See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/315789129

Taking a Closer Look at the Factors That Influence Ethnic Identity

Article in Communication Studies · March 2017

DOI: 10.1080/10510974.2017.1303620

CITATIONS READS

3 820

1 author:

Lanier Holt
The Ohio State University
20 PUBLICATIONS 280 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Lanier Holt on 17 November 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Communication Studies

ISSN: 1051-0974 (Print) 1745-1035 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rcst20

Taking a Closer Look at the Factors That Influence

Ethnic Identity

Lanier F. Holt, Shelly R. Hovick, Emma M. Fete & Phokeng M. Dailey

To cite this article: Lanier F. Holt, Shelly R. Hovick, Emma M. Fete & Phokeng M. Dailey (2017):
Taking a Closer Look at the Factors That Influence Ethnic Identity, Communication Studies, DOI:
10.1080/10510974.2017.1303620

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2017.1303620

Published online: 27 Mar 2017.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 12

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rcst20

Download by: [Ohio State University Libraries] Date: 05 April 2017, At: 08:36
Communication Studies
Vol. 00, No. 00, 2017, pp. 1–15

Taking a Closer Look at the Factors

That Influence Ethnic Identity
Lanier F. Holt, Shelly R. Hovick, Emma M. Fete,
& Phokeng M. Dailey

Ethnic identity (EI) has long been known to supersede race as a predictor for attitudes
and behaviors. However, little is known about the constituent parts that comprise and
influence ethnic identity. In order to improve communications that target EI, we
examine both demographic and communication variables to determine which have a
greater pull on people’s attitudes and actions. Race appears to moderate the effects of
age on ethnic identity, whereby age was negatively related to ethnic-identity exploration
among White participants and positively related to ethnic identity commitment among
Black participants (p < .05). Having a higher income, print-media use, and informa-
tion-engagement orientation were also positively correlated with ethnic identity; educa-
tion and gender were not. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Keywords: Blacks; Communication; Ethnic Identity; Media Use

Ethnic identity (EI), or the level to which someone connects their self-worth to their
membership to a particular ethnic group, is multifaceted and complex (Hecht &
Ribeau, 1991; Smith & Silva, 2011; Wong & Longshore, 2008). Ethnic identity may
help explain why some people attenuate to certain messages more than others; ethnic
identity can operate in conjunction with race in shaping attitudes and behaviors, while
at other times, its effects can supersede race (Phinney, 2000; Smith & Silva, 2011).
However, despite longstanding knowledge about the influence of ethnic identity on a

Lanier F. Holt (PhD, Indiana University, 2010) is an Assistant Professor in the School of Communication at The
Ohio State University. Shelly R. Hovick (PhD, University of Georgia, 2009) is an Assistant Professor in the School
of Communication at The Ohio State University. Emma M. Fete (MA, The Ohio State University, 2017) is a
Doctoral Candidate in the School of Communication at The Ohio State University. Phokeng M. Dailey (MA, The
Ohio State University, 2013) is a Doctoral Candidate in the School of Communication at The Ohio State
University. Correspondence to: Lanier F. Holt, 154 N. Oval Mall, Derby Hall, Room 3080, Columbus, OH
43210, USA. E-mail: holt.341@osu.edu

ISSN 1051-0974 (print)/ISSN 1745-1035 (online) © 2017 Central States Communication Association
DOI: 10.1080/10510974.2017.1303620
2 L. F. Holt et al.
variety of behaviors, including communication use, research on the components that
comprise ethnic identity is lacking. Thus, the goal of this study is to examine the
extent to which individual demographic factors (i.e., race, gender, education, and
income) and communication variables (i.e., media use, information orientation, and
access to information) influence individuals’ ethnic identity. This work provides a
practical blueprint for practitioners and scholars on how to enhance messages that
appeal to people’s ethnic identity to bolster their perceived relevance and effectiveness.

Understanding Ethnic Identity

Ethnic identity is different from race in that it includes factors beyond just phenotype
(i.e., skin color) and individual traits such as hair type and color. Ethnic identity might
include visible features, but it is more expansive, including customs, shared language,
symbols, heritage, and, in some cases, nationality and geographic history (Hecht &
Ribeau, 1991; Smith & Silva, 2011; Wong & Longshore, 2008). Phinney and Ong
(2007) propose two constructs that comprise ethnic identity: commitment and
exploration. Commitment is defined as the pride someone has in their belonging to
or the pride a person has in the accomplishments of their ethnic group (Phinney,
2000; Smith & Silva, 2011). Exploration includes several factors but largely encom-
passes the amount of effort a person expends on finding out more about their ethnic
group, their accomplishments, traditions, and customs.
Oftentimes, race and ethnicity are conflated as one and the same, but they are not;
while both may spring from the same source, they can have different influences on a
person’s sense of identity, behavior, and attitudes. Social identities like ethnicity and
race can also impact how a person interacts with people, perceives media messages
and interacts with the world around them. Understanding the difference between race
and ethnic identity, and their effects, can shed light on a myriad of areas, most notably
people’s health choices and attitudes about advertising and communication messages
(Appiah, 2002; Appiah, Knobloch-Westerwick, & Alter, 2013; Wong & Longshore,
2008).
Race and ethnic identity have both been the subject of a vast number of studies.
However, race has typically been viewed as the way to understand the health behaviors
and media choices of racial-minority groups. For example, racial cues are shown to be
a rationale for why Blacks prefer certain news stories (Appiah et al., 2013), Web sites,
and television characters to others (Appiah, 2002). On social media, race has been
shown as the primary cause by which Haitians (Parham, 2004), Arabs, Romanians,
Serbs, and other migrant populations (Dahan & Sheffer, 2001; Olarzabal & Reips,
2012) connect with one another and discuss issues that are pertinent to their respec-
tive groups and homelands. However, studies on race tend to generate findings that
are applicable to one racial group only (Cross & Cross, 2008; Williams, 1994).
While race is certainly a critical component of ethnic identity—especially for
minority groups who are more likely than Whites to view their race as a critical
part of their self-identity and as the basis for their media preferences (Appiah, 2002;
Appiah et al., 2013)—the two concepts are rarely examined together. Furthermore,
 Taking a Closer look at Ethnic Identity 3

