4.

Stock: There had been two History of Life on Earth

views regarding the
ancestors of
different 471
Huxley (1880) advocated mammals.
their
Amphibia. But this view does notorigin from
hold good.
At present, Cynodontia, a
reptiles from South group of
Africa whose fossils
are found in Triassic rocks, is considered
be ancestor of mammals. The cynodonts
had dog-like muzzle and heterodont teeth
(clearly divisible into FIG. 19.16: Cynodontia
premolars and incisors, canines, the ancestral to mammal.
molars);
he lower ramus. possessed two occipital condyles and a prominent
mammals but are lowStructurally,
in cynodonts bridge the gap between reptilesdentary
reptilian scale. and
19.6.4.2 Mesozoic Mammals
Mommals appeared in carly Mesozoic (Triassic
dont and were flourishing Period) when dinosaurs were abun
exponentially.
fom colder regions, i.e., in Germany,
The mammalian fossils have been obtained
they were warm-blooded or had some
England and North America indícating that
protective mechanism which could restore
body heat.
The mes0Zoic mammals were small in size
averaging that of rat
attained the size of Fox-Terrier. They were adapted to varied diet, although some
feeding on insects,
worns, young birds and reptiles, while some mesozoic mammals remained scanty
and unchanged, most probably because the ruling reptiles did not permit them ample
opportunity to survive and diversify.
19.6.4.3 Archaic Mammals
The archaic mammals appeared in early Tertiary time. They were very primitive with
extremely small brain, simple triangular teeth and pentadactyl plantigrade limbs (ie.
with 5 digits in the hands and feet). They underwent specialisation and divergence
iroughout Ecocene Period. Three distinct groups can be identified in the archaic
mammals. These are:
The creodonts
1Creodonta: This group included the families of Archaiccarnivores.
ld carnivorous dentition but otherwise resembled herbivorous
Condylarthra. Their
more claw-like. But they had a very
small brain
lerminal phalanges (unguals) were
Case. The examples are bear-like Arctocyon, dog like Dromocyon, otter like Oxyaena,
Some of
cat-like hyaena like Hyaenodon and some like minks, Sinopa.
Dissacus,
them froom Mongolia attained giant size about one yard inislength.
It a group of prmtive
Ondylarthra (Animals with Knuckle Joint): long heavy tail and with
They had a
Mngulates which paralleled Creodonta. survived
More or less cursorial light limbs, They through Palaeocene and
Lower

togene.
 appeared scouring Newark three Triassic
19.6.5.1
(PeriodPeriod
Cretaceous. The 19.6.5
The
representedDisturbances mild Primates
(Lemur, 8. 7. 6. 5. 4.
intowhich 19.6.4.4 are size.
The Fauna: Flora Climate: Duratioon:
Word
Beginning: 3. 2. 1. occurring herbage.
semiplantigrade. were 472
subtropical fold Mesozoic Cetacea
Insectivora
Proboscidia
Artiodactyla
Perissodactyla Rodentia
Carnivora the modern giant 3. One
primitivebushes "Triassic' of Divisions
have Pantolambda,
Ambylopoda: tusk-like, of
as andgroup division three
following Adaptive horned in The
very chiefly The becomne
mammals them,
along in AboutAbout Era and swamps. EvolutioBinaryology
abounded fold (Insect (Gnawing
(Fissipedia
skull the
small
amphibians castern climate
with ofwas has Sirenia(Elephants(Even-toed groups ungulates.
