ID3 Redhat - 230823 - 175221

Unit ID 3 Learning Outcome - 10
Unit ID3
Do – controlling workplace
safety issues (International)
Learning outcome 10
PAGE 1 Redhat Safety

Contents
Learning outcome 10................................................................................................................... 5
10.1 Outline the practical considerations for maintaining a safe working environment -
Safe working environment .......................................................................................................... 6
10.1.1 Safe working environment............................................................................................ 6
10.2 Recognise risks and design safe working practices in confined spaces.................... 16
10.2.1 Confined spaces ......................................................................................................... 16
10.3 Describe the mechanisms for fire and explosions, how building materials behave in
a fire and methods that can be used for prevention and protection from fire and
explosion - Fire and explosion ................................................................................................... 33
10.3.1 Flammable and explosive materials and the mechanisms by which they ignite
................................................................................................................................................... 33
10.3.2 The behaviour of structural materials, buildings and building contents in a fire 76
10.3.3 Fire and explosion prevention and protection........................................................ 81
10.4 Summarise the considerations for fire risk assessment, methods for fire prevention
and detection, types of firefighting equipment, means of escape and emergency
evacuation procedures - Fire ................................................................................................... 99
10.4.1 Fire risk assessment ....................................................................................................... 99
10.4.2 Fire detection and alarm systems ........................................................................... 104
10.4.3 Fixed and portable fire-fighting equipment .......................................................... 110
10.4.4 Means of escape....................................................................................................... 119
10.4.5 Emergency evacuation procedures ...................................................................... 121
10.5 Describe the risks and controls inherent in industrial chemical processes and
hazardous environments, including the storage, handling and transport of dangerous
substances and planning for emergencies - Dangerous substances .............................. 123
10.5.1 Industrial chemical processes .................................................................................. 123
10.5.2 The storage, handling and transport of dangerous substances ......................... 132
10.5.3 Hazardous environments .......................................................................................... 157
10.5.4 Emergency planning ................................................................................................. 168
10.6 Summarise what needs to be considered during maintenance, inspection and
testing of work equipment and machinery - Work equipment and machinery
maintenance ............................................................................................................................ 180
10.7 Understand why and how risks from work equipment and pressure systems should
be managed - Work equipment ............................................................................................ 203

10.7.1 Work equipment ........................................................................................................ 203

10.7.2 Pressure systems ......................................................................................................... 220
10.8 Explain the principles of machinery safety integration and risk assessment and
generic hazards and controls for machinery - Machinery ................................................. 231
10.8.1 Safety integration and machinery risk assessment ............................................... 231
10.8.2 Generic hazards ........................................................................................................ 250
10.8.3 Machinery control systems ....................................................................................... 264
10.9 Outline the hazards and controls for mobile work equipment and lifting equipment
- Mobile work equipment, Lifting equipment ....................................................................... 270
10.9.1 Mobile work equipment ........................................................................................... 270
10.9.2 Lifting equipment ....................................................................................................... 289
10.10 Identify the hazards and outline control measures associated with electricity
(including work on high voltage systems) and risks associated with portable electrical
equipment – Electricity ............................................................................................................ 319
10.10.1 Hazards of electricity and static electricity.......................................................... 319
10.10.2 Control measures for the use of electrical equipment and working on
electrical systems .................................................................................................................. 326
10.10.3 High voltage systems............................................................................................... 346
10.10.4 Portable electrical equipment .............................................................................. 357
10.11 Describe the different types of construction activities and outline how people can
be protected during construction works, safe work at height practices, and the hazards
and controls for demolition and excavation work - Construction, Work at height,
Demolition, Excavation ............................................................................................................ 363
10.11.1 What is construction ................................................................................................ 363
10.11.2 General health and safety duties for construction projects ............................. 379
10.11.3 Protecting workers and others before and during construction work ............. 389
10.11.4 Work at height .......................................................................................................... 404
10.11.5 Demolition work ....................................................................................................... 429
10.11.6 Excavations .............................................................................................................. 436
10.12 Outline the duty to manage workplace transport risks and how to manage work-
related driving risks using a Plan, Do, Check, Act approach - Work-place transport,
Work-related driving ................................................................................................................. 445
10.12.1 Workplace transport ............................................................................................... 445
10.12.2 Work-related driving ................................................................................................ 456


Learning outcome 10
You will be able to advise the organisation on a range of common workplace
safety issues/hazards including how these can be assessed and controlled.

10.1 Outline the practical considerations for maintaining a safe

working environment - Safe working environment
10.1.1 Safe working environment
A "workplace" is defined as anywhere workers need to be or to go by reason of

their work and which are under the direct or indirect control of the employer. For
example:
 An engineer in a workshop.
 An administrative worker in an office.
 Workers in cold stores.
 Workers on a construction site.
 Operators on offshore oil and gas installation.
Whilst the types of workplaces are different the employer, in all cases, must take
reasonable steps to ensure that the workplace is safe and remains so.
Practical considerations in providing and

maintaining safe places of work and safe
means of access and egress; using safety signs
ie, types of safety signs and the typical areas
where they would be used
The HSE states examples of steps an employer may need to take to ensure the
safety of the workplace include:
 Make sure buildings are in good repair.

 Maintain the workplace and any equipment so that it is safe and works
efficiently.
 Put right any dangerous defects immediately, or take steps to protect
anyone at risk.
 Take precautions to prevent people or materials falling from height, e.g.
fencing or guard rails.
 Have enough space for safe movement and access (people and
vehicles).
 Make sure floors, corridors, and stairs are free of obstructions (e.g. trailing
cables) or spillages.
 Provide good drainage in wet processes.
 Make sure all windows and skylights are designed and constructed so that
they may be cleaned safely (you may also need to fit anchor points if
window cleaners have to use harnesses).
 Minimise risks caused by snow and ice on outdoor routes, e.g. use grit, salt,
or sand and sweep them.
Safe Access and Egress
Safe access to, and egress from, the workplace are fundamental aspects to the
safe working conditions that should prevail within any workplace. Access and
egress means the route through or means of entry to (or exit from) a workplace.
As previously mentioned, A "workplace" is defined as anywhere workers need to

be or to go by reason of their work and which are under the direct or indirect
control of the employer.
Examples of safe access requirements encountered in a workplace include:
 Pedestrian pavement access into an office block.

 Vehicle road access into a refinery, segregated from pedestrian

movements.
 Separate pedestrian and fork lift truck access doors into a warehouse.
 Ladder access to a scaffold or excavation.
 Adequate man-way access into a confined space.
Workers should be able to gain access to all parts of the workplace with minimal
risk of tripping, falling, getting trapped, or striking fixed objects. Ways in which
this can be achieved include:
 Providing ladders. Especially long ladders (such as inside wind turbines)

can be fitted with hoops or platforms for the worker to stop and rest.
 The provision of fall arrest or fall restraint systems.
 Provision of guardrails, barriers, or self-closing gates.
 Eliminating steps outside of doors, which can take a pedestrian by
surprise.
 Ensuring the floor remains free of slip and trip hazards.
Safety Signs in the Workplace
Employers should only install safety signs to warn of a hazard, or course of

action, to control a significant risk when there is no other reasonable option.
Before installing safety signs the employer should examine whether the hazard
can be eliminated, avoided, or reduced by other means such as engineering
controls (for example reducing noise at source by modifying a piece of
equipment).
Safety signs give a specific message to those who may be exposed to hazards
in the workplace. The message may be to identify hazards, to provide
information on how to protect yourself, to indicate the location of safety and fire
protection equipment, or for giving guidance and instruction in an emergency.
To avoid confusion as a result of language or reading difficulties, the shape,

symbol and colours used for safety signs should be to a standardised format so
that the message is conveyed to the workers without the need for written text
(text may be optional). Whilst the format of safety signs may vary slightly around
the world, the principles are similar.
Types of safety signs
There are 5 basic categories of sign, each with its own distinctive shape and
colours, as follows:
1. Prohibition
2. Warning
3. Mandatory
4. Escape routes and safety equipment (safe condition)
5. Fire equipment
The categories are depicted below. Note that the text shown in the examples is
optional.

Safety signs should be located in the line of sight at a suitable height and
position. They may be located at the access to a general hazard area (for
example entrance to a noisy compressor room) or next to a specific hazard
(such as a wet floor, or an electrical hazard).
Employers must ensure that:
 Signs are maintained. Any defective or faded signs should be replaced.

 Workers, and others working on the premises, are instructed as to the
meaning of the signs and actions to be taken in connection with them.
The impact of lighting levels on safety issues
From the workers‘ perspective, poor lighting at work can lead to eye‐strain,
fatigue, headaches, stress, and accidents. On the other hand, too much light
can also cause safety and health problems such as ―glare‖ headaches and
stress. Both can lead to mistakes at work, poor quality, and low productivity.
Various studies suggest that good lighting at the workplace pays dividends in
terms of improved productivity and a reduction in errors. For example, in the ILO
manual Improving Working Conditions and Productivity in the Garment Industry,
it indicates that improved lighting in some factories resulted in a 10% increase in
productivity and a 30% reduction in errors.
To ensure lighting is suitable and sufficient, several aspects of lighting and the
workplace need to be considered. These include:
 Lighting design
 Type of work
 The work environment

 Health aspects
 Individual requirements
 Lighting maintenance, replacement, and disposal
 Emergency lighting
Inadequate lighting is associated with ill-health effects ranging from eye strain,
headaches, and fatigue, to postural problems and musculoskeletal disorders
(MSDs). In higher-risk environments, such as transport yards, warehouses, and
factories, the consequences of a dark or dimly lit workplace can be even more
serious, leading to injuries and even fatalities. Put simply: the easier it is to see a
hazard, the easier it is to avoid it.
It's not just about poor design or lighting failures. As more people work longer
hours in artificial lighting, there is growing evidence that simply too little natural
light may have negative effects on the body's natural rhythms, reducing
alertness and contributing to depressive conditions such as seasonal affective
disorder (SAD).
Incorrect Perception and Failure to See Clearly
Low levels of lighting can affect visual perception, as demonstrated by the

following incident:
"While on evening patrol, officers discovered two men lurking near a closed gas
station in a high-crime area. In the confrontation that followed, the officers fired
on the suspects, one of whom appeared to be holding a shotgun. The officers
believed that the other man had pulled a chrome-plated handgun from his
waistband. Later investigation revealed that the man was, in fact, holding a
beer can. He sued the officer who shot him. During the trial, expert testimony
centred on the nature of human vision, the low level of light at the time of the
incident, and the results of a research study that demonstrated the ability of
healthy subjects to identify lethal versus non-lethal items under a range of low
levels of light."
Some work activities require the ability to see fine detail (such as work on small
electronic circuit boards, sewing, and stitching activities). This will require high
(and local) levels of illuminance for the task to be carried out correctly.
Stroboscopic Effects
The stroboscopic effect in a fluorescent lamp is a phenomenon which causes

running or moving equipment to appear stationary or appear to be operating
slower than they actually are.
In an AC supply, the voltage drops 100 times a second to zero volts as the supply
frequency is 50 Hz. When a fluorescent lamp is operating with an AC supply, the
light intensity drops 100 times a second. This flicker is not noticeable to the
human eye due to the persistence of vision.
When a worker in a factory observes a running machine (for example, a

flywheel) under the illumination of a fluorescent light, the flywheel may appear
to be stationary or to be operating at reduced speed. This can result in
accidents and is highly dangerous.
When using fluorescent lamps around rotating or moving machinery, two lamps
powered by two different phases should be used. This ensures that the lamps
flicker at different speeds, ensuring a continuity of vision. If another phase is not
available, a capacitor can be added in series to one lamp. This ensures that
there is a phase lag between the two lamps.
Colour Assessment

All types of light have a particular colour.
Ideally, light should be white since this does not affect our perception of other
colours.
However, some lighting makes objects and surfaces appear to be a different

colour e.g. a blue object looks black, or a yellow wire looks green.
Sodium lighting is known for changing our perception of colour.
Incorrect perception of colour by an individual can be a contributory factor in

incidents involving, for instance, electricity supply e.g. incorrect wiring of a
fitting.
Effect on Attitudes
Lighting can affect our mood. This is why lighting effects are used in theatre and
entertainment. The principle also is relevant in the workplace. Lighting can alter
our brain chemistry. People work better, feel better, have more energy, and are
more productive when lighting levels are high. The effect is greater when natural
light is used, and they are exposed to daylight.
In the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, there is a condition called Seasonal

Affective Disorder (SAD), also known as winter depression. This can occur in
certain individuals when the daylight levels in winter are reduced. Working
inside, in artificial light, exacerbates the problem.
Giving people extra light to work will, in general, improve people‘s attitudes.
Scientific studies have shown a measurable difference amongst test subjects
who are exposed to dark and bright conditions. Dark lighting is linked to feelings
of depression, whereas bright lighting is linked to feelings of elation.

Effects on health
Exposure to poor lighting can cause eye strain and blurred vision. The longer
you‘re exposed to the light, the more likely you‘ll experience the problem.
Symptoms of eyestrain include sore, burning, watery or dry eyes. Double vision
and increased sensitivity to light can also occur. At times, you may feel that it‘s
hard to keep your eyes open or concentrate on your work. Headaches are
common, particularly if the fluorescent lights flicker. If you suffer from migraines,
exposure to the lights may cause more frequent episodes.
Eye strain is basically tired eyes. It is sometimes also called eye fatigue. Doing
these chores or tasks in dim light can intensify eye strain.
People with prior eye conditions, such as uncorrected vision or muscle

imbalance, are at greater risk of eye strain. Stress and fatigue can also
contribute to eye strain.
Why different work areas will need different light conditions
The amount of light we need varies and depends on:
 Type of task being done (such as demands for speed and accuracy).
 Type of surfaces (does it reflect or absorb light).
 General work area.
 Individual's vision.
The amount of light falling on a surface is measured in units called lux.

Depending on the factors noted above, adequate general lighting is usually
between 500 and 1000 lux when measured 76 cm (30 inches) above the floor.

Examples of industrial and office tasks and the recommended light levels are in
the table below.
Recommended Illumination Levels*

Ranges of Illuminations
Type of Activity
(Lux)**
Public spaces with dark surroundings 20-50
Simple orientation for short temporary visits 50-100
Working spaces where visual tasks are only occasionally 100-200
performed
Performance of visual tasks of high contrast or large 200-500
scale
Performance of visual tasks of medium contrast or small 500-1000
size
Performance of visual tasks of low contrast or very small 1000-2000
size
Performance of visual tasks of low contrast and very 2000-5000
small size over a prolonged period
Performance of very prolonged and exacting visual tasks 5000-10000
Minimum and average lighting intensities required for different types of work

Where possible, natural lighting should be used as preference over artificial

lighting. Lighting should be sufficient to enable people to work, use facilities and
move from place to place safely and without experiencing eye strain.
10.2 Recognise risks and design safe working practices in confined

spaces
10.2.1 Confined spaces
The Meaning of Confined Spaces
―any place, including any chamber, tank, vat, silo, pit, trench, pipe, sewer, flue,
well or other similar space in which, by virtue of its enclosed nature, there arises
a foreseeable specified risk‖ - The Confined Spaces Regulations 1997 Citation,
commencement and interpretation
A confined space must have both of the following features:

1. Substantially enclosed (but not always entirely)

2. One or more of the specified risks must be present and reasonably
foreseeable.
It is easy to identify some confined spaces e.g. sewers, closed tanks that store
chemicals or compressed gas. Some are not obviously confined spaces for
example:
 Vats, silos, ships holds - open tops or sides and therefore not enclosed on
all sides;
 Grain stores, silos which are large areas and fairly easy to work in;
 Rooms or loft spaces which have various entrances or exits and seem
easy to escape from;
 Regular workplaces which include offices, changing rooms, bathrooms,
kitchens, spray booths.
The definition of ―specified risk‖ is given as:
A risk of:
 Serious injury to any person at work form fire or explosion;

 The loss of consciousness of any person at work arising from an increase in
body temperature
 The loss of consciousness or asphyxiation of any person at work arising
from gas, fume, vapour or the lack of oxygen
 The drowning of any person at work arising from the increase of the level
or liquid: or
 The asphyxiation of any person at work arising from a free flowing solid or
the inability to reach a respirable environment due to entrapment by a
free flowing solid.

Examples of where confined space entry may

occur in the workplace
Some confined spaces are fairly easy to identify, e.g. enclosures with limited
openings:
 Storage tanks;
 Silos;
 Reaction vessels;
 Enclosed drains;
 Sewers.
Others may be less obvious, but can be equally dangerous, for example:
 Open-topped chambers;
 Vats;
 Combustion chambers in furnaces etc;
 Ductwork;
 Unventilated or poorly-ventilated rooms.
It is not possible to provide a comprehensive list of confined spaces. Some

places may become confined spaces when work is carried out, or during their
construction, fabrication or subsequent modification.
Confined space examples in the workplace:
Pits in garages

Even though a pit is typically open on top and over 4 feet deep, it can still be a
confined space or permit-required confined space. Additionally, pits can be
completely underground or below grade, such as a utility vault within a sewer
system or a pit within a pit in a wastewater treatment plant. Pits are found in
many environments. Examples include sump pits, valve pits or vaults (e.g.,
wastewater treatment plants, municipal water systems), electrical pits/vaults,
steam pits/ vaults, vehicle service/garage pits, elevator pits, dock leveler pits,
industrial chemical waste pits, and many more. Many of these spaces qualify as
permit-required confined spaces.
Trunking duct
Industrial trunking ductwork typically qualify as a permit-required confined

space because it meets international standards for determining if a confined
space should be designated a permit space.
For example, welding exhaust ductwork has the potential to contain a

hazardous atmosphere. HVAC ducts have lots of tapering sections. And boiler
ductwork will often include unguarded machinery (e.g., draft fans) and be
subject to excessive heat.
Trenches
Open trenches and excavations such as building foundations aren‘t generally

considered confined spaces. Examples of potential hazards include low oxygen,
hazardous fumes or toxic gases, a risk of being engulfed by fire or water, or
exposed electrical wires. The ―permit‖ refers to the plan the contractor must
develop.
Tanks

Typically, aboveground and underground both storage tanks are ―confined

spaces‖ with limited entry through ―manways‖ – relatively small openings in the
side or top of the tank. The following are the potential hazards for the entrant:
 Top entry can present falling hazards.

 The internal structure of tanks can be complex, which may not be
apparent from the outside.
 Some tanks have internal floating roofs, which can move and trap
workers.
 Tripping hazards may likely be present.
 The petroleum products typically stored in these tanks pose both a
flammability and toxicity hazard that must be recognized.
 Welding in and near tanks can ignite flammable vapors.
 Tanks that do not contain enough oxygen (less than 19.5%) can cause
asphyxiation.
 Just because a tank has been ―emptied‖ of it contents does not mean it is
hazard free.
Silos
As per the confined space defined by the international standards silos are
considerd as permit required confined space. Silos are an important part of any
industrial operations. However, they are also the cause of many accidents.
These accidents include falls, electrocution, entanglement in augers and silo
gas inhalation.
Silo gases are heavier than air and usually orange to yellow in color. They
escape from the silo through chutes, cracks and drains, usually within 48 hours of
filling the silo, but may continue for three weeks or longer. The gases can kill

birds, livestock, and humans. The silage is safe to use as feed because the gas
lowers the nitrate level.
Silos can contain deadly gases. These gases are nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and
carbon dioxide (CO2). NO2 is heavier than air and may be seen as a reddish to
yellowish-brown haze. Since it is heavier than air, it can be found near the base
of a recently filled silo. It has a bleach-like smell and you will experience a
burning sensation in your nose, throat, and chest. Instant death may be a result
of nitrogen dioxide inhalation. CO2 on the other hand, fills the headspace of the
silo, replacing the air. Exposure to these two gases happens most often in the first
three weeks after the silo is filled. Due to this risk of exposure, it is suggested that
you stay out of the silo for the first three weeks, unless wearing a self-contained
breathing apparatus.
Sewers
The term 'sewer' may be used to mean raw sewage, sewage sludge, or septic
tank waste. Raw sewage is mainly water containing excrement, industrial
effluent and debris, such as sanitary towels, condoms, plastic etc. Excrement is
the major source of harmful micro-organisms, including bacteria, viruses and
parasites.
Exposure to sewage or its products may result in a number of illnesses. These

include:
 gastroenteritis, characterised by cramping stomach pains, diarrhoea and

vomiting;
 Weil‘s disease, a flu-like illness with persistent and severe headache,
transmitted by rat urine. Damage to liver, kidneys and blood may occur
and the condition can be fatal;
 hepatitis, characterised by inflammation of the liver, and jaundice;
 occupational asthma, resulting in attacks of breathlessness, chest

tightness and wheezing, and produced by the inhalation of living or dead
organisms;
 infection of skin or eyes; and/or
 rarely, allergic alveolitis (inflammation of the lung) with fever,
breathlessness, dry cough, and aching muscles and joints.
The factors to be considered when assessing risk
If workers are required to work or enter a confined space – an employer must

appoint a competent person to undertake a confined spaces risk assessment.
A confined space risk assessment follows the same steps as a normal risk
assessment but takes into consideration the hazards which present themselves in
confined spaces specifically – such as lack of oxygen or an explosive
atmosphere.
It is crucial that before any worker enters a confined space, they are aware and
confirm all hazards present have been identified on the risk assessment, and that
suitable controls are in place.
Access arrangements
You should provide a safe way in and out of the confined space. Wherever
possible allow quick, unobstructed and ready access. The means of escape
must be suitable for use by the individual who enters the confined space so that
they can quickly escape in an emergency. Suitable means to prevent access
should be in place when there is no need for anybody to work in the confined
space. The safe system of work should ensure that everyone has left the

confined space during ‗boxing-up‘ operations, particularly when the space is

complicated and extensive (for example in boilers, cableways and culverts
where there can be numerous entry/exit points).
Different types of emergency responses must be considered, such as first aid,

rescue, and escape. Some factors to consider for the different situations follow:
First aid and rescue: First aid and rescue are often closely related. First aid
includes both injury treatment and preparation of an injured worker for transport
on a device such as a spine board or stretcher. Rescue involves removal of a
worker from danger, for example, by use of a transport device, or other means
such as a lifeline and harness. Note that the rescued worker may or may not be
capable of assisting the rescue, and you must consider both scenarios. When
carrying a worker on a transport device the normal practice is to carry it at
about hip level with the bearer‘s arms extended downward.
Escape: Whether or not the means of exit may complicate the escape or
evacuation of workers from a space will typically depend on factors such as the
potential of immediate danger, the number of workers in the space, and the
obstacles they may encounter when exiting.
If there is the potential for immediate danger, for example release of a

flammable or toxic atmosphere into the space, exits must be sufficiently
accessible so that workers can exit the space quickly, regardless of the number
of workers. If the impediments to evacuation would result in any delay, then the
means of exit will be considered to have complicated the capability to escape
the space.
Atmospheres

Prior to entry, the atmosphere within a confined space should be tested to

check the oxygen concentration or for the presence of hazardous gas, fume or
vapour. Testing should be carried out where knowledge of the confined space
(eg from information about its previous contents or chemicals used in a previous
activity in the space) indicates that the atmosphere might be contaminated or
to any extent unsafe to breathe, or where any doubt exists as to the condition of
the atmosphere. Testing should also be carried out if the atmosphere was known
to be contaminated previously, was ventilated as a consequence, and needed
to be tested to check the result.
Atmosphere in the confined space could be:
 Oxygen Deficient Atmospheres

 Oxygen Enriched Atmospheres
 Flammable Atmospheres
 Toxic Atmospheres
Oxygen Deficient Atmospheres
Oxygen makes up approximately one-fifth (or 20.9%) of the air we breathe, with
the remaining four-fifths of the atmosphere being comprised of nitrogen.
Most air monitors will be set to trigger a warning alarm when the oxygen in the
air reduces to 19.5% which is the level at which the atmosphere is considered to
be oxygen deficient.
When the oxygen level drops even by just a couple of percent there is an
immediate reduction in the delivery of oxygen to human cells has an adverse
physiological effect on an individual's ability to function.

At an oxygen level of 16%, individuals are likely to experience an increased

pulse rate, more rapid breathing, compromised thought processes, reduced
attention span and impaired coordination.
At an oxygen level of 12.5%, respiration will likely be affected, there may be

nausea or vomiting and there is also a risk of permanent heart damage.
At an oxygen level of 10% or less an individual may well experience convulsions,

an inability to move, loss of consciousness or even loss of life.
When a monitor indicates that the oxygen level has changed, the crucial
question that will need to be answered is, why? It is critical to understand that
even a reduction of 0.1% O2 is significant and can be related to a high ppm
increase of a potentially unknown gas because a sensor is absent. It's for this
reason that many would say that an O2 sensor is the most important of all.
Oxygen can be lacking a confined space for the following reasons:
 displacement of air by another gas

 various biological processes or chemical reactions (such as rotting of
organic matter, rusting of metals, burning, etc)
 absorption of air onto steel surfaces, especially where these are damp
Oxygen Enriched Atmospheres
Oxygen enrichment is the generic name for the hazards associated with gases
or liquids that contain oxygen concentrations in excess of 21%.
As the oxygen in the air increases there is also a significantly increased risk of a
fire or explosion.