although the two concepts can work in concert with one another, the strength of their
relationship is not clear. One study showed that race and ethnic identity may actually
exert independent effects on communication outcomes (Hovick & Holt, 2016). In fact,
because ethnic identity encompasses a broader range of attributes than just biological
factors (Beadnell et al., 2003; Brittian et al., 2013; Hovick & Holt, 2016; Love, Yin,
Codina, & Zapata, 2006; Smith & Silva, 2011), appealing to ethnic identity might
surpass race as a way to reach and appeal to minority populations (Cooper, Hedges, &
Valentine, 2009; Davis & Resnicow, 2012; Lee, 2009; Resnicow et al., 2009).
Ethnic identity is a particularly important defining characteristic for ethnic mino-
rities (Phinney, 2000), but, even within minority populations, individuals may have
differing levels of commitment to their ethnic identity (Hecht & Ribeau, 1991;
Phinney, 2000; Resnicow et al., 2009). This strength of identification has important
impacts on attitudes as well as behaviors. For example, strongly identifying with one’s
Black ethnicity has been shown to mitigate the effects of messages related to body
image. Specifically, Black women who have strong ties to their Black identity also tend
to have healthier beliefs about their body image than college-aged White women who
tend to have amongst the least healthy attitudes about their body image (Shuttles-
worth & Zotter, 2011; Zhang, Dixon, & Conrad, 2009). Membership in a particular
ethnic group may cause certain behaviors to seem more or less identity-congruent
and, in turn, can influence individuals’ behaviors and decision making (Oyserman,
2013; Oyserman, Smith, & Elmore, 2014). Ethnic identity, therefore, may be an
effective route for persuasion. As theories such as the Elaboration Likelihood Model
suggest, audience perceptions of race or ethnic identity of a source of information can
determine whether an individual will pay attention to and process a message
(Cacioppo, Petty, Kao, & Rodriguez, 1986; Petty & Cacioppo, 1986).

Predictors of Ethnic Identity: Beyond Race

Our goal is to identity the factors that shape ethnic identity beyond what we
already know about its relationship with race. The literature defines several impor-
tant factors that are associated with stronger ethnic identity including individual
characteristics, and, in this study, we examine five (i.e., race/ethnicity, age, gender,
education, and income). As described previously, race and ethnic identity are
intricately linked. However, White communities’ ethnic identity may be more
“invisible and unconscious” (Chavez & Guido-DiBrito, 1999, p. 39) because societal
norms have been constructed around their racial and ethnic beliefs and are often
referred to as “standard American culture” rather than “ethnic identity” (Chavez &
Guido-DiBrito, 1999). Minority groups have a different reality than do most
Whites. For example, research shows that the greater the number of racist encoun-
ters a Black person experiences over his or her lifetime, and the more ethnic
behaviors in which that person engages, the more likely that person will explore
his or her ethnic history and traditions (Sherry, Wood, Jackson, & Kaslow, 2006).
Consequently, because of these life experiences, Blacks tend to have higher levels of
measured ethnic identity than Whites (Hurwich-Reiss, Rienks, Bianco, Wadsworth,
4 L. F. Holt et al.
& Marhman, 2015). Beyond race and ethnicity, gender also appears to influence
ethnic identity. Studies have generally shown that women have a greater involve-
ment in ethnicity than men (Phinney, 1990); thus, we might expect women to have
stronger sense of exploration and commitment to ethnic identity, as they more
often are the “bearers of culture” (Pahl & Way, 2006).
Much less research has been conducted on the relationship between socioeconomic
status (income and education) and ethnic identity. It has been argued that individuals
from disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds could have more limited access to
sociocultural resources, including a strong ethnic identity (Myers, 2009). One study
showed that the association between economic hardship and emotional distress was
higher among those with lower levels of ethnic identity (Hurwich-Reiss et al., 2015).
Among Black adolescents, ethnic identity was also shown to be significantly and
positively associated with the mother and father’s education, although not with family
income (Kerpelman, Eryigit, & Stephens, 2008). Age is also believed to influence
ethnic identity whereby ethnic understanding and self-identification may increase
with age (Ocampo, Bernal, & Knight, 1993).