by division) of (Odd-toed Coryphodon grinding
was Phenocodus,
Atlantic contrasting
The seasonal coined 50 230 extinct.Radiation
conifers been
Mesozoic Monkey
Man)
and eaters) include The They
lizard-like million
million long
inforests North during (Whales, mammals) in
separated feet teeth
ephalians) the and Coast.changes. by and They
andungulates) Coenozoic were an d ranged
undergrowth. America rocks years. ungulates) Pinnipedia) practically in and
Mastodons) were
forms were Triassic German a years Era evolved Modern archaic low were
cycads, Sea-cows) Unitatherium in
of ago. into short low
formed It Era. all
with size
but which Germany. three
was wasgeologist, inthe and crowned a
Seed These Mammals heavy-limbed sagittal from
were of
resulted theharsh periods
lower
existing
became ferns belonghoofed. fox a
to highly period are: and
and F. Cretaceous crest. to
grow became Von viz. to simple, f or
in mammals They slow a
extinct. developed of dry, Alberti th is The small
uplit Triassic,
rmously contrasting group.attained fivefeetsuited
extinct. and andalong moving succulent sheep.
The of for were
ranged JurassiC diverged
sedinents the Unitatherium
elephantine Its
8ymnospers with ungulates
both strikte canines
dinosaurs Ferns Palisade th ose toed,
in and and out
ef
 SIZe and and in the
number History of Life on Earth O 473
Some of the reptilian groups
coming 150 million years were
andsome invaded air
returned to sea life the rulers of Earth.
in Triassic
Period was the (Pterosaurs).
first (Ichthyosaurs
Another important event whichand Pleisosaurs)
habit (Monotremes). appearance of mammals which took place late
retained egg-laying
106.5.2 Jurassic Period
(Period of Jura Mountains ' in
France)
Beginning: About 180 million years
Duration: About 45 million years. ago.
lurassic Period gets its name from
Switzerland. The name was first used inmountains which lie between France and
1799 by A. Von Humboldt.
Climate: The climate was comparatively mild than found in Triassic Period. It
wns warm and humid and with
plently
Abe continental area and mountains were
of rainfall. Shallow seas swept over
much of
laid in Western United States. The period is
characterised by Morrison formation leading to the formation of Rocky Mountain
Region and Nevadian Disturbance leading to the formation of Sierra Nevada
ranges,
extending from Mexico to Alaska.
Flora and Fauna: Conifers, cycads and ferns were widespread.
Angiosperms,
the flowering plants, appeared for the first time.
While the strange gigantic dinosaurs roamed and ruled the land, small and
insignificant mammalian group also flourished humbly and the ancestral Archaeopteryx
made its first incipient flight. Other animals which appeared for the first time in this
period were lizards and crocodiles.
19.6.5.3 Cretaceous Period (Period of Chalk)
Beginning: About 135 million years.
Duration: About 72 million years.
word creta, meaning chalk and
Ine Cretaceous Period gets its name from the Latin
signifies presence of calcareous
"es coined in 1882 by J. J. d Omalus d' Halloy. It
Tocks all Over the world.
and somewhat uniform over most of the Earth
Climate: The Climate was warm spread widely over the
continents
The seas
surface,
inthe
but became cooler later
parts of this period.
on.
Australia still had some ice and there was some
algae and shells. The
earlier mainly formed of
desert land. The rocks of this period were
period ended by Laramide flowering
Revolution.
plants spread all over
replacing
the worlddominated
Flora and Fauna: The abundant and
Deciduous trees became
Ihany earlier types of vegetation. flourished.
hie landscape. the modern forms
much like vegetarians and a few
In the sea, sharks and bony fishes number of Zirannosaurus
a large
Amoyant ng the still abundant
Carnivores dinosaurs.
dinosaurs
The
were
largest flesh-eater of the period was
presentedmountain
widespread to formsrelatively
colder resembling 19.7.1 furtherradiation
divided zoeyears.
radiation Coenozoic
assume Duration:
The
Beginning: 19.7the of dropping as
grew Era. insects
placental tail, Mesosaursare this Evolutionary 474
rex Biology
Flora Climate: food, food The mammals)
Prototherians
'pertaining large-sized It
and closely Tertiary divided into It
COENOZOIC (Gk. colder short foundperiod. 'turant
andranges present the recent Tertiary in ofderives for included Laramide and
by mountain In those birds
couldtemperatures
Fauna:
the 51
two different Era,Kainos the and mammals).
worms. diverged
pentadactyl from (fierce
climate the allied Period 63 into not New Lizard
attained form. periods: and to its up herbivorous
carnivorous or
eginning beginning animals
and millionmillion
Period life' . driercolossal, varieties sea
to epochs. mammalian name to survive Revolution They Cretaceous
archaic
Practically building belts them. more gets insectsandthe = fromlimbs. King.