What's more, when compared with a fire in air, a fire in an oxygen enriched
atmosphere is substantially more intense, with higher temperatures and a
greater heat output.
Common causes of oxygen enrichment can include a leaking oxygen cylinder,

a faulty pipe connection, incorrect disposal of liquid gas or the process of
cutting or welding.
Flammable Atmospheres
A flammable atmosphere presents a risk of fire or explosion. Such an

atmosphere can arise from the presence in the confined space of flammable
liquids or gases or of a suspension of combustible dust in air. If a flammable
atmosphere inside a confined space ignites, an explosion may occur, resulting in
the expulsion of hot gases and the disintegration of the structure.
Toxic Atmosphere
A toxic atmosphere may cause various acute effects, including impairment of

judgement, unconsciousness and death. A toxic atmosphere may occur due to
the presence or ingress of hazardous substances. These substances may be
present in the Confined Space for various reasons such as:
 remaining from previous processing or storage

 arising from the disturbance of sludge and other deposits
 the presence of a fire or flames within the space
 seepage from improperly isolated adjoining plant
 formation during the work processes carried out in the space
 being released from under scale and in brickwork as a result of the work
process
The Task
When performing any critical work in a confined space, the Task-Based Risk
Assessment (TBRA) or Job Safety Analysis (JSA) should be performed jointly by
the Operations, Maintenance and safety representative.
Task Based Risk Assessment is a formal process of identifying the hazards

associated with each task to be performed, assessing the risk, and providing the
safety controls to manage the risk. Do not forget the involvement of workers or
their supervisor.
This is a simple process and can be recorded in format below
Once the TBRA is completed, it should be communicated to the involved

workers to inform them of the hazards and safety precautions. The last page of
the TBRA sheet can be prepared for acknowledgment when all workers need to
accept and sign it.
Materials and equipment
Any equipment and materials provided for use in a confined space must be
suitable for the purpose. Where there is a risk of a flammable gas seeping into a
confined space and which could be ignited by electrical sources (eg a
portable hand lamp), specially protected electrical equipment should be used,
for example a lamp certified for use in explosive atmospheres. Note that
specially designed low-voltage portable lights, while offering protection against
electrocution, could still present ignition sources and are not in themselves safer
in flammable or potentially explosive atmospheres. All equipment should be
carefully selected bearing in mind the conditions and risks where it will be used.
Earthing should be considered to prevent static charge build-up. In addition to
isolation, mechanical equipment may need to be secured against free rotation,
as people may tread or lean on it, and risk trapping or falling.
People at risk
When assessing risks it is important to identify all the people who might be
harmed and to whom a duty of care is owed such as employees, contractors,
visitors and members of the public.
Employees
 Employees involved in the activity (entrant, supervisors, managers, rescue

team)
 Employees who may be affected by the activity (maintenance workers,
cleaners, security staff)
Non-employees
 Visitors (contractors, delivery drivers, customers)

 Others (members of the public, passers-by, neighbours, drivers on the
road)
Reliability of safeguards
Are the safeguards that are in place adequate to do the job? Are they well
maintained and serviceable? Consider the hierarchy of guarding set out below -
does it reflect the measures that have been taken?

Personal protective equipment and respiratory protective equipment
So far as reasonably practicable you should ensure that a confined space is

safe to work in without the need for personal protective equipment (PPE) and
respiratory protective equipment (RPE). PPE and RPE should be a last resort,
except for rescue work (including the work of the emergency services), because
its use can make movement more difficult, it can add to the effects of hot
temperature and can be heavy.
Your risk assessment may identify the need for PPE and RPE, in which case it
should be suitable and should be provided and used by those entering and
working in confined spaces. Such equipment is in addition to engineering
controls and safe systems of work.
The type of PPE provided will depend on the hazards identified but, for example,
might include safety lines and harnesses, and suitable breathing apparatus (self-
contained or constant flow airline). Take account of foreseeable hazards that
might arise, and the need for emergency evacuation.
The factors to be considered in designing safe

working practices
Entering confined spaces for any reason is very dangerous and the legislation
will normally require that a permit to work be issued for all work taking place in
this space. Even in circumstances where legislation is not prescriptive, the duty
of care will apply and employers will need to take the necessary precautions to
avoid harm.

While designing safe working practices for confined space entry the following
factors should be considered:
Operating procedures and emergency policy/procedures
Having identified the confined spaces on the plant, the employer will also need
to create a written procedure for confined space entry. This procedure needs
to be made available to those doing the work and should be in simple
language to be understood by everyone involved. Training is one way to make
sure that these procedures are properly followed and this can be done as part
of the site induction program for contractors, or as part of a structured training
program for permanent employees.
The confined space entry procedure needs to accommodate the following

steps:
1. As far as possible, prevention and avoidance of any task that will involve
confined space work.
2. Preparations to make the enclosed space safe (for example by isolating
energy sources, purging with air, maintaining oxygen levels, testing for
toxic or explosive gases).
3. Informing persons involved in the work on their roles and responsibilities
and making sure they are competent for their specific role.
4. Creation and regular review of a confined space register including
relevant rescue plans and drawing.
5. Provide all necessary protective, extraction/retrieval and environmental
monitoring equipment.
6. Ensuring that emergency services are available and the procedures are in
place and understood for rapidly mobilizing assistance if required.

7. Issue and manage the confined space permit in line with the companies
written procedures.
8. Monitor the work taking place for additional hazards, adjacent work,
changes in the environment/conditions and the progress/signs of physical
and mental exhaustion of the people involved.
9. Testing that work has been done satisfactorily and that these tests are also
done under safe conditions.
10. Proper restoration of the site after work has been completed for the
resumption of normal operations.
Emergency policy / procedures
You must make suitable arrangements for emergency rescue which will depend
on the nature of the confined space, the risks identified and the likely nature of
an emergency rescue. You should not rely on the public emergency services.
You should consider accidents arising from a specified risk, and any other
accident in which a person needs to be recovered from a confined space, for
example incapacitation following a fall. To be suitable and sufficient the
arrangements for rescue and resuscitation should cover:
 rescue and resuscitation equipment;

 raising the alarm and rescue;
 safeguarding the rescuers;
 fire safety;
 control of plant;
 first aid;
 public emergency services;
 training.
Training

Those likely to be involved in any emergency rescue should be trained for that
purpose. The training needs for each individual will vary according to their
designated role. Refresher training should be organised and available on a
regular basis, for example annually. Training should, where appropriate, include
the following:
 the likely causes of an emergency;

 use of rescue equipment, eg breathing apparatus, lifelines, and where
necessary a knowledge of its construction and working;
 the check procedures to be followed when donning and using
apparatus;
 checking of correct functioning and/or testing of emergency equipment
(for immediate use and to enable specific periodic maintenance checks);
 identifying defects and dealing with malfunctions and failures of
equipment during use;
 works, site or other local emergency procedures including the initiation of
an emergency response;
 instruction on how to shut down relevant process plant as appropriate
(this knowledge would be required by anyone likely to perform a rescue);
 resuscitation procedures and, where appropriate, the correct use of
relevant ancillary equipment and any resuscitation equipment provided
(if intended to be operated by those receiving emergency rescue
training);
 emergency first aid and the use of the first-aid equipment provided;
 use of firefighting equipment;
 liaison with local emergency services in the event of an incident,
providing relevant information about conditions and risks, and providing
appropriate space and facilities to enable the emergency services to
carry out their tasks; and

 rescue techniques including regular and periodic rehearsals/exercises. This

could include the use of a full-weight dummy. Training should be realistic
and not just drill based, and should relate to practice and familiarity with
equipment.
10.3 Describe the mechanisms for fire and explosions, how building
materials behave in a fire and methods that can be used for
prevention and protection from fire and explosion - Fire and
explosion
10.3.1 Flammable and explosive materials and the mechanisms by which
they ignite
The relevant properties of solids, liquids and

gases with respect to influence on combustion
Flammable and combustible liquids are liquids that can burn. They are classified,
or grouped, as either flammable or combustible by their flashpoints. Generally
speaking, flammable liquids will ignite (catch on fire) and burn easily at normal
working temperatures. Combustible liquids have the ability to burn at
temperatures that are usually above working temperatures.
Flammable and combustible liquids are present in almost every workplace. Fuels
and many common products like solvents, thinners, cleaners, adhesives, paints,
waxes and polishes may be flammable or combustible liquids. Everyone who
works with these liquids must be aware of their hazards and how to work safely
with them.
Solids

Solids are used where we need something to keep its shape or to support
something. This is because they keep their shape, stay where they are put and
cannot be compressed. Imagine a chair. Try to imagine what it would be like if
the chair was made from a liquid. Would it keep its shape? Would it support your
weight?
Liquids
Liquids are used where we need something to flow e.g. for making a drink, or
when we need something to take up the shape of a container such as a mould.
A good example of this is making a jelly. The jelly (solid) has to be turned into a
liquid (in this case by dissolving) so that it takes up the shape of the mould. It is
then left to set (i.e. go solid again) so that it keeps its shape when removed from
the mould.
Gases
Gases are used when we need something to spring back after it has been
squashed e.g. in a tyre, or when we need something to spread out e.g. fly killer
spray.
This is because gases can be greatly compressed and, when you release the
force that is compressing the gas, it will go back to its original state.
If a gas is released from a container, it will spread out wherever it can so if you
spray some fly killer at one end of a room, given time, it will spread throughout
the room.
Solids  Keep their shape unless they are broken.

 Do not flow.
 Cannot be compressed (keep the same volume).
Liquids  Do not keep their shape, they take the shape of the

container they are in.

 Flow.
 Cannot be compressed (keep the same volume).
Gases  Do not keep their shape, they completely fill the container
that they are in.
 Flow, spread out quickly from where they are to start with
(this is called diffusion).
 Can be compressed (squashed into a much smaller
volume)
The meaning
Flash point
A liquid is classified as flammable or combustible depending on its flash point. A

flammable liquid has a flash point below 37.8 C while a combustible liquid has a
flash point greater than 37.8 C.
The flash point of a fuel is the temperature at which vapour given off can be
ignited; as further explanation, it is the temperature when the vapour pressure of
a substance becomes high enough to allow the air/vapour layer over the
substance to be ignited.
Certain substances, such as Ether and Acetone have flash points below room
temperature, which makes them very dangerous.
This means that no additional heat needs to be applied to the fuel source for
the flash point to be reached.
The lower the flash point, the greater the potential fire hazard.
Fire point
The fire point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the vapour of that fuel
will continue to burn for at least five seconds after ignition by an open flame of
standard dimension. At the flash point, a lower temperature, a substance will
ignite briefly, but vapor might not be produced at a rate to sustain the fire. Most
tables of material properties will only list material flash points. In general the fire
point can be assumed to be about 10 °C higher than the flash point, although
this is no substitute for testing if the fire point is safety critical.
Auto-ignition temperature
In chemistry, the auto-ignition temperature or kindling point of a substance is the

lowest temperature in which it spontaneously ignites in a normal atmosphere
without an external source of ignition, such as a flame or spark. This temperature
is required to supply the activation energy needed for combustion. The
temperature at which a chemical ignites decreases as the pressure or oxygen
concentration increases. It is usually applied to a combustible fuel mixture.
 The ignition temperature of a substance is the least temperature at which

the substance starts combustion.
 Substances which spontaneously ignite in a normal atmosphere at
naturally ambient temperatures are termed pyrophoric.
Vapour density
Vapor density is the weight of a volume of pure vapor or gas compared to an

equal volume of dry air at the same temperature and pressure. It is obtained by
dividing the molecular weight of the vapor by the average molecular weight of

air thus, it is unitless. The average molecular weight of air is considered to be

about 29 g/mol.
An example of a control measure when working with heavier-than-air vapours is

a fume cabinet found in laboratories. The cabinet is a semi-contained area with
specialised extraction which ventilates the fumes directly away. (Specialised
extraction, also local exhaust ventilation or LEV)
Limits of flammability
Flammability limit refers to the upper or lower limits of the gaseous or vaporized
fuel or combustible material at a fixed temperature and pressure that can lead
to flame propagation, detonation or an explosion. Fuel or combustible
concentrations outside the both limits are considered to be non-flammable.
Flammability limits vary with temperature and pressure. However, the normal
expression is in terms of % of volume at 25 °C at sea level atmospheric pressure.
The flammability limits are important to note, due to easy combustion or making
safe mixtures. Optimum combustible mixtures are important for internal
combustion engine‘s ignition.
For example, lower flammability limit of Jet A fuel in the air at sea level is about
0.7%. However the optimum would be about 4.8%. Flammability limits also
depend upon the type and strength of the ignition source and atmosphere (%
of oxygen in air, pressure and the temperature).
Maximum explosion pressure
The maximum explosive limit is the greatest concentration of flammable gas or

vapour in the air which is capable of ignition and subsequent flame
propagation under prescribed test conditions. Please note that flash point and

fire point apply only to liquids, while ignition temperature and maximum
explosion limit apply to both liquids and gases.
Rate of pressure rise
Vapour Pressure is defined as the partial pressure of a gas in equilibrium with a

condensed form (solid or liquid) of the same substance, and is a measure of a
liquid's volatility. A high vapour pressure usually is an indication of a volatile
liquid, or one that readily vaporises. The boiling point is the temperature at which
the vapour pressure equals atmospheric pressure, such that the pressure of the
atmosphere can no longer hold the liquid in a liquid state and bubbles begin to
form. In general, a low boiling point indicates a high vapour pressure and,
possibly, an increased fire hazard. Maximum explosion pressure and rate of
pressure rise, has a direct analogy to that used for gas explosions.
The causes and effects of:
Unconfined vapour cloud explosion
When a flammable vapor is released, its mixture with air will form a flammable
vapor cloud. If ignited, the flame speed may accelerate to high velocities and
produce significant blast overpressure.
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) defines this phenomenon as: An
outdoor vapour cloud explosion is the result of the release of gas, vapour, or mist
into the atmosphere, forming a cloud within the fuel‘s flammable limits and
causing subsequent ignition. The principal characteristic of the event is
potentially damaging pressures within and beyond the boundary of the cloud

due to deflagration or detonation phenomena. This phenomenon also has been

referred to as an unconfined vapour air explosion or unconfined vapour cloud
explosion. While completely unconfined, vapour cloud explosions are possible.
Most involve at least some partial restriction of pressure by manmade or natural
structures. Outdoor vapour cloud explosions have generally occurred at process
plants and in flammable liquid or flammable gas storage areas or have involved
large transport vehicles (e.g., railroad tank cars).
The factors influencing the evolution and intensity of an explosion are:
 The type and the quantity of the flammable substance

 The time span from the onset of the leakage until the ignition
 The configuration of the space where the leakage took place and
 The position and the number of ignition sources in relation to the place of
leak.
Boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE)
This type of explosion occurs when a pressure vessel containing liquid is heated
so that the metal from which it is made loses strength and ruptures, typically as a
result of exposure to fire.
The most common example is an explosion of butane or propane gas cylinders,

or of drums of flammable liquid, which fail explosively in a fire.
Damage is caused by:
 The blast wave created following the release of internal pressure;

 Thermal radiation from the fireball created by the massive burning of the
contents of the vessel in air;

 Large pieces of shrapnel being ejected by the explosion and being

thrown for considerable distances in all directions.
BLEVE Sequence
When a tank is exposed to sustained heat, such as from a fire, the liquid within
the tank is forced to boil or vaporise, resulting in increased pressure in the tank.
At a pre-set pressure level, the tank‘s pressure relief valve will activate, venting
the excess pressure. As pressure in the tank decreases, the relief valve will close.
Continued heating will cause pressure to increase again and the relief valve will
open once more.
Where flames impinge on the tank below the liquid level, the liquid absorbs the
heat, allowing the tank to remain at a safe temperature. With repeated relief
valve operation, the liquid level in the tank will drop, thus exposing a greater
area of the tank to heating. With continued application of heat and flame, the
temperature of the part of the tank that is uncooled by liquid will rise. The
pressure within the tank continues to rise, causing the metal body of the tank to
weaken until it fails catastrophically. As the tank comes apart, large quantities of
both liquid and vapour will be released in a powerful explosion.
The main effect arises from thermal radiation. The 'hazard range' is related to
container size, with injuries having been recorded at distances of up to 300
metres.
Tank sections torn apart by the blast will generally travel in the direction in which
the ends of the container were pointing, although deviations do occur.
BLEVE hazards on fixed installations can be controlled by a combination of

methods, including pressure let-down and cooling. However, they may pose
significant hazards to onlookers and emergency services at road or rail tanker

incidents involving LPG. If the tanker is on fire or flames are impinging on it, it is
likely to be difficult to apply sufficient water to cool the vessel shell without
delay. Complete evacuation is then the recommended course of action.
Confined vapour cloud explosion
If a flammable vapour cloud is ignited inside a container (e.g. a process vessel,

storage container, or even a building), pressure can build up until the containing
walls rupture. CVCEs can cause considerable damage and could affect nearby
plant where serious secondary explosions could follow.
Mechanisms of explosions and mechanisms of

fire-spread
How an explosion/fire occurs

Fire is a spectacular example of a fast chemical reaction between a
combustible substance and oxygen accompanied by the evolution of heat. An
explosion is an even more spectacular example of the same reaction. The three
requirements for fire are:
 A fuel or combustible substance;
 Oxygen, except in very special circumstances;
 A source of energy.
These three requirements are easily remembered in the form of the fire triangle.
The triangle, however, says nothing about the relative importance of each of
the requirements or their states of matter. These come from a full knowledge of
the chemistry of combustion.
Source of ignition
Workplaces have numerous sources of ignition, some of which are obvious but
others may be hidden inside machinery. Most of the sources may cause an
accidental fire from sources inside but, in the case of arson (about 13 per cent
of industrial fires), the source of ignition may be brought from outside the
workplace and will be deliberately used. The following are potential sources of
ignition in the typical workplace:
 Naked flames-from smoking materials, cooking appliances, heating

appliances and process equipment.
 External sparks - from grinding metals, welding, impact tools, electrical
switch gear.
 Internal sparking - from electrical equipment (faulty and normal),
machinery, lighting.
 Hot surfaces - from lighting, cooking, heating appliances, process
equipment, poorly ventilated equipment, faulty and/or badly lubricated
equipment, hot bearings and drive belts.
 Static electricity - causing significant high-voltage sparks from the
separation of materials such as unwinding plastic, pouring highly
flammable liquids, walking across insulated floors or removing synthetic
overalls
Figure – Fire triangle

Source of fuel
If something will burn, it can be fuel for a fire. The things which will burn easily are
the most likely to be the initial fuel, which then burns quickly and spreads the fire
to other fuels. The most common things that will burn in a typical workplace are
below (note the pictograms given are those in the new UN Global Harmonized
System being introduced worldwide. See the annex to the UN GHS for
comparisons and allocation from existing signs.
Solids - these include, wood, paper, cardboard, wrapping materials, plastics,

rubber, foam (e.g. polystyrene tiles and furniture upholstery), textiles (e.g.
furnishings and clothing), wall paper, hardboard and chipboard used as
building materials, waste materials (e.g. wood shavings, dust, paper), hair.
Liquids - these include, paint, varnish, thinners, adhe-sives, petrol, white spirit,
methylated spirits, paraffin, toluene, acetone and other chemicals. Most
flammable liquids give off vapours which are heavier than air so they will fall to
the lowest levels. A flash flame or an explosion can occur if the vapour catches
fire in the correct concentrations of vapour and air.
Gases - flammable gases include LPG (liquefied petroleum gas in cylinders,

usually butane or propane), acetylene (used for welding) and hydrogen. An
explosion can occur if the air/gas mixture is within the explosive range.
Oxygen
Oxygen is of course provided by the air all around but this can be enhanced by
wind, or by natural or powered ventilation systems which will provide additional
oxygen to continue burning.
Cylinders providing oxygen for medical purposes or welding can also provide an
additional very rich source of oxygen. In addition, some chemicals such as
nitrates, chlorates, chromates and peroxides can release oxygen as they burn
and therefore need no external source of air.
Oxidising materials
The oxidizing materials do not necessarily present danger on their own;

however, if an oxidizing material gets in touch with another chemical, it is very
likely that it will catch on fire. Oxidizing materials come in forms of gas, liquids
and solids. An examples of gas include oxygen and ozone, liquids include nitric
acid, chromic acid and sodium, hypochlorite, and solids include chromate,
potassium permanganate. These materials are likely to have great reactions
and in turn cause explosions.
The stages of combustion
There are five generally-recognised stages to a fire:
1. The Induction stage

2. Ignition
3. The Growth stage
4. Steady state and
5. The Decay stage
Induction stage
The induction stage is the precursor to ignition where preheating, distillation and
slow pyrolysis are in progress. Gas minute particles are generated and
transported away from the source by diffusion, air movement and weak
convection movement.
Ignition

An ignition fire is a flame that is still in its beginning stage. Fires in this initial stage
can be extinguished or controlled by portable firefighting equipment. Any fire
that has progressed to a point where visibility has been compromised by smoke,
or structuring firefighting is required, can no longer be called an incipient fire.
An ignition fire can be defined by the following factors:
 flames are small and aren‘t widespread

 smoke allows visibility in the room
 the heat emitted from the flame is low (in comparison with later stages)
Growth
As we move through the phases of a fire, we come to the second stage –

growth. The growth of a fire will be affected by the structure of the building and
the fuel available.
The growth phases are characterised by the following indicators:
 there are sufficient oxygen and fuel to support the ongoing growth of the
flame
 a defined layer of smoke above the flame
 the temperature in the room increases
 condensation disappears from windows
 brown stains on window glaze may appear
 cracks in windows
It is between the growth and the fully developed stages of fire when a flashover
occurs. A flashover is defined as ―the near-simultaneous ignition of most of the
directly exposed combustible material in an enclosed area.‖
Steady state (Fully Developed)

After the flashover, the fire reaches the fully developed stage. Out of all the
stages of fire growth, this phase is where energy release is at its greatest. The
temperature will be at its highest point (generally somewhere between 700°-
1200°C).
Fully developed fires can be identified by the following factors:
 darkened or black smoke

 dense smoke
 substantial heat
 blackened window glazing
 visible exterior flames
 flames obscured by smoke
Decay
During the final stages of fire, a flame will enter the decay phase. This stage
occurs after the fully developed flame starts to run out of fuel or oxygen. Fires
can be forced into the decay stage by reducing oxygen supply with firefighting
equipment. Limiting the flame to one compartment (or area) will help to contain
the available fuel and growth of the fire. It is critical during this phase to limit the
fire‘s access to combustible material and oxygen. Even if a fire appears to be
out, there is a chance of reignition when the right materials are available.
Mechanisms of unconfined vapour cloud explosions
When a flammable vapour is released, its mixture with air will form a flammable
vapour cloud. If ignited, the flame speed may accelerate to high velocities and
produce significant blast overpressure.

The explosion of unconfined vapour clouds produced by the dispersion of

flammable liquid or vapour spills is becoming a serious problem, mainly because
of the increased size of the spills in recent years. This paper surveys accidental
explosions that have occurred over the past 40 years and also evaluates recent
research efforts which pertain to the dispersion and explosion of large vapour
clouds. The major problem appears to be the lack of a fundamental
understanding of a transient flame-buoyancy interaction during combustion of
the cloud, since both accidental and deliberate explosions have exhibited over-
all flame propagation rates almost an order of magnitude above the values one
would expect without the consideration of buoyancy effects. Other problems
which are discussed include:
 the initial dispersion of the cloud,

 the prediction of blast effects, and
 the question of direct initiation of detonation. Recommendations for
future research are given.
Mechanisms of confined vapour cloud explosions
A confined vapor cloud explosion (CVCE) results from the ignition of a

flammable mixture of vapor, gas, aerosol, or mist, in which flame speeds
accelerate to sufficiently high velocities to produce significant overpressure.
VCEs are generally associated with the release of a sufficient quantity of

flammable gas or vaporizing (flashing) liquid from a:
 storage tank
 process or transport vessel
 piping system

Buildings may be damaged and people may be injured by:
 the blast wave

 additional indirect effects from missile generation, crater formation,
ground shock, and fire.
Generally:
 as the blast wave travels farther away from the center of the explosion it
loses energy
 the magnitude of overpressure and other effects decreases as the
distance increases from the explosion source.
Five conditions for Vapour Cloud Explosions
1. The released material must be flammable and at suitable conditions to

form a vapour cloud (the reactivity of the unburned material is important )
2. An ignition source is needed to initiate the explosion. Higher energy
ignition sources can lead to a more severe explosion than do lower
energy sources.
3. Ignition of the flammable vapor cloud must be delayed until a cloud of
sufficient size has formed. If ignition occurs as the flammable material is
escaping, a large fire, jet flame, or fireball might occur, but a VCE is
unlikely.
4. Turbulence is required for the flame front to accelerate to the speeds
required for a VCE; otherwise, a flash fire will result. This turbulence is
typically formed by the interaction between the flame front and
obstacles such as process structures or equipment.
5. Confinement of the cloud by obstacles can result in rapid increases in
pressure during combustion. Absence of confining obstacles limiting the
pressure increases.

Boiling liquid expanding vapour explosions
A boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE) is an explosion caused by

the rupture of a vessel containing a pressurized liquid that has reached
temperatures above its boiling point. Because the boiling point of a liquid rises
with pressure, the contents of the pressurized vessel can remain liquid so long as
the vessel is intact. If the vessel's integrity is compromised, the loss of pressure
and dropping boiling point can cause the liquid to rapidly convert to gas and
expand extremely rapidly. If the gas is combustible as well, as is the case e.g.
with hydrocarbons and alcohols, further damage can be caused by an ensuing
fire.
There are three key elements causing a BLEVE:
1. A substance in liquid form at a temperature above its normal atmospheric

pressure boiling point.
2. A containment vessel maintaining the pressure that keeps the substance
in liquid form.
3. A sudden loss of containment that rapidly drops the pressure.
Typically, a BLEVE starts with a container of liquid which is held above its normal,
atmospheric-pressure boiling temperature. Many substances normally stored as
liquids, such as CO2, propane, and other similar industrial gases have boiling
temperatures, at atmospheric pressure, far below room temperature. In the
case of water, a BLEVE could occur if a pressurized chamber of water is heated
far beyond the standard 100 °C (212 °F). That container, because the boiling
water pressurizes it, must be capable of holding liquid water at very high
temperatures.
If the pressurized vessel, containing liquid at high temperature (which may be

room temperature, depending on the substance) ruptures, the pressure which
prevents the liquid from boiling is lost. If the rupture is catastrophic, where the
vessel is immediately incapable of holding any pressure at all, then there
suddenly exists a large mass of liquid which is at very high temperature and very
low pressure. This causes a portion of the liquid to "instantaneously" boil, which in
turn causes an extremely rapid expansion. Depending on temperatures,
pressures and the substance involved, that expansion may be so rapid that it
can be classified as an explosion, fully capable of inflicting severe damage on
its surroundings.
The effects of atomisation/particle size and

oxygen content on the likelihood and severity
of fire/explosion
Atomisation is the dispersion of a liquid into particles by a rapidly moving gas,

liquid stream or by mechanical means.
Combustion or burning is a chemical process, an exothermic reaction between

a substance (the fuel) and a gas (the oxidiser), usually O2, to release heat. In a
complete combustion reaction, a compound reacts with an oxidising element,
and the products are compounds of each element in the fuel with the oxidising
element.
For example:
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O + heat
CH2S + 6 F2 → CF4 + 2 HF + SF6 + heat

Rapid Combustion
Rapid combustion is a form of combustion in which large amounts of heat and

light energy are released. This often occurs as a fire. This is used in forms of
machinery, such as internal combustion engines, and in thermobaric weapons.
Slower Combustion
Slow combustion is a form of combustion which takes place at low

temperatures. Respiration is an example of slow combustion.
Complete Combustion
During complete combustion, the reactant will burn in oxygen, producing a

limited number of products. When a hydrocarbon burns in oxygen, the reaction
will only yield carbon dioxide and water. When elements such as carbon,
nitrogen, sulphur and iron are burned, they will yield the most common oxides.
Carbon will yield carbon dioxide. Nitrogen will yield nitrogen dioxide. Sulphur will
yield sulphur dioxide. Iron will yield iron (III) oxide. Complete combustion is
generally impossible to achieve unless the reaction occurs where conditions are
carefully controlled (e.g. in a lab environment).
Incomplete Combustion
During incomplete combustion, there is an inadequate supply of oxygen for the

combustion to occur completely. The reactant will burn in oxygen, but will
produce numerous products. When a hydrocarbon burns in oxygen, the
reaction will yield carbon dioxide, water, carbon monoxide, and various other
compounds such as nitrogen oxides. Incomplete combustion is much more
common and will produce large amounts of by-products and, in the case of
burning fuel in automobiles, these by-products can be quite lethal and
damaging to the environment.