Communication and Ethnic Identity

Alongside evidence showing that individual characteristics influence ethnic identity,
research suggests that communication-related factors may also play a role. Thus,
ethnic identity may be shaped by, and shape responses to, communication. This
argument aligns with the Communication Theory of Identity (CTI), which proposes
that “social relations and roles are internalized by individuals as identities through
communication” (Jung & Hecht, 2004, p. 266). Thus, CTI views identity as commu-
nication versus a product of communication. CTI proposes that individual identity
resides within personal (individual self-concept), relational (relationships with others),
enacted (performed identity), and community-identity (how collectives define iden-
tity) frames (Hecht, 1993). Hecht et al. (2002) theorize that a person’s identity is
drawn from an amalgam of factors, and that, while the label ascribed to people (i.e.,
“being Jewish”) and the degree to which a person identifies with that label are both
important individually, it is the combined effects of both of those elements that largely
influences a person’s identity. Similar research finds that a person’s identity is multi-
layered with people choosing to be open or closeted with different facets of it based on
the circumstance and the perceived consequences of revealing certain aspects of their
identity (Hecht & Faulkner, 2000).
Although CTI focuses extensively on the influence of interpersonal and organiza-
tion relationships on identity, less is known about the influence of other forms
communication, most notably the media. CTI holds that a person’s identity is not a
cemented process; it is fluid and developed through interpersonal communication.
Identity is formed, maintained and modified through communication and is under-
stood as a transaction in which messages are exchanged (Hecht, Warren, Jung, &
Krieger, 2005). Thus, people’s identity comes not only from their own self-concept but
also from how others view them (Hecht et al., 2005).
 Taking a Closer look at Ethnic Identity 5

The role of media in this process cannot be overstated. Media cultivate and shape
vast swaths of the population about the role and expectations of people in the way
they portray topics and groups, especially for people of color (Anderson, 2001;
Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, Signorelli, & Shanahan, 2002). It also can influence people’s
orientation to media messages. Research on cognitive dissonance theory and selective
exposure have long shown that people’s attitude toward messages matter in that
people prefer to read messages that align with their belief systems and tend to tune
out information that does not (Festinger, 1957). This selective exposure holds true for
most media messages be they political (Chaffee, Saphir, Graf, Sandvig, & Hahn, 2001;
Garrett & Stroud, 2014), social (Knobloch-Westerwick & Hastall, 2010; Knobloch-
Westerwick & Hoplamazian, 2012), and racial or ethnic (Appiah et al., 2013; Weaver,
2011). Moreover, very little of what people know about the world comes from first-
hand experience. What increasingly fills the gap between what they know, and come
to believe, are media messages (Gorham, 1999). In short, media are often the foremost
way in which people choose to engage (or avoid) acquiring information. As informa-
tion orientation has consistently been correlated with ethnic identity, we also examine
the influence media have on ethnic identity.

Study Aims
In this analysis, we take an exploratory look at the variables that comprise ethnic
identity, including ethnic identity exploration and commitment. We explore tradi-
tional demographic variables (race/ethnicity, age, gender, education, and income) as
well as communication variables (media exposure and information orientation). Based
on our review of the literature, we hypothesize that minorities, females, and those with
lower income and education will have greater ethnic identity, as well as those with
greater media exposure and stronger information orientation.

Method
This project is a secondary data analysis of cross-sectional data collected to assess
heart-disease-information seeking among older adults age 45 or older (N = 383).
Participants completed an online survey that assessed demographic characteristics,
information and health-related beliefs and behaviors. The data set contained a nearly
equal number of White (n = 185) and Black/African American (n = 198) participants.
Participants were recruited through an online survey research panel coordinated by
Qualtrics Inc., a national, private software company often used by university research-
ers to collect participants along specified parameters such as race, age, and other
demographics. A greater percentage of Blacks than exist in the actual population were
recruited in order to have fairly equal numbers of Black and White participants in
order to make comparisons.
Panelists who were eligible for the study were invited to participate via e-mail and,
if interested, clicked on a link that directed them first to the study recruitment page
and then to the informed consent page. Following informed consent, participants
6 L. F. Holt et al.
completed the survey online. Participants who completed the survey received incen-
tives provided by the panel sponsor.

Measures
Demographic characteristics
Self-reported demographic characteristics that were measured included sex (1 = female,
0 = male), age (continuous variable), education level (from [1] never attended to [6]
4 years or more of college), income (from [1] less than $10,000 to [8] more than
$200,000), and race/ethnicity (1 = Black/African American, 0 = White). Measures
were taken from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance Survey (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2011, 2013).

Ethnic identity
To measure ethnic identity, we used Phinney and Ong’s (2007) Revised Multigroup
Ethnicity Identity Measure. The scale measures two dimensions of ethnic-identity
exploration (three items; e.g., “I have spent time trying to find out more about my
ethnic group, such as its history, tradition and customs”) and ethnicity identity
commitment (three items; e.g., “I have a strong sense of belonging to my own ethnic
group”). Items were measured on a 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) scale.
Here we look at the mean of exploration (α = .85) and commitment (α = .82) items
separately, as well as the two combined (α = .87, M = 3.45, SD = 0.49).