The the new ERA by and The lizards)
their years years Tertiary Cocnozoic from
developed.
period which or its (Third present, reptiles
and the world were these
ofpresent the (Era
+
reptiles disappearance
end brought
first mammals
They rocks. of The
lessname age. ago. zoe the birds also
Tertiary alactivities
l are
Greek due wid e archaic
the ended climate Period) and groups. has of placental reproduced pterodactyles
unconsolidated from angiosperms.
culminationof Er a = also
ofdisappeared.
to progenitors appeared. became
extent still Recent Cretaceous, the Mammals
Period. hard Quarternary. word life) forms were
so byThe This is an disappearance becamemountain-building end
that sea was in
Giovanni estimated of mammals represented
wood Cascadian
and existence
calledkainos
many of and
by Fossilsmost
covered fairly era Life) of lay1ng and
slands shape. by Herbivorous
extinct. Cretaceous
a
wer e
abundant.
trees Tertiary theof material
isAge insectivorous so pleisosaurs
Arduino alsomeaning number swampy Hesperornis
still and of
warm Both duration of were also eggs.
end th e or by
and Revolution, marked of herbivorous activities small
peared parts but else these Mammals' of Period eutherians small The forms Snakes
conifers that
(1960). recent of reptiles, tracts.
gradually are plants mammals, marsupials less
and attained
of contained periods The by about and and having first
It great and
accompanied
in As
in of continents which era animals which
the thesubsisted largest
this today represented signihes have because 63 the mammals long annane
Ichthyornis
numerous.
it has
adaptive zoikos Mes0Z0i. (pouch
foss million absence climate
became been been even served heavy Size,
Perioid,n cluded
period were the so of or hy
 History of Life on
Earth 475
Period is
The Tertiary characterised by the spectacular rise of
mammals of early Tertiary Period were small, mammals. The
short-legged
longer than at present; their brain and flat footed; their jaws
were relatively capacity was
spanof Tertiary period there was a general increase in the size limited.
in variousDuring the
groups,
teeth became specialised for varied feeding habits; the brain capacity increased and
mammals became more and more specialised. The modern orders of class Mammalia
originated. The advanced modern placental mammals, including man, (which are
distinctive in bringing forth their young ones ready to live an independent existence)
appearance.
also made their
The Tertiary Period has been separated into five epochs, namely Paleocene,
Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene.
1.Paleocene Epoch
Beginning: About 63 million years ago.
Duration: About 5 million years.
climate mild.
Climate: Ideal for mammals, but made
Brachiopods had passed their peak of development in this epoch primitive.
Life: Mammals of this epoch were
coenozoic life.
up a very small portion of by an archaic
Kreas,
group called Creodonts (Gr. bear.
Carnivores were first represented of a large
They ranged from the size of a weasel to that specialised like
filesh: odontos, tooth). developed but their teeth were not
and well
Their claws were sharp became extinct by the end of Eocene.
modern carnivores. They
2. Eocene Epoch
years ago.
Beginning: About 58 million
Duration: About 22 million
years.
cooler., mountains eroded and no
slightly
Climate started becoming
Climate:
derived from two Greek words
continental seas.
term Eocene has been (Angiosperms) became most
Fauna: The flowering plants that many of the modern
Flora and life". The
ofmodern fossils of Eocene indicate peeches werein existence.
eaning Dawn successful.
abundant and
The
dogwoods, walnuts, elms and mostsignificant event was
maples, Butthe
genera of plants like(Monotremes) were existing. Eocene many groups monkey
of modern
of rat and whales
Archaic mammnalsplacental manmals. By theendof camel, pig, horse,mammals,
diversification of Progenitors of
into
existence. epoch two groupsgroup, of bats
(Chi
mammals had come of this one established.
