Using

Using UHF-RFID
UHF-RFID Signals
Signals for
for Robot
Robot Localization
Localization Inside
Inside Pipelines
Pipelines

Amal Gunatilake G,, Mitchell

Amal Gunatilake Mitchell Galea,
Galea, Karthick Thiyagarajan G,, Sarath
Karthick Thiyagarajan KodagodaG,,
Sarath Kodagoda
Lasitha Piyathilakae,, Poojaben
Lasitha Piyathilaka Poojaben Darji
Darji

Abstract— Underground water

Abstract-Underground water pipes
pipes areare important
important to to any
any
country’s
country's infrastructure.
infrastructure. Overtime,
Overtime, the the metallic
metallic pipes
pipes are
are prone
prone
to
to corrosion,
corrosion, which
which can can lead
lead toto water
water leakage
leakage and and pipe
pipe bursts.
bursts.
In
In order
order to to prolong
prolong the the service
service life
life ofof those
those assets,
assets, water
water
utilities
utilities in
in Australia
Australia apply
apply protective
protective pipe pipe linings.
linings. Long-term
Long-term
monitoring
monitoring and and timely
timely intervention
intervention are are crucial
crucial forfor maintaining
maintaining
2021 IEEE 16th Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications (ICIEA) | 978-1-6654-2248-2/21/$31.00 ©2021 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/ICIEA51954.2021.9516284