Media use
Items measuring media use were based on questions from the National Cancer
Institute’s Health Information National Trends Survey. Participants were asked, “On
a typical day, in your leisure time, how much time have you spent watching television,
using the Internet, listening to the radio and reading newspapers, books and maga-
zines?” For each media type, they responded on a scale from (1) none to (9) seven
hours or more. The reading items (newspaper, books and magazines) were averaged
to provide an indicator of print media use (M = 2.21, SD = 1.07), while TV watching
(M = 6.19, SD = 2.18), using the Internet (M = 6.44, SD = 2.09), and listening to the
radio (M = 3.19, SD = 2.16) were entered separately.

Information orientation
Information orientation was measured based on a previously validated scale
(DuBenske, Beckjord, Hawkins, & Gustafson, 2009). Three items assessed informa-
tion engagement (e.g., “I like to gather as much information as I can before making
a decision”) and three items assed apprehension (e.g., “I fear I might find out
something I don’t want to know”). Items were measured on a (1) not at all to (5)
very true, scale. While the items are situated within the health context, the
individual items used here were not health specific and still provide insight into
one’s information orientation in general. Engagement (α = .82. M = 4.22,
 Taking a Closer look at Ethnic Identity 7

SD = 0.82) and apprehension (α = .81, M = 2.87, SD = 1.14) were examined

separately in the models.

Analysis
All analyses were conducted in IBM SPSS Statistics 24.0. Descriptive statistics (variable
means and correlations) were first computed. Multiple linear regressions were run to
identify significant associations between demographic and communication variables
with ethnic identity. In initial tests of the models, all two-way interactions between
race and demographic and communication variables were assessed. No significant
interactions were found, except an Age by Race interaction; this interaction term was
included in the final models tested (see Table 1).

Results
Participant Characteristics
The mean age of participants was 58.45 years (SD = 7.94, range = 45–87 years). More
than half of our participants were Black (51.7%) and close to 65% were female
(n = 247). Most participants had completed high school (97%; n = 372), and many
had four or more years of college (29%, n = 111), but close to 48% had incomes of less
than $35,000/year (n = 178).
Overall, ethnic identity across the sample was moderately high. Participants
reported significantly higher levels of ethnic-identity commitment (M = 3.71,
SD = 0.91) than ethnic identity exploration (M = 3.18, SD = 1.03, p < .05).

Predictors of Ethnic Identity

Multiple linear regressions were used to test predictors of ethnic identity (see Table 1).
A significant interaction was detected between age and race in all three models tested
(p < .05). To better assess the interaction, separate regressions were run examining the
relationship between age and ethnic identity for each racial group. Age was negatively
related to ethnic-identity exploration among White participants (B = –0.02, SE
B = 0.01; p < .01), but not Black participants (p > .05). In contrast, age was positively
related to ethnic-identity commitment among Black participants (B = 0.02, SE
B = 0.01, p < .05), but not White participants (p > .05). Verifying those results, in
the combined model, age was negatively related to ethnic identity among Whites
(B = –0.02, SE B = 0.01, p < .05) and positively related to ethnic identity for Black
participants (B = 0.02, SE B = 0.01, p < .05).
With the exception of income (i.e., higher income was associated with greater
ethnic identity), no other demographic characteristics (age, gender, or education) were
associated with ethnic identity (see Table 1). In terms of the communication variables,
print-media use and information engagement were positively associated with ethnic-
identity exploration and commitment (p < .05).
 8

Table 1 Predictors of Ethnic Identity

L. F. Holt et al.

Exploration Commitment Combined

B SE B β B SE B β B SE B β

Black -1.15 0.73 -0.56 -1.92 0.68 -1.06** -1.56 0.62 -0.89*
Age -0.02 0.01 -0.19* -0.02 0.01 -0.16* -0.02 0.01 -0.19**
Age x Race 0.03 0.01 0.81** 0.04 0.01 1.20** 0.03 0.01 1.11**
Female -0.18 0.11 -0.08 -0.08 0.10 -0.04 -0.13 0.09 -0.07
Education -0.01 0.06 -0.01 -0.02 0.06 -0.02 -0.02 0.05 -0.01
Income 0.09 0.03 0.14** 0.06 0.03 0.11* 0.08 0.03 0.15**
Media Exposure
Television 0.00 0.03 -0.01 0.03 0.02 0.08 0.02 0.02 0.04
Internet 0.00 0.03 0.00 -0.03 0.02 -0.07 -0.02 0.02 -0.04
Radio -0.02 0.02 -0.04 -0.01 0.02 -0.01 -0.01 0.02 -0.02
Print Media 0.20 0.05 0.21** 0.12 0.04 0.16** 0.15 0.04 0.21**
Information Engagement 0.26 0.06 0.21* 0.22 0.06 0.20** 0.24 0.05 0.23**
Information Apprehension 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.04
R2 .23 .15 .23
**p < .01. *p < .05.
 Taking a Closer look at Ethnic Identity 9