How failure of control measures coupled with

the physicochemical properties of flammable
materials can bring about an explosion
An explosion can occur when flammable materials produce a concentration of

gas or vapour in air that is between the upper and lower limits of flammability,
i.e. within that material‘s explosive or flammable range. Contact with a
sufficiently energetic ignition source will then cause the explosion.
There are five general principles for the control of flammable substances, failure
of any one of which, coupled with the physico-chemical properties of the
flammable material in question, can bring about an explosion. The principles of
control may be remembered by use of the mnemonic ‗VICES‘:
 Ventilation
 Ignition
 Containment
 Exchange
 Separation
Thus:
If ventilation fails, the vapours given off from a spill, leak or release of a
flammable gas or vapour will not disperse sufficiently quickly, allowing a
flammable or explosive vapour/air mixture to form;
Ignition sources present in the storage or handling areas will cause fire or
explosion if they generate energy above the Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE);

Failures in containment will allow the escape of flammable materials into the
workplace, where they may be ignited;
Not considering whether it would be possible to exchange one substance for

another of lower flammability, will increase the risk of formation of an explosive
vapour/air mixture; and
A failure to separate flammable substances from processes and storage areas

by use of physical barriers will allow flammable vapours to travel between zones
of the building, increasing the likelihood of coming into contact with an ignition
source and subsequent explosion.
The process of oxidisation and the effects of

oxidising substances on fire and explosion
mechanisms
The process of oxidisation adds oxygen to a compound. This is of interest

because the level of oxygen will determine whether the burning (‗Combustion‘)
process is complete or incomplete.
Combustion is a rapid sequence of chemical reactions between a fuel and a

source of oxygen, which gives off heat and light. The process converts the fuel
and oxygen into new compounds, known as ‗combustion products‘. Exactly
which combustion products are generated in the process of combustion
depends on the fuel and the completeness of the combustion reaction.
Oxidizing materials are liquids or solids that readily give off oxygen or other
oxidizing substances (such as bromine, chlorine, or fluorine). They also include

materials that react chemically to oxidize combustible (burnable) materials; this

means that oxygen combines chemically with the other material in a way that
increases the chance of a fire or explosion. This reaction may be spontaneous at
either room temperature or may occur under slight heating. Oxidizing liquids
and solids can be severe fire and explosion hazards.
Oxidizing materials can:
 speed up the development of a fire and make it more intense.

 cause substances that do not normally burn readily in air to burn rapidly.
 cause combustible materials to burn spontaneously without the presence
of obvious. ignition sources such as a spark or flame.
What happens when an oxidizing material comes in contact with a combustible

substance largely depends on the chemical stability of the oxidizing material.
The less stable an oxidizing material is, the greater the chance that it will react in
a dangerous way.
Burning involves the oxidation of a combustible (burnable) substance. When a

combustible substance burns, a chemical reaction occurs in which the
substance (fuel) combines with oxygen, and gives off heat, gases, and often
light (flames). The usual source of oxygen for burning is air. However, oxidizing
materials can supply combustible substances with oxygen and support a fire
even when air is not present.
Although most oxidizing materials do not burn themselves, they can produce
very flammable or explosive mixtures when combined with combustible
materials like:
 organic (carbon-containing) materials such as paper, wood, flammable

and combustible liquids, greases, waxes, many plastics and textiles

 finely divided metals

 other oxidizable substances such as hydrazine, hydrogen, hydrides,
sulphur or sulphur compounds, phosphorous, silicon and ammonia or
ammonia compounds
Some oxidizing materials are also incompatible with non-combustible materials.

These oxidizers can undergo dangerous reactions with water, inorganic acids or
even other oxidizing materials.
The MSDS for a particular oxidizing material should explain what other
substances the oxidizer is incompatible with (reacts in a dangerous fashion) and
any other conditions, such as heat, shock or friction, that could result in
dangerous chemical reactions.
Reference -
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/oxidizing/oxiziding_hazards.html
Flammable atmospheres; how they arise and

where they are found
What is flammable atmosphere?
Flammable atmosphere means an atmosphere containing more than ten

percent of the lower flammable limit (LEL) of a flammable or combustible vapor
or dust mixed with air. Such atmospheres are usually toxic as well as flammable.
An flammable atmosphere is defined as a mixture of dangerous substances with

air, under atmospheric conditions, in the form of gases, vapours, mist or dust in

which, after ignition has occurred, combustion spreads to the entire unburned
mixture.
Atmospheric conditions are commonly referred to as ambient temperatures and

pressures. That is to say temperatures of –20°C to 40°C and pressures of 0.8 to 1.1
bar.
In addition to this, two further facets are required: something to mix the fuel with
the oxidiser (such as the turbulence created in a gas leak under pressure); and
containment. It is, however, common industrial practice to use the term
‗explosion‘ for both confined and unconfined combustion.
Where can flammable atmospheres be found?
Many workplaces may contain, or have activities that produce, explosive or

potentially flammable atmospheres. Examples include places where work
activities create or release flammable gases or vapours, such as vehicle paint
spraying, or in workplaces handling fine organic dusts such as grain flour or
wood.
How they arise?

Such an atmosphere can arise from the presence in the confined space of
flammable liquids or gases or of a suspension of combustible dust in air. If a
flammable atmosphere inside a confined space ignites, an explosion may
occur, resulting in the expulsion of hot gases and the disintegration of the
structure.
Activities that produce explosive or potentially explosive atmospheres take

place in many workplaces; for example, places handling fine organic dusts such
as grain flour or wood, and in environments that solvents, varnishes, flammable
gases (such as liquid petroleum gas) and paints are used; think paint spraying,
for example.
Control measures for entering flammable

atmospheres
Prioritise your control measures as follows:
 reduce the quantity of dangerous substances to a minimum;

 avoid or minimise releases of dangerous substances;
 control releases of dangerous substances at source;
 prevent the formation of an explosive atmosphere, including by
ventilation;
 collect, contain and remove any releases to a safe place;
 avoid ignition sources;
 avoid adverse conditions (such as exceeding pressure/temperature limits)
that could lead to danger;
 keep incompatible substances apart.

Following implementation of the control measures, the next priority is the

identification and implementation of mitigation measures to reduce the
detrimental effects of a fire, explosion or similar incident.
Mitigation measures
These are as follows:
 reduce the number of employees exposed to the risk;

 provide plant that is explosion resistant;
 provide explosion suppression or explosion relief equipment;
 take measures to control or minimise the spread of fires or explosions;
 provide suitable personal protective equipment (PPE).
The provision of suitable PPE should not be a substitute for providing appropriate
protective measures on the plant, equipment or workplace itself. The control
and mitigation measures you implement should be consistent with the findings
of the risk assessment and appropriate to the nature of the activity or operation.
Additional requirements where explosive atmospheres can occur
The correct implementation of control measures aims to prevent the formation

of potentially explosive atmospheres, or limit their extent. However, due to the
way dangerous substances are stored, handled and used, you cannot fully
avoid the risk of potentially explosive atmospheres occurring.
Purging
Industrially purging refers to removing flammable gases and vapours by

replacing them with a non-flammable substance. Purging is used to render
vessels, piping systems and equipment that have contained flammable
substances safe from explosion hazards.

Purging is an inerting method commonly used in safety-critical process

chambers such as reactors to eliminate oxygen and moisture when operations
are started up or shut down. In other areas such as the additive manufacturing
(AM) industry, it also plays a key role in maintaining the precise atmosphere
composition required in powder storage cabinets and in 3D metal printer
chambers.
The purging procedure that we use should be site-specific for the system or
equipment being purged. We need to establish:
 The purging gas (liquids are sometimes employed) often an inert (non-
oxygen containing) substance such as nitrogen depending upon the
system.
 The volume and velocity of the purging gas that we will use
 How and where we will measure the LEL
 Where we will vent the purged gas and any treatment it requires
beforehand
 The gas testing procedures we will use and their limitations
 The hazards the purging gas presents (asphyxiation in the case of
nitrogen)
 The technical assistance we require from manufacturers and professionals
 The standards might be applicable or relevant (NFPA, AGA, CSA, API)
 The process safety analysis is required (HAZOP or other)?
 The training standards need to be established for supervisors and workers
 The standard procedures and checklists need to be used

The principles of selection of electrical

equipment for use in flammable/explosive
atmospheres
Correct selection of electrical equipment for hazardous areas requires the

following information:
 Classification of the hazardous area;

 Temperature class or ignition temperature of the gas or vapour involved.
Zone 0 Zone 1 Zone 2
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3
Electrical
'd' - Flameproof Type 'n' - EN 50021 1999
'ia' intrinsically safe enclosure Non electrical
EN 50020, 2002 EN 50018 2000 EN 13463-1, 2001
Ex s - Special protection if
specifically certified for 'p' - Pressurised
Zone 0 EN 50016 2002
'q' - Powder filling

EN 50017, 1998
'o' - Oil immersion

EN 50015, 1998
'e' - Increased safety

EN 50019, 2000
'ib' - Intrinsic safety

EN 50020, 2002
'm' - Encapsulation
EN 50028, 1987

's' - Special protection
Table - Classification of the hazardous area
Temperature Maximum Surface Ignition Temperature of gas or

Classification Temperature, °C vapour, °C
T1 450 >450
T2 300 >300
T3 200 >200
T4 135 >135
T5 100 >100
T6 85 >85
Table - Temperature class or ignition temperature of the gas or vapour involved
If several different flammable materials may be present within a particular area,

the material that gives the highest classification dictates the overall area
classification. The IP code considers specifically the issue of hydrogen containing
process streams as commonly found on refinery plants. Consideration should be
shown for flammable material that may be generated due to interaction
between chemical species.
Ignition Sources - Identification and Control
Ignition sources may be:
 Flames;
 Direct fired space and process heating;
 Use of cigarettes/matches etc;

 Cutting and welding flames;

 Hot surfaces;
 Heated process vessels such as dryers and furnaces;
 Hot process vessels;
 Space heating equipment;
 Mechanical machinery;
 Electrical equipment and lights
 Spontaneous heating;
 Friction heating or sparks;
 Impact sparks;
 Sparks from electrical equipment;
 Stray currents from electrical equipment
 Electrostatic discharge sparks:
 Lightning strikes.
 Electromagnetic radiation of different wavelengths
 Vehicles, unless specially designed or modified are likely to contain a
range of potential ignition sources
Sources of ignition should be effectively controlled in all hazardous areas by a

combination of design measures, and systems of work:
 Using electrical equipment and instrumentation classified for the zone in

which it is located. New mechanical equipment will need to be selected
in the same way. (See above);
 Earthing of all plant/ equipment
 Elimination of surfaces above auto-ignition temperatures of flammable
materials being handled/stored;
 Provision of lightning protection
 Correct selection of vehicles/internal combustion engines that have to
work in the zoned areas;

 Correct selection of equipment to avoid high intensity electromagnetic

radiation sources, e.g. limitations on the power input to fibre optic systems,
avoidance of high intensity lasers or sources of infrared radiation
 Prohibition of smoking/use of matches/lighters
 Controls over the use of normal vehicles
 Controls over activities that create intermittent hazardous areas, e.g.
tanker loading/unloading
 Control of maintenance activities that may cause sparks/hot
surfaces/naked flames through a Permit to Work System
 Precautions to control the risk from pyrophoric scale, usually associated
with formation of ferrous sulphide inside process equipment
Reference - https://www.hse.gov.uk/comah/sragtech/techmeasareaclas.htm
The prevention and mitigation of vapour phase

explosions
The following general principles can be employed in the control of vapour

phase explosions:
Structural Protection
This is a building design consideration, which can be used to help to reduce the
effects of vapour phase explosions on the occupants of the building. For
example, blast walls can be built into the building structure to mitigate the
effects of a blast.
Plant Design and Process Control

Good plant design works to reduce the risk of fire and explosion by preventing
flammable concentrations of vapour developing and coming into contact with
sources of ignition. Large process plant can be designed to be isolated from
other plant so that an explosion cannot reach other areas of the plant through
pipes or ducts. Furthermore, the vessels used for a particular process can be
constructed to withstand moderate over-pressure and can also be fitted with
pressure relief devices, such as relief valves.
Control over the process can be exercised in a number of ways to reduce the
chances of explosion. For example, flammable vapour/air concentrations within
the explosive range can be avoided and the speed of a process can be
controlled such that excessive heat is not allowed to build up so as to generate
a thermal runaway.
Segregation and Storage of Materials
It is fundamental that flammable materials should be kept in well-ventilated

areas away from sources of ignition. Where possible, flammable substances
should be stored outside so that flammable vapours cannot build up within the
building, where they may be ignited. In addition, some chemicals react with
each other quite violently, in which case there should be clear arrangements for
keeping them segregated from one another.
Hazardous Area Zoning
Another technique for the control of vapour phase explosions is to divide the
workplace into zones based on the frequency and duration of the existence of
a flammable atmosphere. Zones are categorised 0, 1 or 2, as follows:
 Zone 0 – an explosive gas/air mixture is present continuously (>1000 hours

per year), for long periods of time or frequently;

 Zone 1 – an explosive gas/air mixture is likely to occur in normal operation

(10-1000 hours per year);
 Zone 2 – an explosive gas/air mixture is not likely to occur in normal
operation (< 10 hours per year) and, if it does occur, will only persist for a
short duration.
The principle of hazardous area zoning is applied when selecting the nature and
degree of protection such as intrinsically safe electrical equipment, which
subject will be covered later in this Unit.
Inerting
This is often applied to the headspace of a vessel so as to replace the air with an
inert gas such as nitrogen. In this way, explosions are effectively prevented since
the gas/air mixture remains outside of the explosive limits.
Explosion Relief
This is one of the most common methods to protect against explosion. It

introduces a deliberate point of weakness into a system, such as a vent, panel
or bursting disc, or suppresses the explosion through inerting.
To operate successfully, an explosion vent must activate at a pressure well

below that which the plant it is protecting can withstand, and it must open fully
almost instantaneously. Vents are normally in the form of lightweight panels or
doors, usually weighing less than 10Kg/m2.
Siting of vents is important. They need to be clear of obstructions so that the

release of gases is not inhibited. During an explosion, panels may become
missiles if not otherwise restrained. Maintenance is vital to ensure that seals
remain in good condition and hinges operate effectively. Because of the risk of

secondary explosions and injury to people, vents should not normally discharge
inside a building.
Control of amount of material, prevention of

release, control of ignition sources, sensing of
vapour between Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) and
Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
Control of Amount of Material
Limiting the amount of material available to an explosion will obviously limit its
effects. The basic principle is to store in the workroom only that quantity of
flammable material that is needed for use during the shift. Thus a bulk store may
be provided elsewhere in site, which will be subject to different controls, but in
any event only the minimum amount needed for general operations over a
reasonable time frame should be stored on site.
Prevention of Release
When working with substances that may give off flammable vapours, the worker
should use self-closing containers that limit the evolution of vapour and help to
prevent spills. Flammable materials should be stored in a purpose built metal
container with a suitable spill kit being readily available in case of spillages.
Reasonably practicable steps must be taken to prevent the escape of

flammable vapours into the general atmosphere of the workplace. Unless the
ventilation provided to the workroom is sufficient to prevent a dangerous

concentration of vapours being produced, all activities where a dangerous

concentration of flammable vapours is likely to be created must, where possible,
be carried out in a suitable ventilated enclosure.
Where it is not possible to enclose and extract the process then the workroom
should be constructed as a fire resisting structure and should be provided with
mechanical ventilation to remove the evolved vapours from the workroom.
All enclosures, booths, etc. used must be fire resisting structures and all
ventilation provided must be kept in operation at all necessary times. All venting
devices must discharge to a safe place and be fitted with suitable flame
arresters.
Control of Ignition Sources
No flammable liquid should be intentionally ignited (except for disposal) other

than in plant or apparatus designed for the purpose or where done for training
purposes when directly controlled by a competent person.
Obvious sources of ignition such as smoking, electrical tools and naked flames
should be well controlled. Smoking should be prohibited where there may be
danger of igniting flammable vapours and suitable prohibition notices should be
posted to identify no-smoking areas.
Sensing of Vapour Between LEL and UEL
Instrumentation can be designed and installed to sense the formation of an

explosive atmosphere. This can then be used to automatically trigger an alarm
system and/or inerting or ventilation.

Dust explosions
Dust explosions are apt to occur in any industry where a sufficient quantity of
dust can be mixed with air to form an explosive concentration. Examples of
operations where dust explosions are common include:
 Pulverisation of coal dust in foundries, mines and power stations;

 Grinding of bone dust, sugar and metals;
 Production of carbon black;
 Transportation via bucket elevators, conveying and bagging;
 Spray drying of cereals and coffee;
 Grading, screening, blending and packing of grain, sugar, starch, flour
etc.
Plant where explosive concentrations of dust may exist include:
 Local exhaust ventilation systems;

 Dust collecting filter units;
 Powder handling systems;
 Bucket elevators;
 Silos and bins.
Mechanism of Dust Explosions
Solid particles less than about 10mm in diameter settle slowly in air and comprise
'dust'. Such particles behave, in some ways, similar to gas and, if the solid is
combustible, a flammable dust-air mixture can be formed.
Whilst dust explosions are relatively rare they can involve an enormous energy
release. A primary explosion, involving a limited quantity of material can
distribute dust in the atmosphere and initiate a severe secondary explosion.

Small particles are required to provide a large ratio of surface area to mass and
for the solid to remain in suspension. Surface absorption of air (oxygen) by the
solid, or evolution of a combustible gas on heating (as in the case of bituminous
coal) may be a predisposing factor. The presence of moisture reduces the
tendency to ignite and favours agglomeration to produce larger particles.
The explosive range of dust in air can be very wide. The limits vary with chemical
composition and with the size and shape of the particles. The lower limits are
equivalent to a dense fog in appearance; the upper limits are ill-defined but are
not generally of practical significance.
Apart from the differing ignition characteristics and lower explosive limits, the
important data are the maximum explosion pressure and the rates of pressure
rise. Organic or carbonaceous materials, or easily-oxidisable metals like
aluminium or magnesium, are more hazardous than nitrogenous organic
materials such as oil seeds or leather. The least hazardous materials are those
that contain an appreciable amount of mineral matter, e.g. coke or bone-dust.
As with vapours/gases, there is a critical oxygen content, below which ignition of

combustible dusts will not occur. This can provide means for safe operation e.g.
grinding of flammable solids under an inert gas blanket.
Ignition of a flammable dust-air mixture is more difficult than with air-vapour

mixtures. A larger source of heat is required and a larger volume of mixture must
be heated to the ignition point.
The same range of potential ignition sources is applicable as for air-vapour

mixtures, but, in view of the most common operations in which combustible
dusts are processed, certain sources are particularly significant, e.g. friction and
overheated bearings.
Primary and Secondary Explosions
Combustible dust explosions often involve two explosions: primary and

secondary. The primary explosion is the first to occur when dust suspension in a
confined space is ignited and explodes. The first explosion will dislodge other

dust that has accumulated which, when airborne, also ignites. A secondary dust
explosion is often more destructive than the primary one.
Most severe dust explosions start within a piece of equipment (e.g. mixers,
cyclones, hoppers or silos), where concentrations needed for a dust explosion
are most likely to occur. These are known as primary explosions.
Fine dust which escapes from plant and settles in the building can be disturbed
and dispersed and result in a major secondary explosion. 'Flash dust' is generally
<10mm size and small amounts of dust lying on surfaces therefore occupies very
little space. However, once the lying dust is disturbed it can easily form a
dangerous cloud with the ratio of dust cloud depth to depth of lying dust being
up to 5000:1
The volume of a dust cloud in confined conditions indicates the potential

explosion size. Hence secondary explosions have resulted in demolition of
complete buildings.
Persons caught within this cloud are likely to suffer severe burns. The hazard
outside the plant arises from projectiles, notably explosion relief vents and light
roof structures, specifically designed to vent. These may be restrained by chains,
etc.
The dust pentagon
There are five required elements for a dust explosion. They are sometimes
referred to as the Dust Explosion Pentagon:
1. A fuel, which is the combustible dust

2. An oxidant, which is typically the oxygen in the air

3. An ignition source capable of igniting materials when they are dispersed

as a cloud
4. Dispersion, which is when the accumulated dust is spread out and creates
a dust cloud
5. Confinement, which leads to pressure rise and a potential vessel rupture,
facility obstruction or structural collapse
The prevention and mitigation of dust explosions including

relevant hazardous places zoning
Using a Prescriptive approach involves designing Explosion Mitigation systems.

This means that each vessel that is deemed to have an explosion hazard shall
be protected using one of the following six acceptable protection methods:
 Inerting – Oxidant Concentration Reduction (sometimes called Blanketing

or Padding) involves introducing inert gas (such as Nitrogen, Argon, or
CO2) into the system in order to reduce the oxidant concentration to a
point at which combustion cannot occur. This method requires that the
Limiting Oxygen Concentration (LOC, EN14034-4:2004) be known for the
combustible dust. Inerting is a method of explosion PREVENTION.

 Explosion Venting – Deflagration Venting in is a method of preventing the

overpressure of a protected vessel or building through the use of a rupture
panel or similar device designed to release at a low pressure and expel
the flame ball out of the protected volume. Explosion venting must be
applied to outdoor vessels directed to a safe location or indoor vessels
may be vented with a vent duct directed to the outdoors. The Pmax & Kst
values (ASTM 1226) for the combustible dust are required in order to
properly design a venting solution. The strength of the vessel or building
(Pred) must also be known. Explosion Venting is a PASSIVE mitigation
strategy.
 Flameless Venting – Flameless Venting is a method by which the a
deflagration is vented out of the protected vessel through a flame
arresting mesh (quench tube) designed to quench the flame which
makes it safe for use indoors. Like explosion venting, the design of the
flameless vent should be determined in accordance with the calculations
found in NFPA 68 and an efficiency factor should be applied. Pmax, Kst
and Pred values will all be needed in order to complete the design of this
solution. Flameless Venting is a PASSIVE mitigation strategy
 Containment – Deflagration Pressure Containment is a method by which
the vessel is built to withstand the maximum pressure (Pmax) of a
deflagration within the vessel. In most cases, this means building the vessel
to withstand between 8 to 12 barg (115 to 175 psig) and this pressure is
determined by Dust Testing (ASTM 1226). Typically, containment is used
with milling equipment (e.g. hammermills) and smaller process equipment
found in the pharmaceutical industry. It is important to include fast-acting
mechanical isolation rated for containment to prevent the pressure and
flame from exiting via the inlet/outlet of the protected vessel.
Containment can be PASSIVE or ACTIVE, depending on the type of
isolation.

 Explosion Suppression – Explosion Suppression is a method for detecting

and extinguishing an deflagration in its early stages, before pressure has a
chance to build. This is typically achieved by using pressure detectors and
chemical suppression bottles mounted directly to the protected vessel.
These chemical suppressant bottles will usually contain a powder
suppressant such as sodium bicarbonate and high pressure gas (e.g.
nitrogen) to propel the suppressant into the protected volume. When
designing a chemical suppression solution, the Kst and Pmax of the
material must be known (ASTM 1226), the Pred of the vessel must be
determined, and the process conditions must be considered to avoid
false activation. Explosion Suppression is an ACTIVE mitigation strategy.
 Dilution – Dilution with a noncombustible dust is the least commonly
employed of these approaches. This mitigation strategy involves the
addition of a noncombustible solid to a combustible dust mixture to
render the mixture noncombustible as a whole. When designing a dilution
scheme, it is important to confirm that the mixture created is within the
noncombustible region by having your mixture tested using the Salt Lake
Go/No-Go Screening Test over a range of mixture concentrations. Also, it
is important to consider if and how the combustible component will be
separated from the noncombustible component downstream in your
process. Dilution is a method of explosion PREVENTION.
Explosion Prevention
While Explosion Mitigation methods aim to minimize the negative effects of a

deflagration with the assumption that ignition will occur, Explosion Prevention
methods aim to keep the deflagration from occurring in the first place. Explosion
Prevention is achieved by removing one or more of the legs of the Dust
Explosion Pentagon. Two methods of explosion prevention, Inerting and Dilution,

are described above. The following are some of the Prevention methods
commonly employed:
 Spark Detection & Extinguishing

 Housekeeping
 Bonding and Grounding
 Magnetic Separation
 Preventative Maintenance
 Electrical Classification
 Hot Work Permitting
 Administrative Controls
Zoning
The classification into zones has proved its effectiveness in flammable

atmospheres for years. The definition of zones adopted by all of Europe in
accordance with Directive 99/92/EC applies only to swirled-up dust. Layers and
deposits of flammable dust must be taken into consideration as well, like all
other factors that could lead to the creation of an explosive atmosphere.
Dust deposits are seen merely as a ―source of dispersal‖ for an explosive

atmosphere. Among other sources, EN 50281-3 (Classification of areas where
combustible dusts are or may be present) or the explosion regulations can
provide help with the classification. In Table below, zone classification and zone
definitions are given, as well as the connection between the zones and the
equipment categories of Directive 94/9/EC.