those
those lining
lining assets.
assets. However,
However, the the water
water utilities
utilities dodo not
not possess
possess
the
the comprehensive
comprehensive technology
technology to to achieve
achieve it. it. The
The main
main reasons
reasons
for
for lacking
lacking suchsuch technology
technology are are the
the unavailability
unavailability of of sensors
sensors
and
and accurate
accurate robotrobot localization
localization technologies.
technologies. FeatureFeature based
based
localization
localization methods
methods such such as as SLAM
SLAM has has limited
limited use
use asas the
the
application
application of of liners
liners alters
alters the
the features
features and and thethe environment.
environment.
Encoder
Encoder basedbased localization
localization is is not
not accurate
accurate enoughenough to to observe
observe
the
the evolution
evolution of of defects
defects over
over a a long
long period
period of of time
time requiring
requiring
unique
unique defect
defect correspondence.
correspondence. This This motivates
motivates us us to
to explore
explore
accurate
accurate contact-less
contact-less and and wireless
wireless based
based localization
localization methods.
methods.
We
We propose
propose a a cost-effective
cost-effective localization
localization methodmethod using
using UHF-
UHF­
RFID
RFID signals
signals forfor robot
robot localization
localization inside
inside pipelines
pipelines based
based onon
Gaussian
Gaussian process
process combined
combined particle
particle filter.
filter. Experiments
Experiments carried
carried
out
out in
in field
field extracted
extracted pipepipe samples
samples from
from the the Sydney
Sydney water
water pipe
pipe
network
network show show that
that using
using the
the RSSI
RSSI andand Phase
Phase datadata together
together inin Fig.
the Fig. 1:
1: Robot
Robot with
with RFID
RFID unit
unit mounted
mounted on
on top.
top.
the measurement
measurement model model with
with particle
particle filter
filter algorithm
algorithm improves
improves
the
the localization
localization accuracy
accuracy up up to
to 1515 centimeters
centimeters precision.
precision.
Index
Index Terms— infrastructure robotics,
Terms-infrastructure robotics, linings,
linings, localization,
localization,
particle water
water pipepipe infrastructure,
infrastructure, liner liner imperfections
imperfections are are the
the most
most
particle filter,
filter, pipes,
pipes, robotics
robotics forfor smart
smart cities,
cities, RFID,
RFID, robotic
robotic
inspections,
inspections, UHF-RFID.
UHF-RFID. important
important defect
defect to to be
be monitored
monitored for for post
post application
application quality
quality
assurance
assurance and and long-term
long-term liner liner performance
performance evaluation.
evaluation. Cur-Cur­
I.I. IINTRODUCTION
NTRODUCTION rently,
rently, we we have
have developed
developed aa laser laser profiling
profiling robotic
robotic system
system
for
for liner
liner imperfection
imperfection detectiondetection and and quantification
quantification [10]. [10]. For
For
Australia
Australia hashas over 250,000 km
over 250,000 km of of water
water and
and wastewater
wastewater
effective
effective long-term monitoring robust localization method
long-term monitoring robust localization method
pipelines.
pipelines. Corrosion is an important cause of pipe
Corrosion is an important cause of pipe failures
failures
is
is needed
needed to to compare
compare the the laser
laser prdofiles
prdofiles taken
taken at at different
different
[1].
[1]. Depending
Depending on on the
the size
size of
of the
the pipe,
pipe, average
average corroded
corroded time
time period
period to to monitor
monitor liner liner imperfection
imperfection defectdefect evolution.
evolution.
pipe
pipe repair
repair costs
costs range
range from
from A$400
A$400 to to A$4000
A$4000 per per metre.
metre.
However,
However, due due to to localization
localization errors errors ofof the
the robotic
robotic platforms,
platforms,
There
There areare several
several inspection
inspection methodologies
methodologies based based on on pulsed
pulsed
aligning
aligning thesethese datadata after
after multiple
multiple deployments
deployments to to analyze
analyze
Eddy
Eddy current
current sensors
sensors [2],[2], laser
laser profilers
profilers andand stereo
stereo vision
vision
the
the defect
defect evolution
evolution and and subsequent
subsequent intervening
intervening has has become
become
[3],
[3], electrical
electrical resistivity
resistivity sensors
sensors [4],
[ 4], fibre
fibre optic
optic sensors
sensors [5],[5], challenging.
challenging. The The mostmost commonly
commonly used used localization
localization methods
methods
drilling
drilling mechanisms
mechanisms [6], [6], ultrasound
ultrasound sensing
sensing [7],[7], infrared
infrared
for
for in-pipe robotic platforms are wheel encoders or
in-pipe robotic platforms are wheel encoders or tether
tether line
line
radiometers
radiometers [8] [8] to
to name
name aa fewfew are
are currently
currently used
used toto identify
identify
encoders.
encoders. The The commonly
commonly used used Simultaneous
Simultaneous Localization
Localization
hot
hot spot corrosion zones in the water utility pipelines. Based
spot corrosion zones in the water utility pipelines. Based and
and Mapping
Mapping (SLAM)(SLAM) like like localization
localization techniques
techniques become
become
on
on the
the level
level of
of pipe
pipe degradation,
degradation, the the water
water utilities
utilities either
either
obsolete
obsolete due due to to the
the changing
changing environmental
environmental conditions
conditions suchsuch
choose
choose to to replace
replace that
that respective
respective section
section of of the
the pipe
pipe oror apply
apply
as
as application
application of of liners
liners creating
creating aa completely
completely different
different envi-
envi­
protective
protective pipe
pipe linings
linings toto extend
extend the
the service
service life
life of
of the
the pipe
pipe
ronment
ronment (features)
(features) and and long
long termterm corrosion
corrosion patches.
patches. When
When
section
section [9].
[9].
itit comes
comes to floating robots or drones in operational pipes,
to floating robots or drones in operational pipes,
The
The application
application of of linings
linings inin the
the water
water utility
utility pipe
pipe infras-
infras­ contact
contact based
based localization
localization methods methods becomebecome obsolete
obsolete and and
tructures
tructures can deteriorate over time. For example, in
can deteriorate over time. For example, in drinking
drinking therefore,
therefore, aa different
different and and moremore accurate
accurate contactless
contactless local-
local­
This
This work
work was
was supported
supported by
by the
the University
University of
of Technology
Technology Sydney
Sydney (UTS)
(UTS)
ization
ization method
method in in pipelines
pipelines is is needed.
needed.
through
through the
the Faculty
Faculty of
of Engineering
Engineering and
and Information
Information Technology
Technology (FEIT) Currently,
Tech Lab Blue Sky Research Grant.
(FElT) Currently, many many different
different wireless
wireless technologies
technologies and and al-al­
Tech Lab Blue Sky Research Grant.
All gorithms
gorithms being being researched
researched for for localization
localization in in outdoor
outdoor and and
All thethe authors
authors areare with
with thethe iPipes
iPipes Lab,
Lab, UTS
UTS Robotics
Robotics
Institute,
Institute, Faculty
Faculty of of Engineering
Engineering and and Information
Information Technology,
Technology, indoor
indoor environments
environments [11], [11], [12].
[12]. However,
However, there there aren’t
aren't many
many
University
University of of Technology
Technology Sydney,
Sydney, Sydney,
Sydney, New New South
South Wales,
Wales, localization
2007, Australia (e-mail: Amal.D.Gunatilake@student.uts.edu.au; localization methods
methods for for underground
underground pipelines.
pipelines. We We have
have se-
se­
2007, Australia (e-mail: Amal.D.Gunatilake@student.uts.edu.au;
Karthick.Thiyagarajan@uts.edu.au; Sarath.Kodagoda@uts.edu.au; lected
lected thethe radio-frequency
radio-frequency identification
identification (RFID)
(RFID) localization
localization
Karthick.Thiyagarajan@uts.edu.au; Sarath.Kodagoda@uts.edu.au;
lasithaya@gmail.com;
lasithaya@gmail.com; Poojaben.Darji@student.uts.edu.au).
Poojaben.Darji@ student.uts.edu.au). technology
technology because
because it it is
is more
more cost-effective
cost-effective and and itit is
is being
being