Discussion
In this analysis, we explore the components of ethnic identity, and the elements that
can influence those components, in order to improve our understanding of the
concept. This analysis also provides insight into how those influential factors could
be enhanced in order to improve the effectiveness of messages that target audience
members’ ethnic identity.
In examining traditional demographic factors, we discovered a complex interaction
between age and race. Ethnic-identity commitment (i.e., pride in belonging to an
ethnic group; Phinney, 2000; Smith & Silva, 2011) was stronger among older partici-
pants, but this was true for Black participants only. This finding could reflect the
paired challenges of race in the United States and discovering Black history.
The fact that older Blacks reported higher ethnic-identity commitment than Whites
might also underscore the reality of what it means to be Black in the United States.
Blacks have a unique and troubling history in the United States, which may be more
salient among older participants because they lived and experienced this history (e.g.,
the Civil Rights Movement) firsthand and, perhaps unsurprisingly, show a greater
commitment to their racial/ethnic group than do younger Blacks.
A sociological reason for why ethnic identity is more important to just Blacks
could be because Blackness conjures up distinctly negative images in the minds
of Whites. For example, just a 5-second exposure to a Black face has been shown
to increase the percentage of Whites who endorsed beliefs about Blacks from
40% to well over half (Gilliam & Iyengar, 2000). Perhaps, this long history of
having to deal with these different perceptions based on race causes Blacks to be
more conscious of their ethnicity than Whites. Another possibility could be
because, as Ai et al. (2011) argued, connecting to their racial history is arguably
more important to Blacks than to other minority groups because Blacks have
often been disconnected from their history (i.e., historical records about this
group have often been destroyed, are limited or are no longer available). Put
simply, U.S. history is often the retelling of the contributions of Whites in
America. Hence, Blacks who have any interest in their racial and ethnic group’s
contributions must simultaneously have stronger levels of commitment and a
desire to explore their heritage if they are to find out about their history at all.
Our findings are important, not only because they reflect on differences across
racial groups in terms of ethnic-identity commitment and exploration but it also adds
information about the effect of ethnic identity on older adults, which has largely been
lacking in the literature (Smith & Silva, 2011). Our results suggest that ethnic-identity
exploration may be more likely among younger, White participants whereas ethnic-
identity commitment may be stronger among older, Black participants. These results
offer some support to studies showing that younger persons (age 40 and younger)
have stronger ethnic identity than older persons (Smith & Silva, 2011). This aligns
with Phinney’s (1990) discussion of ethnic-identity development and exploration, in
which he argues that people go through several stages of EI development and gen-
erally achieve their own understanding of their ethnic identity during the transition
10 L. F. Holt et al.
from adolescence into a young adulthood. It is also during this time that they become
a greater and more interactive part of their community, the salience of their identity
increases, as does their ethnic-identity exploration and development. Our results
suggest this process may continue into adulthood as our sample ranged in age from
45–87. Additionally, younger participants were more likely to explore ethnic identity
whereas older participants were more likely to be committed to their ethnic identity,
and differences were found between our two racial groups.
Print-media exposure and information exploration were also found to be correlated
with higher levels of ethnic-identity exploration and commitment, specifically the use
of print media. As media provide the primary means by which people come to know
about the world (Gorham, 1999), in contemporary society, it is not totally surprising
that these factors are correlated with higher levels of ethnic-identity exploration; yet, it
was surprising that print media was the only significant media exposure variable.
Media are ubiquitous. It is hard to conceive of an environment—especially in the
United States, which is from where this population was drawn—in which some form
of media (e.g., television, newspaper, Internet) is not present. We hypothesize that our
findings might be due to the nature of print media in that, as one of the oldest and still
fairly prevalent forms of media, print media might be more likely to have dated
information that details people’s ethnic history. Hence, although all media are impor-
tant, this medium is more correlated than others with higher levels of ethnic-identity
exploration and commitment.
Further, we surmise that information engagement, in particular, was positively
correlated with ethnic identity because people who have a greater interest in knowing
more about their past are likely not satiated by the mere surface information that
might be readily available regarding their ethnic group. Thus, as they might with a
variety of topics, individuals with greater information orientation may be more open
minded toward information and be highly committed to finding out more informa-
tion about their ethnic background.
In addition to race and ethnicity, we examined other demographic factors to
determine those that had an influence on ethnic identity. Income was also found to
influence ethnic identity in that people with higher incomes reported higher levels of
exploration and commitment as well. Given that elements of ethnic identity (books,
magazines, and even apparel) may be harder to come by than mainstream informa-
tion, persons who are interested in and committed to finding out about their ethnic
identity would likely have to have a greater financial commitment to learning about
their origins. Hence, people—especially minority groups, who were more than half of
our sample population—would have to also have higher incomes if they are also to be
committed to finding out more about their ethnic identity.
Gender and education did not prove to have a significant influence on ethnic
identity. Gender might not have reached significance because the majority (65%) of
participants were female and might have identified more with being a woman than
being a part of a specific ethnic group, which is not surprising given previous research
(Koons-Witt, Sevigny, Burrow, & Hester, 2014; Young, 1986) showing how important
gender is to women as a self-affirming trait. Future research should examine the
 Taking a Closer look at Ethnic Identity 11

