CHAPTER 5

ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
5.1 WHAT IS A FUNCTION?

Central to the concept of a function is the notion correspondence or association. A function is a special
relationship between two variables, one of which is called the independent variable or argument of the
function or the `input‘ of the function and is known. The other quantity, of which the value has to be
calculated, is called the dependent variable or function value or the `output‘ of the function.

The concept of a function enables us to describe many relationships that exist in applications. For example,
the amount of air pollution in a metropolitan area may depend on the number of cars on the road; or the
value of a rare coin may depend on its age. Such relationships can often be represented mathematically as
functions.

In each instance, we are concerned with the question: How does one quantity depend upon another. The
relationship is described in mathematics using the concept of a function.

Definition 5.1: A function f: A→B is a rule (process or method) that assigns to

each element in a set A one and only element in a set B.

The set A is called the domain of the function. If x is an element in the domain of the function f, then the
unique element associated with x is written f(x) and is called the value of f at x. The domain of f is donated
by Df .

A function f: A → B is often described as a mapping in which an element x in the domain A mapped onto
a unique element f(x) in B. In this case, f(x) is the image of the element x under the mapping f. The set of
all images { f ( x ) x  A} is denoted f(A).
f ( A)  { b  B f (a )  b for some a  1 }  { b  B there exists a  1 that }

a) A function as a mapping

b) A function as a machine

The elements in the domain are called the independent variables and the elements in the range are called
the dependent variables.
Example 5.1 : If g( x )  ( x  2)
1
2
, find (if possible):

(a) g(27) (b) g(50) (c) g(20)

(d) g(1) (e) g(0) (f) Dg

Exercise 5.1
1. Find f(-1) and f(3) for the following functions: (a) f(x) = 2x + 3 and (b) f(x) = x2 – 1.
2. Let the function f be defined by the rule f(x) = 2x2 – x + 1.
Compute: f( 1), f(-2), f(a), f(z2 ), f(5+h) and f(1+h) - f(1)

5.2 VERTICAL LINE TEST

Which curve in the xy plane are graphs of functions?

Definition 5.2: A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function of x if and only if no vertical line intersects
the curve more than once.

In the below figures, does the graph represent a function?

y
(a;b)
(a;b)
x=a x
x
x=a

(a;c) (a;c)

Figure 5.2 (a) Figure 5.2 (b)

Thus if a line x = a intersects the curve twice, at (a, b) and (a, c), then the curve cannot represent a function
because a function cannot assign two different values at a.
In such a case, the value of x does not determine a unique value of y.

Example 5.2: Is the following a function?

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

In mathematics, an elementary function is a function of one variable which is the composition of a finite
number of arithmetic operations (+ – × ÷), exponentials, logarithms, constants, and solutions of algebraic
equations (a generalization of n-th roots).
The elementary functions include:

 Powers of , , , , etc.
 Roots of , , etc.
 Exponential functions:
 Logarithms:
 Trigonometric functions: , , etc
 Inverse trigonometric functions: , , etc.
 Hyperbolic functions: , , etc.
 All functions obtained by replacing with any of the previous functions
 All functions obtained by adding, subtracting, multiplying or dividing any of the previous functions

These elementary functions occur in most of calculus and basic math applications. They include
polynomial functions, rational functions, trigonometric functions, exponential functions and their inverse
functions, including the inverse trig functions and logarithms, along with functions created by composing
a sequence of elementary functions. Almost every function appearing in scientific or economic applications
is an elementary function.

5.3 Even and Odd Functions

 Even Functions
o Symmetrical about the y-axis
o f (-x) = f (x)
o If (x, y) is on the graph, then (-x, y) is on the graph
 Odd Functions
o Symmetrical about the origin
o f (-x) = - f (x)
o If (x, y) is on the graph then (-x, -y) is on the graph

Example 5.3.1 Determine whether the following functions are even, odd or neither:
(a) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = −3𝑥 2 + 4
(b) 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥
(c) ℎ(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4

Solutions:
(a) 𝑓(−𝑥 ) = −3(−𝑥 )2 + 4 = −3𝑥 2 + 4 = 𝑓(𝑥)
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) is even

(b) 𝑔(−𝑥 ) = 2(−𝑥 )3 − 4(−𝑥)

 = −2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥
= −(2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 ) = −𝑔(𝑥)
∴ 𝑔(𝑥) is odd

(c) ℎ(−𝑥 ) = 2(−𝑥 )3 − 3(−𝑥 )2 − 4(−𝑥 ) + 4

= −2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4
= −(2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 4)
≠ −𝑓 (𝑥 ) or 𝑓( 𝑥 )
∴ ℎ(𝑥) is neither odd or even

5.4 POLYNOMIALS WITH GRAPHS

A function of the form

f ( x)  an x n  an 1 x n1  an  2 x n2  ...  a1 x  a0
where n is a non-negative integer and an , an 1,..., a0 are constants with an  0 , is called a polynomial
function (in x). The number n is called the degree of the polynomial and an is the leading coefficient.

5.4.1 Special Polynomial Functions with transformation graphs

(a) CONSTANT FUNCTIONS: A polynomial function of degree 0, that is n = 0, is called a constant

function because all the function values are the same. For example,
h( x)  3 (can be written as 3x 0 )
 h(0)  3, h( 34)  3, h( x  5)  3, etcetera.
The domain of a constant function is all real numbers, and its graph is a horizontal line.

Figure 5.4.1 (a)

(b) LINEAR FUNCTIONS: A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear function. For example,
g ( x)  3  2 x is a linear function with leading coefficient 2 , while h( x)  3 x  2 is a linear
function with leading coefficient 3.
Functions such as these yield graphs that are straight lines, thus the name linear.
Figure 5.4.1 (b)
Linear functions come in three main forms, namely, slope-intercept form, point-slope form, and general
form.
i. Slope-Intercept Form, y  mx  c , has leading coefficient m as the slope (or gradient) of the graph,
increase in y
with m  . The constant term c indicates the y-intercept of the graph.
corresponding increase in x

For example :
4 4
The slope of the graph of y  3  2 x is m  2   (Figure 5.3.1 (b)), while the point (0, 3) is
2 2
where the graph cuts the y-axis.

ii. Point-Slope Form, y  y1  m( x  x1 ) , with m the slope of the graph, x and y the generics that are
always in the equation, and x1 and y1 the coordinates of a point on the line. If the coordinates of a
y y
second point on the line are known, the slope m can be calculated by the formula m  2 1 .
x2  x1

For example :
The points (2½, -2) and (3½, -4) lie on line 1 (Figure 5.3.1(b)), we can, therefore, find the equation of line
1 as follows:
4  (2) 2
Slope m     2 .... y 2  4, y 1  2, x 2  3,5, x 1  2.5
3,5  2,5 1
 Equation of line 1:
y  y1  m( x  x1)
 y  (2)  2( x  2,5) OR y  ( 4)  2( x  3,5)
 y  2  2 x  5  y  4  2 x  7
 y  2 x  3  y  2 x  3

NOTE: The graph of y  2 x  3 reflects the graph of y  2 x  3  (2 x  3) in the x-axis

(c) QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS: A polynomial of degree 2 is called a quadratic function. For example,
1
g ( x)  x 2  3 and y  3x 2  2 x  5 are quadratic functions in x, while f (t )   t 2  2t  3 is a
2
quadratic function in t. The graph of a quadratic function is called a parabola.