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 used
used inin liner
liner embedded
embedded sensingsensing technology
technology to to measure
measure en- en­ Gausian
Gausian Process
Process regression
regression modeling
modeling approach
approach [21],
[21], [22]
[22]
vironmental
vironmental conditions
conditions suchsuch as as moisture
moisture and and temperature
temperature in in is
is used
used in
in this
this work
work to
to normalize
normalize the
the noisy
noisy data
data coming
coming from
from
water
water pipelines
pipelines [13]–[15],
[13]-[15], it it can
can also
also be
be used
used asas an
an effective
effective the
the robotic
robotic measurements.
measurements. The The model
model obtains
obtains the
the distance
distance
contactless
contactless and and wireless
wireless localization
localization method.
method. Further,
Further, itit isis travelled
travelled by
by the robot D
the robot D andand predicts
predicts the
the RSSI
RSSI values (R).
values (R).
not
not dependent on the environmental changes of the pipe
dependent on the environmental changes of the pipe over
over This
This can
can be
be learned
learned as function ff in
as aa function in the
the form
form of
of
time.
time. However,
However,unlikeunlike outdoor
outdoor RFID RFID localization
localization [16][16] which
which
gives
gives aa straightforward
straightforward signalsignal curve
curve that
that only
only contains
contains oneone R=f(D)+�
R = f (D) + ξ (1)
(1)
peak
peak point
point [17]
[17] which
which areare most
most likely
likely location
location of of the
the robot;
robot;
inside where ξ� is
where is the
the uncertainty.
uncertainty. Let Let [X, [X,Y Y]] bebe the the robotic
robotic mea- mea­
inside pipelines
pipelines thethe signal
signal strength
strength curve
curve will
will have
have multiple
multiple
peak
peak points
points making
making the the robot
robot location
location uncertain.
uncertain. Further
Further
surement
surement inputs where X
inputs where X= = [x x2 , x3 , ......, xm ]T , xXii=
[x1l,,x2,x3,······,xm]T, =
commercial [ (D)ii]lTr,,and
[(D) i( l:::;
and i(1 ≤ ii:::;
≤ m) m) is is an
an integer
integer and andmis m is thethe number
number
commercial off-the-shelf
off-the-shelf (COTS) (COTS) RFID RFID readers
readers provides
provides
vague
vague andand uncertain
uncertain measurements
measurements which which is is only
only capable
capable of of
of
of data pairs. Y
data pairs. Y= = [y [Y1l,,yY2,
2, yY3, ......,yYmV
3 , ......,
T
m ] is is aa vector
vector having
having
corresponding targets where Yii =Ri. i [X*, , YY*]
∗ ∗
corresponding targets where y = R . [X ] is
is the
the testing
testing
localizing
localizing thethe RFID
RFID tagtag with
with aa square
square meter
meter range
range accuracy
accuracy
[18].
[18]. Therefore
Therefore the the RFID
RFID localization
localization tasktask inside
inside pipelines
pipelines
data, where X
data, where X*∗ = = [x[xl,∗
1, x
∗
2, x
x:J, ∗
3 , ......,
x3, ∗ T
n ] is
......,xx�JT is aa matrix
matrix having
having
becomes
becomes unique.
unique.
robotic
robotic data
data inputs
inputs andand Y Y= = [y ∗ ∗ ∗
1, y
[yr, 2, y
y:J, 3 , ......,
Y!, ∗ T
n ] is
......,yy�JT is aa vector
vector
In
having
having predicted
predicted outputs
outputs corresponding
corresponding to to X X*.. Once
∗
Once ff has has
In this
this paper,
paper, we we proposed
proposed an an improved
improved localization
Y],], ff can Y*
localization ∗
been
been learned using [X,
learned using [X,Y can be be used
used to predict Y
to predict for
for
method
method for for underground
underground water water pipelines
pipelines using
using COTS
COTS RFID
X*∗ by D*∗ = = ff(p�)
(ρ∗a ) +C. K(X,X) X) kernel
RFID
given X
aa given using D
by using + ξ∗. A A K(X, kernel
components
components with with particle
particle filter
filter algorithm
algorithm [19], [19], [20]
[20] that
i,j =
that
having kki,j
having = k(x i , xj ) elements
k(xi,xj) elements was was selected
selected to to address
address
employs
employs both both Received
Received SignalSignal Strength
Strength Indication
Indication (RSSI)
(RSSI)
the
the non-linear
non-linear regression
regression problemproblem throughthrough GP GP modeling.
modeling. In In
and
and Phase
Phase data
data in
in the
the measurement
measurement model model to to achieve
achieve higher
higher
this
this work,
work, we we useuse the
the squared
squared exponential
exponential kernel, kernel, which
which is is
accuracy.
accuracy. We We have
have conducted
conducted experiments
experiments with with field
field ex-ex­
defined
defined as as in
in (2).
(2).
tracted
tracted water
water pipelines
pipelines from
from the the Sydney
Sydney waterwater network.
network. We We
 