Eocene. BBy the end returned to sea and were also
were present in(Cetacea and Sirenia) modern orders of birds
and Sea-coWS of the
conquered air. Most
roptera)
3.Oligocene Epoch million years ago. andclimate
was
About 36 continued
Beginning: About years.
1l million Climate: Erosion
ofland
Duration: Conditions and
still Geological
slightly cooler.
 migrated
towards modernpreviously America.
Grassland North
climate 5. sul, continued
Merychippus, bats,
mammals
inapace. and reached arid, development.
greatest
appearance
4. Balcuchitherium,
replaced
whereas
the were ever therian increased and this 476
evolved
lopithecus, Horses
hadCamels The weather.
Flora Geological Beginning:
Duration: Pliocene existence which Duration:
Beginning: Miocene
Epoch ancestors Inof
sirenia, more Geological
Flora while
existed. horse Asia epoch The
away
general, O
Europe species.
and Elephants tobecame and and their others mammals Oligocene
Old widespread is abundant. others
in in of and which Great climate
Evolutionary
Tapirs Fauna: Conditions from About Epoch presumed
also whales Fauna: height About of flowering the
About Eocene Conditions About Oligocene. SomeOligocene
the through World. cooler modern the becamestill movements
were takes
are more Equator. evolved The and
more plants
was
first into 12 13 and As
12-13 25 of
giant
Many
in million radiatedto the previouslypleasant, Biology its
found Horses,
India. widespread. the million northern Himalayas
the and million In cats, Epoch plants and
one-toed
ape were and be
indolphins The andmillion name
addition rhinoceros
archaic of
from
temperateplants There this the animals the
man Fossils Climate: years. during orders climatewetter.Climate: dogs by flourished.
had although from
giraffes most years ancestor flora years separated,
form. period. years. true numerous. radiate, Earth's
Pliocene.
has such was etc., There were and three
Placental
numerous. ago. ofbecame
began ago.
turtles, carnivores was meaning Greek
word
of regions, Miocene.
carnivores, were
been The continuous
as In of were pushed In carnivores.
bears. crustparts
Rhinoceros, and this was probably toes
tulips both to this crocodiles Archaic muchbecame
man-like
discovered forms Deers gazellesmammals well retreat. cold, Odd-toedand of
became epoch aepoch, Anthropoid like occurred th e
Wild and man In general up. like
Miocene spelt
ungulates, rhinoceros
larger continents
and risethere deciduous Some One
creodonts the mammals
extinct. continents
spread
Mastodons, exterminated horses magnolia and The th e and Monocots
Eocene.
those
fromAntelopes closely of out. lowering family largest ungulates between "a
was apes. development regions Alp s alligators
appeared mountains appeared The apes little
rocks Pliocene. westward were became
EL- during began
approximated which trees We cool
rodents, trees Mountain
Threeprimates Miacidae ndsize,.
continued laattained
became
of also began America, modern"
ofHippopota
were abundant from and became this to
e temperature. attained
from of toed thelephants, of made mammal to have
Pliocene. temperae included to peoch.
buroj westetl Procon
horse, already modem drRanges
y EuropecOoler During
abundant more exist,
the the
Aa i and
 History of Life on Earth 477
19.7.2 Quarternary Period
Duration: About One million
(Fourth Period)
years.