salience of gender vis-à-vis other factors, specifically ethnic identity, in terms of to

which group do women feel they are most aligned. Subsequent research might also
analyze Black women separately to examine the possibility of their unique influence
on identity-related attitudes and behaviors. Although we did not find a significant
Race by Gender interaction in this study, Black women are more likely than other
racial/ethnic groups to be the sole head of the household (Pew Research Center, 2015)
and, thus, may have a tremendous influence on the amount of information family
members have about their ethnic background and the strength of their ethnic-identity
commitment.
Education was also not significant, perhaps indicating that our sample was slightly
more educated than the general population with 97% of participants having a high-
school degree compared to 86% in the general population (Census Bureau, 2015). This
sample might not be representative of the general population and our results are not
in line with previous studies showing education and ethnic identity are positively
correlated. Future analyses should examine the influence of education in a more
representative sample.
Despite these limitations, this study has several noteworthy findings. Specifically,
though ethnic identity goes beyond race in explaining behavior and attenuation to
messages, we found that ethnic identity cannot be totally parsed from race or age. Our
results suggest that practitioners interested in crafting messages that target minority
members’ ethnicity would be wise to include persons who are of the same race because
it could enhance the believability of the messages for racial minorities, for whom race
appears to be a critical aspect of their ethnic-identity commitment; however, our
results suggest that these message may be more persuasive among older participants,
who may be more committed to their ethnic identity than younger participants.
We also found that media use is related to ethnic identity, but it appears that print
media is most influential (even though participants reported using these channels less
often). These results suggest that people who are interested in their ethnic identity are
not just interested in surface material but may be willing to delve deeper into media to
discover aspects of their ethnicity. This idea is supported by results showing that
information engagement was positively associated with ethnic-identity commitment
and exploration. Thus, if activating people’s ethnic identity via media messages,
communicators would benefit from providing information about the different aspects,
and a rich cultural history of the targeted group’s ethnicity via a broader array of
channels, that participants (both White and Black) more often used during their
leisure time, including radio, television, and the Internet.
Our research could be further extended to examine how deep ethnic-identity
exploration actually goes for those seeking to understand their ethnic heritage
(particularly across racial and age groups, given our findings), as well as how
that exploration influences communication behavior. The measures used here do
not provide a way to delineate those who have examined ethnic history in a cursory
fashion versus those who have conducted had a deeper, more intense ethnic-
identity search (although we did find that those with a greater information-engage-
ment orientation had stronger ethnic-identity commitment and exploration).
12 L. F. Holt et al.
Understanding these layers of exploration, including the topics that were sought
out, may provide a planning map for message developers. Blacks with a higher
ethnic-identity exploration and information-engagement orientation, for example,
may respond more positively to messages that touch on the West African history
for Blacks. In this way, an advertisement for sunscreen that targets Blacks and
states that it is uniquely formulated to protect skin tones of people whose heritage
dates back to the west coast of Africa could be particularly effective because it
touches on Blacks’ racial and ethnic history. It might be especially effective in
reaching older Black adults who are more likely to exhibit stronger commitment to
their ethnic identity.
In summation, this analysis examines the components of ethnic identity and the
factors influencing those components and how they could be enhanced to improve
message effectiveness. In doing so, this analysis could not only improve our knowl-
edge of ethnic identity but also could show a means in which academicians and
message practitioners could better reach underserved populations through traditional
advertisements and media messages.

References
Ai, A. L., Plummer, C., Heo, G., Lemieux, C. M., Simon, C. E., Taylor, P., & Copeland, V. C. (2011).
Racial identity-related differential attributions of inadequate responses to Hurricane Katrina:
A social identity perspective. Race and Social Problems, 3(1), 13–24. doi:10.1007/s12552-
011-9039-1
Anderson, L. M. (2001). Presumed guilty: Or, I thought this was the movie of the week. The Black
Scholar, 25(4), 40–42.
Appiah, O. (2002). Black and White viewers’ perception and recall of occupational characters on
television. Journal of Communication, 52, 776–793. doi:10.1111/jcom.2002.52.issue-4
Appiah, O., Knobloch-Westerwick, S., & Alter, S. (2013). Ingroup favoritism and outgroup deroga-
tion: Effects of news valence, character race, and recipient race on selective news reading.
Journal of Communication, 63, 517–534. doi:10.1111/jcom.12032
Beadnell, B., Stielstra, S., Baker, S., Morrison, D. M., Knox, K., Gutierrez, L., & Doyle, A. (2003).
Ethnic identity and sexual risk-taking among African-American women enrolled in an HIV/
STD prevention intervention. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 8(2), 187–198. doi:10.1080/
1354850031000087564
Brittian, A. S., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Lee, R. M., Zamboanga, B. L., Kim, S. Y., Weisskirch, R. S., …
Caraway, S. J. (2013). The moderating role of centrality on associations between ethnic
identity affirmation and ethnic minority college students’ mental health. Journal of American
College Health, 61(3), 133–140. doi:10.1080/07448481.2013.773904
Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., Kao, C. F., & Rodriquez, R. (1986). Central and peripheral routes of
persuasion: An individual difference perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
51, 1032–1043. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.5.1032
Census.gov. (2015). Quick facts: United States. Suitland, MD: United States Census Bureau. Retrieved
from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/EDU635214/00
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011). Behavioral risk factor surveillance system survey
questionnaire. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2013). Behavioral risk factor surveillance system survey
questionnaire. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention.
 Taking a Closer look at Ethnic Identity 13