have
have done
done experiments
experiments to to identify
identify thethe best
best locations
locations to to deploy
deploy 1
2 2
the
the RFID
RFID tags
tags inside
inside the
the pipe
pipe and
and the
the results
results show
show that
that our
our k(xi , xj ) = α exp − 2 xi − xj  (2)
(2)
2β
proposed
proposed system
system hashas achieved
achieved aa precision
precision of of 15
15 centimeters.
centimeters.
The
The rest
rest of
of this
this article
article is is structured
structured as as follows:
follows: Section
Section where
where the the α and β
a and (3 are
are the
the hyper-parameters
hyper-parameters forfor the
the GP
GP
II
II describes
describes the
the algorithms,
algorithms, hardware
hardware and and software
software architec-
architec­ model.
model. The The GP
GP model
model was
was trained
trained by
by minimizing
minimizing the
the neg-
neg­
tures.
tures. The
The experimental
experimental results
results areare presented
presented in in Section
Section III III ative
ative log
log marginal
marginal likelihood
likelihood inin (3)
(3)with
with respect to θe =
respect to =
with
with discussions
discussions and and finally,
finally, Section
Section IV IV concludes
concludes the the article
article {α,
a, β,
(3, σO"n}.
n . The
The covariance function L is
covariance function is defined
defined as:
as:
by
by summarizing
summarizing the the key
key outcomes
outcomes and and briefs
briefs thethe intended
intended
future
future work.
work. 1 T   −11 1  m
-log
− logp
p(Y IX,e)
(Y|X, θ) =
= �y
22
Y r(Lr YY+ + �ILI+
22
( )
22 log 27r
+ mlog(2π)
II.
II. M ETHODOLOGY
METHODOLOG Y (3)
0)

L= K(X,X)
X) + 2
The
The initial
initial experiments
experiments have have shown
shown in in the
the open
open envi-
envi­ = K(X, + σ0'�1
nI (4)
(4)
ronment
ronment RFIDRFID localization
localization is is somewhat
somewhat straight
straight forward
forward
since
since the
the signal
signal strength
strength curve
curve only
only contains
contains oneone single
single The
The predicted
predicted RSSI
RSSI values (Y*)
values (Y
∗
) for
for the
the distance (X*)
distance (X
∗
) will
will
peak
peak point which is relating to the most likely location
point which is relating to the most likely location be
be given
given byby the
the mean
mean of
of the
the posterior
posterior distribution (!-L)*∗ in
distribution (μ) in
of
of the
the robot
robot [17].
[17]. However
However inside
inside aa pipe
pipe environment
environment the the (5)
(5)
 and
and the
the associated
associated uncertainty
uncertainty is
is given
given by
by the
the covariance
covariance
signal
signal strength
strength curve
curve have
have multiple
multiple peak
peak points
points making
making thethe ((2:)*
)* in
in (6).
(6).
robot
robot location
location uncertain
uncertain which
which makes
makes the the localization
localization task
task  −1
unique
unique and and difficult.
difficult. Results
Results in in Fig.
Fig. 66 TagTag A A inside
inside the
the (!-L)*∗ =
(μ) K(X*,X){K(X,X)
= K(X ∗
, X) K(X, X) + 2
+ σJ�I} ly
nI - y (5)
(5)
pipe
pipe data
data and
and outside
outside thethe pipe
pipe data
data comparison
comparison gives gives you
you
an
an indication
indication as as to
to how
how itit behaves
behaves differently
differently in in the
the two
two  ∗ 
(L = , X ∗) +
K(X*,X*) n I − {K(X*,X)
r
∗ 2
different
different environmental
environmental conditions.
conditions. = K(X + σ0'�1- K(X ∗ , X)
We −1 (6)
(6)
We have
have introduced
introduced the the particle
particle filter
filter for
for passive
passive UHF
UHF
RFID
RFID localization
localization and and we we have
have improved
improved the the performance
performance
K(X,X)
K(X, X)+ 2
+ σ(}�I} lK(X,X
n I - K(X, X*)
∗
)
and
and accuracy
accuracy of of the
the localization
localization by by applying
applying the the Gaussian
Gaussian From
From the
the collected
collected data,
data, unlike
unlike the
the RSSI
RSSI data
data that
that shows
shows
process
process data modeling into the RFID RSSI data. We
data modeling into the RFID RSSI data. We have
have aa unique
unique signal
signal pattern
pattern which
which can
can be
be mapped
mapped to to aa Gaussian
Gaussian
further
further improved
improved the the accuracy
accuracy by by embedding
embedding the the Phase
Phase data
data process
process function,
function, the the Phase
Phase data
data isis somewhat
somewhat noisy
noisy (Fig.
(Fig.
into
into the
the measurement
measurement model. model. 7),
7), therefore
therefore wewe areare generating
generating different
different weight
weight sets
sets to
to give
give
First
First wewe collect
collect RFID
RFID RSSI
RSSI datadata and
and Phase
Phase data
data from
from high
high priority
priority toto the
the RSSI
RSSI data
data and
and low
low priority
priority to
to the
the Phase
Phase
the
the robot.
robot. The
The collected
collected RSSI
RSSI datadata shows
shows aa unique
unique signal
signal data
data and
and finally
finally combine
combine to to create
create an
an improved
improved measurement
measurement
pattern
pattern which
which cancan be be modeled
modeled usingusing aa Gaussian
Gaussian process.
process. model.
model. Then
Then we we map
map these
these data
data models
models with
with the
the odometry
odometry
Therefore
Therefore to to filter
filter the
the outliers,
outliers, normalize
normalize the the data
data and
and create
create data
data from
from the
the robot
robot toto output
output the
the final
final measurement
measurement model.
model.
aa measurement
measurement model model we we use
use the
the Gaussian
Gaussian data data modeling
modeling Let, R be
Let, R be the
the RSSI
RSSI matrix model, P
matrix model, P be
be the
the Phase
Phase matrix
matrix
function. model, W
model, W1 be be thethe wights
wights generated
generated forfor the
the RSSI
RSSI matrix
1
function. matrix

