eras
hav

Coenozoic, Mesozoic and Palaeozoic

 Palaeozoic Proterozoic Afcheozoic Era
5 4 1 GeolKABLE
ogiTicmale
Mississippian Devonian Silurian Cambrian
Ordovician Period
(Carboni-ferous)
19.1
Environmentand
Life
EpochDuration
Second
First
Appalachian
Years of
Millions
50 60 20 75 100Great 500 Great 2,000 in

Revolution
Revolution
Present to
Years ofBeginning
Revolution Millions Period of from
Time Scale
280 405 425 500 600 2,000 3,600

(Considerable with
(Considerable
inland
seas. spread
rose; landas
cooler
of later Climate
at
uniform;
andwarm
first,humid uniform
climates, tionof seas.
extensive
continental warmer.became
temperature. Broad
increased distribu climate
Slight
cooling; progressively submergence
Climate(Some land.climate,
ofgreat Warm glaciations. climate,
volcanic
repeated Great
tropical sedimentary-depesits-of
tions,organie-Fmaterial-in
erup Cool rocks(indirect Climaticand
Conditions Notes
Geological

Loss volcanic
evidence History
on
Loss
of Loss Events
forests).
(Early dominant;
increasingly Mosses
seed and ferns.
liverworts,
andhorse
-tails known
sperms
firstgymno nant.
-clubmosses;
and forests,
first First First Fossils) activities(
widespread.
coal sperms
gymno ferns algae
domi plants
landknown Algae,
fungi,
plants. land
first
and, appeared,
abundant.
marine plants
algaeprobably
firstLand bacteria. Primitive
and aquatic
plants,
fungi of of
of algae, Fossils) livingthings Plant
Life of
Fossils) in Life
no The
recogaisable on
from Evolution Earth
amphiblans ofspread
Radiation
sharks; of
amphibians.
insects
atpeak
liies evolution
sea Rise ofabundant;
lungfishes Diversification
sharks
andCorals
of Bryozoans fishes; expansion
fishes. of
insects,
rise
& in invertebrates vertebrates
first Wide first Abundant
of appearence ofmarine
invertebrates; molluscSu trilobites
sified
abundant;
diver indication
fishes;
corals
and ofFirst annelids.coelenter
flatworms,
primitive ans,
and ates,protozo
Shelled
(Ostracoderm).
some Animal
Life

fossils,Z
Contd... ancient of
449
 Mesozoic (Age of Reptiles) Palaezoic (Age of Ancient Life) Era
Evolutionary
Biology
50
7 6
Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic Permian Pensylvanian Period

EpochDuration
Appalachian Yearsof
Millions
50 25 40 in
45
YearsPresentto of
of Period
Millions
Beginning Tifrmoem
Revolution
230 345 320
135 180

world-wideof Continents invaried;

became Appalachi
arid moutain of
anbuilding
nents conti andworld;
Rise of moist
throughout Uniform
warm climate Climatic
and
ockies,
Himalayas, swarmps,
Andesand building seas
ofandinland diversity,
Development Sierra climates.
Building than
cool
ofmild Culmination dry;
andclimate
cool elevated;
world-wide
deserts sub-tropical
appearance of glaciation
Hemisphere.
(Some Southern and ranges
climate Conditions
Geological
spread ofclimaticof mountains.Navada
Loss
of
of forests).
plants, sperms
coal(Great and -ferns of
seedforests
Great
firstCommon;
of conifers ferns.
extinction
seedofend; Fossils)
dominant,de
towards
clining horse
forestsconifer tails; decline
greatlycopods Dwindling
and ancient oftropical Plant
Life
of
decline ering
dons,especiallyplants
sperm.gymnomonocotyle floweringknown
Riflsoewof plants. appearance Cycadsand Gymnosperms gymno

ammonites appearance
reptiles, Amphibians
dominant
Common;insects
land; on
-of-amphibia: abundance
primitive
appearance
mammal-like reptiles, ofandExtinction
of trilobites; offirstof Animal
Life
toothed dinosaurs;of primitive
firstof
reptiles;
doeline
Dominance extinof
os;ad al ctimammal ndeg ofreptiles
; ilesamammal
on lyireptngsprogresSive s;risTransi
e to tion of
c and teleeostxoffbtiisenhesgcint; ibecame
mmon.mammals biardcsh;aimodem nbigrdsextinobecame dof
ethedreachedDinosaurpmareak insuspiectalisv.ororOusptilee; rbiisprserappear ance amphibians.
 History of Life on Earth 451
Duration Time from Geological
Period Epoch Plant Life Animal Life
in Beginning and Climatic
Era
Millions of Period Conditions
of Years to Present
Millions
of Years
Rocky Mountain Revolution (Little Destruction of Fossils)
Palaeo 5 63 Development Modernisation
of climatic
Evolutionary
cene of angio explosion of
belts. sperms. manmals.
Eocene 22 58 Zoned climatic Extension of Placental
belts well angiosperms. mammals
established. diversified and
specialised;
hoofed mammals
and carnivores
established.
Oligo 11 36 Lands lower, World wide Archaic
-cene climate tropical mammals extinct;
warmer. forests, ise appearance
of monocots of modern
and flowering mammals.
plants.
Mammale) Miocene 13 25 Cooling of Development Mammals
Tertiar climate. of grasses; at height of
reductionof evolution; first
forests. man-like apes.
of
(Age Pliocene 11 12 Cool and tem Decline of Aburndanb
perate climate forests; spread mammals
Era away from of herbs and man evolving:
Coenozoic equator; con grassland. elephant, horses
tinuous rise of and camels
mountains in almost like
Western North modern forms.
America.
Pleisto 1 1 Periodic Increase of Age of man;
-Cene, continental herbs;great extinction of
(2) glaciation in decrease of many large
north. woody plants. mapmals.