Table: Zone Concept and Effects of ExVO and Directive 94/9/EC
Table: Cleanliness and Explosion Risk

10.3.2 The behaviour of structural materials, buildings and building

contents in a fire
Building Control is the framework within which the Building Regulations and
associated legislation are administered.
Building Regulations deal with health and safety issues for people who are in or
about the building. The regulations are also intended to deal with a variety of
environmental issues.
This is done by controlling how buildings are constructed and how certain
physical services are installed.
The list below summarises the issues with which the Building Regulations are
concerned. Some have an immediate and direct relation to Fire protection,
whilst others have a slightly more indirect connection:
 Structural stability.
 Fire safety, including means of escape in case of fire and access for the
fire brigade.
 Contaminated land.
 Prevention of damp.
 Sound insulation.
 Room ventilation.
 Prevention of condensation in roofs.
 Provision of toilets, including hot and cold water.
 Foul and surface water drainage.
 Waste disposal.
 Heat-producing appliances.
 Stairs, ramps, and measures to prevent falling, collisions with doors and
windows.

 Conservation of fuel and power.

 Access and facilities for disabled people to and within all buildings,
including dwellings.
 Safety glazing, including measures for cleaning and opening windows
safely.
The behaviour of building structures and

materials in fire
The kind of materials used in construction and the manner in which they respond
to fire, clearly has a great bearing on how a structure will respond to fire. It is
therefore important to develop an understanding of the behaviour of structural
materials subjected to fire in terms of both the heat transfer characteristics of
the material and its mechanical response to heating. The following outlines the
behaviour in fire of the most important materials of construction in simple terms.
The manner in which a material responds to fire can be classified under the
following groups according to behaviour or properties:
 Chemical: Decomposition, charring.

 Physical: Variation in density (r), softening, melting, spalling (fragmenting
or flaking).
 Mechanical: Strength as measured by yield or peak stressed ( fy for steel
and fcu for concrete),
 stiffness as measured by the modulus of elasticity (E), creep, thermal
expansion as measured by
 the coefficient of thermal expansion (a).
 Thermal: Thermal conductivity (k), specific heat (c).

Chemical changes such as decomposition and charring are specific to wood.

Physical effects such as spalling happen in concrete and masonry. Steels soften
and creep but are unlikely to melt at the maximum temperatures experienced
in normal fires. The following table shows the properties that are of interest for
common structural materials:
Steel
Steel is arguably the most important structural material in modern construction.

Steel is used in construction as structural steel or as reinforcing steel for
reinforced concrete. Structural steel is considered considerably more vulnerable
to fire than reinforcing steels which are encased in concrete which has good
insulating properties and so protects reinforcing steels from significant losses in
strength. Steels are very good conductors and tend to be used in thin sections.
They are, therefore, liable to heat up very quickly in fires if not insulated. Due to
these reasons most main structural steel members are required to be insulated in
current design codes.
Concrete
Concrete has excellent fire resistance properties and maintains its integrity and
strength in very high temperatures.
The thermal properties of concrete depend upon the aggregate type used, due
to chemical changes (crystal structure) in aggregate compounds. Three
common types are; Siliceous aggregates (gravel, granite, flint), calcareous
aggregates (limestone) and lightweight aggregates made from sintered fuel
ash (Lytag) and expanded clay. Siliceous aggregate concretes have a
tendency to spall due to high thermal conductivity of such aggregate.
Calcareous aggregate concretes are relatively more stable. Lightweight
concrete) has the best thermal properties of all, i.e. less than half the thermal) of
normal weight concrete and consequently loses its strength at a considerably
lower rate.
Wood
Wood (or timber) is a combustible material, however, it is also one of the most
widely used materials of construction. It is therefore fortunate that wood
possesses certain features that allow it to provide satisfactory performance in
most building fires. One of these is that it is not easily ignitable, but the most
important property of wood is the formation of char after ignition.
Charred wood is likely to be found in nearly all structural fires. It is the solid
residue (mainly carbon) from the decomposition of wood. It shrinks as it forms
and develops cracks and blisters. In combination with a low thermal
conductivity, and a protective layer of char, heavy timber sections can provide
excellent fire resistance and therefore continue to be used. The concept of
sacrificial timber is used in design, i.e. using a larger section of timber than
necessary for carrying the design load, with the excess sufficient to protect the
member through a given duration of fire.

Reference - http://civil.iisc.ernet.in/~manohar/Fire/Part-23_Materials.pdf
The behaviour of common building contents in

fire
Paper-based
Consists of a core of set gypsum or anhydrite plaster bonded to external facings

of heavy paper. Gypsum is non-combustible. Will retard fire spread until paper
burns and gypsum core breaks up.
Fabrics
By the 1960‘s and 1970‘s, things were changing, furnishings were often
polyurethane foam or cotton padding covered by cotton on cotton/synthetic
upholstery fabric. As a result, fire behaviour began to change. Synthetic fabrics
and PU foam added smoulder resistance to furnishings but made them more
susceptible to ignition by even short‐lived‐open flame sources.
Plastics
The term covers a broad range of chemicals. Generally plastics are combustible
and the combustion products are likely to be toxic.
A large variety of plastics are used in buildings. The main disadvantage is that all
plastics are combustible. Certain treatments can increase ignition temperatures
and inhibit flame spread, but nothing can be added to make them non-
combustible.

Although the function of the living room has not changed, materials have
certainly changed over the years. Over the time, it has transitioned from being
compromised of natural materials to dominated by synthetic materials. In terms
of a fire safety perspective are the changes in general):
 The increased use of more flammable synthetic material such as plastics

and textiles.
 The increased quantity of combustible materials.
 The use of goods with unknown composition and uncertain flammable
behaviour.
10.3.3 Fire and explosion prevention and protection
Structural protection
Within the fire service, building construction can be defined as the study of how
buildings are put together; materials and connections used, how fire affects the
materials and connections, what may fail, how it may fail, and what happens
when it fails.
Openings and voids
Roof voids, gaps between ceilings and floors and cavity walls etc. are often
both referred to and described as concealed spaces.
Voids or concealed spaces are an inherent part of almost any type of

construction and pose a major problem for firefighters. Fires are often found
hidden in these open areas, and size-up for such fires should start with exterior
observation.

Smoke (even light smoke) pushing from openings is an obvious clue to hidden
fire. However, smoke detection is not always easy. At night, smoke can be
concealed in the darkness.
Sometimes the command post is too close to the fire building, giving the
fireground commander only a limited view of the incident. It‘s a good idea for
the commander to make a circuit of the building before setting up the
command post so it will afford the maximum view of the entire operation.
In order to reduce heat transmission in hollow spaces or cavities such as those

between double partitions, walls or an internal lining or a roof, they are
frequently filled with materials which are of a loose fibrous nature and have a
low conductivity.
These are typically non-combustible products such as rock or glass wool,

foamed slag, vermiculite, etc.
Compartmentation
Compartmentation is the process or design of isolating zones of a building to

ensure a fire in one area does not spread uncontrolled to another area.
―A building or part of a building comprising one or more rooms, spaces or

storeys constructed to prevent the spread of fire to or from another part of the
same building or an adjoining building.‖
This is achieved through the provision of fire resisting walls and floors (commonly
offering between 30 minutes and 120 minutes fire resistance). And will include
special measures to address any openings in the compartment lines, such as
doors, glazing, service penetrations and ductwork.

The wall or floor must remain functional for the duration of the designed fire
resistance period. The compartment wall or floor should not crack or develop
holes that allow flames, smoke or hot gases to pass through it, and if
appropriate, it should maintain a suitable degree of insulation.
The design technique of compartmentation is not only applied to roof voids and
other concealed spaces, but can be applied to most areas creating specific
fire protection zones within a building.
How do you achieve fire compartmentation?
 Fire resisting construction and cavity barriers, with any fire stopping if
necessary.
 To divide cavities at junctions and cavity closures
 To close the edges of cavities at junctions and cavity closures, and
 To protected escape routes
 To cavities affecting alternative escape routes
Fire-stopping
Fire-Stopping is an essential component of structural fire safety and a part of

passive fire protection. Following the UK building regulations, all new
refurbishments and buildings must incorporate fire compartmentation measures.
By designing buildings this way, compartmentalisation ensures that fire is
contained at its origin and slows down flames and smoke. This saves lives by
increasing the time people have to escape and reducing structural damage,
which means the building is less likely to collapse.
Fire stops are crucial as the effective solution for preventing the spread of fire
and smoke within all types of buildings. By fire stopping voids and any services
passing through them, such as cables, pipes and ductwork, we can ensure

compliance and effective performance of these structural elements in the

event of a fire.
Firestops prevent unprotected horizontal and vertical penetrations in a fire-

resistance-rated wall or floor assembly from creating a route by which fire and
smoke can spread that would otherwise have been fire resisting construction,
e.g. where a pipe passes through a firewall.
Fire stopping is also to seal around gaps between fire resisting constructions, e.g.
the linear gap between a wall and the floor above, in order for construction to
form a complete barrier to fire and smoke spread.
Firestops are used in:
 Electrical, mechanical, and structural penetrations

 Unpenetrated openings (such as openings for future use)
 Re-entries of existing firestops
 Control or sway joints in fire-resistance-rated wall or floor assemblies
 Junctions between fire-resistance-rated wall or floor assemblies
 Head-of-wall (HOW) joints, where non-load-bearing wall assemblies meet
floor assemblies
The key features of plant design and process

control
Good plant design works to reduce the risk of fire and explosion by preventing
flammable concentrations of vapour developing and coming into contact with
sources of ignition. Large process plant can be designed to be isolated from

other plant so that an explosion cannot reach other areas of the plant through
pipes or ducts. Furthermore, the vessels used for a particular process can be
constructed to withstand moderate over-pressure and can also be fitted with
pressure relief devices, such as relief valves.
Control over the process can be exercised in a number of ways to reduce the
chances of explosion. For example, flammable vapour/air concentrations within
the explosive range can be avoided and the speed of a process can be
controlled such that excessive heat is not allowed to build up so as to generate
a thermal runaway.
Fire
A fire can spread in four ways:
 Direct burning (including running liquid fires);

 Convection;
 Radiation;
 Conduction.
The spread of fire from its origin to other parts of the premises can be prevented
by vertical and horizontal compartmentation using fire-resisting walls and floors.
Consideration should also be given to the spread of flammable material via
drains, ducts and ventilation systems. Delayed ignition following a release may
result in spread of flames through such systems via dispersed flammable gases
and vapours.
Protection against domino effects by convection, conduction and radiation

can be achieved by inherent safety principles ie ensuring that the distances
between plant items are sufficient to prevent overheating of adjacent plants
compromising safety of those plants also. Where this is not possible due to other

restrictions, other methods such as fire walls, active or passive fire protection
may be considered.
Explosion
Explosion propagation may be directly by pressure waves or indirectly by

missiles. As for fires, inherently safe methods that should be considered are:
 arranging separation distances such that damage to adjacent plants will

not occur even in the worst case;
 provision of barriers e.g. blast walls, location in strong buildings;
 protecting plant against damage e.g. provision of thicker walls on vessels;
 directing explosion relief vents away from vulnerable areas e.g. other
plants or buildings, roadways near site boundaries.
However, the latter may not provide practical solutions, particularly against
missiles, and risk analysis may be required to prove adequate safety.
General principles
The design of a process plant is a complex activity that will usually involve many
different disciplines over a considerable period of time. The design may also go
through many stages from the original research and development phases,
through conceptual design, detailed process design and onto detailed
engineering design and equipment selection. Many varied and complex factors
including safety, health, the environment, economic and technical issues may
have to be considered before the design is finalised.
At each stage it is important that the personnel involved have the correct
combination of technical competencies and experience in order to ensure that
all aspects of the design process are being adequately addressed. Evidence of
the qualifications, experience and training of people involved in design activities

should be presented in the Safety Report to demonstrate that the complex

issues associated with design have been considered and a rigorous approach
has been adopted.
The process design will often be an iterative process with many different options
being investigated and tested before a process is selected. In many occasions
a number of different options may be available and final selection may depend
upon a range of factors.
The process design should identify the various operational deviations that may
occur and any impurities that may be present. In the mechanical design, the
materials of construction chosen need to be compatible with the process
materials at the standard operating conditions and under excursion conditions.
The materials of construction also need to be compatible with each other in
terms of corrosion properties. Impurities which may cause corrosion, and the
possibility of erosion also need to be considered so that the detailed
mechanical design can ensure that sufficient strength is available and suitable
materials of construction are selected for fabrication
Codes and Standards
Modern engineering codes and standards cover a wide range of areas

including:
 Materials, properties and compositions;

 Testing procedures; for example for performance, compositions and
quality;
 Preferred sizes; for example for tubes, plates and standard sections;
 Design methods and inspection and fabrication;
 Codes of practice for plant operation and safety.

Many companies have their own in-house standards which are primarily based
on the published codes, such as BS5500, with added extras which cover either
technical or contractual matters. In the safety report the base document for the
in house codes should be clearly stated and the key safety related deviations or
enhancements demonstrated so that the assessor can determine their
adequacy.
A Safety Report should demonstrate that consideration has been given to the
appropriate standards and codes of practice developed by legislators,
regulators, professional institutions and trade associations. It should also
demonstrate that for any equipment that is installed, the operating procedures,
testing regimes and maintenance strategies that are in place meet or exceed
these requirements in terms of safety performance.
Reference - https://www.hse.gov.uk/comah/sragtech/techmeasplant.htm
The segregation and storage of flammable,

combustible and incompatible materials
When certain hazardous and flammable chemicals are stored or mixed

together, violent reactions may occur because the chemicals are unsuitable for
mixing, or are incompatible. Classes of incompatible chemicals should be
segregated from each other during storage, according to hazard class. Use the
following general guidelines for hazard class storage.
There are a number of different strategies for storing solid and liquid chemicals
ranging from extremely complicated (over 24 compatibility groups) to extremely

simple (alphabetical- easy, but unwise). GT EHS requires that chemicals be

stored by simple compatibility group:
 Acids
 Bases
 Flammables
 Oxidizers
 Water Reactives
 Air Reactives (Pyrophorics)
 Extremely Toxic.
Chemical storage guidelines are presented below. Use these to segregate and
store chemicals according to their hazard class. This prevents an undesirable
chemical reaction from occurring should two or more chemicals accidently mix.
Consult sources such as the substance‘s Safety Data Sheet for specific storage
guidelines.
Flammable and Combustible Liquids
Flammable and combustible liquids are defined by their flash points. The flash
point of a liquid is the minimum temperature at which it gives off sufficient vapor
to form an ignitable mixture with the air near its surface or within its containment
vessel. A liquid‘s flash point is a function of its vapor pressure and boiling point.
Generally, the higher the vapor pressure and the lower the boiling point of a
liquid, the lower its flash point will be. The lower the flash point, the greater the
fire and explosion hazard
Flammable and combustible liquids are classified by the National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) based on their flash points:
Flammable Liquids (Class I)

Liquids with flash points below 100°F (37.8°C) and vapor pressures not exceeding
40 pounds per square inch (absolute) at 100°F (37.8°C). Flammable Class I
liquids are subdivided as follows:
 Class IA: Liquids having flash points below 73°F (22.8°C) and boiling points
below 100°F (37.8°C). Flammable aerosols (spray cans) are included in
Class IA. (These are 4 on an NFPA Diamond)
 Class IB: Liquids having flash points below 73°F (22.8°C) and having boiling
points at or above 100°F (37.8°C). (These are a 3 on an NFPA Diamond)
 Class IC: Liquids having flash points at or above 73°F (22.8°C) and below
100°F (37.8°C). The boiling point is not considered. (Also a 3 on an NFPA
Diamond)
Combustible Liquids (Classes II and III):
Liquids having flash points at or above 100°F (37.8°C). Combustible liquids in

Classes II and III are subdivided as follows:
 Class II: Liquids having flash points at or above 100°F (37.8°C) and below
140°F (60.0°C).
 Class IIIA: Liquids having flash points at or above 140°F (60.0°C) and
below 200°F (93.4°C).
Storage requirements are provided below. Consult the chemical‘s Safety Data
Sheet for specific storage and incompatibility.
Incompatible materials
The following provides general guidance on classes of chemicals,

recommended storage methods, examples, and incompatibility.

CLASS OF RECOMMENDED EXAMPLES INCOMPATIBILITIES

CHEMICALS STORAGE METHOD
SEE SDS IN ALL
CASES
Oxidizers Store inside a Inorganic oxidizers – Separate from
noncombustible cabinet, sodium hypochlorite, reducing agents,
separate from ammonium nitrate flammables and
flammable and combustibles
combustible materials. Organic peroxides –
Store inorganic oxidizers, methyl ethyl ketone
organic peroxides, peroxide, allyl
separate from each compounds,
other via secondary haloalkenes, dienes,
containment. All oxidizers monomeric vinyl
at GU should be compounds,
considered shock- vinylacetylenes,
sensitive. unsaturated cyclic
hydrocarbons
Flammable Store in grounded acetone, benzene, Separate from
Liquids flammable storage diethyl ether, acids, bases,
cabinet. methanol, ethanol, oxidizers, and
toluene poisons.
Flammable Store in grounded phosphorus, lithium, Separate from
Solids flammable storage sodium, potassium acids and
cabinet. Flammable oxidizers.
solids must be
segregated from
flammable liquids via
secondary containment.
Corrosives Store in separate acid Oxidizing acids – nitric Separate from
Acids storage cabinet. Within acid, perchloric acid, flammable liquids,
the acid cabinet store chromic acid, picric flammable solids,
each of the following acid, chromerge bases, oxidizers.
groups separately via
secondary containment: Flammable and
oxidizing acids, organic acids –
flammable (organic) glacial acetic acid,
acids, and mineral acids. trifloroacetic acid,
trichloroacetic acid,
triflic acid
Mineral acids –
hydrochloric acid,

sulfuric acid,
phosphoric acid
Corrosives – Store in separate storage Inorganic bases – Separate from
Bases cabinet. Store inorganic sodium hydroxide, oxidizers and
bases separate from potassium hydroxide, acids.
reducing agents via ammonium hydroxide
secondary containment.
Reducing agents –
lithium aluminum
hydride, sodium
borohydride, lithium
borohydride
Compressed Store in a cool, dry area, oxygen, chlorine Separate from
Gases- away from flammable flammable gases.
Oxidizing gases and liquids.
Securely strap or chain
cylinders to a wall or
bench.
Compressed Store in a cool, dry area, methane, acetylene, Separate from
Gases- away from oxidizing propane oxidizing and
Flammable gases. Securely strap or toxic compressed
chain cylinders to a wall gases, oxidizers.
or bench top.
Compressed Store in a cool, dry area, carbon monoxide, Flammable
Gases- away from flammable hydrogen sulphide and/or oxidizing
Poisonous gases and liquids. (H2S) gases.
Securely strap or chain
bench.
Compressed Store in a cool, dry area. nitrogen, helium, See SDS
Gases – Inert Securely strap or chain argon
bench.
General Store on general agar, sodium See SDS
Chemicals laboratory benches or chloride, sodium
Non-reactive shelving preferably bicarbonate, and
behind glass doors, or most non-reactive
below eye level. salts
Water Store in dry, cool, sodium metal, Separate from all
Reactive location, protect from potassium metal, aqueous solutions,
Chemicals water fire sprinkler. Note: lithium metal, lithium and oxidizers.
Many water reactive aluminum hydride

chemicals are
flammable solids. If
flammable solid, store as
such. If not, store
separately from all other
chemicals.
Poisons If poisons can be cyanides, heavy Flammable
(Toxicological categorized as oxidizer, metals compounds liquids, acids,
Hazard) acid, or flammable, store (e.g., cadmium, bases, and
as such. If non-reactive mercury, osmium) oxidizers.
but highly toxic store methyl iodide,
separately from all other dimethyl sulfate,
chemicals. mercury
Hazardous area zoning, exclusion of ignition

sources
Hazardous area zoning
Area classification is a method of analysing and classifying the environment

where explosive gas atmospheres may occur. The main purpose is to facilitate
the proper selection and installation of apparatus to be used safely in that
environment, taking into account the properties of the flammable materials that
will be present. DSEAR specifically extends the original scope of this analysis, to
take into account non-electrical sources of ignition, and mobile equipment that
creates an ignition risk.
Hazardous areas are classified into zones based on an assessment of the

frequency of the occurrence and duration of an explosive gas atmosphere, as
follows:

 Zone 0: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is present

continuously or for long periods;
 Zone 1: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is likely to occur in
normal operation;
 Zone 2: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is not likely to
occur in normal operation and, if it occurs, will only exist for a short time.
Various sources have tried to place time limits on to these zones, but none have
been officially adopted. The most common values used are:
 Zone 0: Explosive atmosphere for more than 1000h/yr

 Zone 1: Explosive atmosphere for more than 10, but less than 1000 h/yr
 Zone 2: Explosive atmosphere for less than 10h/yr, but still sufficiently likely
as to require controls over ignition sources.
Where people wish to quantify the zone definitions, these values are the most
appropriate, but for the majority of situations a purely qualitative approach is
adequate.
Exclusion of ignition sources
There shall be no ignition sources within the storage. Where flammable liquids
are stored, ignition sources shall be excluded from the area outside the storage
to a distance of 3 m measured laterally, and from floor level to a height of 1 m
above any opening in the cabinet, including the door, or a distance.
Once you have clearly identified and eliminated any ignition sources from those
work areas, you must then alert personnel to the presence of this hazardous
chemical with flammable cabinet signage.

Inerting
The partial or complete substitution of the air or flammable atmosphere by an

inert gas is a very effective method of explosion prevention. Inerting is normally
only considered when the flammable or explosive hazard cannot be eliminated
by other means ie substitution of flammable material with non-flammable,
adjustment of process conditions to ensure substances are below flammable
limits. Typical uses are within storage tanks where a material may be above its
flashpoint and within reactor systems when excursions into flammable
atmospheres may occur. Inert gases are also used to transfer flammable liquids
under pressure. Inerting is applicable to enclosed plant, since plant that is
substantially open to atmosphere cannot be effectively inerted because the
prevailing oxygen concentration is likely to vary.
A major risk associated with use of inerting is that of asphyxiation, particularly in

confined spaces. In those events where people are required to enter a confined
space, a formal management control system in the form of a Permit to Work
should be in place so that appropriate precautions and control measures can
be implemented. The Permit to Work system is covered separately.
Gases that can be used for inerting include:
 Nitrogen;
 Carbon Dioxide;
 Argon;
 Helium;
 Flue gases.
The practice of inerting is also employed in explosion suppression systems, where

typically a quick acting pressure switch responds to the initial comparatively

slow increase in pressure due to initiation of explosion conditions. This in turn

triggers injection of an explosion suppressant such as chlorobromomethane or
carbon dioxide into the path of the advancing flame front. This technique can
also be employed to provide protection to interconnected plant by inerting
plant items downstream of the explosion.
Reference - https://www.hse.gov.uk/comah/sragtech/techmeasinerting.htm
Methods of explosion relief
Explosion prevention is always preferable to explosion protection, particularly

where an explosion is likely to result in emission of toxic material.
This is one of the most common methods to protect against explosion. It

introduces a deliberate point of weakness into a system, such as a vent, panel
or bursting disc, or suppresses the explosion through inerting.
Operators need to draw a clear distinction between pressure relief designed to

protect against an explosion, and relief designed to protect plant from some
other cause of overpressure. Explosions are rapid events and consequently:
 Protective devices have to work very rapidly;

 Much larger sizes of vent panels or doors are needed in order to work
successfully and
 Duct work downstream from the relief panel needs careful design to
avoid throttling the flow and preventing the relief acting fast enough;
Venting

The material released from an explosion relief vent typically includes quantities
of the original, unburnt substance in addition to combustion products.
Alternative mitigation measures are available, including explosion suppression,
or building the plant strong enough to withstand the anticipated explosion
pressures. The adoption of measures such as these is likely to be necessary
where the process of venting could itself lead to the release of sufficient toxic
material to create a major accident. However, it is worth noting that even finely
powdered solids are significantly less easily dispersed than are gases and volatile
liquids - with shorter hazard ranges as a result.
Explosion relief consists in taking out explosion effects (mainly pressure), through
a venting system, outside the protected device. As a result, the pressure inside
the device is reduced to a safe level.
Three basic types of relieving systems are available in the market, i.e.
decompression panels, dampers with a self-closing mechanism and the so
called flameless relieving systems. The latter – due to their special design – can
be applied indoors. Others systems should be applied outdoors due to a direct
outburst of the explosion wave to atmosphere.
Explosion panels
Where applicable, explosion vents, also referred to as explosion panels and

explosion relief panels, are a viable means to release pressure and flame
propagation of a dust explosion.
Sizing of explosion panels
The size of vent area required for effective control depends upon a number of
factors including:

 The explosion properties of the gas or vapour;

 The size of the vessel to be vented;
 The geometry of the hazardous region;
 The strength of the plant;
 The opening pressure of the vent panel/door and its inertia;
 Any initial or induced turbulence in the system;
 The location of the ignition source;
 The influence of any vent ducts needed.
In particular the possibility of pressure piling needs to be considered. If an

explosion that starts at one location inside a plant causes the explosive mixture
ahead of the flame front to be compressed, much higher ultimate pressures can
result. In extreme cases, explosion flames can accelerate to detonation,
generating very high pressures and explosion relief is unlikely to be a suitable
method of protection in this case.
Reference - https://www.hse.gov.uk/comah/sragtech/techmeasexplosio.htm
Bursting discs
A rupture disk, also known as a pressure safety disc, burst disc, bursting disc, or
burst diaphragm, is a non-reclosing pressure relief safety device that, in most
uses, protects a pressure vessel, equipment or system from overpressurization or
potentially damaging vacuum conditions.
A rupture disk is a type of sacrificial part because it has a one-time-use

membrane that fails at a predetermined differential pressure, either positive or
vacuum. The membrane is usually made out of metal, but nearly any material
(or different materials in layers) can be used to suit a particular application.
Rupture disks provide instant response (within milliseconds or microseconds in
very small sizes) to an increase or decrease in system pressure, but once the disk
has ruptured it will not reseal. Major advantages of the application of rupture
disks compared to using pressure relief valves include leak-tightness, cost,
response time, size constraints, and ease of maintenance.
Suppression
The alternative to explosion vent relief is explosion suppression. In their simplest

form, such systems comprise a rapid-acting pressure sensor, control system and
a number of pressurised containers of suppressant designed for extremely rapid
injection into the protected vessel. The suppressant is commonly Sodium
Bicarbonate.The design and installation of suppression systems should be left to
specialist suppliers, but compliance with the appropriate standard (e.g.
EN14373) should be specified in the purchase contract.
10.4 Summarise the considerations for fire risk assessment, methods

for fire prevention and detection, types of firefighting equipment,
means of escape and emergency evacuation procedures - Fire
10.4.1 Fire risk assessment
The five steps to fire risk assessment
In most cases, conducting a risk assessment will be a relatively straightforward

and simple task that may be carried out by the responsible person, or a person
they nominate, such as a consultant.
Step 1 Identify the Fire hazards
For a fire to start, three things are needed:

 A source of ignition
 Fuel
 Oxygen
If any one of these is missing, a fire cannot start.
Taking measures to avoid the three coming together will therefore reduce the
chances of a fire occurring.
Questions to be asked:
 Have you identified all potential fuel sources?