The general form of a quadratic function in x is , where a, b and c are

fixed numbers, with a  0.

The following summary of some features of parabolas will help us sketch the graph of any quadratic
function:

Features of a Parabola: f(x) = ax 2 + bx + c

The graph of f ( x)  y  ax 2  bx  c (a  0) , is a parabola:

1. If a > 0 the parabola is concave up (opens upward) and if a < 0 the parabola is concave down (opens
downward)

(i) a > 0, opens upwards (ii) a < 0, opens downwards

[NOTE: We will learn more about the concavity of curves in our study of Differential Calculus]

2. y-Intercept:This occurs when x = 0, so y  a (0) 2  b(0)  c  c

3. Vertex: The vertex is the turning point of the parabola.
b b
It's x-coordinate is  . It’s y-coordinate is f ( ) .
2a 2a
4. Symmetry The parabola is symmetric with respect to the vertical line through the vertex, which is the
b
line x   .
2a
2
5. x-Intercepts (if any) These occur when y = 0, that is, when, ax  bx  c  0

We solve for x either by factoring or by using the quadratic formula:

b  b 2  4ac b b 2  4ac
x   .
2a 2a 2a
2
If the discriminant b  4ac
 is positive (> 0), there are TWO distinct x-intercepts,
  equals zero (= 0), there is a single x-intercept (at the turning point),
 is negative (< 0), there are no x-intercepts (so the parabola does not touch the x-axis at
all).

5.5 POWER FUNCTIONS

Although the general form of power functions is

f ( x)  y  kx p , where p is any real number and k is non-zero

we will only be considering power functions where p is a non-negative integer, or

1
p  , where n is a positive integer.
n

Let us study some graphical presentations of power functions so as to determine the effect that k and p have
on the shape of the graph of y  kx .
p

5.5.1 Power Functions of the form y  xp

Figure 5.4.1, below, shows the graphs:, y  x 4 and y  x 6 , drawn into the same system of axes. These
functions, with p a positive even integer, are known as even functions and their graphs have the following
properties:

 They are all symmetrical with respect to the y-axis. [Note that f ( x )  f (  x ) ]
 They all pass through the points (0; 0), (1;1) and ( 1;1) .
 The origin (that is, the point (0; 0)) is called a turning point.
 They have two arms that get closer, from both sides, to the positive y-axis as p increases, and
x  1 or x  1 .
 For 1  x  1, as p increases the curves get closer to the x-axis. Why?
Figure 5.5.1

Figure 5.5.2, below, shows the graphs: y  x , y  x3 , y  x5 and y  x 7 drawn on the same
system of axes. The functions with p a positive odd integer are known as odd functions, and their graphs
have the following properties:

 They are all symmetrical with respect to the origin. [Note that f ( x)   f ( x) ]
 They all pass through the points (0; 0), (1;1) and (1; 1) .
 The origin (that is, the point (0; 0)) is a point of inflection for p odd and >1.
 For x  1 : As p increases the arms of the graphs get closer to the positive y-axis.
 For x  1: As p increases the arms of the graphs get closer to the negative y-axis.
 For 1  x  1, as p increases the curves get closer to the x-axis.

Figure 5.5.2 Figure 5.5.3

Figure 5.5.3, above, shows some graphs of the form

 1
f ( x)  y  x n  n x , n an integer and n  1.

We observe the following:

 The graphs all pass through the points (0; 0) and (1; 1).
1 1
 The graphs of the functions: y  x 2 and y  x 4 , appear only in the first quadrant, while the graphs
1 1
of y  x 3 and y  x 5 have two `arms‘ - one arm in the first quadrant and the other arm in the third
quadrant. Can you explain why? Illustrate your answer with examples.
1 1
 For x  (1, ) the graph of y  x 2 is furthest from the x-axis, while the graph of y  x 5 is closest.
1 1
For x  (0,1) the graph of y  x 5 is furthest from the x-axis, while the graph of y  x2 is closest.
Why? Use examples to illustrate your answer.

p
5.5.2 Power Functions of the form y = kx

Study the sets of graphs in Figure 5.4.4 and Figure 5.4.5 and answer the questions that follow.

Figure 5.5.4
Figure 5.5.5

(a) How are the graphs of y  3 x 2 and y  3x3 related to the graphs of y  x 2 and y  x3 ,
respectively?
1 2 1
(b) How are the graphs of y  x and y  x 3 related to the graphs of y  x 2 and y  x3 ,
3 3
respectively?
(c) How are the graphs of y  3x 2 and y  3x3 related to the graphs of y  3x 2 and y  3x3 ,
respectively? y  1 x3
3 .

5.5.3 Stretches, Shrinks and Reflections

If a new function is formed by performing an operation on a given function, then the graph of the new
function is called a transformation of the graph of the original function. Stretching, shrinking and
reflecting are three such transformations. For example,

The graph of y  3 x is a vertical stretch of the graph of y  x . Similarly, the graph of

2 2
(a)
y  3x3 is a vertical stretch of the graph of y  x3 .
1 2
The graph of y  x is a vertical shrink of the graph of y  x . Similarly, the graph of
2
(b)
3
1 3
y  x is a vertical shrink of the graph of y  x 3 .
3
The graph of y  3x is a reflection in the x-axis of the graph ofy  3 x .
2 2
(c)
Similarly, the graph of y  3 x is a reflection in the x-axis of the graph of y  3x .
3 3