Recent 0.025 0,025 End of last ice Dominance ofAge of man,

(1)
Quatermary age; climnate herbs. development ot
warmer;
human cultures
climatic zones
distinct
 19.2 forms
life.of partsepoch Epochs
The19.1.5
The Periodsof" " follows:as
ThiAZOIC
by s ERA first Evolutionary
the beenBiology
The452
The 6.
7.Pliocene
Miocene Eocene
Oligocene
5. 4.Palaeocene
3. 2. 1. Periods
the can subdivisions Tertiary
12. 11. Periods periods
Pleistocene:
Recent: ofare Quaternary 10. 9. 8.
complete above a
7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. studied subdivided
be referred Cretaceous:
Jurassic:Triassic: Permian:
theseofPennsylvanian:
Mississippian: Ordovician:
Silurian:
Devonian:
described period) Cambrian:
of of
and have
epochspresent Coenozoic
Era Mesozoic
absence Palaeozoic
Most The as of From
rocks in L.
From described. been into
as
From
are Priod series.(Epochs the L. trias, From From L.
smaller
the recent epochs periods derived
of based the
Creta,Germany. the From From the
Camboria,
earliest
living Era Devonshire, The
mountains meaning province Silures, an Era
of meaning the the ancient from units
on Coenozoic are geological
organisms. time the statesupper meaning the of
usuallycalled three, an
in relationship between of England. tribe names time
the chalk, of ancient
Era epochs.
represent refers
PermMississippi time
During
Pennsylvania thatWales. called
toryhissh in
Quaternary
period Tertiary are: refersFrance
to
tribe lived scale theof
The Ural
this between the valley. of includes periods.
of the to near areas
Earth rocks chalky and natural Mountainscalled Wales.
period period upper, in
Switzerland. the
characterised
which the deposited which
12
middle limestone. three the ancient
Earth past Tertiary of periods names
is the
fold Carboniferoe
Russia. rocks
was and Wales of
andduring which
period division most
formed lower were
present an are of

and underwent many changes
c0oled
appearance and preponderance of
onlyof igneous type and are
History of Life on Earth 453
which created
conditions favourable for the
living organisms. The
devoid of fossils. rocks of this period are

19.3 ARCHEOZOIC ERA

Beginning: About 3,600 million years ago.
Duration: About 2,000 million years, including a
discontinuitymajor
Era.This discontinuity stayed for 200 million years involving fromfossil
Proterozoic
loss.
Geological Conditions: Great volcanic activities and atime
of storms and extensive
erosion. The rocks of this era are very
deeply buried and are exposed only at the
bottom of the Grand Canyon in Arkansas and along the shores of Lake Superior.
On account of excessive heat and pressure along with the catastrophic activity, most
of the fossils were destroyed. However, the occurrence of inorganic limestone and
graphite (pure carbon) indicates the presence of plants and animals.
Life: The carly organisms represented in these rocks might have been simple,
nicellular organisms having soft body. Bacteria and alga-like fossil materials have
heen described by Barghoorn and Schope in the rocks from frozen Isua rocks of
Creenland. These earliest forms occur in the form of chemical signature of life in
the barren frozen rocks. For perhaps 1.8 billion years, these simple, single-celled
creatures had the Earth to themselves.

19.4 PROTEROZOIC ERA (The Era of Former Life)

(Gk. Proteros = former + Zoe = Iife)
Beginning: About 1,600 million years ago.
Duration: About 500 million years.
Geological Conditions: Deposition of large amount of sediment to form
Sedimentary rocks. Due to numerous volcanic eruptions lava flowed. There was at
least one period of glaciation.
that not
Life: The fossils found from the rocks of Proterozoic Era indicate
only the life was present but had reached great complexity. Algal filaments, fungi,
represented
ponge spicules, radiolarians, jellyfishes, branchiopods and worms are
by fossils. The first organisms were soft-bodied with few or no hard parts that could
vonverted into fossils. Hence, fossils are poorly represented.
inferred that this
Om the scanty fossil records of Proterozoic Era it could be
era was occupied by bacteria, blue green algae and fungi, shelled protozoans,
worms, brachiopods and
(like jellyfishes and corals), sponges, annelid
coelenterates
few molluscs also existed during this era.
Revolution which result-
The Proterozoic Era ended by the Killarney building activity and ero-
ed in mountain
the worldwide continental uplift,
the fossil contents of the
rocks between
sion,
the On account of these changes Palaeozoic exhibit a discontinuity.
early
strata of late Proterozoic aand
454 Evolutionary Biology
been described collectively
Proterozoic Eras have also under
The Archeozoic
and
Cryptozoic Eon" or the Precambrian Time' (Time
heading the
a common period).
before the Cambrian deposited about 600 million
years
abundant in the rocks
The fossils became
Palaeozoic Era. So, the period prior to that is
Period of
ago in the Cambrian fossils of the primitive
marine invertebrates. The life-
charactersied by scanty from the rest of
has been isolated
span of 600 million years
of Earth's crust
Constitutes about two-thicdthe
Precambrian time. It
life-span and is designated as
three-fourth of the total life of Earth. Phanerozoic Eon
era together form
Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Coenozoic

Palaios = ancient; zoe = life)

19.5 PALAEOZOIC ERA (Gk.
cradle of ancient life' had a duration
The Palaeozoic Era which is also called the
million years ago and ending by 230
of about 370 million years starting about 600
are very extensive and reflect the
million years ago. The fossil records in this era
on land. Almost ali
preponderance of different plants and animals both in sea and
early Palaeozoic Era. The
the major invertebrate phyla are represented even in the it may be that
fossils of first vertebrates appeared late in the era and the reason for
form of fossils.
the early chordates were soft bodied and were not preserved in the
This era has been divided into seven periods. These are as follows:

19.5.1 Cambrian Period

(Named after Cambria, the Latin name for City of Wales)
The earliest subdivision of Palaeozoic Era was named as Cambrian' by Adam
Sedgwick in 1835 because the rocks of this period were first discovered in the Cy
of Wales which is called Cambria in Roman language.
Beginning: About 600 million years ago.
Duration: About 100 million years.
of
Climate: The Cambrian Period started with the melting of glaciers, slow rise
sea level and warm climate. The Oceans flooded inland and as a result what rep-
resents North America now was under sea in Cambrian Period. In other continents
also the major land areas were under sea water.
Flora and Fauna: The Cambrian fossils are in abundance but are represented
only by marine plants and animals. There is no direct ofland
evidence of existence
Supposed
plants and vertebrates, though primitive
to have occurred spore bearing land plants are The

fossils of bacteria,sporadically. Fossils of marine algae are widely distributed. were

fungi and other found, though
present then. primitive plants are 1not
All the present day invertebrate phyla are represented in the beds of Cambrianrocks
echinoders
Fossils of protozoa, sponges,
coelenterates, annelids, molluscs,
and the trilobites have all been recorded. But only those invertebrates gotfossilisedduring
, brachiopods,
 History of Life on Earth 455
periodI which had hard parts. Most of them
were
These constitute over fiftybrachiopods and the trilobites, the
this
most primitive arthropods.
thattime, percent of the known fauna of
Further evolution since Cambrian
included the
which were established I during Cambrian. ramification
of the body
patterns
The period ended by Green Mountain Disturbances or
esin
North-Easternpart of North America, Canada; and Vermontion Disturbanc-
in European Continent. mountain formation activities
10.5.2 Ordovician Period
Named after Ordovices, a tribe natives of ancient Wales)
The name Ordovician was proposed by Charles
Lapworth in 1876 to commemorate
Ae Ordovices, an ancient tribe that inhabited the City of Wales.
Beginning: About 500 million years ago.
Duration: About 75 million years.
Climate: The climate in Ordovician Period was uniformly warm with glacial
activities in certain regions. Continents were flooded with shallow sea and volcanic
activities were abundant in eastern North America. The period ended by Tectonic
disturbances in eastern North America leading to the formation of Tectonic
Mountains.

Flora and Fauna: Ordovician Period marks the appearance of first vertebrates in
the form of armoured jawless fishes, called Ostracoderms, which were dwelling in
the freshwater rivers. Their fossils are in the form of bony scales. Life stillflourished
moceans and fossils of land animals are not recorded.
The first corals appeared in Ordovician Period and started their reef building
actrvities. Trilobites reached their climax, Brachiopods and Graptolites became
abundant. Snails, clams and giant cephalopods like squids and Nautilus, etc., also
tade their appearance. Phylum Echinodermata came into prominence. Crinoids
Decame dominant and even starfish appeared.

19.5.3 Silurian Period

(Named after an ancient tribe, Silures which inhabited Britain)
The term 'Silurian' was proposed by Murchison in 1835 to designate rocks that
i posed in the borders of Wales and England, the territory which was formerly
thabited by the Silures.
Beginning: 425 million years ago.
Duration: Roughly 20 million years.
Climate: During Silurian Period the climate was mild and some areas were arid.
The sea alternately advanced and retarded during this period and volcanic activities
yok. place. The period ended by Caledonian disturbance in Europe and resulted in
he rise of Caledonian Mountains in British Isles, Scandinavia, North Africa and East
Central Asia.
 known
(a thisgroup namecephalopods,
is ram'period.
s Crinoids the indicates
into were Period
feet nearplants of disturbance,adjacent
felt formationareas Devon
of (PeriodDevonian
Period
19.5.4 of terrestrial Evolutionary Biology
456
represented Flora
seed southwards Duration:
Climate: gradually
ilies mil ons. i p edes made
important
Theperiod
peak The have Beginning: this The cartilaginous Flora
ammonitehorns, Gilobia, very became were period or became Marine their
Devonian as which Their animal ferns, and to name of and
the was and of beenterrestrial that tall New the of very Devon' declined. animals
and events.
that their coal, TheAbout Devonshire,
were
starfish life New during horse Fauna: About Devonian' invertebrates
more
exhibited by shells first measuringwidespread
appearance. Fauna:
AgeTrilobita. (Egyptian obtained. as
Acadian
England dry. and
ram's is far
climate wingless orDuring
Period development. still tails, oil 60 first in
of vaguely
whyappeared York,forms.
Devonian The 405 numerous. The
freshwater air
horns), occurred The as and England)
a The
Fishes they thrived Cape and
million found. corals breathers
insects. The th is
isdecline God where scouring
30
to inDisturbance period inmillion county was still
Fossil which
plants
land gas.
Devonian first Silurian
frequently The resembled
owe abundantly
Devonian Eastern proposed The peri od
because Ammon in numerous Period 40 Hatters. years. of fishes made
domninated
The was years
during only their this inThe
profusion. forests rushes South Eurypterids were land Period the
feetin close ostracoderms huge
corals Period.
Canada ormarkedPeriod (Placoderms) largeplants first
occurred ago. by
FIG. in tree of and Acadian western coral the la nd is
continued the Devonian Period height. of Sedgwick
19.2: The lycopods. (Acadian Devonian by was scorpion-likecharacterised
scene. were were
stumps The made reefs
sea plants
transitionthe Orogeny, great mild England, were th e
An ammonites, TheDevonian flora also
only. their and and Therepresented and
derm their withup Region) with present ancestors
ith occurrence The volcanic is trilobites
(eurypterids),
made evolved arthropods the by
reef-building The a appearance marked Murchiso
where the
dianmeter havebeen trees which local air
but their and of by
occurrence
a
brachiopods of activities new breathing
dwes in
included centered
its dryness. rock ancestral
appearance. and
modern ferns.
special water seedof
late by in
fish species.
in effects a formations 1839 graptolites The
like tounco localised and sCorpi- animals of
DevonuyungisSilurtan in Certain formns first two
grouapctivi es reached 3- plants were and the a6 Sea
om
 History of Life on Earth 457
Fin
Air sac
Brain (swim bladder)
Lateral ine