Chaffee, S. H., Saphir, M. N., Graf, J., Sandvig, C., & Hahn, K. S. (2001). Attention to counter-
attitudinal messages in a state election campaign. Political Communication, 18, 247–272.
doi:10.1080/10584600152400338
Chavez, A. F., & Guido-DiBrito, F. (1999). Racial and ethnic identity and development. New
Directions of Adult & Continuing Education, 1999(84), 39–47. doi:10.1002/ace.v1999:84
Cooper, H., Hedges, L. V., & Valentine, J. C. (2009). The handbook of research synthesis and meta-
analysis. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
Cross, W. E., & Cross, T. B. (2008). Theory, research and models. In S. Quintana & C. McKown
(Eds.), Handbook of race, racism, and child development (pp. 155–181). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Dahan, M., & Sheffer, G. (2001). Ethnic groups and distance shrinking communication technologies.
Nationalism & Ethnic Politics, 7(1), 85–107. doi:10.1080/13537110108428622
Davis, R., & Resnicow, K. (2012). The cultural variance framework for tailoring health messages. In
H. Choi (Ed.), Health communication message design: theory and practice (pp. 115–135).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
DuBenske, L. L., Beckjord, E. B., Hawkins, R. P., & Gustafson, D. H. (2009). Pyschometric evaluation
of the health information orientation scale: A brief measure for assessing health information
engagement and apprehension. Journal of Health Psychology, 14, 721–730. doi:10.1177/
1359105309338892
Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
Garrett, R. K., & Stroud, N. J. (2014). Partisan paths to exposure diversity: Differences in pro- and
counterattitudinal news consumption. Journal of Communication, 64, 680–701. doi:10.1111/
jcom.2014.64.issue-4
Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., Signorelli, N., & Shanahan, J. (2002). Growing up with
television: Cultivation process. In B. Jennings & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances
in theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 43–67). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gilliam, F., Jr., & Iyengar, S. (2000). Prime suspects: The influence of local television news on the
viewing public. American Journal of Political Science, 44, 560–573. doi:10.2307/2669264
Gorham, B. W. (1999). Stereotypes in media: So what? The Howard Journal of Communications, 10,
229–247. doi:10.1080/106461799246735
Hecht, M. L. (1993). 2002—A research odyssey: Toward the development of a communication
theory of identity. Communication Monographs, 60(1), 76–82. doi:10.1080/
03637759309376297
Hecht, M. L., & Faulkner, S. L. (2000). Sometimes Jewish, sometimes not: The closeting of Jewish
American identity. Communication Studies, 51, 372–387. doi:10.1080/10510970009388532
Hecht, M. L., Faulkner, S. L., Meyer, C. R., Niles, T. A., Golden, D., & Cutler, M. (2002). Looking
through northern exposure at Jewish American identity and the communication theory of
identity. Journal of Communication, 52, 852–869. doi:10.1111/jcom.2002.52.issue-4
Hecht, M. L., & Ribeau, S. (1991). Sociocultural roots of ethnic identity: A look at Black America.
Journal of Black Studies, 21, 501–513. doi:10.1177/002193479102100409
Hecht, M. L., Warren, J., Jung, E., & Krieger, J. L. (2005). A communication theory of identity:
Development, theoretical perspective, and future directions. In W. Gudykunst (Ed.), Theoriz-
ing about intercultural communication (pp. 257–278). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hovick, S. R., & Holt, L. F. (2016). Beyond race and ethnicity: Exploring the effects of ethnic identity
and its implications for cancer communication efforts. Journal of Health Communication, 21
(2), 199–207. doi:10.1080/10810730.2015.1058436
Hurwich-Reiss, E., Rienks, S. L., Bianco, H., Wadsworth, M. E., & Marhman, H. J. (2015). Exploring
the role of ethnic identity in family functioning among low-income parents. Journal of
Community Psychology, 43, 545–559. doi:10.1002/jcop.21701
Jung, E., & Hecht, M. L. (2004). Elaborating the communication theory of identity: Identity gaps and
communication outcomes. Communication Quarterly, 52, 265–283. doi:10.1080/
01463370409370197
14 L. F. Holt et al.
Kerpelman, J. L., Eryigit, S., & Stephens, C. J. (2008). African American adolescents’ future education
orientation: Associations with self-efficacy, ethnic identity, and perceived parental support.
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 997–1008. doi:10.1007/s10964-007-9201-7
Knobloch-Westerwick, S., & Hastall, M. R. (2010). Please your self: Social identity effects on
selective exposure to news about in- and out-groups. Journal of Communication, 60,
515–535. doi:10.1111/jcom.2010.60.issue-3
Knobloch-Westerwick, S., & Hoplamazian, G. J. (2012). Gendering the self: Selective magazine
reading and reinforcement of gender conformity. Communication Research, 39, 358–384.
doi:10.1177/0093650211425040
Koons-Witt, B. A., Sevigny, E. L., Burrow, J. D., & Hester, R. (2014). Gender and sentencing
outcomes in South Carolina: Examining the interactions with race, age, and offense type.
Criminal Justice Policy Review, 25, 299–324. doi:10.1177/0887403412468884
Lee, C. (2009). “Race” and “ethnicity” in biomedical research: How do scientists construct and
explain differences in health? Social Science & Medicine, 68, 1183–1190. doi:10.1016/j.
socscimed.2008.12.036
Love, A. S., Yin, Z., Codina, E., & Zapata, J. T. (2006). Ethnic identity and risky health behaviors in
school-age Mexican-American children. Psychological Reports, 98, 735–744. doi:10.2466/
pr0.98.3.735-744
Myers, H. F. (2009). Ethnicity- and socio-economic status-related stresses in context: An integrative
review and conceptual model. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32, 9–19. doi:10.1007/s10865-
008-9181-4
Ocampo, K. A., Bernal, M. E., & Knight, G. P. (1993). Gender, race, and ethnicity: The sequencing of
social constancies. In M. E. Bernal & G. P. Knight (Eds.), Ethnic identity: Formation and
transmission among Hispanics and other minorities (pp. 11–30). Albany, NY: State University
New York Press.
Olarzabal, P. J., & Reips, U. (2012). Migration and diaspora in the age of information and
communication technologies. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 38, 1333–1338.
doi:10.1080/1369183X.2012.698202
Oyserman, D. (2013). Not just any path: Implications of identity-based motivation for disparities in
school outcomes. Economics of Education Review, 33, 179–190. doi:10.1016/j.
econedurev.2012.09.002
Oyserman, D., Smith, G. C., & Elmore, K. (2014). Identity-based motivation: Implications for health
and health disparities. Journal of Social Issues, 70(2), 206–225. doi:10.1111/josi.12056
Pahl, K., & Way, N. (2006). Longitudinal trajectories of ethnic identity among urban Black and
Latino adolescents. Child Development, 77, 1403–1415. doi:10.1111/cdev.2006.77.issue-5
Parham, A. A. (2004). Diaspora, community and communication: Internet use in transnational
Haiti. Global Networks, 4(2), 199–217. doi:10.1111/glob.2004.4.issue-2
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). Communication and persuasion: Central peripheral routes to
attitude change. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.
Pew Research Center. (2015). Parenting in America: Outlook, worries, aspirations are strongly linked
to financial situation. Retrieved from http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2015/12/17/1-the-amer-
ican-family-today/
Phinney, J. S. (1990). Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research. Psychological
Bulletin, 108, 499–514. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.499
Phinney, J. S. (2000). Ethnic and racial identity: Ethnic identity. In A. E. Kazdin (Ed.), Encyclopedia
of psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 254–259). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Retrieved from http://content.apa.org/books/10518-122
Phinney, J. S., & Ong, A. D. (2007). Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current
status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 271–281. doi:10.1037/
0022-0167.54.3.271
 Taking a Closer look at Ethnic Identity 15