5.5.4 Vertical and Horizontal Shifts

Beside the three kinds of transformations, namely, stretching, shrinking and reflecting, there are two more
transformations we need to discuss: vertical shifts (translations) and horizontal shifts (translations).
(a) Vertical Shifts
 Comparing the graph of f ( x)  x 2  4 with the graph of g ( x)  x 2  1 , in Figure 2.4.6, we notice
that the graph of f can be obtained from the graph of g by vertically shifting the graph of g 5 units
DOWN, since
g ( x)  5  ( x 2  1)  5  x 2  4  f ( x)
Similarly, the graph of g can be obtained from the graph of f by vertically shifting the graph of f 5
units UP, since
f ( x)  5  ( x 2  4)  5  x 2  1  g ( x)
(b) Horizontal Shifts
Comparing the graphs of f ( x)   x 2  4 and g ( x)  ( x  2) 2  4 , in Figure 5.4.7, we notice
that we could easily have obtained the graph of g from the graph of f by horizontally shifting the
graph of f 2 units to the RIGHT.
Comparing the equations describing the functions, we notice that
f ( x)   x 2  4
 f ( x  2)  ( x  2)2  4
 g ( x)
Example 5.5.4(a)
Given the functions f ( x)  x 2  4 and g ( x)  x 2  1 . Graph the functions on the same system of axes.
Include their vertices and the y- and x-intercepts and determine the domain and range of g.

Solution:
Graphing f ( x)  x 2  4 , a = 1, b = 0, c = -4 Graphing g ( x)  x 2  1 , a = 1, b = 0, c = 1

 Since a > 0, the graph is concave up.
 The y-intercept is at f (0)  4
the y-intercept is (0; 4)
 To find the x-intercepts we solve f ( x )  0
. Thus,
x2  4  0
 x2  4
 x   4  2
the x-intercepts are (2; 0) and (2; 0)
 Since a > 0, the graph is concave up.
 The y-intercept is at f (0)  1
 the y-intercept is (0;1)
 To find the x-intercepts we have to solve
f ( x)  0 . But, we notice that
the discriminant  b 2  4ac
 02  4(1)(1)
 4  0
Thus, the graph does NOT cut the x-axis

 The vertex is at ( ( 0 2 ; f (0))  (0; 4)
 The axis of symmetry is the line x  0
 Next we calculate the coordinates of two
other points:
 The vertex is at (( 0 ; f (0))  (0;1)
2
 The axis of symmetry is the line x  0
 Next, we calculate the coordinates of two
other points:

f (1)  (1)2  4  3 and f (1)  (1)2  1  2 and

f (3)  (3)2  4  5 f (3)  (3)2  1  10

Thus the points ( 1; 3) and ( 3;5) also lie Thus the points (1; 2) and ( 3;10) also
on the graph, and we will reflect these lie on the graph, and we will reflect
points in the axis of symmetry to plot their these points in the axis of symmetry to
images A and B, respectively. plot their images C and D, respectively
Figure 5.5.6
(b) The domain of the function g is the set of all real numbers, that is, all xєR.
The range of g is{ y | yєR, y ≥ 1 }.
Examples 5.5.4(b)
Draw the graphs of f ( x )   x 2  4 and g ( x )  ( x  2) 2  4 on the same axes.
Solution
f ( x)   x 2  4
 a  1, b  0, c  4
 Since a < 0, the graph is concave down
 The y-intercept is at f (0)  4
the y-intercept is (0; 4)
 To find the x-intercepts we solve f ( x )  0
. Thus,
 x2  4  0  x2  4  0
x 2
 the x-intercepts are (2; 0) and (2; 0)
 The vertex is at ( ( 0 ; f (0))  (0;4)
2  The vertex is at ( 
 The axis of symmetry is the line x  0
 Also
f (1)  (1)2  4  3 and
f (3)  (3)2  4  5
Thus the points (1;3) and (3; 5) also lie on
the graph, and we will reflect these
points in the axis of symmetry to plot their
images A and B, respectively.
Next we draw the graphs, as shown in Figure 2.4.7
g ( x )  ( x  2) 2  4   x 2  4 x
 a  1, b  4, c  0
 a < 0, the graph is concave down.
 The y-intercept is at f (0)  0
 the y-intercept is (0; 0)
 To find the x-intercepts we have to solve
f ( x)  0 . Thus
 x2  4 x  0   x( x  4)  0
 x  0 or x  4
 the x-intercepts are (0; 0) and (4; 0)
4
; f (2))  (2; 4)
2
 The axis of symmetry is the line x  2
 Calculate the two coordinates points:
f (1)  (1)2  4(1)  5 and
f (1)  (1)2  4(1)  3
Thus the points (1; 5) and (1;3) also
lie on the graph, and we will reflect
these points in the axis of symmetry to
plot their images C and D, respectively
Figure 5.5.7

5.6 OTHER HIGHER DEGREE POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

We have discussed polynomial functions of degree one (Linear functions) and polynomial functions of
degree two (Quadratic functions). Let's now consider functions of degree three and higher.

Use tables to draw the graph of y = g (x) = x3 , y = f(x) = (x – 2)3 and y = h(x) = 3(x – 2)3 + 3 on the
same system of axes .

Now discuss with a partner what other ways can be used to obtain the graph of f from g and the graph of h
from f.

NB! These graphs do not have the form y = a n xn and hence they are not power functions, although they are
polynomial functions.

In order to establish whether the graph of the polynomial function of degree n, viz
y = f(x) or P(x) = a n xn + a n – 1 x n -1 + … + ax + a 0
cuts the x – axis, we put y = 0 and then solve for x in the equation
a n xn + a n – 1 x n -1 + … + ax + a 0 = 0

If y = g (x) is a polynomial function and m is a number such that f (m ) = 0, then we say that m is a zero of
g. It follows that the zeros (x-intercept(s)) of the polynomial function g are the roots of the polynomial
equation g (x) = 0.

NB! The degree of a polynomial yield the maximum number of zeros, i.e. the maximum number of
x-intercepts.

Some polynomial functions do not have zeros (x – intercept(s)) , e.g. y = h (x) = x6 + 1 or x4 + 1.

However, polynomials of odd degree have at least one zero (x-intercept)

Example 5.6.1 : Lets consider the graph of y = f(x) = x3 + 3x2 – 4x

Find the zeros (x – intercepts) by putting y = f(x) = 0

 x3 + 3x2 – 4x = 0
 x(x2 + 3x – 4) = 0
 x(x + 4)(x – 1) = 0
  zeros are x = 0 or x = -4 or x = 1

the graph of f cuts the x – axis at x = 0, x = -4 and x = 1

At this stage, we are going to draw the graph without calculating the turning points. We will use the sign
diagram to establish for what intervals the graph (y- values) will be positive, i.e. above the x-axis or will be
negative, i.e. below the x-axis.