Operculum Anus
Gills Tail fin
Two chambered Vertebral
heart column
A B

C
bladder connected to
FIG. 19.3: A. Crossopterygian fish; B. A lobe finned fish with air amphibian limb.
pharynx, C. Resemblance of fin of Crossopterygian fish and
H = Humerus, R= Radius and U= Ulna.

existence of numerous and varied fish

1or the first time. fossil records revealed the
this period. The ostracoderms
Us Indicating their abundance and diversification inabundant into a variety of fish
appeared in Ordovician became much more spiny-skinned sharks.
lorms. The first to be evolved were the placoderms orvariable number of paired
which had
They were Small, armoured freshwater forms, appendages (arms
fins, Some had jussttwo pairs of fins corresponding to theas paired additional
some had as many five pairs of
an8S) of higher forms, whereas placoderms were the ancestors of Condrichthyes
appendages
Or
between these two. The
cartilaginous
fishes and Osteichthyes or bony fishes and became extinct by
the

thd of this Period but

period.
True sharks (Chondrichthyes)) appeared in freshwater during Devonian large size.
called arthrodires, attained
Offshoot of the sharks,
igrated to the ocean. they had jointed neck that permitted
the
They were very interesting,andfirstly because
were the largest animals of this period.
SaTheul to move up and down secondly they
Dinichthys which was about 30 feet
long.
most abundant arthrodire was
 which to lobed-fin
Stegocephatians
leavinge
Thof crawl
the tion longnamed (roof-headed) animals
covered vertebrates.
iansTheseterisedtheby genera genera,evolutionlobed modified lung.
Choanichthyes,
intolakeslung-fish
wermodern the 458
support
internal characteristics The The The They The
divergedappeared
e ray-finlungfish,
The nedfish.
ofand on and FIG.
or because abl e middle The
lchthyostega.
newly earliest late of
ray-finned ancestors
the lung exhibited small by were 19.5: Latimeria, lobe-finned
bony became fromfleshy Devonian in
e
thbones Devonian A. to lobe-finned into of Evolutionary
waterfishes bony
because appearance Transition freshwater
body acquired known weak called A they
survive Devoni
three an of
forms bony fishes. extinctfishes rounded
was and of a armour. fish the bony
weight which It to fish, could ancestors main
converted
establishing evolved istegocephalian
legs. their
ts curious was Stegocephalians Period fish; dry fish
characters
fish of of ramifiedliving bylandbases Period
streams.fishesBiology
succeeded amphib
were crossopterygian
the B. crossopterygians, take
periods and
on about Theyskulls
fossil. the forms:
ancestors.combina first is A vertebrates. of air also
land. into from charac lobe in end of the they By
themselves 2 could were land the through by
the and feet crosspterygian Mesozoic EIG.
a in is ofpaired
burrowing
walking lobe-finned Palaeozoic (Fig. 19.4:
are their
Era fins. Lobe-finned
leg on 19.4)
characterised nostrils
fish; and They in
lobed
lchthyostegd.
land. 19.6:
FIG, fish Era the
C.into gave andmoist
An except were crossopterygian,
of an
amphibian early rise onby their beds
course to the the the
amphiblan. air
was
tin 1 modern solitary possession
direct bladder of
ea
strLatimeria
to with its living living line
of af w
 What could be the reason which
History of Life on Earth
459
compelled the
competition in crossopt
water erygians invade the
not known. Most
The landprobably
landis the to
overcrowding. offered food and protection to became very severe due
iveout of water.
It seems logical that they made many animals that could
the
moist and sandy
beaches, where food was their first
approach to land across
left by the tides.
19.5.5 Mississipian Period or
(Period of Mississippi) Lower Carboniferous
dhe name "Mississipian" was
orea in Eastern Mississippiproposed
basin,
by Alexander Winchell in 1869 to
designate
oIncovered. It has also been where excellent rock formations of this period
md Pennsylvanian Period were
called Lower Carboniferous because this period
characterised with major coal deposits of the world.
Beginning: About 345 million years ago.
Duration: About 25 million years.
Climate: The climate was warm and dry with desert
of areas and huge swamps in others. Conditions varied
conditions in a number
widely from
another. In Eastern North America, the Appalachian area was somewhatone area to
disturbed.
Pocono mountain formation occurred by the deposition of coarse debris and deltaic
accumulation which later on formed the Alps in Europe. Formation of coal, oil,
gas, lead, zinc, gold, silver, gypsum and rock-salts also occurred during this period.
Flora and Fauna: The Earth was thickly covered with plants related to ferns, club
moSses, scouring rushes, spore-bearing trees, primitive seed plants and seed-bearing
lems. In various swampy areas, the vegetation developed into dense tropical forests.
In the dense forests the animal life was now abundant. The graptolites disappeared
nMississipian Period. The echinoderms became greatly reduced. Crinoids reached
Uie peak of their development, and brachiopods with long radiating spines also
became abundant.
Fossils of terrestrial life of this period are relatively few but fossils of salamander
like amphibians have been uncovered from swamps. The sharks were most abundant
particular group of shell-crushing sharks' reached the highest stage of
Their teeth were adapted for crushing the shells of molluscs and
ardevelopment.
thropods.
19.5.6 (Period
Pennsylvanian Period or
of Pennsylvania)
Upper Carboniferous

beginning: About 320 million years ago.