 Have you identified all potential ignition sources?
 Have you identified all potential sources of oxygen?
Step 2 Identify people at risk
As part of your fire risk assessment, you need to identify those at risk if there is a
fire. To do this you need to identify where you have people working, either at
permanent workstations or at occasional locations around the premises, and to
consider who else may be at risk, such as customers, visiting contractors etc.
You must consider all the people who use the premises but you should pay
particular attention to people who may be especially at risk such as:
 Employees who work alone and/or in isolated areas.

 People who are unfamiliar with the premises, e.g. seasonal workers,
contractors, visitors and customers.
 People with disabilities* or those who may have some other reason for not
being able to leave the premises quickly, e.g. elderly customers or parents
with children.
 Other persons in the immediate vicinity of the premises; and

 People with language difficulties.
*In evaluating the risk to people with disabilities you may need to discuss their
individual needs with them.
Step 3 - Evaluate, and act
Evaluate
First, think about what you have found in steps 1 and 2: what are the risks of a
fire starting, and what are the risks to people in the building and nearby?
Remove and reduce risk
How can you avoid accidental fires? Could a source of heat or sparks fall, be
knocked or pushed into something that would burn? Could that happen the
other way round?
Protect
Take action to protect your premises and people from fire.
Questions to be considered
 Have you assessed the risks of fire in your workplace?

 Have you assessed the risk to staff and visitors?
 Have you kept any source of fuel and heat/sparks apart?
 If someone wanted to start a fire deliberately, is there anything around
they could use?
 Have you removed or secured any fuel an arsonist could use?
 Have you protected your premises from accidental fire or arson?
How can you make sure everyone is safe in case of fire?

 Will you know there is a fire?

 Do you have a plan to warn others?
 Who will make sure everyone gets out?
 Who will call the fire service?
 Could you put out a small fire quickly and stop it spreading?
How will everyone escape?
 Have you planned escape routes?

 Have you made sure people will be able to safely find their way
 out, even at night if necessary?
 Does all your safety equipment work?
 Will people know what to do and how to use equipment?
 Make a note of what you have found.
Step 4 - Record, plan and train
Record
Keep a record of any fire hazards and what you have done to reduce or
remove them. If your premises are small, a record is a good idea. If you have
five or more staff or have a licence then you must keep a record of what you
have found and what you have done.
Plan
You must have a clear plan of how to prevent fire and how you will keep
people safe in case of fire. If you share a building with others, you need to
coordinate your plan with them.
Train

You need to make sure your staff know what to do in case of fire, and if
necessary, are trained for their roles.
 Have you made a record of what you have found, and action you have
taken?
 Have you planned what everyone will do if there is a fire?
 Have you discussed the plan with all staff?
Have you?
 Informed and trained people (practised a fire drill and recorded how it
went)?
 Nominated staff to put in place your fire prevention measures, and
trained them?
 Made sure everyone can fulfil their role?
 Informed temporary staff?
 Consulted others who share a building with you, and included them in
your plan?
Step 5 - Review
Keep your risk assessment under regular review. Over time, the risks may
change. If you identify significant changes in risk or make any significant
changes to your plan, you must tell others who share the premises and where
appropriate re-train staff.
Reasons for review could include:
 Changes to work processes, including the introduction of new equipment.

 Alterations to the building, including the internal layout.

 The introduction, of hazardous substances.

 A significant increase in the number of people present.
 The presence of people with some form of disability.
 You should consider the potential risk of any significant change before it is
introduced.
 Do not amend your assessment for every trivial change but your
assessment under review to make sure that the precautions are still
working effectively.
 If a fire or ‗near miss‘ occurs, this could indicate that your existing
assessment may be inadequate and you should carry out a re-
assessment.
 Records of testing, maintenance and training etc. are useful aids in a
review process.
Have you?
 Made any changes to the building inside or out? Had a fire or near miss?
 Changed work practices?
 Begun to store chemicals or dangerous substances?
 Significantly changed your stock, or stock levels?
 Have you planned your next fire drill?
10.4.2 Fire detection and alarm systems
To establish the 'best' methods of detection and alarm, fire risk assessment
should be undertaken which takes into account the type of building,
construction, type of use and even the abilities of the people using the building.

Optimising alarm system design is important to facilitate accurate and timely

fault prompting and diagnosis to operators, and hence more effective plant
management. There is a great deal of evidence relating to the role of poorly
design alarm systems in major incidents, for example the staff at Milford Haven
Refinery were faced with a barrage of alarms for five hours preceding the
incident.
Common fire detection and alarm systems and

procedures
Factors in design and application of fire detection and

alarm systems
Key principles of alarm management
 Alarms should direct the operator‘s attention towards plant conditions

requiring timely assessment or action;
 Alarms should alert, inform and guide required operator action;
 Every alarm should be useful and relevant to the operator, and have a
defined response;
 Alarm levels should be set such that the operators have sufficient time to
carry out their defined response before the plant condition escalates;
 The alarm system to accommodate human capabilities and limitations;
Choosing and properly designing a fire alarm system is crucial for both the
safety of your occupants and your bottom line. Let the following factors guide
your next new construction or facilities upgrade project.

Early Detection & Intelligent Technology
Even if the fire prevention codes don‘t require a detection system, it may be in
your best interest to install one of the many technologies that can detect a fire
early and enable a quick response.
Modern fire alarm systems are considered ―Intelligent‖ systems. A properly

designed fire alarm system should cut down on false alarms, thereby ensuring
when a fire alarm sounds, occupants leave the building. The array of early
detection devices on the market today can identify smoke and fire signatures so
culprits such as dirt or steam do not create a false alarm. In addition, an
intelligent system‘s maintenance alerts saves maintenance costs by pinpointing
which smoke detectors may have become dirty and are in need of cleaning;
thereby, reducing the need to remove and clean all smoke detectors in an
attempt to find a few contaminated and dirty ones.
Building Occupants & False Alarms
Once an actual event triggers an alarm on the fire alarm control panel, it will
send notification to the fire department and occupants in the building. The
audible notification of a fire alarm system should be designed to ensure all
occupants in all areas of the building – whether hard of hearing or seeing –
receive the proper notification (both audible and visual) to leave the building.
Fire alarm systems become a burden and a safety issue when false alarms
continue to occur. These continued false alarms result in occupants becoming
numb to the alarm and therefore disregarding it, which both puts them in harm‘s
way and causes chaos for firefighters who arrive on the scene to fight the fire.
The longer the occupants stay in place believing it is another false alarm, the
higher the risk is that they will be injured in the fire. A fire doubles in size every

thirty seconds to one minute. Therefore those extra seconds of reaction-time are
imperative to the safety of the occupants in the building.
The principal components of alarm systems; detection and

signalling
Electronic alarm systems are made up of three component parts designed to

detect, determine and deter criminal activity or other threatening situations. An
alarm system can detect an event such as an invasion, fire, gas leak or
environmental changes; determine if the event poses a threat; and then send a
notification about the event.
Detect
The component of an alarm system that detects activity is called a sensor. Here
are some common types of sensors that may be used to protect your
workplace.
 Door and window contacts are switches that indicate the opening or
closing of a door or window. The switch is mounted to a door or window
and is held closed by a magnet attached to the frame. When the door or
window moves away from the magnet, the switch opens and it is sensed
by the alarm control panel.
 Motion Sensors can detect movement or motion in a large room.
 Glass Break Detectors are designed to constantly listen for the sound of
breaking glass. When the glass break detector hears the sound pattern
caused by shattering glass, it sends an electronic signal to the alarm
control panel.
 Shock Sensors can detect an intruder that is using force to pound through
a wall, roof or other area of the structure.

 Carbon Monoxide (CO) detectors are used to detect carbon monoxide;

an invisible, odorless, colorless gas. Upon detection of CO, the sensor will
send a signal to the control panel, which will then emit an audible alarm.
 Panic Buttons send an immediate, discreet call for help upon the press of
a button.
 Environmental Sensors react to the presence of water or sudden increases
or decreases in room temperature.Smoke Detectors are designed to
detect fire. There are two types of detectors: ionization and photoelectric.
The most common smoke detector, ionization detection, is best used to
detect flaming fires without a lot of smoke. Photoelectric detection reacts
to smoldering fires that produce large amounts of smoke. Both
technologies are required to perform at the same level in a fire and
provide the same amount of warning.
 A Keypad is a device that is used to arm and disarm a security system.
Keypads are generally installed near the entrance or exit of a building. If a
door or window is opened when the system is activated, the keypad will
immediately initiate an alarm.
Determine
The alarm system control panel is the brain of the system. It carries out the
decide function by processing the information it receives from various sensors
and responding accordingly. For example, if a door or window is open while the
system is disarmed, the control panel ignores the event. But, if a window is
opened while the system is armed, it will immediately respond by sending a
signal to your alarm monitoring center and triggering an audible alarm.
Alarm system panels have built in communicators that transmit and receive
signals via a phone line. These signals are sent to a central alarm monitoring
center where trained dispatchers monitor alarm system signals. In the event of a

triggered alarm, a dispatcher will contact you to verify the emergency situation
and if necessary, contact the police or fire station on your behalf.
Deter
An alarm panel responds to a triggered alarm by activating physical alarms

such as a siren and/or strobe lights. These devices are used to scare an intruder
away from your premises or alert you of a threatening situation such as a fire or
the presence of carbon monoxide.
The component parts of an alarm system work together to detect, determine

and deter danger at your workplace. To ensure your equipment will function
properly in the event of an emergency, it is important to conduct regular testing
on your systems.
Manual and automatic systems
There is no doubt that a proper fire alarm is essential to protecting you and your
business. That is why when researching which product is right for you, it is crucial
to understand the difference between the commercial fire alarms available on
the market. From automatic to manual alarm options, the market is flooded with
products that may or may not work for you. The best way to choose your new
alarm is by getting to know what is out there and making an informed decision.
Manual
Although manual alarm systems are sometimes on their own, they are usually
connected to the central fire alarm system in the building and your Fire Alarm
monitoring panel as well. They are a unique piece of equipment that is used as
either part of a manual or automatic alarm system.
Automatic

An automatic fire alarm system is designed to detect a fire in its earlier stages,
notify building occupants of potential danger, and convey the message to
emergency first responders and/or your Signals Receiving Centre through audio-
visual alerts.
10.4.3 Fixed and portable fire-fighting equipment
Factors in design and application of fixed fire-

fighting systems and equipment
Fire fighting systems are referred to as active systems, examples of these are
water sprinkler and spray systems while the measures used to protect materials
are known as passive which will generally consists of a coating of fire resistant
insulating material applied to the structure.
Classification of fires
Fire classes are used to classify all flammable substances and have a decisive
influence on the choice of the right extinguishing agent in firefighting. Skilled
experts know, due to the fire class, which extinguishing agent to use. In the
following article, we would like to show you the differences in the individual fire
classes since the choice of the wrong extinguishing medium in case of fire can
have dangerous devastating effects. The use of a fire extinguisher that is not
suitable for extinguishing the relevant fire class may result in increased fire
expansion or, in the worst case, an explosion.
Each fire extinguisher has a pictogram showing the relevant fire rating. This
pictogram shows you whether the fire extinguisher is suitable for extinguishing

the respective fire source or not. Combustible materials are classified according
to the European Standard EN 2 into five different fire classes, which are identified
as fire classes A, B, C, D, and K.
Class A – The Fires which involve the solid materials such as the wood,
cardboard, furniture, paper, textiles and the plastics where there are usually
glowing embers during the combustion. Such fires extinguish by cooling, which is
achieved using the water.
Class B – The Fires which involve the liquids or the liquefied solids such as the
paints, Fats or Oils. These can be further subdivided or partitioned into:
 Class B1 – The fires that involve the liquids which are solvable in the water
such as the methanol. They can be extinguished by the carbon dioxide,
water spray, dry powder, light water, and the vaporizing liquids
 Class B2 – The fires which involve the liquids, not soluble in the water, such
as petrol and the oil. They can be extinguished by using the foam, dry
powder, carbon dioxide, light water and the vaporizing the liquid.
Class C – The Fires which involve gases such as the natural gas, or liquefied
gases such as butane or propane. They can be extinguished by using the foam
or dry powder in conjunction with the water to cool any containers associated
or nearby.
Class D – The Fires that involve the metals such as the aluminum or the
magnesium. Special dry powder extinguishers are required to extinguish these
types of fires, which may include powdered graphite or the talc.
Class K – The Fires which involve the high-temperature cooking oils or the fats in
large catering establishments or the restaurants.

Portable fire-fighting equipment

Portable fire extinguishers allow suitably trained people to tackle a fire in its early
stages (if they can do so without putting themselves in danger). If your
workplace is small, portable fire extinguishers will probably be enough for
tackling small fires.
Fire blankets
Fire blankets should be located in the vicinity of the fire hazard on which they
are to be used, but in a position that can be safely accessed in the event of a
fire. They are classified as either light-duty or heavy-duty. Light-duty fire blankets
are suitable for dealing with small fires in containers of cooking oils or fats and
fires involving clothing. Heavy-duty fire blankets are for industrial use where there
is a need for the blanket to resist penetration by molten materials.
Portable fire extinguishers
Water
Water is best for Class A fires (wood, paper, fabric, plastics, etc.) It should never
be used on burning fat, oil or electrical applications. Water has a great effect on
cooling the fuel surfaces and thereby reducing the pyrolysis rate of the fuel.
A variation on the standard type of water extinguisher involves a "spray" nozzle. It

operates at a higher pressure, thus creating a fine spray. This allows for a given
quantity of water to have a considerable increase in the surface area
presented to the fire, thus makes extinguishing more efficient by more rapid
extraction of heat, formation of steam.
A further variation is a "water mist" extinguisher. Water is turned into microscopic

particles in the supersonic nozzle. The water mist is drawn to the fire where it
cools and suffocates the fire.

Dry Powder
Can be used on fires involving organic solids, liquids such as grease, fats, oil,
paint, petrol, etc. but not on chip or fat pan fires. Powder fire extinguishers work
chemically interrupting a chain reaction. They act in immediate suffocation
because the mono-ammonium phosphate they are generally composed of
melts when exposed to combustion temperature. This creates a sticky substance
that sticks on the fuel surface, creating at the same time a barrier between the
fuel and the oxygen.
Foam
Best for fires involving solids and burning liquids, such as paint and petrol but not
suitable for chip or fat pan fires. A foam fire extinguisher cools and suffocates.
The foam creates an air- excluding, cooling, continuous layer of vapour sealing,
water bearing material that halts and prevents combustion.
Carbon Dioxide
Best for Live electrical equipment, although it allows re-ignition of hot plastics.
Now mainly used on large computer servers, although care has to be taken not
to asphyxiate people when using the extinguisher in small server rooms. Carbon
dioxide extinguisher works by suffocating the fire. Carbon dioxide displaces
oxygen in the air.
Wet chemical
Best for for Class F fires, involving cooking oils and fats, such as lard, olive oil,
sunflower oil, maize oil and butter. The potassium acetate the extinguisher
discharges is transformed into a fine mist. When that fine mist comes into
contact with the oil or grease‘s surface, a saponification effect is produced.
What does this mean? The creation of a soapy film that seals the surface and

separates it from the air. This mist also has a cooling effect because part of these
fine drops gets vaporised making oil and grease‘s temperatures diminish.
Siting, maintenance and training requirements
Siting
Extinguishers should normally be sited on escape routes and in similar locations

on all floors forming groups to create 'fire points'. They should be fixed in a
location where the extinguisher can be reached quickly. The best place is near
a door leading to a place of safety, on an escape route or adjacent to a
specific risk. They should be fixed where they can be easily seen; fixing them
inside cupboards or behind doors will only waste valuable time if a fire breaks
out. Do not place them over cookers or heaters or in places of extreme
temperatures hot or cold.
The additional following factors should also be considered when siting fire
extinguishers:
 Extinguishers should be fixed at an elevated height so that the carrying

handle is, 1m from the floor for heavier units and 1.5m for smaller units.
 For special risks they should be adjacent to the risk but not too close to
prevent use in the event of fire occurring.
 They should be near the door, in shallow recesses, and away from
extremes of temperature.
 Ensure a maximum 30m travelling distance from a fire to an extinguisher.
 The method of operation should be similar for all extinguishers, where
possible.
 The occupiers should be capable of handling all the types and sizes
recommended.

 Where different types of extinguishers for different risk types are sited
together they must be properly labelled to prevent confusion.
 Extinguishers should be fitted with suitable jet or spray nozzles or flexible
hoses to suit the risk involved.
Maintenance
Alongside detailed planning and proper installation, maintenance and servicing

are the alpha and omega of fire safety and ensure that your devices and
systems last a long time.
Maintenance involves checking and looking after your fire safety equipment, so
that it continues to work for as long as possible and without needing repairs.
Depending on the type of fire safety equipment, it might be cleaned, adjusted
and lubricated, or wear parts might be replaced, for example. Servicing is
where an expert fixes any faults in the fire safety equipment to get it working
properly again.
At least every 2 years:
 Fire extinguishers including

 Wall-mounted fire hose reels with ―dry‖ riser
At least once a year:
 Wall-mounted fire hose reels with ―wet/dry‖ or ―wet‖ riser

 Above-ground and underground hydrants
 Fire dampers
 Securing devices for fire doors and gates
 Smoke and heat extractors (RWA for short)
 Fixed extinguishing systems
 Emergency lighting

Training
You will be required to carry out regular fire training and record the results of
that training. You will be required to keep records on other fire provisions like the
testing of fire alarms, fire extinguishers and fire alarm equipment.
Fire extinguishers: these units are only useful if workers know how to use them. In
some countries (for example, the UK and the USA) it is a legal requirements.
However there are a number of other good reasons for fire extinguisher training:
 it can prevent injuries: an untrained worker may stand too close to the
flames or extend their arms near enough to be burned while holding an
extinguisher. Or, they may try to fight the fire when it‘s between them and
the exit, which training will teach you is extremely dangerous (and can
lead to you getting trapped in the building with no means of egress.)
 it can limit or prevent property damage: a small fire that can be easily
extinguished can quickly turn into a large-scale blaze that engulfs major
sections of the building.
 knowing that they‘re expected to use fire extinguishers in an emergency,
yet not having any training on how to do so, can make staff feel uneasy.
It‘s important for employees to feel safe in the workplace, as this leads to
better attitudes and it may even improve productivity.
The typical content of a fire extinguisher training course would include:
 Types of extinguishers
 Practical use of fire fighting equipment
It may also incorporate:
 Actions to be taken in the event of a fire

 Classes of fire

 General good housekeeping

 Methods of fire spread
Environment, including fire water runoff
Water is the most commonly used medium for fire fighting. However, several
major pollution incidents have occurred when water used for fighting fires has
been allowed to reach nearby rivers or water courses.
Fire fighting run-off may be polluting due to the actual materials on site, their
combustion products and/or the use of fire-fighting foam.
In order to mitigate the effects of fire water run off The first step is to assess the
likely route of any run off from the site, then to calculate the likely volumes of fire
water, which might result from any incident. The local Fire Services should be
involved in the volume estimation and will advise on the quantities and the
volume of containment required, based on fire-fighting best practice.
Contaminated fire water can cause environmental pollution and could

potentially lead to prosecution or fines, so it is essential that you have a strategy
to manage the risk and include it in your emergency plans and procedures.
When considering your strategy, you should carry out a risk assessment that
should be comprehensive and include factors like:
 The volume of water that might be used to tackle a fire

 The substances you store on site and what the fire water could become
contaminated with
 Pathways of how fire water could enter the environment e.g. surface
water drains, foul drains, direct run-off into watercourses or absorption
through the ground

 The sensitivity of the environment that would be affected by

contaminated fire water
 Current site arrangements that could deal with fire water run-off
To prevent fire water from causing pollution, containment is the best method.
There are various methods of containment, permanent or temporary, including:
 Containment lagoons e.g. earth banked containment basins

 Purpose built or portable tanks, overdrums and tankers, where
contaminated water can be contained
 Shut-off valves and penstocks where the whole or part of the drainage
network can be isolated to contain contaminated water
 Sacrificial area that can be used for other purposes like a car park or
sports ground when there is not an emergency
 Bunding of vehicle car parks and other hard standing areas
 Pits and trenches, where no other option is available around the site
10.4.4 Means of escape
Factors to be considered in the provision and maintenance of means of

escape:
 Means of escape in case of fire means the provision of a safe route(s)

from any part of a building to a final exit or place of safety, enabling the
person to escape from fire or smoke by his / her own unaided efforts.
 Approved Document B is substantial and gives a wealth of information on
both protection of the structure, adjacent buildings and perhaps most
importantly, means of escape from buildings that may be on fire.
 Building Control has the responsibility to ensure that all new buildings are
provided with adequate means of escape.
Definition of means of escape:
"The principle on which means of escape provisions are based is that the time
available for escape (an assessment of the length of time between the fire
starting and it making the means of escape from the workplace unsafe) is
greater than the time needed for escape (the length of time it will take
everyone to evacuate once a fire has been discovered and warning given).”
Regardless of the location of a fire, once people are aware of it they should be
able to proceed safely along a recognisable escape route, to a place of safety.
In order to achieve this, it may be necessary to protect the route, i.e. by
providing fire-resisting construction. A protected route may also be necessary in
workplaces providing sleeping accommodation or care facilities.
The means of escape is likely to be satisfactory if your workplace is fairly modern

and has had building regulation approval or if it has been found satisfactory
following a recent inspection by the fire authority (and in each case you have
not carried out any significant material or structural alterations or made any
change to the use of the workplace). However, you should still carry out a risk
assessment to ensure that the means of escape remains adequate.
If, as a result of your risk assessment, you propose making any changes to the
means of escape, you should consult the fire authority (in Scotland you must
seek the agreement of the building control authority) before making any
changes.
When assessing the adequacy of the means of escape you will need to take
into account:
 the findings of your fire risk assessment;

 the size of the workplace, its construction, layout, contents and the
number and width of the available escape routes;
 the workplace activity, where people may be situated in the workplace
and what they may be doing when a fire occurs;
 the number of people who may be present, and their familiarity with the
workplace; and their ability to escape without assistance.
10.4.5 Emergency evacuation procedures
A major factor in fatalities caused by fire, in particular in non-domestic premises

is the situation that the occupants did not know what to do (or where to go)
during the incident.
By developing and implementing planned and rehearsed evacuation

procedures, this factor will be greatly reduced.
There is no single generic fire procedure, and procedures need to be

developed for each building, taking into account all aspects such as the
purpose and use of the building, number of occupants, disabled occupants,
materials, environment. These points will be recapped and others developed as
you work through the element.
Personal Emergency Evacuation Plans (PEEPs)
A Personal Emergency Evacuation Plan, or PEEP, is a bespoke ―escape plan‖ for

individuals who may have difficulties evacuating a building to a Total Place of
Safety without support or assistance from others.
Where an individual regularly uses a building, it is important that issues are

properly identified and the arrangements documented in a 'Personal
Emergency Evacuation Plan' (PEEP). Individuals must be actively involved in

writing their PEEP.
The following factors need to be considered when writing a PEEP:
 The individual's disability.

 What is the nature of the individual's disability?
 What problems does the individual feel they would encounter if they were
evacuating the building in an emergency?
 What buildings, or areas of the building, does the individual commonly
use?
 Each area may require slightly different arrangements.
 What are the current general provisions for fire evacuation within the
building?
 Does the building have refuge areas?
 Are the Fire Wardens aware of any potential problems evacuating the
building?
 Is the means of raising the alarm consistent with the individual?
 What are the current evacuation arrangements for the individual?
 Are there any people appointed to assist the individual?
 What is the individual's current awareness of evacuation procedures, are
they aware of
 Action to take on alarm activation, including recognition of alarm?
 The exit routes that can be used?
 The location of refuge areas?
 How and where to report to designated personnel?
 Additional measures that are required?
 Means of alerting the individual to the alarm activation.
 Is there a need for improved awareness of procedures? (This may be the
individual, their appointed assistants, Fire Wardens, etc.)