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on Industrial
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 integration
integration andand algorithms
algorithms were
were implemented
implemented as as C++
C++ compo-
compo­
nents.
nents. The
The robot
robot wheel
wheel encoder
encoder electronics
electronics that
that receives
receives the
the
initial
initial odometry
odometry data
data to
to create
create measurement
measurement maps maps for
for the
the par-
par­
ticle
ticle filter
filter has
has been
been implemented
implemented usingusing Arduino
Arduino components.
components.
Finally
Finally thethe estimated
estimated particle
particle filter
filter localization
localization prediction
prediction
which
which is is based
based on
on the
the previously
previously trained
trained measurement
measurement mapsmaps
are
are displayed
displayed on on RVIZ
RVIZ like
like visualization
visualization systems.
systems. At At the
the
initial
initial deployment,
deployment, robot
robot collects
collects the
the RFID
RF1D and
and odometry
odometry
data
data toto publish
publish as
as ROS
ROS topics
topics which
which will
will be
be used
used to
to generate
generate
the
the measurements
measurements models.
models. InIn the
the next
next deployments,
deployments, when
when
the
the system
system doesn’t
doesn't have
have the
the wheel
wheel odometry
odometry data,
data, particle
particle
filter
filter can
can localize
localize the
the robot
robot using
using thethe RFID
RF1D data
data and
and the
the
measurement
measurement model.model.

Fig.
Fig. 2:
2: Software
Software architecture.
architecture. III.
Ill. E XPERIMENTS &
EXPERIMENTS &RRESULTS
ESULTS