Duration: About 40 million years.
The term 'Pennsylvanian Williams in 1819 and refers to
was first used by H.S. contain abundant
State Pennsylvania. The rocks of this period are well
exposed and

damp but became cold with local

Cl i m at
Baciations e: The climate was uniformly
and appearance of deserts, The
mild
swamps
and
got buried by the repeated advances
 Coenozoic Era of 19.5.7 to
somewhat
butreptiles, Period
(coal
with mostheighthorseforming). Evolutionary
460
Palaeozoic Mesozoic TABLE The
formation ch ofBiology
Periods climate whias a
Duration:
this Beginning: also be Flora
a sea-water
thAmphi
e biansabundant.
wing tails,
of
result
19.2 periodname exhibits also are was were
Permian amphibianlizard-like over and of of
span scouring often on
Devonian
arboniferous
ian
ilurian
2. 3. Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
PalaeoceneEocene
1. Miocene
2.Pleistocene 6.
each Permian
were AboutAbout appeared 100
Fauna: extensivesuggest most greative
Pliocene 5.
1. 2. 3.Oligocene 4. Recent 7.Geological
4.Permian
Pennsylvanian
1.
5. 6. 7. 3. Periods Dragon land.
period
similarities expanded of ft. combined suitable
found 50Period 20 rushes, folding
was 280 appearance
ancestor in flies, The The coal Numerous
and million inches of
andTime in million Pennsylvanian for of
Epoch introduced with and most club landtogether beds.
the ("Period of cockroaches, th e
Appalrocksachian
epochScale years. has flourished
Russian years salamander. became commonmosses,
reptiles. came been For
and spread mountain
Duration (in
by of into accompanied
are this of
12-1 million ago. Period. the
425
405-345
25405 345-320320-280280-230 230-180
180-135 135-6363-5858-3636-2525-121-0.025
0.025-Till
date province
Murchison Perm" It unearthedmore etc.,trees with reason,swamp
is
existence. woody on.
collectively Revoldisututirbances
Million of very abundant. attained werluxuriant
Seymouria e
years) of a by
years much The
from scaleplants Mississipian vegetation
outpouring
Perm. in Russian Occurred
Ancestral
since 1841, maxi mum designated
plant
lizard-like from trees.
firstBelgium. appeared
mammal
First
fofossils
Fi
ssiSr
bi
st
rd Main
Firstfossils Labyrinthodonts growth. resulted
which
ebrate
Firamphi rept
Fir
fossi
st
il
st foss Fibrisatnfos be s the because reptiles,
Texas The and Rockies
of all
fossils beginning Province) S1Ze.
fly as
appearance in is and Pennsylvanianvolcanoes. over
insectlife Carboniferous
In
attained
Aaddition the
of fossil consideredcalled dragon appeared
man having in world,
of rocks stem the The
was the to
 Climate: The Permian Period marks the end of
History of Life on Earth 461
great changes in the climate as well as the Palaeozoic Era, It was characterised
by
continentsuplifted allover the world.
Therefore, topography. The sea retreated and
the
region from Nebraska to Taxas at the
shallow seas which covered the
the dry land. At the end of beginning of this period, gradually
ofl,leaving
great mountain chain from Nova Scotia to
Permian Period general upliftingrecededof the
Appalachian Revolution. Widespread Alabama took place which marked the
glaciation occurred in Southern
Equator in Brazil and Africa. The Hemisphere
extended from Antarctic to the
that climate, in
general, became colder and drier.
Flora and Fauna: The swamp dwelling plants were replaced by more hard
and woody plants. The true conifers and cycads became most abundant and trees
oomewhat similar to date-palms appeared.
The marine aninmals were similar to those of the two preceding periods. The
rilobites disappeared completely and crinoids became rare. Spiny-shelled brachiopods
alinedby the end of Permian Period. Ammonites became still more numerous and
diversified into several new forms.