 Clearer use of refuges, evacuation by stairs, progressive horizontal

evacuation.
Your Personal Emergency Evacuation Plan will ensure you have considered the
following:
 Assistance by others
 Equipment and training requirements
 Safe routes and refuge
 Multiple-occupancy buildings
 Lifts
10.5 Describe the risks and controls inherent in industrial chemical

processes and hazardous environments, including the storage,
handling and transport of dangerous substances and planning for
emergencies - Dangerous substances
10.5.1 Industrial chemical processes
The chemical process industry includes those manufacturing facilities whose

products result from:
 chemical reactions between organic materials, or inorganic materials, or

both;
 extraction, separation, or purification of a natural product, with or without
the aid of chemical reactions;
 the preparation of specifically formulated mixtures of materials, either
natural or synthetic.
Chemical process safety focuses on preventing incidents and accidents during

large scale manufacturing of chemicals and pharmaceuticals – in particular,

the unintentional release of potentially dangerous materials and energy to the

environment during a chemical reaction, or because of a runaway reaction.
In the chemical industry, process safety incidents occur for different reasons,
including:
 missing information
 insufficient operator training
 technical defects
 human errors
 concatenation of unfortunate coincidences
Malfunctions, human errors, and lack of full understanding of the chemistry,

including all possible side-reactions, of the process and its parameters are
among the most frequent reasons for which incidents or accidents take place.
The effects of temperature, pressure and

catalysts on rates of chemical reactions
In chemical reactions, the process will undoubtedly involve a change of energy.

The rate of the change of energy in many ways relies on the temperature. As a
rough guide, 10°C is enough to double the rate of the reaction.
High pressure contained within systems is also another factor which relates to the
accident. The build-up of pressure within the walls of tankers and containers
must be considered – preferably at the design stage. Pressure release valves are
a way of helping to keep the pressure to its operational best – but consideration

must be given to the release of vapour built up in the vessel/tank i.e. not to be
released in to the atmosphere.
A catalyst as applied in this instance can be defined as:
"Something that makes a chemical reaction happen more quickly without itself
being changed."
This ‗something‘ can be any agent, in either a small or large quantity, which
when added to the reaction will cause the reaction to strengthen.
Pressure
Increasing the pressure for a reaction involving gases will increase the rate of
reaction. As you increase the pressure of a gas, you decrease its volume
(PV=nRT; P and V are inversely related), while the number of particles (n) remains
unchanged. Therefore, increasing pressure increases the concentration of the
gas (n/V), and ensures that the gas molecules collide more frequently. Keep in
mind this logic only works for gases, which are highly compressible; changing the
pressure for a reaction that involves only solids or liquids has no effect on the
reaction rate.
Temperature
It has been observed experimentally that a rise of 10 °C in temperature usually

doubles or triples the speed of a reaction between molecules. The minimum
energy needed for a reaction to proceed, known as the activation energy,
stays the same with increasing temperature. However, the average increase in
particle kinetic energy caused by the absorbed heat means that a greater
proportion of the reactant molecules now have the minimum energy necessary
to collide and react. An increase in temperature causes a rise in the energy
levels of the molecules involved in the reaction, so the rate of the reaction

increases. Similarly, the rate of reaction will decrease with a decrease in

temperature.
Presence or Absence of a Catalyst
Catalysts are substances that increase reaction rate by lowering the activation
energy needed for the reaction to occur. A catalyst is not destroyed or
changed during a reaction, so it can be used again. For example, at ordinary
conditions, H2 and O2 do not combine. However, they do combine in the
presence of a small quantity of platinum, which acts as a catalyst, and the
reaction then occurs rapidly.
Heat of reaction in terms of exothermic and

runaway reactions
A chemical reaction that goes out of control and runs away can create a
serious incident with the risk of injury to people and damage to property and the
environment.
You should:
 identifies the main hazards of carrying out chemical reactions;

 provides guidance on how you can ensure a safe operation; and
 identifies some sources of further information and guidance.
The advice is aimed at small and medium-sized companies in the chemical

manufacturing industry, although the principles apply equally to all firms. You
must assess the risks of your chemical processes but this does not need to be
time-consuming or expensive. You should then ensure that the systems in place

reduce the risk of runaway to a level that is as low as reasonably practicable.

The effort you take to do this should reflect the complexity of the process and
the scale of risks involved.
Exothermic reactions
Exothermic reactions are those which give off heat as the reaction progresses. If
the heat removal system is not able to remove as much heat as the reaction is
producing then temperature of the reaction mixture starts increasing. If the rapid
increase of temperature or pressure is not controlled properly then it can cause
damage to the equipment, surroundings and Human lives.
Runaway reactions
An exothermic reaction can lead to thermal runaway, which begins when the
heat produced by the reaction exceeds the heat removed. The surplus heat
raises the temperature of the reaction mass, which causes the rate of reaction
to increase. This in turn accelerates the rate of heat production. An approximate
rule of thumb suggests that reaction rate – and hence the rate of heat
generation – doubles with every 10 °C rise in temperature.
Thermal runaway can occur because, as the temperature increases, the rate at
which heat is removed increases linearly but the rate at which heat is produced
increases exponentially. Once control of the reaction is lost, temperature can
rise rapidly leaving little time for correction. The reaction vessel may be at risk
from over-pressurisation due to violent boiling or rapid gas generation. The
elevated temperatures may initiate secondary, more hazardous runaways or
decompositions. An over-pressure may result in the plant failing catastrophically
resulting in blast or missile damage.

Examples of exothermic reaction and runaway

reaction
Examples of exothermic reaction
Exothermic reactions are everywhere, from the burning of a candle to the

nuclear fusion reactions taking place in the sun.
Combustion
 Commonly referred to as burning, combustion is an exothermic reaction in

which a fuel undergoes reduction when exposed to an oxidizing agent
(which is usually the oxygen present in the atmosphere) and forms an
oxidized product.
 These reactions give out good amounts of energy in the form of heat, but
also form some byproducts such as smoke.
 An example of a combustion reaction would be the combustion of
methane which can be represented as follows: CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O +
Heat
 Another example of a combustion reaction is the combustion of glucose,
given by the following reaction: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Detonation of Nitroglycerin
 Nitroglycerin has strong explosive powers which can be used via its
detonation
 In the process of detonating nitroglycerin, the gases generated, at room
temperature and pressure would occupy over 1,200 times the original
volume.

 Nitroglycerin is one of the hottest detonating high explosives, detonating

at temperatures up to 5000oC. Therefore, it is an exothermic reaction with
very high ΔH values.
Nuclear Fission of Uranium-235
 The nuclear fission of one atom of uranium-235 releases more than 2.5
million times the energy that is produced from the combustion of coal.
 The fission of one atom can cause a chain reaction in which the neutron
from the fission of one uranium-235 atom can strike another atom, leading
to its nuclear fission.
 This isotope of uranium is used in nuclear power plants, in which the fission
reaction is controlled with the help of control rods that are capable of
absorbing neutrons.
Examples of runaway reaction
Union Carbide India's Bhopal facility housed three 68,000-litre liquid MIC storage
tanks: E610, E611, and E619. Months before the tragedy, MIC production was in
progress and was being filled in the tanks. No tank was allowed to be filled more
than 50% of its capacity and the tank was pressurized with inert nitrogen gas.
The pressurization allowed liquid MIC to be pumped out of each tank. However,
one of the tanks (E610) lost the ability to contain nitrogen gas pressure, hence
liquid MIC could not be pumped out of it. As per the rules, each of the tanks
could not be filled with more than 30 tonnes of liquid MIC. But this tank had 42
tonnes. This failure forced UCIL to halt methyl isocyanate production in Bhopal
and the plant was partly shut for maintenance. An attempt was made to make
the defective tank functional again on December 1, however the attempt
failed. By then, most of the plant's methyl isocyanate related safety systems
were malfunctioning. According to reports, by December 2 eve, water had

entered the malfunctioning tank, which resulted in runaway chemical reaction.

The pressure in the tank increased five times by night. By midnight, the workers in
the MIC area started feeling the effects of MIC gas. The decision to address the
leak was to be made a couple of minutes later. However, by then the chemical
reaction in the tank had reached a critical state. About 30 tonnes of MIC
escaped from the tank into the atmosphere within an hour. Most Bhopal
residents were made aware of the gas leak by exposure to the gas itself.
Methods of controlling exothermic and runaway

reactions
Once you know what the risks are, you can select the measures to ensure safe
operation. You can ensure safe operation in a number of ways, by using:
 inherently safer methods, which eliminate or reduce the hazard;

 process control, which prevents a runaway reaction occurring; and
 protective measures, which limit the consequences of a runaway.
Inherent safety
Where possible, you should first eliminate or reduce hazards by inherently safer
design. For example:
 replace hazardous materials with safer ones;

 have less unreacted material in the reactor, eg using a continuous
process instead of a batch reactor;
 use a semi-batch method (in which one of the raw materials is added
over time) instead of a batch process; and/or

 use a heating medium which has a maximum temperature that is too low
for the reaction mixture to decompose.
As the examples suggest, inherently safer methods can fundamentally affect

the process – it will be easier to use such methods if you consider them in the
early stages of process development.
Process control
Process control includes the use of sensors, alarms, trips and other control
systems that either take automatic action or allow for manual intervention to
prevent the conditions for uncontrolled reaction occurring. Specifying such
measures requires a thorough understanding of the chemical process involved,
especially the limits of safe operation.
Protective measures
Protective measures do not prevent a runaway but reduce the consequences

should one occur. They are rarely used on their own as some preventive
measures are normally required to reduce the demand upon them. As they
operate once a runaway has started, a detailed knowledge of the reaction
under runaway conditions is needed for their effective specification. You can:
 design the plant to contain the maximum pressure;

 fit emergency relief vents and ensure vented material goes to a safe
place;
 crash cool the reaction mixture if it moves outside set limits;
 add a reaction inhibitor to kill the reaction and prevent runaway; or
 dump the reaction into a quenching fluid.
Selecting the basis of safety

The basis of safety for a chemical reaction is the combination of measures which
are relied upon to ensure safe operation. The measures you choose for a
particular case will depend on a number of factors, including:
 how easy it is to prevent runaway;

 how applicable the various methods are; and
 how compatible the measures are with plant operation.
Whatever methods you choose, they must cater for all cases that can
foreseeably occur and reduce the risk of runaway to a level that is as low as
reasonably practicable.
10.5.2 The storage, handling and transport of dangerous substances
The storage methods and quantities
Storage areas should be separate from manufacturing, accommodation, public

access, garages and equipment which may produce a fire hazard. When it is
not practicable for the store to be outside, it should be carefully sited within the
building, well away from evacuation routes.
The stores should have at least two access points to allow a means of escape.
The stores should be single-storey, made of non-combustible materials. There
should be explosion panels, designed so that the panel will give and not the
whole building; they may be in the roof of the store.
Ventilation is important for both gases and fumes, which may be either lighter or
heavier than air. Stores for flammable gases should, ideally, be of wire mesh so
that air can circulate freely. The floor should be of concrete or some other
impervious material so that moisture will drain away and not rust the containers.
Follow safety best practices when working with or handling chemicals. Before
entering a chemical storage area, always look for the following:
 Leaking or deteriorating containers

 Spilled chemicals
 Dented drums or containers
 Temperature extremes (hot or cold)
 Lack of lighting or light bulbs
 Blocked exits or aisles
 Trash accumulation
 Signs of static electricity
 Fire suppression system broken
 Missing warning signs (―No Smoking,‖ ―Flammable Liquids,‖ ―Acids,‖
―Corrosives,‖ ―Poisons,‖ ―Chemical Storage,‖ etc.)
Bulk storage
Where large volumes of chemicals are stored on the business premises, a serious
risk is posed to your employees and the surrounding environment. Therefore, it is
imperative that best practices are followed to ensure the safety and welfare of
your employees and your premises. There are 5 key areas to address to ensure
chemical safety where large volumes of chemicals are present – organisation,
segregation, ventilation, spill prevention and supervision.
Large volumes of chemicals should be stored in containers, tanks or chemical

drums. These containers should be stored on pallet racks so that any leaks can
be easily identified and so as to keep the chemical store as organised and
efficiently laid out as possible. There should be sufficient space between each
container so that employees can safely remove or load a container easily on or
off of the pallet rack. All containers should be clearly labelled.

Intermediate storage
An intermediate product is a product that might require further processing

before it is saleable to the ultimate consumer. For example, in crude oil refining
intermediate products include those such as gas oils; asphalt; diesel and
kerosene. Such products will usually be stored in large storage vessels.
Drum storage
Chemical drums may allow you to store a sizeable level of chemicals, but with
this also comes an increased level of risk. Since a higher volume of dangerous
substances are being stored, the consequences of a leak or spill are far more
consequential.
Drum storage containers are used to provide safe housing for multiple storage
drums. The number of storage drums held by a given container can range from
less than 10 to well over 100.
They are considered to be a form of secondary containment, as storage drums

that hold hazardous materials are designed to existing standards as primary
hazardous substance containers.
Because there is an international standard size for storage drums—200 liters (55
U.S. gallons)—the number of drums that a storage unit can contain can be
calculated based on the unit‘s internal dimensions. This standardization also
allows for the inclusion of certain features designed to make drum transport
easier, such as providing space for pallets and allowing for the easy attachment
of a ramp designed for forklifts and other powered trucks.
The use of a certified drum storage container can help employers meet their
obligations to provide secondary containment of hazardous materials. In order

to be considered a standards- and regulation-compliant form of hazard

storage, they must meet standards that specifically describe the proper storage
of drums.
Storage drums are a very common transport container for many hazardous and
non-hazardous goods. Their cylindrical shape is both sturdy and space-efficient,
and as a result the use of storage drum containers is very common at work sites
that need to receive and/or distribute liquid or powdered substances in bulk.
Due to the standardized nature of drum containers and their significant
association with hazardous materials, drum storage containers are subject to a
variety of standards related to the safe storage of drums. These standards may
vary depending on the goods being transported.
For instance, the safe use of the plastic drums that house corrosive materials
may require different safety procedures compared to those needed for the
handling of metal drums housing explosive materials. Standards for hazardous
material housing for drum storage units include the use of sumps or bunds that
are capable of containing the spilled material to the unit. Depending on the
chemicals present in the drum, the storage unit may also need to be situated
away from occupied worksites. OSHA standards require these units to effectively
protect the drums from physical injury that could release their contents. If the
material held by the drum is flammable, the storage unit will be subject to
additional legal and consensus standards, such as the National Fire Protection
Association's NFPA 30 standard.
The following is a non-exhaustive list of examples of inadequate storage systems

and practices commonly found in warehouses and drum stores:
 Absence of a suitable vehicle and pedestrian traffic management plan

including defined forklift truck routes with appropriate speed limits, etc.
 Emergency exits obstructed by substance containers.
 Drums stored on damaged, or inadequately secured racking or on

damaged pallets.
 Warehouse racking not suitably designed or constructed to withstand the
anticipated loading of containers placed on it.
 Absence of secondary containment and spill kits.
 Inadequate / no emergency response plan for dealing with incidents such
as liquid spills, toxic gas releases or fires.
 Chemicals stored by poorly chosen categories, such as all acids
(inorganic and organic, strong oxidizers) together; all organics stored
together.
Specific locations
Each stock chemical container should have a designated storage place, and
should be returned to that same location after each use. Storage locations can
be marked on containers.
Do not store stock supplies of chemicals on benchtops where they are

unprotected from ignition sources and are more easily knocked over. Only
chemicals in use or of low hazard levels (e.g., salts and buffers) are permitted on
benchtops.
Basic Chemical Segregation and Storage:
Hazard Class Recommended Storage Examples Incompatibilities

of Chemical Method
Compressed Store in a cool, dry area, away Methane Hydrogen Oxidizing and toxic
gases - from oxidizing gases. Securely Acetylene Propane compressed gases,
Flammable strap or chain cylinders to a oxidizing solids.
wall or bench.

Compressed Store in a cool, dry area, away Oxygen Flammable gases

gases - from flammable gases and Chlorine
Oxidizing liquids. Securely strap or chain
cylinders to a wall or bench. Bromine
Compressed Store in a cool, dry area, away Carbon monoxide Flammable and/or
gases - from flammable gases and Hydrogen sulfide oxidizing gases.
Poisonous liquids. Securely strap or chain
cylinders to a wall or bench. Nitrogen dioxide
Corrosives - Store separately in acid Acetic acid Phenol Flammable liquids,

Acids storage cabinet. Segregate Sulfuric acid Chromerge flammable solids,
oxidizing acids (i.e., Chromic, bases, oxidizers
nitric, sulfuric, and perchloric Nitric acid
acids) from organic acids Perchloric acid
Chromic acid
Hydrochloric acid
Corrosives - Store in separate corrosive Ammonium hydroxide Flammable liquids,

Bases storage cabinet. Store Sodium hydroxide oxidizers, poisons,
solutions of inorganic and acids
hydroxides in labeled Calcium hydroxide
polyethylene containers.
Flammable Store in flammable storage Acetone Benzene Acids, bases,
Liquids cabinet and away from Diethyl ether Methanol oxidizers, and poisons
sources of ignition. Store highly
volatile flammable liquids in an Ethanol Toluene
explosion-proof refrigerator. Glacial acetic acid
Flammable Store in a separate dry, cool Phosphorus, yellow Acids, bases,

Solids area away from oxidizers, Calcium carbide oxidizers, and poisons
corrosives, flammable liquids
Picric acid
Benzoyl peroxide
General Store on general laboratory Agar See specific MSDS.

Chemicals - benches or shelving preferably Sodium chloride
Non-reactive behind glass doors and below
eye level. Sodium bicarbonate
Most non-reactive salts

Oxidizers Store in a spill tray inside a Ammonium persulfate Separate from

chemical storage cabinet. Ferric chloride reducing agents,
Separate from flammable and flammables, and
combustible materials. Iodine combustibles.
Sodium hypochlorite
Benzoyl peroxide
Potassium permanganate
Potassium dichromate
The following are

generally considered
oxidizing substances:
Peroxides, perchlorates,
chlorates, nitrates,
bromates, superoxides.
Poisons/Toxic Store separately in vented, Aniline Flammable liquids,

Compounds cool, dry area, in unbreakable Carbon tetrachloride acids, bases, and
chemically-resistant secondary oxidizers.
containers and in accordance Chloroform
with the hazardous nature of Cyanides
the chemical.
Heavy metals See specific MSDS.
compounds, i.e.,
cadmium, mercury,
osmium
Oxalic acid
Phenol
Formic acid
Water- Store in dry, cool location, Sodium metal Separate from all
Reactive protect from water fire Potassium metal aqueous solutions
Chemicals sprinkler. and oxidizers.
Lithium metal
Lithium aluminum hydride

Carcinogens Label all containers as "Cancer Benzidine See specific MSDS.

Suspect Agents". Store Beta-naphthylamine
according to the hazardous
nature of the chemical, using Benzene
appropriate security when Methylene chloride
necessary.
Beta-propiolactone
Teratogens Label all containers as Lead and mercury See specific MSDS.
"Suspect Reproductive compounds
Hazard". Store according to Benzene
the hazardous nature of the
chemical, using appropriate Aniline
security when necessary.
Peroxide- Store in air-tight containers in a Diethyl ether See specific MSDS.
Forming dark, cool, dry area. See Table Acetaldehyde
Chemicals 3 for recommended storage
time limits. Acrylonitrile
Strong Store in cool, dry, well- Acetyl chloride See specific MSDS.
Reducing ventilated location. Water Thionyl chloride
Agents reactive. Segregate from all
other chemicals. Maleic anhydride
Ferrous sulfide
Storage of incompatible materials and their

segregation requirements
Chemicals used in industry have distinct properties that make them

advantageous for different processes. Using the wrong chemical can spoil a
batch, contaminate an entire production line or have even more serious
consequences when it is mixed with other chemicals.
Allowing chemicals to mix in storage can also have dire implications. Keeping
an accurate chemical inventory, knowing each chemical‘s properties and

designating storage areas for each chemical avoids unintentional mixing and
minimizes risks.
Having a complete and accurate chemical inventory and knowing where each
chemical is stored and used onsite helps to prevent chemicals from being
tucked into any available space when storage areas become limited.
Grouping Chemicals
Knowing a chemical‘s properties allows materials that have similar and

compatible properties to be stored together. In general, chemicals that have
the same hazard classification can usually be stored together safely, but there
are some exceptions.
Without diving too far into chemistry, knowing whether the chemical is organic
or inorganic is also important because even though two chemicals may be in
the same family, they could react if mixed. An example of this is nitric acid
(inorganic) and citric acid (organic).
Some chemicals may have more than one property. For example, acetic acid is
both flammable and corrosive. Both properties need to be taken into
consideration when storage decisions are being made.
Segregating Chemicals
After the properties of each chemical have been reviewed and chemicals are
grouped into families, it‘s time to look at which families can be stored near each
other and which need to be separated.
Incompatible chemicals can cause fires, explosions or the formation of toxic or

flammable gasses if they mix. Separating them reduces risk by preventing the

chance of mixing. Remember that there are exceptions within each chemical
family, but the following chart has some general guidelines on segregation:
Chemical Family Examples Incompatible With:

Bases / Caustics /Alkalis Sodium Hydroxide All acids
Ammonium Hydroxide Organic poisons
Calcium Hydroxide Organic solvents
Glutaraldehyde Oxidizers
Water-reactive chemicals
Compressed Gasses Oxygen Flammable gasses
Nitrogen
Hydrogen
Acetylene
Chlorine
Flammable Liquids Alcohols Acids
Acetone Bases / Caustics / Alkalis
Cyclohexane Oxidizers
Hydrazine Poisons
Toluene
Flammable Solids Phosphorus Acids
Lithium Oxidizers
Sodium Water
Potassium
Inorganic (mineral) Acids Hydrochloric Organic Acids
Hydrofluoric Bases / Caustics / Alkalis
Nitric Flammable liquids and
Phosphoric solids
Oxidizers
Poisons
Organic solvents
Inorganic Poisons Arsenic All acids
Barium Flammables
Mercury Bases / Caustics / Alkalis
Thallium Oxidizers
Lead Organic poisons
Organic solvents
Metal Hydrides Sodium Water
Pyrophorics Potassium Aqueous solutions
(Air and Water Reactive) Lithium All acids
Sodium Borohydride Oxidizers
Calcium Hydride Bases / Caustics / Alkalis
Lithium Aluminum Hydride Poisons
Organic Acids Acetic All Acids
Butyric Flammables
Formic Oxidizers
Propionic Bases / Caustics / Alkalis
Inorganic Poisons
Organic Poisons, Toxins and Carbon Tetrachloride All Acids
Carcinogens Chloroform Flammables

Formamide Oxidizers
Formaldehyde Bases / Caustics / Alkalis
Methylene Chloride Inorganic Poisons
Phenol
Organic Solvents Inorganic acids
Oxidizing acids
Alkalis / Caustics / Bases
Oxidizers
Inorganic poisons
Oxidizers Hydrogen Peroxide Organic acids
Ammonium Persulfate Organic poisons
Sodium Hypochlorite Organic solvents
Ammonium Nitrate Flammables
Segregating chemicals can be done by placing them in different physical

locations. This is a good option when large amounts of space are available.
Another option is putting a physical wall between incompatible materials. Some
facilities will also store materials in secondary containment trays or sumps so that
if a container fails, all the material in it is captured at that location and cannot
mix with other materials beside or below it.
In addition to segregating incompatible chemicals, consider the following

recommendations to help safely store all chemicals onsite:
Do Do Not
Stock spill kits, fire extinguishers and Allow open flames or heat sources, especially in
response equipment in all storage areas areas where flammable liquids or compressed
gasses are stored
Label storage areas to help prevent Store chemicals on dirt, grass or unpaved areas
inappropriate mixing and storage
Avoid large temperature fluctuations Store chemicals under sinks
Keep storage areas neat and clean Store products on ledges or unprotected
balconies
Inspect storage areas regularly to look for Allow chemical storage areas to be used for
damaged or leaking containers other purposes, even temporarily
Provide adequate lighting, good ventilation Allow chemicals to be moved to new storage
areas without a risk assessment
Ensure that shelving and construction Store hazardous chemicals on high shelves that
materials are compatible with the are hard to reach
chemicals being stored

Leakage and spillage containment
You should have procedures in place for spillage control. These should be
communicated and practised by your employees, or anyone who is expected
to deal with a spillage.
It is important to have means of controlling spillages and releases within the

storage area to prevent the uncontrolled spread of liquids. A number of control
measures are possible. You can provide dry sand, absorbent granules, sealing
putties and booms for containing and clearing up small spills where safe to do
so. Contaminated materials should then be disposed of safely and
appropriately by the use of a registered waste contractor. You should provide a
number of spare, clean, empty bags or drums for this purpose. Proprietary
salvage drums, sometimes known as overpack drums, are available to hold
leaking drums etc. You will need to label the used overbags or salvage drums
accordingly. The container used for holding spilled materials should be labelled
accordingly. Spillage control materials need to be suitable for use with the
spilled materials and readily to hand.
Control of spillages in outdoor storage areas
To contain spillages in outdoor storage areas, an impervious sill or low bund can
be installed. This should enclose a volume that is at least 110% of the capacity of
the single largest container in the bund except in the case of oil storage where
25% of the total volume should be used. Ramps can be provided over the sill to
allow fork-lift trucks, pallet trucks etc to access the storage area.