-4 0 1
(x + 4) - 0 + + +
x - - 0 + +
(x – 1) - - - 0 +
x(x + 4)(x – 1) - 0 + 0 - 0 +

From the diagram it is clear that y, i.e. f(x) < 0 (-) for x < -4 or 0 < x < 1
and y > 0 ( +) for -4 < x < 0 or x > 1

Hence the graph of f(x) lies below the x – axis for x  ( - ∞, -4)  (0,1) and above the x – axis for x  ( -
4, 0)  (1,+ ∞)

This information is sufficient to draw the graph of f very roughly, without specific turning points

Example 5.6.2 : Consider the function g(x) = x4 + 3x3 – 4x2 = x2 (x2 + 3x – 4) = x2 (x + 4)(x – 1)

-4 0 1
(x + 4) - 0 + + +
x2 + + 0 + +
(x – 1) - - - 0 +
x2 (x + 4)(x – 1) + 0 - 0 - 0 +
x4 + 3x3 – 4x2 Above on Below on Below on Above the x –axis

Therefore the graph will be

Note that there are only THREE x- intercepts, although the degree is FOUR.

5.7 DOMAIN AND RANGE OF A FUNCTION

In the course, we will consider only functions whose domain is a subset of the set of the real numbers. In
determining the domain of a function, we need to find what restrictions, if any, are placed on the
independent variable.
 The set of all input numbers to which the rule applies is called the domain of the function.
 The set of all output numbers is called the range.

Example 5.7 : Find the domain and range of the following functions:
(a) (b)
Df : Dg :
Rf : Rg :

(c) (d)
Dh : Df :
Rh : Rf :

(e) (f)
Df : Dw :
Rf : Rw :

(g) (h)
Df : Df :
Rf : Rf :

In this course we shall study the behaviour of graphs, and properties of power functions, polynomial
functions, rational functions, piecewise-defined functions, composite functions, exponential functions,
trigonometric functions and inverse functions, such as logarithmic functions and inverse trigonometric
functions, etc.
SUMMARY OF POWER FUNCTIONS
If f(x) = xn , then

n - value Function Title Graph

n=0 f(x) = x0 = 1 Constant function

n=1 f(x) = x1 = x Linear function

n=2 f(x) = x2 Quadratic function

n=3 f(x) = x3 Polynomial function

n=½ f(x) = x½ Square root function

n = -1 f(x) = x-1 = 1 /x Rational function

5.8 COMBINATION OF FUNCTIONS

A variety of situations arises in which we have to combine two or more functions in one of the several ways
to get new functions.

Definition 5.8: Given two functions f and g, the sum, difference, product and quotient functions are defined
as follows.

Sum: (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)

Difference: (f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)

Product: (f · g)(x) = f(x) g(x)

Quotient: (f g)(x) = f(x) g(x), provided g(x) ≠ 0.

Example 5.8.1 Functions 𝑓, 𝑔 are defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 1, 𝑔(𝑥) = 3√1 − 𝑥

(a) Find the domains 𝐷𝑓, 𝐷𝑔
(b) Find 𝑓 + 𝑔 and its domain 𝐷𝑓+𝑔
𝑔
(c) Find and its domain 𝐷 𝑔.
𝑓 𝑓

Solution
(a) 𝐷𝑓 = [1, ∞) ; 𝐷𝑔 = 𝑹
 (b) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
= √𝑥 − 1 + 3√1 − 𝑥
𝐷𝑓+𝑔 = [1, ∞) ∩ 𝑹
= [1, ∞)
𝑔 𝑔( 𝑥 )
(c) ( ) (𝑥) =
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
3
√1−𝑥
=
√𝑥−1

andg ( x)  x . Determine the domain of the following functions.

1
Example 5.8.2: Let f ( x ) 
x 1

(a) f + g (b) f – g (c) f · g (d) f÷g

Example 5.8.3: Let f ( x )  x2 1 1

andg ( x )  . Determine the domain of the following functions.
x
(a) f+g (b) f – g (c). f · g (d) f÷g

5.9 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS

Definition 5.9: Let f and g be two functions. Let x belong to the domain of g and be such that g(x) belongs
to the domain of f, then the composite function f ° g (f circle g) is defined by (f ° g)(x) = f(g(x)).

The domain of a composite function f ° g includes all of the elements in the domain of g for
which g(x) is in the domain of f.
Example 5.9.1: Let f ( x)  x  1 andg ( x)  x .

Evaluate and determine the domain of the above mentioned functions.

(a) f ° g (b) g°f (c) (f ° g)(4) (d) (f ° f)(x)

Example 5.9.2
Find f ( x ) and g (x) such that each composite function f ° g is as described.

(i) (f ° g)(x) = (x2 + 1)3

2x  3
1
(ii) (f ° g)(x) = x2 (iii) (f ° g)(x) =
 f(x) = f(x) = f(x) =
g(x) = g(x) = g(x) =

EXERCISE 5.9: (Application of composite functions)

The rate at which a chemical is produced in a certain reaction depends on temperature T according to the
formula R  T 5  3 T . If T varies with time t according to T  3(t  1) T , express R as a function of t
and evaluates R when t = 2.

Example 5.9.3 Functions 𝑓, 𝑔 are defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥, 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1

(d) Find the domains 𝐷𝑓, 𝐷𝑔

(e) Find 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 and its domain 𝐷𝑓∘𝑔.

Solution
(d) 𝐷𝑓 = [0, ∞) ; 𝐷𝑔 = 𝑹
(e) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑔(𝑥)) = √𝑥 + 1

To find 𝐷𝑓∘𝑔 :
𝑔(𝑥) is defined ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑹
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) is defined when √𝑥 + 1 is non-negative, that is
𝑥 +1 ≥ 0
∴ 𝑥 ≥ −1
Therefore 𝐷𝑓∘𝑔 = 𝑹 ∩ [−1, ∞) = [−1, ∞)

5.10 PIECEWISE - DEFINED FUNCTIONS (i.e. Compound function)

These functions are defined by different formulas in different parts of their domains. The domain of each
of these functions is the union of the sets on which each equation is defined.

Example 5.10.1
If
 1 if 2  x  0

f ( x)   x 2  1 if 0 x2
 x  5 if x2


Evaluate:
(a) f(1) (b) f(3)

(c) f(2) (d) f(0)

(e) f(1+h), 0 < h < 1 (f). f(1+h), h < 0

(g) Df (h) Rf

To determine the function value f(x) we evaluate the equation corresponding to the subset of the domain
containing x.