Lobe-finned Amphibians Mammals Birds

fish
Reptiles

Cenozoic Dinosaurs
Present

100 Mesozoic
Mammary
glands
Hair

ago 200
years

of
MIlions
300

Amniotic Acorn squirts AmphioxusVertebrates

wormsSea
Paleozoic egg
400 Movement
onto land

Jawed fish

500

Invertebrate ancestors
600 Ancestral
vertebrates

showingdiversification of vertebrates.
life
FIG. 19.7: Atree of
minationdescribed
large fauna
developed Fauna
TheAngiopspermsconiferous
exhibit Mesozoic,
diversification
Era. seedrepresents
4.
Mesozoic of
as Era FloraReptiles'.extinction in years. The
amphibians seathe
1. 3. 2. 1. notprogressive
Origin Mesozoic These air 19.6. area.mari ne Period. still inNew 462
Culmination Origin
Culmination
of Evolution Mesozoic
marked lycopods
ferns,
and The (Gk.
adapt Many thrived sea Life
from
a
Mesozoic
MESOZOIC forms A genera but on O
in of of plants periods
were on of
outstanding of
group
variety and Meso land
Jurassic mammals birds animal also in numerous
land. Era
themselves the freshwater
development. in of
Evolutionary
Mesozoic of similaritieswhich replaced both also of
reptiles of underwent their Palaeozoic swamps.Mayflies, exhibited
of
oceans, of appeared For began = mammal-like
Cephalopods: cephalopods life plants middle
Period,knobs, still horsetailand replacement
varieties
this features ERA disappeared to
fishes
deposits. can by a about such
with
in thrive and time reason, (Era forms The The beetles,markedBiology
butspines More be genera mass
the of230 + drastic reptilesbecame
discussed animals of of zoe of owing reptiles, first
ished and Some than late
the on
extinction
became reptiles Mesozoic by perished dragon
variations.
Ammonites present land. of and transition Mesozoic million
Intermediate= reptiles,
which
were reptiles, to
ridges 6,000have been medium-sized
Mesozoic. for life) changes the which more flies
of under called the and
The various Era years therapsids The
in them day aquaticfrom Er a and cooling the
prominent. were
species fossil were: in
became appeared Permian
mber their on formed followings dinosaurs, ago cotylosaurs,
attained vegetation. common in
terrestrial has (2) Life) the added.
plantsferns, been the () and climate. of also
shells. ofthe the extinct, Labyrinthodont in insects
taceous
uring PPeriod Disappearancelasted Fishes
ammonites insignificant Mesotc in differentiation arose
Pennsylvanian
heads: cycad-like of terrestrialto
habitats.
popularlywhich
dominant
invertebralte water appeared
mmonites Gymnosperms late Permianand
some Even
because in were were
size Mesozoic thrived and Permian similar
manv still
plants Plants called 167 decrease they amphibians
in
and lifaned and of exhibite abundan
Per in
in ancientmillion Par:
au Era and early such 'Age sea final Coultj size
saw others
 were comnpletely by the end ofHistory Life on Earth
of
and
exterminated
and Octopus were represented by
Mesozoic Era. The modern 463
Other Invertebrates: In
addition to Belemnites
in Mesozoic Era. squids
abundant in Mesozoic Era.
Triassic Period (early Protozoanscephal
and opods, other invertebrates were equally
Mesozoic Era), increasedBryozoans, although, became rare in
early Triassic seas were relatively
cold and during Jurassic Period because the
Different groups of molluscs such as unhospitable for certain types of life.
became more diversified. Even Gastropoda,
freshwater clams and Pelecypoda and Cephalopoda
air brreathing snails became equally gastropods were plentiful and
numerous. Arthropods attained much diversity.
The trilobites were replaced by shrimps, crabs, crayfish and
Period. Barnacles and true crabs appeared in Jurassic Era. lobsters in Triassic
crinoids and sea cucumbers were also represented in MesozoicStarfish,
Era. sea-urchins,
2 Evolution of Reptiles: Reptiles saw their culmination in Mesozoic Era. They
attained supremacy and were called rulers of Earth. For this very reason this period
in geological history is correctly known as Age of Reptiles". Afew paragraphs
hat can be devoted here to the story of most diversified reptiles obviously cannot
in istice to the dramatic spread and remarkable achievements of this group. About
. dozen different orders of reptiles evolved and attained dominant position not only
all the four legs, others
on Earth but in the air and also in the sea. Some walked on
used a bipedal gait with the body supported by hindlegs and balanced with a long
herbivorous, other were carnivorous. They ranged from small size
tail. Somne were
evolutionary lines have been presented
six major
to over 100 feet. in length. The comprises of ancient stem reptiles and turtles
primitive one Cotylosaurs, became extinct
by reptiles. The most Period. The stem reptiles,
which originated in Permian (Anapsida) evolved complicated dermal armour and
turtles
in Triassic Period and present time with little or no change.
have survived up to the
Origin and Evolution of Reptiles which have become totally
19.6.1 terrestrial vertebrates
first truly were never fully adapted for
Keptiles are the medium, since amphibians problem was
overcomein
This certain
independent of aquatic return to water to lay
eggs.
and the development ofallantois.
land life and had to shelled yolky eggsmembranes, amnionand embryo
hard wall of
the reptiles by layingknownas theembryonic out ofthe ventralamnion isfilled
envelopes membrane growing and
embryonic the empryo
two layered Thespacebetween around theembryo. Itchanges
guards
The amnion is asurrounding sudden
it. artificialpool to resistrespiration.
andl completely which forms an also serves
with amniotic fluid mechanicalinjuriesand allantois helps inaerial
the embryo againstthe environment. The ancestors in
of temperature in stegocephalian
ancient Period, many ofthe
Time of Origin their Permian evidencefor
19.6.1.1 evolved
probably before
from
the
the The
close of established.recordsand
become
partly
Reptiles most Period and evolutionhad
palaeontological
Carboniferous
lines of
Teptilian
throughthhe
Permian
princibelief
this ple is partlydirect
 theDinosaurs
bestafteraEarth long 19.6.2
Dinosaurs are Plesiosaursresembled
lizards.
mesosaurs
muscles for resembling by Other wing winged of tailare
padded of evolved.
cannot These
are:
dwelling Evolutionary Biology
464
snakes 5. turtles, 3. the 2. modifications.
by adapted (crocodile-like)
Mesozoic all 19.6.1.2 lizards), 7have
which before
majestically few 4. living 1. The Period had indirect,
Fossorialnot AquatieAmphibiousmembrane digits nature's Aerial Arboreal a the
the are of
fossil fingers. arboreal feet beshort-legged reptilian possible only.
evolved had
they and the (sea reptiles and Squamata based
dolphins. crocodiles, were
Reptiles: ordenied
to Era
Adaptive a
first the lizards) liv e lo ng
showed for terrible limblesslimbsforms
Reptiles: Reptiles: flyingThese chameleons Reptiles: slow is These
was reptiles. group, available and during upon
man Reptiles: left are but in the
antecedent
more
mechanism.
crawling
moving different age the are
appeared adapted from They and ancestral supported free. vary The arboreal. their (lizards), the
lizards, Radiation
sudden than lizards The seaTruly Though from ofDinosaurs.Chelonia Permian
cotylosaurs had These They in
flying which habitats appearance
one for fossils crocodiles. size fossils cotylosaur,
form, reptiles.
on
which flipper-like plesiosaurs,
aquatic by For which habitats evolution.
decline
hundred this digging. reptiles have the Rhynchocephalia and
are hadlimbs They from example, are from which in (turtles),
of partially a possibility this and During other of
Earth. lived fossorial reptiles wing had the grasping not Reptiles such
because and Limnoscelis.
which the Of
million The and Ichthyosaurs limbs parasuchia size are available. radiation exhibited six the
They on pelycosaurs span leathery
the
represented geckoes wi d e this Sauropterygia, groups
total
this present aquatic of hands era, seven
also or
of reptiles and were fourth of all
years of a existence has world (beaked fifteen in
reasonsmastered Earth 27 wings house But, other morphological reptiles
day were were
plesiosaurs, andforms and and It Triassic
during are feetfinger occurred,
was displays.
200 livingpowertil and by feet lizardstoday reptilian diversified reptiles),appearedorders
whichhad excellent long, many and or sparrow
pterodactyles of a lchthyosauria Period
the landmillion of
naked and arboreal primitive
known sleekdinosaurs. are so. the a of
fossorial obtained ichthyosaus, to with large is These or reptiles
and swimmescreatule represented forelimbs.body. the prehensile a groupsrepresented Thecodoni in which
Mesoztooie years adhesivenumberreptiles structuralbecame to Permian
ruled excep largest swamp occunv abou
forns The with have (fel must
thet. E. the ago
 History of Life on Earth 465