A. Electromagnetic
A. Electromagnetic Field
Field Simulation
Simulation
Fig.
Fig. 44 shows
shows the the simulation
simulation results
results carried
carried out
out byby using
using
model and W
model and 2 be
W2 be the
the weights
weights generated
generated for
for Phase
Phase matrix
matrix the
the CST
CST studio
studio simulation
simulation software.
software. The The first
first simulation
simulation was
was
model,
model, that
that maps to O
maps to 0 odometry
odometry matrix
matrix data
data model
model received
received carried
carried outout inin the
the open
open environment
environment by by designing
designing aa UHFUHF
from
from the
the robot
robot will
will denote the M
denote the M measurement
measurement model.
model. RFID
RF1D antenna
antenna with with hardware
hardware configurations
configurations that that matched
matched
those
those ofof the
the actual
actual antenna
antenna used
used in in practical
practical experiments.
experiments.
G(R)  
M = × W1 W2 → O (7) The
The signal
signal strength
strength of of the
the antenna
antenna distributed
distributed evenly
evenly across
across
P the
the space
space as as an
an expanding
expanding radial
radial field
field that
that decays
decays along
along the
the
Once distance,
distance, as as shown
shown in in the
the results
results (Fig.
(Fig. 4a).
4a). The
The same
same antenna
antenna
Once we
we have
have the
the final
final measurement
measurement model
model from
from the
the initial
initial
robot was
was then
then moved
moved inside
inside aa metallic
metallic pipepipe setting
setting for
for the
the next
next
robot deployment,
deployment, Thereafter
Thereafter we we can
can use
use this
this measurement
measurement
model simulation.
simulation. TheThe signal
signal isis reflected
reflected from
from thethe pipe
pipe surface
surface and
and
model against
against the
the particle
particle filter
filter algorithm
algorithm [19],
[19], [20]
[20] to
to predict
predict
the travels
travels further,
further, as as seen
seen inin the
the results
results (Fig.
(Fig. 4b),
4b), giving
giving the
the
the robot
robot location.
location. The
The highest
highest prediction
prediction value
value will
will be
be the
the
most signal
signal strength
strength aa ripple
ripple effect.
effect. This
This implies
implies that
that signals
signals move
move
most likely
likely location
location of
of the
the robot.
robot.
farther
farther and
and behave
behave differently
differently within
within aa pipepipe environment,
environment,
making
making the the RFID
RF1D localisation
localisation tasktask unique
unique andand challenging.
challenging.
A. Prototype
A. Prototype development
development
Following
Following the the observation
observation of of these
these patterns,
patterns, functional
functional ex-
ex­
1)
1) Sensor suite: The
Sensor suite: The sensor
sensor suite
suite waswas built
built with
with commer-
commer­ periments
periments werewere conducted
conducted to to explain
explain the the findings.
findings.
cial
cial off
off the
the shelf
shelf (COTS)
(COTS) RFID RF1D components.
components. Thingmagic
Thingmagic
M6e
M6e Micro-LTE
Micro-LTE UHF UHF 22 port port RFID
RF1D reader
reader module
module withwith the
the B. RFID
B. RFID tags & location
tags & location selection
selection
embedded
embedded developer
developer kit kit was
was used
used to to implement
implement the the proposed
proposed Chip
Chip based
based RFID RF1D tags tags were
were chosen
chosen for for the
the experiments
experiments
system
system as as itit was
was easy
easy to to customize
customize and and itit was
was actively
actively because
because they they cancan bebe uniquely
uniquely identified
identified using
using thethe Electronic
Electronic
supported
supported by by the
the open
open source
source Python
Python MercuryAPI
MercuryAPI software
software Product
Product Code Code (EPC)(EPC) value
value andand they
they can
can bebe further
further used used to to
community.
community. A A single
single 915MHz
915MHz GeneralGeneral Purpose
Purpose Panel
Panel RF RF store
store extra
extra information.
information. Mainly Mainly three three different
different chip chip based
based
Antenna
Antenna in in 902MHz
902MHz to to 928MHz
928MHz range range with
with 5.5dBi
5.5dBi gain
gain waswas UHF
UHF RFID RF1D tags tags (Fig.
(Fig. 5)5) were
were usedused toto find
find the
the best
best suitable
suitable
used
used toto support
support the the module.
module. ThreeThree different
different most
most commonly
commonly tag
tag for for improving
improving the the RFID
RF1D localization
localization results.
results. The The three
three
available
available chipchip based
based RFIDRF1D tag tag types
types (Fig.
(Fig. 5)
5) were
were selected
selected different
different tag tag types
types are:
are: oil
oil impregnated
impregnated paper paper based
based substrate
substrate
and
and used
used to to conduct
conduct experiments
experiments to to evaluate
evaluate and
and identify
identify the
the with
with non non coiled
coiled antenna
antenna (Fig.(Fig. 5a),
5a), oil
oil impregnated
impregnated paper paper
best
best suitable
suitable tag tag type
type for
for the
the proposed
proposed systemsystem to to achieve
achieve based
based coiled
coiled antenna
antenna (Fig.
(Fig. 5b),
5b), strong
strong metalic
metalic based
based substrate
substrate
best
best results.
results. Jetson
Jetson Nano
Nano Developer
Developer kit kit board
board with
with Quad-
Quad­ with
with non non coiled
coiled antenna
antenna (Fig.
(Fig. 5c).
5c). Fig.
Fig. 66 shows
shows the the results
results
core
core ARM
ARM 1.43 1.43 GHz
GHz CPU,CPU, 44 GB GB 64-bit
64-bit LPDDR4
LPDDR4 RAM RAM was was comparison
comparison for for different
different tags
tags (Fig.
(Fig. 5)5) tested
tested toto identify
identify the the
used
used as as the
the central
central processing
processing unitunit to to run
run the
the implemented
implemented best
best suitable
suitable tag tag for
for localization.
localization. TheseThese tags
tags were
were placedplaced in in
system.
system. The The whole
whole hardware
hardware system
system was was assembled
assembled inside
inside the
the middle
middle of of the
the scanned
scanned length
length andand the
the robot
robot traveled
traveled fromfrom
an
an enclosure
enclosure and and mounted
mounted on on top
top of of aa robotic
robotic platform
platform one
one end end to to the
the other.
other. As As seen
seen in in the
the results,
results, itit is
is clear
clear that
that
for
for deployment
deployment Fig. Fig. 1.1. A
A rotary
rotary encoder
encoder with
with 1024
1024 pulses
pulses inside
inside the the pipe
pipe thethe signals
signals travels
travels farfar and
and has
has aa reflected
reflected
per
per revolution
revolution was was fixed
fixed to to the
the robot
robot wheels
wheels to to collect
collect the
the ripple
ripple effect.
effect. Inside
Inside thethe pipe,
pipe, the
the data
data has
has more
more density
density thanthan
odometry
odometry data data from
from thethe robot
robot for
for validations.
validations. in
in thethe open
open spacespace scan.
scan. Further,
Further, when when thethe antenna
antenna passes passes
2) Software
2) architecture: The
Software architecture: The software
software architecture
architecture (Fig.
(Fig. the
the tags,
tags, the
the signal
signal strength
strength andand thethe data
data density
density diminishes.
diminishes.
2)
2) has
has been
been implemented
implemented on on top
top of
of Robotic
Robotic Operating
Operating System
System ItIt is
is observed
observed that that Tag
Tag A A will
will perform
perform better
better as as itit has
has low
low
(ROS)
(ROS) framework.
framework. Since Since the the RFID
RF1D hardware
hardware module
module is is noise
noise in in thethe signal
signal andand aa clear
clear reflection
reflection pattern
pattern that that will
will
supported
supported with with aa Python
Python Mercury
Mercury API API library,
library, thethe RFID
RF1D help
help better
better in in the
the localization
localization algorithms.
algorithms. Fig.Fig. 77 showsshows the the
reader
reader module
module has has been
been implemented
implemented with with Python.
Python. To To gain
gain RSSI
RSSI and and Phase
Phase datadata comparisons
comparisons from from aa single
single tag. tag. The
The
more
more flexibility
flexibility andand structure
structure to to the
the implementation
implementation the the core
core RSSI
RSSI data data seems
seems to to have
have more
more unique
unique signal
signal pattern
pattern thanthan

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 [�Jl �
m'
+--d- ..
Tag2 Tag 3 Tag 4 Tag :5
•
.
-

(a) RFID experiment setup inside pipeline.