Example 5.10.2
(i) Evaluate
 x if 0  x 3

f ( x)   6  x if 3  x5
1 5 x 7
 if

(a) f(3) (b) f(5)

(c) f(1) (d) f(-5)

(ii) Sketch the graph of the function and find the domain and range of

5.11 ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTIONS

Note: The function f ( x)  x is called the absolute-value function. The absolute value or magnitude of a
real number is never negative (that is, it is always positive or 0).

More precisely,
x if x0
x  
 x if x0

The domain of the absolute-value function is all real numbers.

Example 5.11.1
Sketch the graph of f ( x)  x  1 .

Step 1: Write down the condition of absolute value

Step 2: Use the condition to label the area

Step 3: Setup tables for both areas respectively.

Step 4: Plot the points and join the points respectively.

Example 5.11.2
 x  1 1 , x 1
Sketch the graph of f ( x)   .
 2 , x 1

Example 5.11.3 (cases)

Sketch the graph of f ( x)  2 x  1  x  2 .

Domain Equation
2x + 1 ≥ 0 and x - 2 ≥ 0 f(x) = (2x+1)+(x-2)
x ≥ -½ and x ≥ 2 f(x) = 3x - 1
x≥2
Case 2:
2x + 1 ≥ 0 and x – 2 < 0 f(x) = (2x+1)+(-(x-2))
x ≥ -½ and x < 2 f(x) = 2x + 1 – x + 2
-½ ≤ x < 2 f(x) = x + 3
Case 3:
2x + 1 < 0 and x – 2 < 0 f(x) = -(2x+1)+(-(x-2))
x < -½ and x < 2 f(x) = -2x – 1 - x + 2
x < -½ f(x) = -3x + 1
Case 4:
2x + 1 < 0 and x – 2 ≥ 0
x < -½ and x ≥ 2
{ }
5.12 INVERSE FUNCTION

If we can solve the equation y = f(x) for x in terms of y, then according to the definition we must have
x = f-1 (y). If we want to call the independent variable x, then we interchange x and y and arrive at
y = f-1 (x).

The horizontal line test is used to determine if a function has an inverse that is also a function. A function
is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line intersects the graph more than once.

How do we find the inverse of a 1 – to – 1 function?

Example 5.12.1: Find the inverse of f(x)=x3 + 2

Step 1: Write y=f(x)

y = x3 + 2 x∊R ; y∊R

Step 2: Solve the equation for x in terms of y (if possible).

y – 2 = x3

Step 3: Interchange x and y.

x∊R ; y∊R

Step 4: To express f-1 as a function of x

The inverse function is , x∊R; y∊R.

How do we get the graph of f-1 from the graph of f?

The principle of interchanging x and y gives us the method for obtaining the graph by the definition since
f(a) = b if and only if f-1 (b) = a the point (a, b) is on the graph of f if and only if (b, a) is on the same graph
of f-1 . The point (b, a) is obtained by reflecting the point (a, b) in the line y = x.

Example 5.12.2
f(x) = x2 + 2, when 0 ≤ x ≤ 2.
(i) State the range of y
(ii) Find f-1 and its domain and range.
(iii) On the same axes, draw the graph of f and f-1 .

Solution:
(i) The range of f is :

f(0) = (0)2 + 2 = 2 f(2) = (2)2 + 2 = 6

on

(ii) Step 1: y = x2 + 2 ,
Step 2: y - 2 = x2
Step 3:
Step 4: since if ,

with ,

(iii)
Example 5.12.3
If where , find f-1 and draw f and f -1 on the same axes.

Solution:

We chose as on we get .
Thus

Example 5.12.4 Find a formula for the inverse of the function and state its domain and range:
𝑓(𝑥) = √10 − 3𝑥 with 𝑦 ≥ 0

Solution:
Let 𝑦 = √10 − 3𝑥
∴ 𝑦 2 = 10 − 𝑥
∴ 𝑦 2 − 10 = −3𝑥
∴ 10 − 𝑦 2 = 3𝑥
10 1
∴ − 𝑦2 = 𝑥
3 3
10 1
∴ − 𝑥2 = 𝑦
3 3
10 1 10
∴ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = − 𝑥2 𝐷𝑓−1 = 𝑥 ≥ 0 ; 𝑅𝑓−1 = (−∞, ]
3 3 3
 CHAPTER 6
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
A transcendental function is a function which is not an algebraic function, that is, a function that is not
expressible as a finite combination of the algebraic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, raising to a power, and extracting a root. Examples of transcendental functions include
exponential functions, logarithmic functions, and trigonometric functions.

6.1 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Definition 6.1.1: The equation y  f ( x )  a , a  0 , a  0 defines an exponential function for

x

each different constant a, called the base.

NOTE:
 From the onset, it is very important to realize that y  a x and y  x a are two DIFFERENT types
of functions: The first, y  a x is an exponential function, while the second, y  x a , is a power
function. In exponential functions, the variable is part of the exponent (index) and in power
functions, it is part of the base.
  The domain of the function y  a x is the set of real numbers, that is, x∊R and the range the set of
all positive real numbers, that is, y   0,   .

Basic Properties of the e xponential graph,y  f ( x)  a , a  0, a  1

x

x - x
The graphs of f ( x ) = y = 3 and F ( x) = y = 3 , drawn on the same rectangular coordinate system,
are shown in Figure 6.1.1, below

Figure 6.1.1

We note the following general properties of the function y  a x , a  0, a  1 , and we accept them
without proof.

1. All the graphs of this function will pass through the point (0,1)
2. All the graphs are continuous curves, with no holes or jumps.
3. The x- axis is a horizontal asymptote.
4. The graph of y  a x is a reflection in the y-axis of the graph of y  a  x
5. If a > 1, then a x increases as x increases.
6. If 0 < a < 1, then a x decreases as x increases.

6.1.1 Family of the exponential function

1. y  f ( x)  a x
 This depends on whether a > 1 or whether 0 < a < 1.
 Make sure the graph goes through (0, 1) and calculate at least the co-ordinates of one point to the
left and one to the right of (0, 1).
2. y   f ( x )  a x

The graph of y   a
x
 is a reflection in the x-axis of the graph of y = f ( x )
 Now the point (0, -1) will be on all the graphs. Calculating at least one point to the left and to the right
of (0, -1) will give a graph having the mirror image of y  f ( x)  a x in the x - axis. For example,
the graphs of y = 2x and y = -2x, as shown in Figure 6.1.2.