Climate: The Quarternary Period which
spans
anda half years of the Earth's history is a perhaps final one million or million
climate is varied in Quarternary and presentsrelatively short geologic period. The
acterised by four periods of glaciation, climatic zones. The period is char-
(interglaciation). These have been describedbetween which the sheets of ice retreated
as four epochs of the Ice Age.
ofthe ice age Epochs came to an
end only about 10,000 years ago. The The last
between glaciations represent interglacial periods, which are marked by intervals
warm
Tlotil a few years ago, it was widely believed that the Ice Age had come to climate.
an end
ond represents the Pleistocene epoch. The post-glacial time constitutes the Recent
Caoch. But most geologists of today believe that the Ice Age is not yet over and
we are merely in an interglacial stage. Life continued to flourish throughout the Ice
Age because the lce never covered more than about a quarter of the land area. But
various forms became extinct because they could not endure changing conditions.
All the modern forms of life are represented in Quarternary Period. The great
game animals roamed over much of the North America and Europe.The members of
elephant tribe, the mastodons, mammoths and woolly thinoceroses reached their peak
of development and became extinct. During Quarternary Period buffaloes became
abundant and Bison latifrons became the giant. Modern carnivores such as wolves,
the
foxes, lynxes, racoons, otters, weasels and others are well represented throughout
of man who has
period. The most important event in Quarternary Period is the rise posture which
to the erect
become the master of Earth. His success has been due
he could manipulate tools.
freed his arms and hands; and large brain with which Age of man'.
the
Because of this, Quarternary Period is described as
Quarternary Period has been separted into two epochs:Pleistocene and Recent.
The
1. Pleistocene Epoch 8-10
EDoch began about one million years ago and ended about
Ihe Pleistocene
believed that unusual solar activity and repeated glaciation
housand years B.C. It is
As a result of which ice formed in the polar
activities Occurred during this epoch.
the temperate parts
When
and the high altitudes. Lakes
mountains in
gions and on the lakes, like the Swiss Lakes,
it left
the ice retreated during interglacial periods
Lakes and the Great Lakes between Eastern
of Northern Italy, English and Socttish
Canada and the United States. various activities resulted in the
and interglacial periods, plant species and adaptive
During these glacial
redistribution of many animal and survived. Herbaceous plants
destruction and
plants and animals
which
hodifications in those
Continued to evolve. saber-toothed tigers, mammoths,elephants,
saber-toothed
such as but few like became
Many Pleistocene mammals attained very large size,
withstand the cold and ancestral
wolves, elks and true horsesmammoths could not The fossils of
fur.
tadapt ground sloths anddeveloping hair or woollenthe Pleistocene rocks.
igers,ed
to cold climate by been dug out from
forms of man and apes have also
478 O Evolutionary Biology
2. Recent Epoch
The period of last 10,000 years of the Earth's history is called Recent Epoch. It
includes the time after last glaciation. During this span ice receded. forests
Over in Europe and North Africa.
Deserts grew up and new vegetation of herbaceous spread
of man, Homo
Homo sapiens, evolved
plants became dominant. The modern species but and
evolution during this epoch no biological
has undergone much cultural
is indicated during this epoch. evolution
The palaeontologic records make it impossible to doubt that the present species
arise from previously existing ones. Despite certain gaps, this chronicle sequen
of fossil plant and animal life exhibits an orderly development from the sequence
simple
the complex forms. For many lines of evolution, especially the vertebrates, the
successive steps are well recorded in the fossils.

KEY TERMS
" Archaeozoic
Era
Coenozoic
Choanichthyes
Epoch Geological time scale
Mesozoic Ostracoderm " Proterozoic
"Palaeozoic " Precambrian " Placoderm

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Write an essay on geological division of the Earth's crust
with the predominant fossil
contents of each.
2. Describe the various geological divisions of Earth's crust giving examples of the
chief fossils found in each.
3. Describe in a tabular form the 'Geological Divisions' of the
their salient features and fauna. Earth's crust along with
4. Givean account of geological
periods and indicate the groups of animals
of those periods. character1stle
5. Describe the
characteristic features of the
6. Write short notes on the Mesozoic Era.
(a) Dinosaurs
following:
(b) Origion of birds
(c) Recent Epoch (d) Archaeozoic Era.