(b) RFID
(b) tags placed
RFID tags placedon
on the
the bot-
bot- (c)
(c) RFID tags placed
RFID tags placed atat the
the side
side (d)
(d) RFID tags placed
RFID tags placed atat the
the top
top (e)
(e) RFID tags placed
RFID tags placed atat an
an open
open
tomof
tom of the
the pipe.
pipe. of the
of the pipe.
pipe. of the
of the pipe.
pipe. area.
area.
Fig. 3:
Fig. 3: RFID
RFID test
test setups.
setups.

(b) RFID antenna far-field

RFID antenna far-field sim-
sim­ (a) Tag
(a) Tag A.
A. (b) Tag
(b) Tag B.
B. (c) Tag
(c) Tag C.
C.
(b)
(a)RFID
(a) reader antenna
RFIDreader antenna far-field
far-field ulation
ulation inside
inside the
the pipeline
pipeline envi-
envi­ Fig. 5:
Fig. 5: RFID
RFID tags.
tags.
simulation inin open
simulation open environment.
environment. ronment.
ronment.
Fig. 4:
Fig. 4: CST
CST studio
studio RFID
RFID simulation
simulation results.
results.
and the
and the last
last at
at the
the top
top crown
crown ofof the
the pipe.
pipe. The
The observations
observations
show that
show that side
side isis the
the best
best location
location to
to place
place the
the RFID
RFID tags.
tags.

the phase
the phase data.
data. Next,
Next, the
the same
same experiment
experiment was was conducted
conducted C. Data
C. Data modeling
modeling
in two
in two different
different environments.
environments. InsideInside pipe
pipe environments
environments and and The collected
The collected datadata waswas then
then mapped
mapped withwith thethe robot’s
robot's
outside open
outside open environment
environment to to compare
compare the the behavior
behavior of of the
the odometry data
odometry data to
to model
model thethe Gaussian
Gaussian process,
process,which
which filters
filters
sensors. The
sensors. The tags
tags were
were arranged
arranged inside
inside aa 66 meters
meters long
long 600
600 outliers and
outliers and provides
provides aa stable
stable data
data inputs
inputs forfor training
training the
the
millimeters in
millimeters in diameter
diameter field
field extracted
extracted water
water pipe
pipe sample
sample as as particle filter
particle filter algorithm.
algorithm. Fig.
Fig. 99depicts
depictsthe
the scan
scan results
resultsofofthe
the
shown in
shown in Fig.
Fig. 33 and
and data
data has
has been
been collected
collected using
using thethe robot.
robot. 11metre
metreapart
aparttag tagdistribution
distributioninside
insidethe
thewater
waterpipeline
pipelinesample
sample
This experiment
This experiment was was repeated
repeated by by changing
changing the the RFID
RFID tag tag as depicted
as depicted in in Fig.
Fig. 3a,
3a, 3c.
3c. The
The red
red fitted
fitted curve
curve represents
represents
location inside
location inside the
the pipe
pipe surface
surface as astop,
top,side
side and
and bottom
bottom(Fig.
(Fig. the Gaussian
the Gaussian process
process model,
model,which
which normalises
norrnalises thethe raw
raw data
data
3d,3c,
3d, 3c,3b).
3b). Further
Further thethe tests
tests are
are repeated
repeated byby changing
changing the the before itit isis used
before used as
as the
the measurement
measurement model model forfor the
the particle
particle
distance (d) between
distance (d) between eacheach RFID
RFID tags.tags. Fig.
Fig. 88 shows
shows thethe data
data filter.
filter.
collected by
collected by placing
placing RFID
RFID tagstags inin different
different locations
locations in in the
the
pipe. The
pipe. The three
three scans
scans were
were done
done by by placing
placing the
the Tag
Tag type
type AA D. System
D. System performance
performance

in the
in the middle
middle of ofthe
the pipe.
pipe. First
Firstscan
scan shows
showswhenwhen itit placed
placed inin Using these data models,
Using these data models,thethe particle
particle filter
filterbased
based localiza-
localiza­
the bottom
the bottom section
section ofof the
the pipe,
pipe,nextnext at
at the
the side
side of
of the
the pipe
pipe tion algorithm
tion algorithm was
was tested
tested in
in aa ROS
ROS simulated
simulated environment
environment

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onIndustrial
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 Particle filter performance
0.4 ,---
----,-------.-
-----,--:----------,-
------.-
-----,

0.3

0.2

E
I... 0.1
g
Cl.l
::
Ov;-62
§ 0
u
::Q� '0
� L-----�----�--7---7--� £-0.1

-0.2
- RSSI only measurement model
RSSI Phase measurement model
L_
- +

-0 .3 __L__
_ _L_----'==========::"J
0 2 3 4 5 6 7
Distance (m) Travel distance (m)

Fig.
Fig. 6:
6: Different
Different RFID
RFID tags
tags comparison.
comparison. Fig.
Fig. 10:
10: Particle
Particle filter
filter performance
performance evaluation
evaluation with
with different
different
measurement
measurement models.
models.