Resnicow, K., Davis, R., Zhang, N., Strecher, V., Tolsma, D., Calvi, J., … Cross, W. E. (2009).
Tailoring a fruit and vegetable intervention on ethnic identity: Results of a randomized
study. Health Psychology, 28, 394–403. doi:10.1037/a0015217
Sherry, A., Wood, K., Jackson, E. B., & Kaslow, N. (2006). Racist events and ethnic identity in low
income African Americans. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, 1365–1380. doi:10.1111/
jasp.2006.36.issue-6
Shuttlesworth, M. E., & Zotter, D. (2011). Disordered eating in African American and Caucasian
women: The role of ethnic identity. Journal of Black Studies, 42, 906–922. doi:10.1177/
0021934710396368.
Smith, T. B., & Silva, L. (2011). Ethnic identity and personal well-being of people of color: A meta-
analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(1), 42–60. doi:10.1037/a0021528
Weaver, A. J. (2011). The role of actors’ race in White audiences’ selective exposure to movies.
Journal of Communication, 61, 369–385. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01544.x
Williams, D. R. (1994). The concept of race in health services research: 1966 to 1990. Health Services
Research, 29(3), 261–274.
Wong, E. C., & Longshore, D. (2008). Ethnic identity, spirituality, and self-efficacy influences on
treatment outcomes among Hispanic American methadone maintenance clients. Journal of
Ethnicity in Substance Abuse, 7, 328–340. doi:10.1080/15332640802313478
Young, V. D. (1986). Gender expectations and their impact on Black female offenders and victims.
Justice Quarterly, 3, 305–327. doi:10.1080/07418828600088961
Zhang, Y., Dixon, T. L., & Conrad, K. (2009). Rap music videos and African American women’s
body image: The moderating role of ethnic identity. Journal of Communication, 59(2), 262–
278. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2009.01415.x

View publication stats