Cenozoic
Snakes
Birds

Turtles Lizards

Crocodiles
Rhynchocephalians

.
Cretaceous

Pterosaurs Mammals

Mesozoic Saurischian
Dinosaurs
Plesicsaurs Ornithischian Dinosaurs

Jurassic

Ancestral Birds lchthyosaurs

Triassic

Thecodonts Therapsids or Mammal-like Reptiles

Paleozoic
Permian

Cotylosaurs Pelycosaurs
The Stem Reptiles

LabyrinthodontAmphibians

Pennsylvanian macroevolution in reptiles.

or
Adaptive radiation
FIG. 19.8: hand
Dinosaurs birds on the other
19,0f fhe6.2.1present day living
Nearest Relatives of
forms,
crocodiles on one
hand and

are the closest allies of dinosaurs.

 chasing
enemy
him. near beentrunk.four-footed tail.
length a tailed, reverted blades. sharpbig wereheavy are largest
Plateosaurus, and two-legged and Classification
Dinosaurs
19.6.2.3 Eastdivergence. the
dinosaurs ofand wasmoist. second feeding
During 1.
on themselves their terrier.
per which
Ancestral
19.6.2.2
Evolutionary
StockBiology
466
Its Other Allosaurus carnivorous 8 size Size: Physical their According to
water busy The short
hindlegs to Saurischia: Africa divergence marshy Habit front along creatures Early
body long-necked to land There of
munching
of Saurischia,
with 10 Jurassic diverged of The hindlegshabits: They arose
and neck about animalsfour-legged carnivore dinosaurs who a herbivorous and
tonnes smallest Conditions:
and was legs by Dinosaurs:
their
hindon
using
wasDiplodocus,
on and domestic in
was curved habit was the Habitat:
The were Friedrich
of70 (Dinosaurs swampy no for means Carboniferous
as the that
herbivorous which
Gorgosaurus. in and and
plants feet beginning into firstgrasping cold-blooded. They
its long (Theropoda)
weight. that
Cretaceous which aboutdinosaur, climate winter.
used
long size (21 ever stance claws. following cat. forms. of' Early
it ever wi th When Dinosaurs
group skinny,
long legs.
a Von
nearly asBrontosaurus could probably 120 The grew The their
tail of lived
The with green and
the metres) a and in Its existed. feet dinosaursPeriod.Huene
Allosaurus
jaws Compsognathus, dinosaurs includes Their
likeevery tailsmall sauropods.
on increased the run. other periodsReptilian different
other semi-arid, warm forelegs
exhibited tearing
but or plants
late were preyed more
extreme front dinosaurs
a butblimp andland.
and Its attained It sea lizard-like were
whipminute well appeared, carnivorous for their could
the weighed Triassic hindfeet was some and
flooded legs
Brontosaurus
Brachiosaurus. in like was groups:
Pelvic in which two
and (nonrigid) head Among knownabout upon length swamp grasping prey. rusmall
n
with size that about gigantism. of was was had have
distinct fast
strike about Period the Girdle):
exhibited was over the tail.
its was giving
well of had forms 50 archaic and about forms claw-like arisen
35 saurischians forests. and They on
small
it quite and 30 3-clawed a feet the much climate groups
(thunder changed crocodile feet weighed tearing four
againstthe tonnes.
legs known Tyrannosaurus
included mammals They tw o most which from
small. They rise long, During were not
mouth.was by of hands. legs
long. and was on larger
to were Gigantosaurus compelling th e could cotylosaurian
toes. retained
18 about a the carnivorous
th e and
appearedIt lizard) reached
sauropods
It weregigantic, to and It in and their land. very
It had to half prey, basis They than
the teeth
plant a Forelhmts had this carnivorous 40 ru n could
head might 20 lizards. feet existence The warm balanced
strong
wasbipedal tonnes. and the
of asheavy a largest group ft cause Swif. of Using scam-
ltheiving have tre long diet, Wel tal the with land and their stock
of the fox
 Brachiosaurus (arm lizard) was History of Life on Earth 467
the
wasso
tall that its little
head could easilybiggest and heaviest of all the
It
weighed about 50 tonnes. The
bones of
have looked over a dinosaurs. It
three-storey
most of its time under water with its head forelegs were unusually large. building.
its
just above the surface for It spent
could not move around much on land.
breathing. It
Diplodocus (double beam) was about 87 feet long, the
butlighter and thinner. Its
head was very small, bornelongest on a
of all the dinosaurs,
could breathe air, while resting or moving in water. long neck so that it
, ornithischia (Dinosaurs with Avian Pelvic Girdle): They were
herbivores. They walked on all the four legs. The Ornithischia (with beaked
bird-like pelvic
oirdle) were poorly represented in Triassic Period and saw their culmination in
urassic Period. They were herbivorous from the very beginning of their evolution.
Alhough, some of them walked upright, the majority had a four-legged gait. Some
of them developed leaf-shaped teeth with serrated edges, whereas others lost their
front teeth and developed a stout horny bird-like beak and webbed feet. They were
commonly called 'duck-billed dinosaurs' (order Ornichopoda). Examples are
Camptosaurus, Iguanodon, Tachodon, Nanosaurus and Anatosaurus. The other
group (order Stegosauria) with four-legged stance developed thick armour in the
are
form of spikes, plates and bony protuberances. Stegosaurus and Ankylosaurus
horns on their head.
the well-known plated dinosaurs. Another group developed
They are Triceratops, Protoceratops and Torosaurus.
large but it had horny beak at
Camptosaurus (the flexible lizard) was not very
of its mouth for nipping off plants. It could walk on its two large hindlegs
the front
on all the four legs. Iguanodon (Iguana lizard) was
move
Dut could bend down to described. Trachodon (rough-toothed dinosaur) had two
Ihe first giant reptile to be mouth which resembled the beak of a duck. Its feet
iousand teeth in his large