to
to evaluate
evaluate different
different data
data collections
collections and and particle
particle filter
filter con-
con­
i��L�----�l�:._:�_·_-_::
0
�--'--�:S -��--· _{ .-�r��· �·-' -· �� r_�' <� ��--�- -� -·;� ,
2 3 �
____
figurations.
figurations. The The best
best results
results were
were achieved
achieved whenwhen the the robot
robot
travels
travels at at aa maximum
maximum speedspeed of of 0.1
0.1 meters
meters perper second
second or or less
less
where
where RFID reader detects tags at a maximum rate of 50 tag
RFID reader detects tags at a maximum rate of 50 tag
readings
readings per per second.
second. We We have
have evaluated
evaluated the the particle
particle filter
filter
Distance (m)
performance
performance with with both
both RSSI
RSSI data
data alone
alone measurement
measurement model model
Fig.
Fig. 7:
7: RFID
RFID tag
tag RSSI
RSSI and
and Phase
Phase data.
data. and
and with
with RSSI
RSSI and
and Phase
Phase data
data combined
combined data data model.
model. Fig.Fig. 10,
10,
11
11 shows
shows the the performance
performance evaluation
evaluation of of the
the particle
particle filter
filter for
for
localization
localization prediction
prediction values.
values. The
The result
result comparisons
comparisons show show aa

: �
significant
significant improvement
improvement in in the
the localization
localization results
results when
when bothboth
6 7
RSSI
RSSI and and Phase
Phase data
data used
used inin the
the particle
particle filter
filter measurement
measurement
model.
model. The The proposed
proposed system
system hashas achieved
achieved aa precision
precision of of 15
15
centimeter
centimeter accuracy
accuracy in in localization
localization results.
results. Finally
Finally particle
particle
filter
filter performance
performance was was evaluated
evaluated withwith different
different number
number of of
particle
particle configurations
configurations as as shown
shown in in Fig.
Fig. 12.
12. The
The legend
legend
indicates
indicates the the number
number of of particles
particles for
for each
each performance
performance data data
Distance (m)
curve.
curve. The The results
results show
show thatthat the
the maximum
maximum accuracy
accuracy has has
been
been captured
captured at at 300
300 particles.
particles. Increasing
Increasing itit further
further (Fig.
(Fig. 12 12
Fig.
Fig. 8:
8: RFID
RFID tag
tag location
location comparison.
comparison. p=400)
p=400) reduces
reduces thethe performance
performance of of the
the system
system and and the
the error
error
rate
rate increases
increases duedue to
to the
the prediction
prediction algorithms
algorithms takes
takes tootoo long
long
to
to process
process and and respond
respond back.
back.

IV.
I V. C ONCLUSION A
CONCLUSION ND F
AND UTURE W
FUTURE WORK
ORK
This
This paper
paper presented
presented thethe developments
developments of of aa robotic
robotic sys-
sys­
tem
tem for
for localizing
localizing inside
inside the
the pipeline
pipeline based
based on on UHF-RFID
UHF-RFID
signals.
signals. The
The robotic
robotic localization
localization uses
uses particle
particle filter
filter combined
combined
with
with Gaussian
Gaussian process
process algorithm.
algorithm. By By integrating
integrating bothboth RSSI
RSSI
and
and phase
phase shift
shift values
values into
into the
the particle
particle filter
filter model,
model,the the local-
local­
ization
ization results
results are
are further
further enhanced.
enhanced. This
This scheme
scheme can can be
be used
used
for
for localization
localization without
without the
the aid
aid of
of odometry
odometry afterafter creating
creating
the
the initial
initial measurement
measurement model.
model. TheThe system
system was was validated
validated
in
in lab
lab experiments
experiments by by using
using aa pipe
pipe sample
sample extracted
extracted from
from

i�<O��[ �--GP
water
water pipe
pipe network.
network. We havehave identified
identified the
the best
best locations
locations toto
��-l
1 --------:2:------:-3------.
·" L----;- --- - ,-----
-:---------:5 --- �6 --------!7
deploy
deploy the
that
that the
the RFID
RFID tags
the proposed
tags inside
proposed system
inside the
system has
the pipe
pipe and
and the
has aa precision
the results
precision of
results conclude
of 15
conclude
15 centimeter
centimeter
Distance (m) accuracy.
accuracy. InIn future,
future, we
we intend
intend toto explore
explore two two RFID
RFID antenna
antenna
Fig. readers
readers for
for improving
improving thethe accuracy
accuracy andand test
test the
the performance
performance
Fig. 9:
9: RFID
RFID GP
GP data
data modeling.
modeling.
under
under different
different environmental
environmental conditions
conditions inside
inside the
the pipeline.
pipeline.

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 14th IEEEIEEE Conference
Conference on on Industrial
Industrial Electronics
Electronics and and Applications
Applications
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14th
(ICIEA), 2019,
(ICIEA), 2019, pp. pp.916–921.
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Vi­
0.3 tanage, “Robust
tanage, "Robust SensorSensor Suite Suite Combined
Combined with with Predictive
Predictive Analytics
Analytics
Enabled Anomaly
Enabled Anomaly Detection
Detection ModelModel for for Smart
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0.2 Sewer Pipe
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==:i:::::=:::i::::::
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