Figure 6.1.2

3. y  f ( x )  a  x
x
 The graph of y  a is a reflection in the y-axis of the graph of y = f ( x )
 Make sure the graph goes through (0, 1) and calculate at least the co-ordinates of one point to the left
and one to the right of (0, 1).
4. y   f ( x )   a  x
x
 The graph of y   a is a reflection on the y-axis of the graph of y   f ( x ) or reflectio n
in the x-axis of the graph of y  f ( x ) .
 Now the point (0, -1) will be on all the graphs. Calculating at least one point to the left and to the right
of (0, -1) will give a graph having the mirror image of y = a -x in the x – axis.

6.1.2 Laws and Properties of Exponential Functions

If a and b are positive numbers and a ≠ 1, b ≠ 1 and x and y are real numbers, then:
A. Exponential laws

1. a x .a y  a x  y or a x  y  a x .a y
x
ax x y  a x  a y  a
2. a x  .a y   a x  y or a
ay ay

ax     a y 
y y x
3.  a xy or a xy  a x

x
ax
 ab  x  a x  b x or a x  b x   ab  also   
x a
4. and visa versa
b bx

B. Properties of exponentials

1. a0 = 1 and b0 = 1

1
2. a x 
ax

1
3. a n  n a , n a positive integer, n  1

4. ax  a y  x  y

5. For x  0 , ax  bx  a  b

6.1.3 Natural exponential function: Base e

x x
Looking at the keys of a calculator you will notice the keys 10 and e . Since our number system is base
x
10 it is clear why we have 10 . But, what is the number e and why is it included as a base?

It is a fact that base e is used more frequently than any other base because of certain formulae and the results
of certain processes found in calculus, and more advanced mathematics, take on their simplest form if this
base is used. We will see that base e is used extensively in some of the formulae we will encounter. Like
p , e is an irrational number, that is, it cannot be written as a finite, or recurring, decimal fraction. However,

 1
x
it can be approximated as closely as we like by evaluating 1   for sufficiently large x.
 x

The Table below to show what happens if x increases without bound, that is, if .
 x
 1
X 1  
 x
1 2
10 2,593742476
100 2,704813829
1 000 2,716923932
10 000
100 000
1000 000
x
 1
Your gut feeling might have been that the value 1   will approach 1 since. However,
 x
as studying the values in Table 1, what do you observe?
Now, write down your approximated value for e, correct to eight decimal places.

How does your answer compare with the value e = e 1 = 2,71828183 (to 8 decimal places).

Who `discovered’ the constant e is still debated, but the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783)
has probably used it in 1727 and hence he gets credit for the discovery. The number
e 2, 71828183 is called the natural exponential base.

x
 1
Challenge: Investigate how the value of 1   changes as x decreases without bounds that is, as
 x
. What do you conclude?

6.1.4 Exponential Growth and Decay

Exponential growth (or decay) occurs when some quantity regularly increases (or decreases) by a
fixed factor, or percentage, in a fixed time interval.
Q
Q

Q(t )  Q0ekt

Q0
Q(t )  Q0ekt
Q0
t t t
0 0

(b) Exponential Decay

(a) Exponential Growth
Figure 6.1.3
Thus, if a quantity Q (t ) is such that it obeys a law of the form Q(t )  Q0ekt with k > 0, and Q0 is the
magnitude of the quantity Q at the beginning of the time interval (that is, Q(0)  Q0 ), it is said to experience
exponential growth. Similarly, if Q(t )  Q0ekt for k > 0, the quantity Q is said to experience exponential
decay.
Examples of exponential growth include
 populations in the absence of restrictions,
 contagious diseases for which no immunization is available, and
 bank accounts on which fixed interest is compounded continuously,

Examples of exponential decay include

 the amount of drug in a person’s bloodstream, and
 radioactive material.
Typical exponential and decay graphs are shown in Figure 6.1.3

Example 6.1

The concentration of drug in a person’s bloodstream t hours after an injection is given by

C (t )  3,95e0,8t in milligrams per milliliter (mg/ml).

1.1 What is the concentration of the drug in the bloodstream immediately after four hours, that is, at t
= 4?

1.2 What is the average rate of change of drug concentration during the third hour?

Solution
1.1 C (t )  3,95e0,8t
 C (4)  3,95e0,8(4)
 0,1610
Thus, the drug concentration after four hours is 0,1610 mg/ml

1.2 During the third hour (that is, from t = 2 to t = 3), the concentration changes by C(3) – C(2), so the
average rate of change during this time period is given by

C (3)  C (2) 3,95e 0,8(3)  3,95e 0,8(2)


3 2 1
2,4
 3,95(e  e 1,6 )
 3,95( 0,11178...)
 0, 4392 (to the 4th decimal)

Thus the concentration of drug DECREASES (since the change in concentration is NEGATIVE)
at the average rate of approximately 0,44 mg/ml per hour during the third hour after the injection.

EXERCISE 6.1
A radioactive substance decays exponentially. The amount of a sample of the radioactive substance
0,00005t
remaining after t years is given by the function Q(t )  Q0e . If, at the end of 4 000 years, 200
grams of the substance remains, how many grams were present initially?

6.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION

If a>0 and a≠1, when f(x) = ax either increases or decreases and is one- to- one by the horizontal line test.
Its inverse function f-1 is called the logarithmic function and denoted loga.

If we use the definition f 1 ( x)  y  f ( y)  x , we have loga x  y  a y  x

If x>0, then loga x is the exponent a must be raised to get x.

For example, log10 100  2 since 10 must be raised to 2 to get 100.

1
The cancellation equations when applied to f(x) = a x and f ( x)  loga x are
loga a x  x for every x ∊ R
a log a x  x for every x > 0

Example 6.2 (a)

Convert the following exponential expressions to equivalent logarithmic expressions

1.1 53  125 1.2 42 

1
16

1
1.3 63  216 1.4 42  2

Example 6.2 (b)

1. Convert the following logarithmic expressions to equivalent exponential expressions. Verify your
answers.
(a) log3 9  2 (b) log 2 1  8   3
2. Determine the value of b:
(a) log 4 b  2 (b) log  1  b  2
 
 3

Solution:
1. (a) log3 9  2  32  9 ... 9 is the number, 3 is the base and 2 the logarithm (exponent)
(b) log 2 1 8   3  23 
1
8

2. (a) log 4 b  2  b  42  16
2
1 1
(b) log 1  b  2  b     2
 32  9
 
 3 3 3

6.2.1 Graphing of Exponential and Logarithmic function

The function loga has a domain (0, ∞) and range R. Its graph is a reflection of y = ax in the line y = x.

x
The graphs of the functions y  log 2 x and y  2 are shown in Figure 6.2.1. Study, and compare, these two
graphs.
 Figure 6.2.1

We note that
 The ordered pairs of numbers on the graph of the exponential function y  2 x are on the graph of the
logarithmic function y  log 2 x if we interchange the order of the coordinates.