The surface of the storage area needs to be impervious and slightly sloped so
that any liquid spilt from the containers can flow away to a safe contained
place.
Depending on the hazards of the materials stored, it may be necessary to

incorporate a valve-controlled conduit or interceptor pit, or both, in the site
drains so that spillages can be retained on site. Fireproof jointing material should
be used for any joints in containment systems.
Combustible materials (including weed growth) need to be excluded from the

area surrounding the sill or bund, as their presence increases the fire risk; a one-
metre exclusion is considered adequate.
Control of spillages in buildings
Storage rooms or buildings should have floors constructed of materials that are
resistant to and compatible with the materials stored. For instance, many acids
attack concrete floors, solvents attack bitumen floors, and timber floors
impregnated by flammable liquids or oxidising agents such as peroxides are an
increased fire risk. Containment of any leaks or releases from containers can be
achieved by sloping the floor away from the door, although this may not be
possible in warehouses designed for racking, where a sloping floor may
compromise racking stability. Leaks can also be contained by providing a sill
across the door opening. Typically, such sills are about 150 mm high, and again
ramps might be required to allow access for wheeled trolleys, fork-lift trucks etc.
The walls up to the height of the sill should also be resistant to and compatible
with the material stored. Additional containment may be required if the
building‘s drains link to the site drainage systems.
Problems Encountered During Filling and Transfer

One of the main problems associated with the use and storage of dangerous
substances is the release of vapours. This must be prevented wherever possible
or at the very least kept to a minimum such that the vapour/air mixture remains
below the Lower Flammability Limit.
The nature of filling and transfer operations significantly increases the risk of
explosion, since it allows an ideal opportunity for vapour to be released.
The preferred method of transfer is by an enclosed pipe network to the point of

use. This reduces the possibility of vapour escape and accidental spillage
although it is not a foolproof process as the events at Buncefield in 2005
(described previously) show all too clearly.
Another example of the serious nature of problems arising during filling and
transfer operations can be seen in the Texas City Refinery explosion, which
occurred on 23 March 2005.
The Texas City Refinery is the third-largest in the United States and was operated
by BP. It had an input capacity of 437,000 barrels per day as of January 1, 2005.
The explosion killed 15 workers and injured more than 170 others.
The refinery had been in operation since 1934, but had not been well
maintained. Indeed, a report on the plant in January 2005, just a few weeks
before the explosion, identified defects including broken alarms, thinned pipe,
chunks of concrete falling and staff being overcome with fumes.
The incident occurred at the end of a nine week ‗turnaround‘ or maintenance

cycle. The isomerisation unit (which boosts the octane level of gasoline) had
been offline for two weeks and was in the process of being restarted. During this
process, a component known as a ‗raffinate splitter‘ was overfilled, causing it to
be overheated. This in turn led to an increase in pressure. As pressure increased

beyond safe limits, three relief valves opened to allow highly volatile gasoline
components to escape to the 10‘ x 20‘ ‗blowdown‘ drum.
The relief valves remained open for 6 minutes, discharging enough fuel into the
blowdown drum to overwhelm the system. This resulted in liquid and vapours
being forced up the vent stack and being discharged to the open air.
The vapour left the stop of the stack and, as it is heavier than air, it started to
descend to ground level. Witnesses saw what was happening and tried to stop
all hot work, but it was too late. A pickup truck was left with its engine running
near to the base of the tower and it is thought that the vapour cloud was
ignited when it came into contact with the vehicle‘s running engine.
The ensuing blast was strong enough to rip the top off a benzene storage tank
some 300 yards away and blew in windows of properties almost a mile away.
The storage and handling of dangerous

substances
Flow through pipelines
The movement of gases, liquids and solids etc is a necessary evil. The substance
has to be moved from A to B and however this is achieved, there needs to be a
careful examination of the hazards and risks that are presented.
A variety of dangerous materials are transferred through pipelines, including:
 Crude oil: pipelines are made from steel and are often buried when
travelling long distances.

 Natural gas: pipelines are constructed of carbon steel.

 Highly toxic ammonia is one of the most dangerous substances to be
transported through long-distance pipelines, but accidents have been
rare.
 Hydrogen.
 Pressurised hot water or sometimes steam.
Oil pipelines are an example of how substances are moved in vast quantities
across the country (indeed, across continents). The health and safety issues
connected with the use of pipelines such as this can be explained below:
Pressure
Pressure has to be applied in order for the quantity being pushed through the
pipeline to maintain a correct flow. The pressure is required – yet can have an
adverse effect on joints and flanges of the pipeline structure, making these
areas vulnerable to overdue weakness (and failure).
Static Electricity
Static electricity can build up, and discharge of the flow rate of the substance in
the pipe is not correct (either too much or too little). Static is built up when
molecules of materials that are not similar come into contact.
Blockages
Pipes can become blocked with foreign bodies – pressure then builds up or falls,
and the system fails.
Fire and explosion

The spark from static electricity can ignite a fire and thus cause an explosion.
Earth bonding systems are therefore required as a safety measure.
The principles of filling and emptying containers
Overfilling
Overfilling of containers must be avoided. Ensuring the correct quantity of

substance is only used when filling the container is a priority. A safe system of
work must be in place in order to give clear instructions etc, as should
emergency arrangements in place to deal with any spillages or first aid
requirements.
Suitability
The container(s) must be suitable for the purpose. This means making sure that
the container being used can ‗house‘ the substance being put into it without
interfering with its structural integrity.
Clean and Empty
The container must be empty of all traces of what was previously in it, and it
must be thoroughly cleaned in order to ensure that substances are not
inadvertently mixed.
Hazards to be aware of when cleaning and emptying containers include:
 Spillage of substance.
 Escape of vapour.
 Electrostatic charges.
Marking

The correct marking of suitable containers is required in order to ensure the

correct substances are identified.
Static electrical sparks
Transferring a liquid from one metal container to another may result in static
electrical sparks. To prevent the build up of static electricity and prevent sparks
from causing a fire or explosion, it is important to bond metal dispensing and
receiving containers together before pouring.
Bonding is done by making an electrical connection from one metal container

to the other. This ensures that there will be no difference in electrical potential
between the two containers and, therefore, no sparks will be formed.
The principles of dispensing, spraying and disposal of

flammable liquids
Dispensing and decanting should be carried out in a way which reduces spills
and dangerous releases of flammable vapours. The need for these operations
should be assessed and, where possible, minimised by the use of enclosed
transfer systems. If an enclosed system cannot be used, the containers should
be designed to minimise spillage, release of vapour and the effects of fire.
Dispensing Flammable Liquids
 Ensure that the area where flammable liquids are dispensed has
mechanical ventilation from floor level to the outdoors.
 Ensure that there are no ignition sources (sparks, hot surfaces, torches,
open flames, pilot lights) in the dispensing area.
 Mark entrances to dispensing areas with suitable warning signs.

 When opened for dispensing, flammable liquid drums should be fitted with
pressure-relief venting.
 Acceptable transfer pumps or self-closing safety taps must be used during
the dispensing of flammable liquids. The self-closing safety taps should be
equipped with drip-proof, replaceable O-rings and flame arrestors.
 Containers and dispensing equipment must be bonded and grounded
when flammable liquid is being dispensed.
Spraying flammable liquids
In many cases, employers and employees at these workplaces are not fully
aware of the potential risks to the health and safety of their employees from
exposure to chemicals used in the spray painting process. Without the proper
control measures in place, prolonged exposure to these chemicals over a
period of time may lead to serious injury or illness.
There are two main hazards associated with spraying of flammable liquids:
 Fire and/or explosion – due to the flammable nature of the substances

used.
 Hazards to health – depending on the hazardous nature of the substance,
the potential health effects may be short term and/or long term.
The usual way to control the flammable vapours arising from spraying processes
is to use a ventilated spray booth or enclosure. Its purpose is to:
 prevent the escape of vapours into the workplace;

 prevent contamination of the workplace by overspray;
 protect the health of workers;
 provide separation from sources of ignition and to prevent the spread of
fire;

 prevent contamination of the work piece by dust and grease from the
work environment.
Disposal of flammable liquids
This should happen in suitably closed containers that are compatible with the
substances in them. Wastes must not be mixed. The Environment Agency must
be consulted if you have any questions or concerns.
Waste liquids will generally need to be stored and handled according to the
same standards as the flammable liquids from which they were derived. Dispose
of waste liquids safely, taking account of the need to prevent pollution. Never
put waste liquid into public drains or watercourses. When in doubt, consult the
local waste disposal authority.
The dangers of electricity in hazardous areas
In electrical and safety engineering, hazardous locations are places where fire
or explosion hazards may exist. Sources of such hazards include gases, vapors,
dust, fibers, and flyings, which are combustible or flammable. Electrical
equipment installed in such locations could provide an ignition source, due to
electrical arcing, or high temperature. Standards and regulations exist to identify
such locations, classify the hazards, and design equipment for safe use in such
locations.
In an industrial plant, such as a refinery or chemical plant, handling of large

quantities of flammable liquids and gases creates a risk of exposure. Coal mines,
grain mills, elevators, and similar facilities likewise present the risk of a clouds of
dust. In some cases, the hazardous atmosphere is present all the time, or for long
periods. In other cases, the atmosphere is normally non-hazardous, but a
dangerous concentration can be reasonably foreseen -- such as operator error

or equipment failure. Locations are thus classified by type and risk of release of
gas, vapor, or dust. Various regulations use terms such as Class, Division, Zone,
and Group to differentiate the various hazards.
Often an area classification plan view is provided to identify equipment ratings

and installation techniques to be used for each classified area. The plan may
contain the list of chemicals with their group and temperature rating. The
classification process requires the participation of operations, maintenance,
safety, electrical and instrumentation professionals; and the use of process
diagrams, material flows, safety data sheets, and other pertinent documents.
Area classification documentations are reviewed and updated to reflect
process changes.
The transport of dangerous substances
Carrying goods by road or rail involves the risk of traffic accidents. If the goods
carried are dangerous, there is also the risk of an incident, such as spillage of the
goods, leading to hazards such as fire, explosion, chemical burn or
environmental damage.
Most goods are not considered sufficiently dangerous to require special

precautions during carriage. Some goods, however, have properties which
mean they are potentially dangerous if carried.
Dangerous goods are liquid or solid substances and articles containing them,
that have been tested and assessed against internationally-agreed criteria - a
process called classification - and found to be potentially dangerous
(hazardous) when carried. Dangerous goods are assigned to different Classes
depending on their predominant hazard.
There are regulations to deal with the carriage of dangerous goods, the purpose
of which is to protect everyone either directly involved (such as consignors or
carriers), or who might become involved (such as members of the emergency
services and public). Regulations place duties upon everyone involved in the
carriage of dangerous goods, to ensure that they know what they have to do to
minimise the risk of incidents and guarantee an effective response.
Key safety principles in loading and unloading of tankers

and tank containers
Road tankers are one of the most recognised means for the conveyance of
products from manufacturers distribution terminals through to customers. A key
function of a road tanker, aside from the safe conveyance of products, is the
correct interfacing with a loading gantry/offloading point at a distribution
terminal. This should ensure safe operation when loading and unloading.
The loading/unloading area should be located in a separate area from other

vehicles to avoid the possibility of collisions. If not temporary barriers should be
placed around the area until the operation is completed.
If top filling of a tanker is used, hand rails should be fitted to prevent the driver
from falling.
Fire extinguishers should be carried on all vehicles. Spill kits should be available
at the unloading/loading location.
Where bulk storage tanks are used for different substances, there is always the
possibility of cross contamination – a substance being unloaded from a tanker
into the wrong bulk tank at a distribution terminal. This can be prevented by
strict operating procedures and the use of couplings of a different design for

each substance. Conversely, care must be taken when loading tankers with
different substances from those previously carried.
Labelling of vehicles and packaging of substances
An international globally harmonised system for classification and labelling of

chemicals (GHS) has been available since 2003. In Europe, the CLP
(Classification, Labelling and Packaging) Regulation implements this system in
the workplace and for consumers. The Regulation is being gradually applied
and will eventually replace the pre-existing European system in 2015.
To alert users to the health and environmental hazards of chemicals, European

Regulations call for the use of safety labels on packaging of these products.
These labels also inform users of the precautions to take to safely handle, store
and dispose of the chemicals.
A substance or mixture contained in packaging should be labelled according

to CLP before placing it on the market where it is classified as hazardous. A
manufacturer, importer, downstream user (including formulator) or distributor
(including retailer) must label any substance or mixture before placing it on the
market. Distributors need not classify from scratch, but use the classification from
their supplier, provided classification is derived using CLP. This also applies to
downstream users, provided the composition of the substance or mixture is not
changed.
Elements of a Hazard Label
A hazard label must contain the following:
 name, address and telephone number of the EU supplier

 product identifiers e.g. chemical name and CAS/EC no. for a

substance/trade name of a mixture as well as chemical name(s) of all
substances responsible for classification of mixture (excluding skin and eye
irritants)
 relevant hazard pictogram(s)
 relevant signal word: either Warning or Danger dependent on
classification
 hazard statement(s) description of the hazardous effect e.g. Harmful if
inhaled
 appropriate precautionary statements to allow the user to take measures
to protect health/environment e.g. Keep out of reach of children,
 nominal quantity (for supply to general public)
 obligatory supplemental information which comprise of hazard
statements taken over from previous chemical legislation e.g. EUH001
Explosive when dry and EUH204 Contains isocyanates. May produce an
allergic reaction‖
Non-obligatory supplemental labelling information is not part of the legal

labelling requirements under CLP, for example, instructions for use. Such
information must not distract from nor contradict the obligatory label elements
and statements, for example ‗non-toxic‘ or ‗non-polluting‘ must not be used.
Warning signs are used on vehicles to alert emergency services and other road
users that a vehicle is carrying dangerous goods which pose a greater risk to
people, property and the environment than ordinary loads.
The signs are normally displayed on three sides of the vehicle. The information is
used by the Emergency Services in the event of an accident or spillage. The sign
provides information on:
 Nature of the product.

 The fire extinguishing media to be used.

 Spillage containment or dilution.
 Whether the substance poses a threat to the Public.
 Emergency contact numbers.
Figure – example of labelling on tanker
The importance of driver training programmes
Anyone involved in the carriage of dangerous goods by road has to make sure
that they and any of their employees who have any responsibility for such
carriage are appropriately trained. This requirement covers, for example,
loaders and un-loaders, personnel in freight-forwarding agencies, and drivers
who do not require specialised driver training.
The training must include:
 Awareness training, covering the general requirements of ADR.

 Function-specific training, covering the detailed requirements of ADR and

(where relevant) other modes of transport.
 Safety training, covering the hazards and dangers presented by
dangerous goods and awareness of safe handling and emergency
response procedures, commensurate with the degree of risk of injury or
exposure arising from an incident involving carriage of dangerous goods.
Details of all training should be kept by the employer and employee. Training
must be verified when starting a new job, and there should be periodic refresher
courses taking account of changes in the law.
10.5.3 Hazardous environments
Hazardous environment poses a multitude of health and safety concerns, any

one of which could result in serious injury or death. These hazards are a function
of the nature of the environment as well as a consequence of the work being
performed. They include:
 Chemical exposure
 Fire and explosion
 Oxygen deficiency
 Ionizing radiation
 Biologic hazards
 Safety hazards
 Electrical hazards
 Heat stress
 Cold exposure
 Noise

Several factors distinguish the hazardous environment from other occupational

situations involving hazardous substances. One important factor is the
uncontrolled condition of the site. Even extremely hazardous substances do not
endanger human health or safety if they are properly handled. However,
improper control of these substances can result in a severe threat to site workers
and to the general public.
The principles of: resistance to mechanical

damage, protection against solid objects and
dusts, protection against liquids and gases
Resistance to Mechanical Damage
Mechanical damage sources include direct impact, stress, strain, abrasion,

wear, vibration and pneumatic or hydraulic pressure. Mechanical protection of
electrical equipment includes placing electrical equipment away from impact
risks, using barriers and fences and by using cable protection such as steel
conduit, trunking and wire armoured cables such as that pictured, left.
Electrical equipment should be designed to withstand mechanical forces such

as expansion and contraction. Flexible cables should be capable of
withstanding the forces to which they are subject by virtue of regular
movement. Cable entry points should also be protected against mechanical
wear, e.g. through the use of rubber grommets.
The IP rating of electrical equipment determines the level of protection of the

enclosure against contact with live electrical parts. It is also used for protection
against moving parts (motors, fans etc). The rating is denoted by two numbers,
e.g. IP68. The first number (6 in this case) denotes protection against ingress of
solids or human contact; the second denotes protection against ingress of

liquids.
Protection against solid objects and dusts
Equipment used in dusty environments should be capable of resisting the entry

of dust and dirt where it is likely to cause mechanical damage or electrical short
circuits. Where accumulations of dust, dirt etc (such as may be found on
ventilation inlets of portable motor-driven equipment) is likely, the equipment
should be regularly inspected, cleaned and maintained.
Protection against liquids and gases
Sources of damage from liquids and gases include liquid immersion, splashing,
spraying, condensation, vapours, solvents and detergents. Liquid and solid
contamination may also be present, as may conducting and non-conducting
dusts.
Wet environments
In some working environments there may be significant use of conductive and

corrosive fluids that can create humid and corrosive atmospheres. This creates a
risk of corrosion and subsequent damage to any uninsulated or unprotected
parts of the electrical system. There is also a possibility of ingress of fluid or water
vapour into the electrical components. In such environments, it is therefore
essential that all electrical equipment is so designed and constructed to
withstand the hazardous nature of the environment.

Water makes electrocution more likely. Using electricity in wet environments,

particularly when equipment has damaged insulation, poses significant safety
risks.
Factors that affect the extent of deterioration in a wet environment include the
following:
 temperature;
 degree of oxygenation;
 presence of bacteria, fungi and other organisms;
 light;
 period of exposure;
 nature of the material surroundings;
 extent of exposure cycles; and
 development of encrusting concretions.
Warm, moist conditions usually increase degradation processes whereas cool,

dry conditions are less damaging. Damp surroundings encourage breakdown of
materials through chemical and biological processes. Water is essential for many
chemical reactions, the corrosion of iron and the hydrolytic breakdown of the
cellulose fibres of wood and textiles being examples of two such reactions.
Moisture also encourages fungal and bacterial attack on susceptible materials.
The classification of hazardous areas, zoning
Hazardous area classification should be carried out as an integral part of the risk
assessment to identify places (or areas) where controls over ignition sources are
needed (hazardous places) and also those places where they are not (non
hazardous places). Hazardous places are further classified in Zones which
distinguish between places that have a high chance of an explosive

atmosphere occurring and those places where an explosive atmosphere may
only occur occasionally or in abnormal circumstances. The definitions of the
Zones (which are included in DSEAR) also recognise that the chance of a fire or
explosion depends on the likelihood of an explosive atmosphere occurring at
the same time as an ignition source becomes active.
Identifying hazardous or non-hazardous areas should be carried out in a

systematic way. Risk assessment should be used to determine if hazardous areas
exist and to then assign zones to those areas. The assessment should consider
such matters as:
 the hazardous properties of the dangerous substances involved;

 the amount of dangerous substances involved;
 the work processes, and their interactions, including any cleaning, repair
or maintenance activities that will be carried out;
 the temperatures and pressures at which the dangerous substances will
be handled;
 the containment system and controls provided to prevent liquids, gases,
vapours or dusts escaping into the general atmosphere of the workplace;
 any explosive atmosphere formed within an enclosed plant or storage
vessel; and,
 any measures provided to ensure that any explosive atmosphere does not
persist for an extended time, e.g. ventilation.
Taken together these factors are the starting point for hazardous area
classification, and should allow for the identification of any zoned areas.
Hazardous areas are classified into zones based on an assessment of the

frequency of the occurrence and duration of an explosive gas atmosphere, as
follows:
 Zone 0: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is present

continuously or for long periods;
 Zone 1: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is likely to occur in
normal operation;
 Zone 2: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is not likely to
occur in normal operation and, if it occurs, will only exist for a short time.
Various sources have tried to place time limits on to these zones, but none have
been officially adopted. The most common values used are:
 Zone 0: Explosive atmosphere for more than 1000h/yr

 Zone 1: Explosive atmosphere for more than 10, but less than 1000 h/yr
 Zone 2: Explosive atmosphere for less than 10h/yr, but still sufficiently likely
as to require controls over ignition sources.
Where people wish to quantify the zone definitions, these values are the most
appropriate, but for the majority of situations a purely qualitative approach is
adequate.
The use of permits-to-work
Permit-to-work (PTW) refers to management systems used to ensure that work is

done safely and efficiently. These are used in hazardous industries and involve
procedures to request, review, authorise, document and most importantly, de-
conflict tasks to be carried out by front line workers. Permit to work is an essential
part of control of work, the integrated management of business critical
maintenance processes. Control of work is made up of permit to work, hazard
identification and risk assessment, and isolation management.

Permits are effectively a means of communication between site management,

plant supervisors and operators, and those who carry out the work. Examples of
high-risk jobs where a written permit to work procedure may need to be used
include hot work such as welding, vessel entry, cutting into pipes carrying
hazardous substances, diving in the vicinity of intake openings, and work that
requires electrical or mechanical isolation. It is also a means of coordinating
different work activities to avoid conflicts.
Permit to work implementations usually use incompatible operations matrices.

For example, to preclude one workgroup welding or grinding in the vicinity of
another venting explosive or flammable gases. The permit to work system is for
work being performed in accordance with pre-approved procedures and that
has been macro scheduled, the purpose is to prevent conflicting short term
activities of different workgroups to prevent hazardous interference.
A permit to work form typically contains these items:
 The work to be done, the equipment to be used and personnel involved

 Precautions to be taken when performing the task
 Other workgroups to be informed of work being performed in their area
 Authorisation for work to commence
 Duration that the permit is valid
 Method to extend the permit for an additional period
 Witness mechanism that all work has been complete and the worksite
restored to a clean, safe condition
 Actions to be taken in an emergency
The following aspects should be considered with respect to Permit to Work

Systems:
 Human factors;

 Management of the work permit systems;

 Poorly skilled work force;
 Unconscious and conscious incompetence;
 Objectives of the work permit system;
 Types of work permits required; and
 Contents of the work permits.
The following issues may contribute towards a major accident or hazard:
 Failing of the site safety management system;

 Failure to recognise a hazard before and during maintenance;
 Failure to comply with the work permit system in hazardous environments;
and
 Communication failure during the use of a work permit system.
The principles of pressurisation and purging
Hazardous locations provide some of the greatest challenges to facility and

enclosure safety. Engineers must determine and mitigate the dangerous effects
present when designing and employing enclosures in these situations.
Fortunately, there are many protection concepts that can be utilized when
placing equipment into hazardous locations. Some of the most widely used are
Explosion-Proof or Intrinsically Safe concepts which focus on containment or
prevention.
However, one of the easiest to understand and use is purge and pressurization.
Purge and pressurization is an alternative hazardous location protection
concept that allows lesser rated equipment to be used in hazardous areas by
segregating the equipment from the hazardous material.
Purge and pressurization is a two-step process done prior to energizing the

electrical equipment inside the enclosure. The goal is to ensure that once an
enclosure is purged and pressurized with a protective gas supply, only then can
the enclosure be energized or powered up. The protective gas supply needs to
be free of any hazardous or explosive gas and have the capacity to sustain the
purge and pressurization process. In some special applications, an inert gas is
used as the protective gas supply (argon, nitrogen, or some mixture of inert
gasses) instead of a standard atmospheric air mixture.
Purge is the process used to remove any potentially hazardous gas from the
interior of the enclosure prior to pressurization. The purge cycle performs ―air-
exchanges‖ that displace any explosive (hazardous) gas with inert, protective
gas instead. Once completed, all potentially explosive gas has been removed
from the enclosure‘s interior. This can be done either manually or automatically.
Intrinsically safe equipment, flameproof

equipment, type ‘N’ equipment, type ‘e’
equipment
Intrinsically safe equipment
Intrinsic safety (IS) is a protection technique for safe operation of electrical

equipment in hazardous areas by limiting the energy, electrical and thermal,
available for ignition. In signal and control circuits that can operate with low
currents and voltages, the intrinsic safety approach simplifies circuits and
reduces installation cost over other protection methods. Areas with dangerous

concentrations of flammable gases or dust are found in applications such as

petrochemical refineries and mines.
The principal reason for using intrinsic safety is because it is essentially a low
power technique. Consequently, the risk of ignition is minimized, and adequate
safety can be achieved with a level of confidence that is not always achieved
by other techniques.
It is difficult to assess the temperature rise, which can occur if the equipment is
immersed in the dust because of the many (frequently unpredictable) factors,
which determine the temperature rise within the dust layer. The safest technique
is therefore to restrict the available power to the lowest practical level.
A major factor in favour of intrinsic safety is that the power level under fault
conditions is controlled by the system design and does not rely on the less well-
specified limitation of fault power.
Intrinsic safety also has the advantage that the possibility of ignition from
immersed or damaged wiring is minimized. It is desirable to be able to do ‗live
maintenance‘ on an instrument system, and the use of the intrinsically safe
technique permits this without the necessity of special ‗dust-free‘ certificates.
There is a need to clear layers of dust carefully and to avoid contamination of

the interior of apparatus during the maintenance but this is apparent to any
trained technician. (There is no significant possibility of a person, in a dust cloud
that can be ignited, surviving without breathing apparatus).
Advantage – considerably cheaper than comparable flame proof / explosion

proof equipment, no special cabling required. Live maintenance permitted, no
need to shut down the plant

Disadvantage – only suitable for low power equipment e.g. sounders, beacons
and smoke detectors (which must be certified Intrinsically Safe)
Flameproof equipment
Flameproof equipment refers to an apparatus designed to ensure that internal

ignition within a flammable atmosphere will not transmit outside the protective
enclosure. In other words, flameproof equipment prevents the ignition of
surrounding flammables in the hazardous area. Flameproof is a preferred
protection method when electrical equipment potentially contains high energy
arcing or sparking components in standard operation. Furthermore, these high-
energy components form explosions that are difficult to avoid.
Flameproof is one of many explosion protection techniques extensively used for

light fittings, JBs, and motors in hazardous areas. Moreover, the IEC certifies
protective equipment and the local IS (Intrinsically Safe) standards govern
usage.
Advantage – simple to design the system, suitable for high power equipment
Disadvantage – equipment becomes extremely heavy & expensive; opening

the enclosure while powered is not permitted
Type ‘N’ equipment
Type ‗N‘ or ‗Ex n‘ is a standard of explosion protection applied to electrical

equipment used in hazardous areas such that, in normal operating
circumstances and in certain specified abnormal conditions, for example a
hazardous area light fitting with a failed lamp, it is not capable of igniting a
surrounding explosive atmosphere.