Stegosaurus1-2 meters
(Plated Dinosaur)
Diplodocus
(LongestDinosaur)
Brontosaurus
Uhe Heaviest Dinosaun)

guanodon

Triceratops
(HormedlDinosaur)
Tyrannosaurus rex colored dinosaurs.
(Longest Flesh-eden Dinosaur) Some largesized
FIG. 19.9;
 (e.g.drawn andbelonged entered Protoceratops
and Reptiles Aquatic
19.6.2.4
While had numbernamed than second fourlarge verynibble paratively
closethe to fourstrong its ofard) swimming. out spent were
Evolutionary
Biology
468
Triceratops heavy
back.Stegosaurus(the of
thyosaurus), tail 1. tail. three its legs.
enough small,theof legs was
out Some dinosaursth e so brain, at spikes. the webbed.most
with Their
to of first low but The covered
bony FIG.
into sharp because long Near ground, very mud.
a ofthree sea. brain.
twenty toplants. front Ittail They of 19.10:
longcaudalthem limbsThese is
(three-horned spikes itswork sizeofa short. their They
different were horns
a With walkedonhadplates
legs with were
large its It hips ts it time Podycosaur
lmosauruspointedappeared ribs
worked times its Icould arranged
four covered are
fin. were
creaturesjumping and stuck jaws brain were twoherbivorous
and was walnut, regarded in
Theycategories: modified bony were larger all rows
beak the and
easily head com sharp,
was water.
horn-faced face) out it s the on liz
had like around (Dimetrodon)
were shell fromcurved tail
with a into was usingTheir as
shark-like
andsharp huge
a sometimes
that the with and great
ondinosaur, horn-faced FIG.
paddles. a hindlegs.
sides theirheavy Spines
ylosaurus. the grand DorsalSac
fish protected
shoulders.
neck 30 bony
teeth. 19.12:
land, feet of beak tail
fin with The 50 plates children
5-6 Ankylosaurus dinosaur
its Protoceratops,
like and
These on feet some its long body
theirlimbs jaws feet webbed bony FIG.
long. head,
herbivorous like a
frightful in to 5-6 shovel of plates19.11:
areback.
modified bear a
They length. protect feet Camptosaurus.
ichthyosaurs
called turtle feet
. spiked (curved a for Ankylosaurus like
Their reptile in
large helped
had and itshell.
s length. digging
into teeth. dinosaur. short and turtle a
jaws long c lizard)
A them
lip ers le g lage plant s They shell with
wer They neck 5 in
 History of Life on Earth
469

Eiasmosauns (50
(Sea izand)
Archelon (12 R.)
(Turtle)
FIG. 19.13: Opht(lchhtalhmyyosaur
osauruss) (7) Tylosaurus (20 R.)
Aquatic reptiles. (lchthyosaurs)

ne Turtles
of them form another group of sea
weighed
present day turtles 6,000
are much pounds. reptiles. They were over 12 feet
The turtle family is still long and
is an example of turtles. smaller. Their body is encased in living today but the
3. The third bony plates. Archelon
group
eg., Elamosaurus. includes sea serpents or sea lizards.
They are called
19.6.2.5 Aerial Reptiles mosasaurs,
The aerial reptiles
lateral folds of skin resembled bats to some extent. The
patagium consisted of two
of these reptiles wassupported
by limbs and the last digit of
flying each foreleg. The largest
dragon'
wing-spread. It hunted on small animals.Rhamphorhynchus. was about 27 feet with
It
Causes of Extinction of Dionsaurs
After being masters of the land, sea and
air for 120 million years, most of
the
Teptiles died out rather suddenly. The
only possible explanation for their sudden
demise was the gradual cooling and drying
of the atmosphere. The dinosaurs being
cold-blooded could not live comfortably FIG. 19.14: Rhamphorhynchus (a flying
in cold weather. The plant eaters could reptile, the largest flying dragon had a wing
not eat the new kinds of plants which had span of 27 feet).

tougher stems and leaves. So scarcity of

food and unsuitable climate were the main reasons for the extermination of these
however, were able to get
giant forms. Some small and simple forms of reptiles,further.
evolved
along with these changes. They survived and(1982) is of the opinion that 'had the
Russell intelligent bipeds
Canadiansurvived, they
palaeontologist, Dalepossibly have evolved into very
dinosaurs
and had become the masters
would
of the world'. Afossil
shows that in these
of
forms the
at Russell's
Stenomychasaurus
ratio of brain weight
mammals at
Natobodyional weight is similar
Museum in Canada
to that which
exists in some of thelower
encephalisation.
increase in
present. This indicates a trend of
 form
hair.of mammals: of South glaciation.
like Permian 19.6.4.1 Mammals
hadlarger were When19.6.4 dinosaurs,
into ing. apparently for made Ichthyornis, of
clothing This " of 2. 1.
the but ofPeriod evolved
ofArchaeornis. first Although of 19.6.3 470
inereasing
the
3. formns
Time milk catching severalOstrom a Mesozoic
Broom America
Causes
Origin: Africa.
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