Example 6.2.1 (a)

Draw the graphs of the functions y  log x and y  10 x on the same system of axes.

Example 6.2.1 (b)

Draw the graphs of the functions y  log2 ( x  1) and its inverse on the same axes.
Exercise 6.2.1
(a) Sketch y = 5x and its inverse on the same system of axes
(b) By the use of transformation sketch inverse of the following (i) y = 5-x, (ii) y = -5x and (iii) y = -5-x .

6.2.2 Domain and Range of logarithmic Function

The inverse of an exponential function is called a logarithmic function. For
a  0 and a  1, y  log a x is equivalent to x  a (which is the inverse of y  a )
y x

The domain of the logarithmic function is the set of all positive real numbers. This domain is also the range
of the corresponding exponential function.
The range of the logarithmic function is the set of all real numbers. This range is also the domain of the
corresponding exponential function.
Example 6.2.2: Determine the domain and range
(a) (b)

(c) (d)
6.2.3 Properties of the logarithmic function
When x and a are restricted to positive real numbers with b > 1, log a ( x) is a unique real number. The major
property of logarithms is that they map multiplication (of numbers) to addition (of logarithms). That is,
 If X  a x and Y  a y , then
x  log a ( X ) and y  log a (Y ) ...........................(i)
Also, X  Y  a x  a y  a x  y ... exponential identity
which, by taking logarithms to the base a on both sides, becomes
log a ( X  Y )  log a a  x y

 
 x  y ... compare with log3 32 =l og3  9   2
 log a ( X )  log a (Y ) ... from (i)
A summary of all the logarithmic properties (or identities), without proof, follows:

Properties of Logarithmic Functions

If a, b, x and y are positive real numbers, with a , b  1 and n is a real number, then
x
1. log a 1  0 6. loga  loga x  loga y
y
log cb
2. log a a  1 7. log ab =
logc a
logbb 1
3. log a a n  n 8. log ab = =
logb a logb a

4. a
log a x
x 9. log a x n = nlog a x

5. loga xy  loga x  loga y 10. log a x = log a y Û x = y

NOTE: loga ( x  y)  loga x  loga y and loga ( x  y)  loga x  loga y

Example 6.2.3 (a) : Use the log laws to simplify the following:
log ( AB c )  ( AB ) 3 
a) b) log  2

 C 

Example 6.2.3 (b)

1.1 Write as separate logarithms. Simplify where possible, without using a calculator:

 2   3 4  32 
(a) log 2  16 3 32  (b) log 2  3 

 8  
   4 2 
1.2 Change to suitable base and simplify:

(a) log8 16 (b) log9 27

Solution:
 16 2  32  log2 162  32  log2 83
1.1(a) log 2  3
 = Property 6
 8 
 
= log 2 2 4
2
 log 2 32  log 2 2 3 
3
Property 5

= log2 2 8  log2 2 5  log2 2 9

METHOD 1 METHOD 2 METHOD 3

= 8 log2 2  5 log2 2  9 log2 2 = 8(1)  5(1)  9(1) = 8 log2 2  5 log2 2  9 log2 2
(Property 9) (Property 2) (Property 9)
= log2 2  (8  5  9) =4 = 8(1)  5(1)  9(1) (Property 2)
= 4 log2 2 =4
= 4(1) (Property 2)
=4
 3 4  32 
log  3
2

1.1 (b)
 
 4 2 

log 27 log 33 3 log 3 3

1.2 (a) log8 16 (b) log9 27    
log 9 log 32 2 log 3 2

1
Exercise 6.2.3: Prooflog25 5 is .
2

6.2.4 Natural logarithmic function

e is the number that lies between 2 and 3 such that the graph of f(x) = e x lies between the graphs of g(x) =
2x and h(x) = 3x. The value of e is a recurring number i.e. .
The logarithm with base e is called the natural logarithm and denoted loge x  ln x

If we use the definition loge x  ln x  y  e  x and cancellation equations are

y

ln e x  x for x∊R
e ln x  x for x>0
In particular ln e = 1

Graphing logarithmic functions

Example 6.2.4 (a) : Use transformations to sketch the graph of f ( x )  ln ( x  2)  1

Example 6.2.4 (b): Draw the graphs of the functions y  e 1

x
and its inverse on the same axes.
6.2.5 Properties of natural logarithms

A summary of all the natural logarithmic properties (or identities), without proof, follows:

Properties of Logarithmic Functions

If a, b, x and y are positive real numbers, with a , b  1 and n is a real number, then
1. loge x  ln x 2. ln e  1
3. loge e  1 4. e loge x  x
x
5. ln xy  ln x  ln y 6. ln  ln x  ln y
y

NOTE: loga ( x  y)  loga x  loga y and loga ( x  y)  loga x  loga y

Example 6.2.5 (a): Express as a single logarithm.

Solution:

ln x
To change the base of any log with base a, a≠1 to ln, we have the formula log a x 
ln a

Example 6.2.5 (b):

(i) Find the value of ln abe if e is an irrational number, ln a = 4 and ln b = 5.
 1
ln abe  ln(abe) 2

 ln(abe) 
1
2
 ln a  ln b  ln e 
1
2
1
 (4  5  1)
2
5

(ii) Find the value of

6.2.6 Exponential and logarithmic equations

EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS
For an exponential equation, we need to know the exponential laws before we can convert exponential into
a logarithmic form.

Example 6.2.6 (a): Given25 x  125 x1 , solve for x without the use of a calculator:
In this type of equation, we write both sides to the same base and then we equate the exponents. (From the
exponential property: a x  a y  x  y, for a  0, a  1 ). Thus,
25 x  125 x 1
 (52 ) x  (53 ) x 1
 (5)2 x  (5)3( x 1) ... (a x ) y  a xy
 2x  3x  3 ... bases the same
 x3
Example 6.2.6 (b): Solve for x : (a) e3 x  8 and (b) 5x  4
Solution
2 (a ) e 3x  8 2 (b ) 5x  4
ln(e )  ln 8
3x
ln(5 x )  ln 4
3 x ln e  ln 8 x ln 5  ln 4
3 x  ln 8 ln 4
x
ln 8 ln 5
x
3

Example 6.2.6 (c): Solve for x :

Solve for x:

Example 6.2.6 (d): Solve for x in each of the following :

(a) ln(𝑙𝑛𝑥 ) = 1
(b) 𝑒 2−3𝑥 > 4

Solution:
(a) eln (lnx) = 𝑒 1

∴ 𝑙𝑛𝑥 = 𝑒
∴ 𝑒 𝑙𝑛𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑒
∴ 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒

(b) 𝑒 2−3𝑥 > 4

∴ 𝑙𝑛𝑒 2−3𝑥 > 𝑙𝑛4
∴ (2 − 3𝑥)𝑙𝑛𝑒 > 𝑙𝑛4
∴ 2 − 3𝑥 > 𝑙𝑛4
∴ −3𝑥 > 𝑙𝑛4 + 2
𝑙𝑛4 2
∴𝑥< −
−3 3

EXERCISE 6.2.6: Solve the equation .

SOLVING LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS

When solving a logarithmic equation we apply logarithmic laws first before converting a log into an
exponential form or apply exponentials both sides of the equation.

Example 6.2.7 (a) : Find x if ln x  5

Solution: e5 = x
Example 6.2.7 (b) : Find x so thatln( x + 2) + ln x = ln 24
Solution:
What we have to do is to combine the separate logarithms to eventually have only ONE log on the left-hand
side, and ONE log on the right-hand side.
ln( x  2)( x )  ln 24

( x  2)( x )  24

x 2  2 x  24  0

( x  6)( x  4)  0

x  6 or x 4
Now, x= -6 is not in the domain and therefore x = 4 is the only solution.

Example 6.2.7 (c): Solve the following system of logarithmic equations

Solution:

Now we substitute into :

Now we substitute into :

The solutions are and since the negative counterparts will provide invalid solutio ns
when they are substituted into the system of logarithmic equations.

Example 6.2.7 (d): Find an inverse function 𝑓 −1 for 𝑓(𝑥):

𝑓 (𝑥) = √3 − 𝑒 2𝑥
Solution:
Let 𝑦 = √3 − 𝑒 2𝑥 note that 𝑦 ≥ 0
∴ 𝑦 2 = 3 − 𝑒 2𝑥
∴ 𝑦 2 − 3 = −𝑒 2𝑥
∴ 3 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑒 2𝑥
∴ ln(3 − 𝑦 2 ) = 𝑙𝑛𝑒 2𝑥
∴ ln(3 − 𝑦 2 ) = 2𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑒
∴ ln(3 − 𝑦 2 ) = 2𝑥 [𝑙𝑛𝑒 = 1]
ln(3−𝑦2)
∴ =𝑥
2
ln (3−𝑥2)
∴ =𝑦
2
−1 ln(3−𝑥 2)
∴ 𝑓 (𝑥) =
2
EXERCISE 6.2.7 : Find x so that :
2 1
(a) loga x  loga 8  loga 9  loga 6
3 2

(b) loga ( x  2)  loga x  loga 24

Applications of exponential and logarithmic functions
We will discuss three of the most common applications: population growth, exponential decay,
and compound interest. For other applications, consult your textbook.

1. Population
Many times scientists will start with a certain number of bacteria or animals and watch how
the population grows. For example, if the population doubles every 5 days, this can be represented as an
exponential function. Most population models involve using the number e. Population models can occur
two ways. One way is if we are given an exponential function. The second way involves coming up with
an exponential equation based on information given. Let’s look at each of these separately.
Let's Practice:

i. The population of a city is P = 250,342e 0.012t where t = 0 represents the population in the
year 2000.

a. Find the population of the city in the year 2010.

To find the population in the year 2010, we need to let t = 10 in our given equation.
P = 250,342e0.012(10) = 250,342e0.12 = 282,259.82
Since we are dealing with the population of a city, we normally round to a whole number, in this case
282,260 people.

b. Find the population of the city in the year 2015.

To find the population in the year 2015, we need to let t = 15.

P = 250,342e0.012(15) = 250,342e0.18 = 299,713.8
We’ll round this answer to 299,714 people.

c. Find when the population will be 320,000.

We know the population in the year 2015 is almost 300,000 from our work in part (b). So it makes sense
that the answer has to be higher than 2015. Remember that P in the equation represents
the population value, which we are given to be 320,000. Only now we do not know the time value t.
The equation we need to solve is
320,000 = 250,342e0.012(t)

So it will take between 20 and 21 years for the population to reach 320,000. This means between the years
2020 and 2021 the population will be 320,000.
Summary: Before we do the next example, let’s look at a general form for population models. Most of the
time, we start with an equation that looks like
P = P o ekt
  P represents the population after a certain amount of time
 P o represents the initial population or the population at the beginning
 k represents the growth (or decay) rate
 t represents the amount of time
 Remember that e is not a variable, it has a numeric value. We do not replace it with
information given to us in the problem.

Let's Practice this once more:

ii. A scientist starts with 100 bacteria in an experiment. After 5 days, she discovers that
the population has grown to 350.

a. Determine an equation for this bacteria population.

To find the equation, we need to know values for P o and k. Remember the equation is in the form P = P o ekt.
where P, e, and t are all parts of the equation we will come up with. We only need values for P o and k. P o is
given by the amount the scientist starts with which is 100. Finding k requires a little more work.
We know that P o is 100 and after t = 5 days the population P is 350. We can use this information to find k.

Now that we know k, we go back to our general form of and replace P o and k. So our equation is
P = 100e0.25055t

b. Use the equation to find out the population after 15 days.

We will substitute the value of 15 for t in P = 100e 0.25055t .

P = 100e0.25055(15) = 100e3.75825 = 4287.33
or approximately 4287 bacteria after 15 days.
c. Use the equation to find out when the population is 1000.

We will set our equation equal to 1000 to get 1000 = 100e 0.25055t and solve.
So between 9 and 10 days, the bacteria population will be 1000.
2. Exponential Decay
Solving an exponential decay problem is very similar to working with population growth. In fact, certain
populations may decrease instead of increase and we could still use the general formula we used for growth.
But in the case of decrease or decay, the value of k will be negative.
Let's Practice:

iii. The number of milligrams of a drug in a person's system after t hours is given by
the function D = 20e-0.4t .

a. Find the amount of the drug after 2 hours.

To solve the problem we let t = 2 in the original equation.

D = 20e-0.4(2) = 20e-0.8 = 8.987
After 2 hours, 8.987 milligrams of the drug is left in the system.

b. Find the amount of the drug after 5 hours.

Replace t with 5 in the equation to get

D = 20e-0.4(5) = 20e-2.0 = 2.707
After 5 hours, 2.707 milligrams remain in the body.

c. When will the amount of the drug be 0.1 milligrams (or almost completely gone
from the system)?

We need to let D = 0.1 and solve the equation 0.1 = 20e-0.4t