Type ‘e’ equipment
Increased Safety Ex e is an explosion protection concept applied to the

installation to ensure increased security against the possibility of excessive
temperatures and sparks from hazardous area electrical equipment. Equipment
that normally causes sparks is excluded from use within this method of explosion
protection.
‗Ex e‘ means that an enclosure is constructed and certified as Explosion

Protected according to the Increased Safety standard.
The intention of the Ex e Increased Safety standard is to provide an impact

resistant enclosure for electrical equipment and also to ensure that the contents
will not produce a spark, temperature or current creepage that could ignite the
external flammable atmosphere in a hazardous area zone, location or
workspace.
10.5.4 Emergency planning
The need for emergency preparedness within

an organisation
Section 8 of the ILO Code requires that "emergency plans must be in place for
major hazard installations which cover the handling of emergencies both on site
and off site". It goes on to state that for both on-site and off-site emergency
planning, a scenario analysis should be based on those accidents which are
more likely to occur, but other less likely events which would have severe
consequences should also be considered. The analysis should indicate:

 the worst events considered;

 the route to those worst events;
 the time-scale to lesser events which might lead to the worst events;
 the size of lesser events if their development is halted;
 the relative likelihood of events;
 the consequences of each event
Organizations are often required to have written emergency procedures in

place in order to:
 comply with national laws;

 satisfy demands from their insurers, their regulatory agency, shareholders,
stakeholders and unions;
 protect staff, the public, the environment, the business, their property and
their reputation.
Having a well defined and practiced emergency plan can ensure that
organisations can have confidence that prompt action from well trained staff
can minimise the impact of the incident in terms of casualties; damage to plant
and equipment and harm to the environment. As an example, the
consequences of the Piper Alpha north sea oil platform disaster in 1988 (167
deaths and complete destruction of the platform.) may have been greatly
reduced had an effective emergency response plan been in place.
Consequence minimisation via emergency

procedures
First Aid/medical
The consequences of personal injury can be minimised by prompt treatment. In

many countries, national laws require the appointment of first aiders in all
workplaces. In higher risk workplaces (for example offshore oil and gas
installation where, additionally, there is no easy access to hospitals) a higher
level of medical treatment is provided in the form of paramedics or even
doctors.
Fire and evacuation
Fire is a threat to most workplaces, and therefore fire and evacuation

procedures will be common to most workplaces. In the event of a fire starting,
the speed of detection, raising the alarm and dealing with the fire is crucial in
minimising loss, with respect to personnel and property. Most organisations, in
addition to ensuring that workers are aware of the fire procedures, will have staff
trained in the use of fire extinguishers and fire marshals to aid evacuation. In
larger, higher risk premises (such as an oil refinery) organisations often have their
own fire departments to both help develop emergency plans and to lead the
response in the event of a serious fire.
Spill containment
Generation and implementation of effective emergency response and spill

control procedures are fundamental aspects of any effective health and safety
management system. Again, national legislation may require spill procedures
with respect to minimising the effects on the environment.
Such procedures may range from having drip trays or bunds around vessels on
site, to having relevant spill containment equipment for off-site emergencies,
such as contamination to water courses.
An emergency spill control procedure should include the following:

 Spills involving hazardous materials should first be contained to prevent

spread of the material to other areas. This may involve the use of
temporary dyking, sand bags, dry sand, earth or proprietary booms /
absorbent pads;
 Wherever possible the material should be rendered safe by treating with
appropriate chemicals to neutralise/stabilise
 Hazardous materials in a fine dusty form should not be cleared up by dry
brushing. Vacuum cleaners should be used in preference.
 Treated material should be absorbed onto inert carrier material to allow
the material to be cleared up and removed to a safe place for disposal or
further treatment as appropriate;
 Waste should not be allowed to accumulate. A regular and frequent
waste removal procedure should be adopted.
Development and maintenance of emergency

plans
A definite plan to deal with major emergencies is an important element of OH&S

programs.
Besides the major benefit of providing guidance during an emergency,

developing the plan has other advantages. You may discover unrecognized
hazardous conditions that would aggravate an emergency situation and you
can work to eliminate them. The planning process may bring to light
deficiencies, such as the lack of resources (equipment, trained personnel,
supplies), or items that can be corrected before an emergency occurs. In

addition, an emergency plan promotes safety awareness and shows the

organization's commitment to the safety of workers.
The lack of an emergency plan could lead to severe losses such as multiple
casualties and possible financial collapse of the organization.
Since emergencies will occur, preplanning is necessary. An urgent need for

rapid decisions, shortage of time, and lack of resources and trained personnel
can lead to chaos during an emergency. Time and circumstances in an
emergency mean that normal channels of authority and communication
cannot be relied upon to function routinely. The stress of the situation can lead
to poor judgment resulting in severe losses. A well thought out, well organized
emergency response plan will help to eliminate these issues.
Content of both on-site and off-site plans
An emergency plan specifies procedures for handling sudden or unexpected

situations. The objective is to be prepared to:
 Prevent fatalities and injuries.

 Reduce damage to buildings, stock, and equipment.
 Protect the environment and the community.
 Accelerate the resumption of normal operations.
Development of the plan begins with a vulnerability assessment. The results of

the study will show:
 How likely a situation is to occur.

 What means are available to stop or prevent the situation.
 What is necessary for a given situation.

The emergency plan includes:
 All possible emergencies, consequences, required actions, written

procedures, and the resources available.
 Detailed lists of emergency response personnel including their cell phone
numbers, alternate contact details, and their duties and responsibilities.
 Floor plans.
 Large scale maps showing evacuation routes and service conduits (such
as gas and water lines).
Since a sizable document will likely result, the plan should provide staff members
with separate written instructions about their particular emergency response
duties.
The following are examples of the parts of an emergency plan. These elements
may not cover every situation in every workplace but serve as a general
guideline when writing a workplace specific plan:
Objective
The objective is a brief summary of the purpose of the plan; that is, to reduce
human injury and damage to property and environment in an emergency. It
also specifies those staff members who may put the plan into action. The
objective identifies clearly who these staff members are since the normal chain
of command cannot always be available on short notice. At least one of them
must be on the site at all times when the premises are occupied. The extent of
authority of these personnel must be clearly indicated.
Organization
One individual should be appointed and trained to act as Emergency Co-

ordinator as well as a "back-up" co-ordinator. However, personnel on site during

an emergency are key in ensuring that prompt and efficient action is taken to
minimize loss. In some cases it may be possible to recall off-duty employees to
help, but the critical initial decisions usually must be made immediately.
Specific duties, responsibilities, authority, and resources must be clearly defined.

Among the responsibilities that must be assigned are:
 Reporting the emergency.

 Activating the emergency plan.
 Assuming overall command.
 Establishing communication.
 Providing medical aid.
 Alerting staff.
 Ordering response, including evacuation.
 Alerting external agencies, as necessary.
 Confirming evacuation is complete.
 Alerting outside population of possible risk, as necessary.
 Requesting external aid.
 Coordinating activities of various groups.
 Advising relatives of casualties.
 Providing medical aid.
 Ensuring emergency shut offs are closed.
 Sounding the all-clear.
 Advising media.
Procedures
Many factors determine what procedures are needed in an emergency, such

as:
 Nature of emergency.

 Degree of emergency.
 Size of organization.
 Capabilities of the organization in an emergency situation.
 Immediacy of outside aid.
 Physical layout of the premises.
Common elements to be considered in all emergencies include pre-emergency

preparation and provisions for alerting and evacuating staff, handling
casualties, and for containing the hazards.
Natural hazards, such as floods or severe storms, often provide prior warning. The
plan should take advantage of such warnings with, for example, instructions on
sand bagging, removal of equipment to needed locations, providing alternate
sources of power, light or water, extra equipment, and relocation of personnel
with special skills. Phased states of alert allow such measures to be initiated in an
orderly manner.
Testing and Revision
Completing a comprehensive plan for handling emergencies is a major step

toward preventing disasters. However, it is difficult to predict all of the problems
that may happen unless the plan is tested. Exercises and drills may be
conducted to practice all or critical portions (such as evacuation) of the plan. A
thorough and immediate review after each exercise, drill, or after an actual
emergency will point out areas that require improvement. Knowledge of
individual responsibilities can be evaluated through paper tests or interviews.
The plan should be revised when shortcomings have become known, and
should be reviewed at least annually. Changes in plant infrastructure, processes,
materials used, and key personnel are occasions for updating the plan.

It should be stressed that provision must be made for the training of both
individuals and teams, if they are expected to perform adequately in an
emergency. An annual full-scale exercise will help in maintaining a high level of
proficiency.
To reduce the impact on the organisation, including post-

incident recovery
Emergency planning is part of an overall planning strategy for preventing and

minimising the effects of major accidents to people and the environment. There
are three basic parts of this major accident strategy they are:
 Identification - establishments holding more than specified quantities of

dangerous substances should notify their presence to the local
authority/enforcing authority;
 Prevention and control - appropriate controls based on an assessment of
the hazards, risks and possible consequences, the likelihood of a major
accident can be minimised; and
 Mitigation - even with the best controls, major accidents will never be
totally eliminated so the effects of any that do occur should be kept as
small as possible. Emergency planning is one of the principal steps to
achieving this.
Post-incident recovery
Post incident recovery can be made easier if some preparation is done

beforehand. Issue to consider include:
 Having off-site, current back-ups of critical data, vendor lists, employee

details and other critical information. While this may be as simple as

someone taking a disk home with him/her, it is important to recognize that

if the disk or data is lost, the information may get into the wrong hands.
 Considering standby facilities/arrangements to minimise business
disruption.
 Conducting an insurance review to ensure that your insurance is
adequate to your needs. Ensure that insurance records are kept with
back-up information.
 Communicating to the local community when the incident is over.
Offering assistance to ensure safe return to their homes (may involve
"clean up" for example.)
On-going monitoring and maintenance of emergency plan
The emergency plans should be reviewed at regular intervals to ensure its

continued suitability and effectiveness.
Reviews could also be initiated by:
 changes in legislation
 advances in technology and equipment
 changes in organisational direction
 changes in products and activities
 lessons from incidents
 findings of audits, reporting and communication.
In addition, the plan should be tested regularly and revised as necessary. It

should be updated when:
 testing of the plan identifies shortcomings or omissions

 modifications or alterations occur at the facility

 the type and quantities of hazardous materials on-site change

significantly
 an incident or near miss indicates the need to do so
 changes to surrounding land use impact upon the emergency plan
 changes occur that will impact on the execution of the plan, such as
resources, safety systems, personnel and contact numbers.
The role of external emergency services and

local authorities in emergency planning and
control
High risk organisations need to have in place effective emergency plans to help
to minimise the consequences in the event of a serious incident. The
emergency plan must be developed and practised on site so that all workers
understand their role in an emergency. However, the scale of a likely
emergency is such that there is also likely to be a considerable impact on the
local community. In addition, the fact that there has been a major incident will
place considerable strain on local resources.
Therefore, in order to ensure that the plan runs smoothly and adequate external
resources are provided in a timely and efficient manner, external services such
as the emergency services and local authorities will need to be involved in the
process of developing the emergency plan. They will also need to be involved in
exercises designed to test the planning. This will help to ensure that those tasked
with rendering assistance will know where the high risk areas of the site are and
will come adequately prepared to tackle the situation.

Local authorities need to be involved as they may need to make arrangements

to close roads or relocate the local populace while the emergency response
takes place. In very serious incidents, local authorities may need to liaise with
other authorities further afield in order to co-opt some of their resources. An
example was the Buncefield fire in 2005, where the local authority had to
arrange for the attendance of fire fighting services from other counties many
miles away.
External organizations that may be available to assist (with varying response

times) include:
 Fire departments
 Mobile rescue squads
 Ambulance services
 Police departments
 Telephone companies
 Hospitals
 Utility companies
 Industrial neighbours
 Government agencies
These organizations should be contacted in the planning stages to discuss each

of their roles during an emergency. Mutual aid with other industrial facilities in
the area should be explored.
Pre-planned coordination is necessary to avoid conflicting responsibilities. For

example, the police, fire department, ambulance service, rescue squad,
company fire brigade, and the first aid team may be on the scene
simultaneously. A pre-determined chain of command in such a situation is
required to avoid organizational difficulties. Under certain circumstances, an
outside agency may assume command.
10.6 Summarise what needs to be considered during maintenance,

inspection and testing of work equipment and machinery - Work
equipment and machinery maintenance
The hazards and control measures associated

with the maintenance of work equipment and
machinery
In order to ensure work equipment does not deteriorate to the extent that it may
put people at risk, employers, the relevant self-employed and others in control
of work equipment are required by PUWER to keep it 'maintained in an efficient
state, in efficient order and in good repair'. If you are self-employed and your
work poses no risk to the health and safety of others, then health and safety law
may not apply to you.
The frequency and nature of maintenance should be determined through risk

assessment, taking full account of:
 the manufacturer's recommendations

 the intensity of use
 operating environment (eg the effect of temperature, corrosion,
weathering)
 user knowledge and experience
 the risk to health and safety from any foreseeable failure or malfunction
Type of hazards associated with the maintenance of work

equipment and machinery
Physical
 mechanical movement - rotating elements e.g. flywheels; compressed

springs; gravity; unexpected startups e.g. blockages cleared, trapped air
in lines operating valves, restoration of power, computerised auto-start;
instability; failure of sub-standard parts; homemade machines
 electrical - capacitors; high voltage; static
 hydraulics - high pressure fluids
 pneumatic - high pressure steam, gases, vapours
 engulfment - oxygen deficient atmospheres; radiation
 fire/explosion - extreme heat/cold; noise; vibration
 work at Height - weather; animals; ergonomics; visibility.
Chemical
 dusts & fibres e.g. asbestos, silica, respiratory sensitizers

 dangerous substances e.g. chlorine, oxygen, hydrogen
 toxic, oxidizing, explosive, flammable, corrosive
 hydraulic fluids, oils, acids, alkalis, organic solvents.
Biological
 pathogenic bacteria, viruses, parasites, moulds and fungi.
Psychosocial
 time pressure; long hours; shift work

 poor work organisation; unsocial working hours.
Control measure

Steps should be taken to manage any risks arising from maintenance activity.
Manufacturer's instructions should make recommendations on how to safely
undertake maintenance of their work equipment and, unless there are good
reasons otherwise, these should always be followed.
Where possible, equipment should normally be shut down and any

residual/stored energy safely released (eg pneumatic pressure dumped, parts
with gravitational / rotational energy stopped or brought to a safe position). For
high-risk equipment, positive means of disconnecting the equipment from the
energy source may be required (eg isolation), along with means to prevent
inadvertent reconnection (eg by locking off). Formal systems of work, such as a
permit to work, are required in some cases to safely manage high-risk
maintenance operations.
In some cases, it may not be possible to avoid particular significant hazards

during the maintenance of work equipment so appropriate measures should be
taken to protect people and minimise the risk. These may include:
 physical measures, eg providing temporary guarding, slow speed hold-to-

run control devices, safe means of access, personal protective
equipment, etc
 management issues, including safe systems of work, supervision,
monitoring
 personnel competence (training, skill, awareness and knowledge of risk)
It is important that these situations are properly assessed. Staff undertaking

maintenance may need to undertake significant on-the-job risk assessment
(essentially considering what could go wrong and how to avoid injury), as the
situation may develop and change in ways that could not be foreseen at the
outset.

The three maintenance management strategies
Equipment and machines are changing and updating with time. Machines are
becoming more important for running a business and their price is also growing
regularly. That is why you cannot just used asset and throw away & this is where
equipment and asset need maintenance.
Organizations must keep equipment well-maintained and in good shape and

condition. But organizations have hundreds or thousands of assets but keeping
all of them maintained is a huge task!
There are three types of maintenance strategies that we have discussed below:
Planned preventive
Without any doubt, preventive maintenance is a significant component of the

maintenance procedure. It is a vital aspect for minimizing maintenance costs as
well as minimizing downtime.
It can also help in creating a safe environment for employees, asset life
expectancy, and also their productivity. A decent preventive upkeep plan
includes keeping records of inspection, maintenance.
Preventive upkeep alludes to routine & regular, scheduled maintenance to assist

equipment running, forestalling any asset failure (expected or unexpected).
Preventive maintenance can be scheduled on a timely basis or usage-based.
Timely-Based Maintenance – A maintenance that is scheduled as per the time

such as daily, weekly, monthly, etc.

Usage-Based Maintenance – A maintenance that is scheduled as per the usage

of equipment. For instance, a vehicle needs to be maintained after 1000-km of
usage.
Condition based maintenance
In condition-based maintenance, the guesswork needs to be done. In this

calculated risk is taken and just like preventive maintenance usage of
equipment and how frequently machine is used.
Furthermore, previous data is also used. A detailed inspection of the machine is

done & checked in all prospects. Maintenance is only done when assets need
to be maintained.
In some cases, condition-based maintenance is more effective than preventive

and predictive maintenance. In this maintenance strategy, only those parts are
changed that are about to fail so unnecessary expenses are saved.
It needs a maintenance technician that is highly skilled and has a good

understanding of machines and equipment so that calculated risk is as precise
as it can be.
Breakdown maintenance
Organizations that do not have any plans utilizes breakdown maintenance. In

this maintenance, critical assets are given maintenance after they are broken.
Breakdown maintenance is a reactive maintenance type. It is a maintenance

type that can be expensive depending on asset failure.
Breakdown maintenance is also known as emergency maintenance. When

sudden asset failure occurs then emergency maintenance is utilized. When a

sudden breakdown occurs, it leads to a work halt and employee productivity

suffers.
Breakdown maintenance can be a consequence of run-to-failure or sudden

asset failure (reactive or unexpected asset failure). No planning or scheduling of
maintenance is done in advance, no warning either that is sudden asset failure.
Sudden failure (unexpected failure) of critical assets is usually expensive.

However, assets need to be bought back into running condition as soon as
possible.
On the other hand, run-to-failure maintenance is done by choice. It means it is

planned when a breakdown will occur the team is there on standby to resolve
an issue with all inventories available. This type of maintenance is utilized on non-
critical assets.
The factors to be considered in developing a

planned maintenance programme
A written planned preventative plan is always good practice. The following

questions should be asked when considering a plan for the maintenance:
 What importance does the work equipment play in the overall business?
 Costs of the equipment maintenance in terms of direct costs and indirect
costs, i.e. indirect costs of down time for parts if the equipment is not
maintained, and direct costs of labour etc.
 The dependency of the equipment on other machines. Is it a stand-alone
piece of equipment or does it play a part in a much bigger system?

 Can the equipment be easily replaced?

 Does the equipment require any peculiar parts – that may have to be
ordered in advance of the actual maintenance?
 Does the equipment have a shelf life – or other life expectancy (either as
a whole or for the various parts of the equipment)?
 Are there environmental factors to be considered – such as the disposal of
any waste oil for example?
Before you start maintenance
 Decide if the work should be done by specialist contractors. Never take

on work for which you are not prepared or competent
 Plan the work carefully before you start, ideally using the manufacturer's
maintenance instructions, and produce a safe system of work. This will
avoid unforeseen delays and reduce the risks
 Make sure maintenance staff are competent and have appropriate
clothing and equipment
 Try and use downtime for maintenance. You can avoid the difficulties in
co-ordinating maintenance and production work if maintenance work is
performed before start-up or during shutdown periods
Safe working areas
 You must provide safe access and a safe place of work

 Don't just focus on the safety of maintenance workers – take the
necessary precautions to ensure the safety of others who may be
affected by their work, eg other employees or contractors working nearby
 Set up signs and barriers and position people at key points if they are
needed to keep other people out

Safe isolation
 Ensure moving plant has stopped and isolate electrical and other power
supplies. Most maintenance should be carried out with the power off. If
the work is near uninsulated, overhead electrical conductors, eg close to
overhead travelling cranes, cut the power off first
 Lock off machines if there is a chance the power could be accidentally
switched back on
 Isolate plant and pipelines containing pressured fluid, gas, steam or
hazardous material. Lock off isolating valves
Other factors you need to consider
 Release any stored energy, such as compressed air or hydraulic pressure

that could cause the machine to move or cycle
 Support parts of plant that could fall, eg support the blades of down-
stroking bale cutters and guillotines with blocks
 Allow components that operate at high temperatures time to cool
 Place mobile plant in neutral gear, apply the brake and chock the wheels
 Safely clean out vessels containing flammable solids, liquids, gases or
dusts, and check them before hot work is carried out to prevent
explosions. You may need specialist help and advice to do this safely
 Avoid entering tanks and vessels where possible. This can be very high-risk
work. If required, get specialist help to ensure adequate precautions are
taken
 Clean and check vessels containing toxic materials before work starts

The factors to be considered in determining

inspection regimes having consideration of the
type of equipment
The necessary level of competence will vary for inspections, according to the
type of equipment and how / where it is used. The nature of these inspections
does not have to be determined by the same person who undertakes them,
provided the person determining them is competent. This can often be done in-
house by experienced staff, taking account of:

 industry advice
 their own experience of the equipment, its use, the particular factors of
the workplace and the people using the work equipment.
Work equipment that requires inspection should not be used, unless you know
the inspection has taken place. Where it leaves your undertaking, or is obtained
from another (eg a hire company) it should be accompanied by physical
evidence of the last inspection, such as an inspection report or, for smaller items
of equipment, some form of tagging, colour coding or labelling system.
However, there are some considerations that should be made when

determining the inspection regime such as:
 The type of equipment

 Where the equipment is used
 How the equipment is used
 Method of inspection

Type of equipment
Different equipment parts have different levels of risk, and some parts are more
dangerous to work with than others. Equipment with electrical or moving parts is
probably more dangerous than a safety cover. It is important to consider the
level of risk associated with the equipment when deciding on the type,
frequency, and target of the test. Another consideration is protection systems
such as equipment protection that can cause serious damage. Example: Lathe.
The operator must inspect the guard after each use. You should also inspect
other aspects of the equipment that could be damaged and injured.
Hairdressers who use hair dryers do not need to check the equipment in such
detail that the visual inspection covers the pre-use inspection.
Where Equipment is used
Additional regular inspections may be required where a risk assessment

indicates this is necessary (such as where equipment is used in a harsh
environment). These inspections should be performed by a competent person
using suitable equipment, and often enough to ensure equipment does not
become unsafe between the inspections.
Work equipment which is exposed to conditions causing deterioration that

could result in a dangerous situation should be inspected at suitable intervals,
and after every event liable to jeopardise its safety. The frequency of inspection
may vary, depending on environmental conditions (eg equipment subject to
harsh outdoor conditions is likely to need more frequent inspections than if used
in an indoor environment).
How it is used

If equipment is being used by an inexperienced person, it could indicate that

inspections before and after use are required to ensure that any damage or
compromise from misuse is spotted.
For equipment being used constantly, the inspection regime will include
frequent inspections as opposed to equipment that is used more intermittently in
order to identify any parts that have become worn. Alternatively, if a piece of
equipment has not been used for some time, any safety-critical devices or parts
should be checked before use to ensure that they have not seized.
If equipment has not been stored correctly, it should be checked for any
damage prior to use e.g. if a hairdryer has been stored with the wire wrapped
tightly in a coil, the wire will need to be checked for integrity before use by a
hairdresser.
Method of inspection
Equipment can be inspected by anyone who has sufficient knowledge and

experience of it to enable them to know:
 what to look at
 what to look for
 what to do if they find a problem
The necessary level of competence will vary for inspections, according to the
type of equipment and how / where it is used. The nature of these inspections
does not have to be determined by the same person who undertakes them,
provided the person determining them is competent. This can often be done in-
house by experienced staff, taking account of:

 industry advice
 their own experience of the equipment, its use, the particular factors of
the workplace and the people using the work equipment
The need for functional testing of safety-related

parts
As part of an inspection, a functional or other test may be necessary to check

that the safety-related parts are working as they should be and that the work
equipment and relevant parts are structurally sound.
Safety-related parts might include:
 Interlocks and protection devices associated with an interlocked

guarding system on the dangerous parts of a machine.
 Controls and emergency controls necessary for the general safe
operation of the equipment.
So, for example, a dangerous machine such as a power- operated paper-

cutting guillotine should be subjected to:
 Daily operator checks on interlocking or photoelectric guards.

 Monthly operator checks on sweep-away guards.
 Six-monthly inspections of all safety components, such as brakes, clutches,
interlocks, switches and cams, carried out by a competent guillotine
engineer.
The need for any testing should be decided by the competent person who
determines the nature of the inspection.

The means by which machinery is safely set,

cleaned and maintained
Adequate facilities to carry out all the necessary maintenance, cleaning and
setting should be provided. This should include space to enable components to
be removed from the machine, lifting facilities for heavy items and power supply
points for portable tools – both electric and pneumatic. Safe systems of work
should be prepared for all maintenance work and should include arrangements
for the isolation of power supplies – locking off and the implementation of
permits-to-work where the work involves high risks.
Safe systems of work
Work equipment should be erected, assembled or dismantled safely and

without risk to health. Safe systems of work and safe working practice should be
followed to achieve this.
A safe system of work is a formal procedure which should be followed to ensure

that work is carried out safely and is necessary where risks cannot be controlled
by other means. The work should be planned and potential hazards identified.
You should ensure that the systems of work to be followed are properly
implemented and monitored and that details have been communicated to
those at risk.
Isolation
Any machinery that has been (for whatever reason) withdrawn from service
should be correctly isolated. This must take the form of:

Physical isolation: Barriers or fencing around the said article that prevent access
to (either accidentally or intentionally) the machinery by persons.
Mechanically or electrically: This is achieved by rendering the equipment

useless by disconnecting the ability to supply it with the required energy.
Procedures for working at unguarded machinery
Normal operation
Where the risks from the use of work equipment cannot be adequately
controlled by hardware measures - such as guards or protection devices -
during its normal operation, it is particularly important that only the persons
whose task it is should be allowed to use such equipment. They should have
received sufficient information, instruction and training to enable them to carry
out the work safely.
Repairs, modifications etc
Where the risks from the use of work equipment cannot be adequately
controlled by hardware measures such as guards or protection devices during
repair, maintenance, or other similar work, only persons who have received
sufficient information, instruction and training to enable them to carry out the
work safely should do the work. They shall be the designated person for the
purpose of this regulation.
Specific risks can be common to a particular class of work equipment; for

example, the risks from a platen printing machine or from a drop forging
machine. There can also be a specific risk associated with the way a particular
item of work equipment is repaired, set or adjusted as well as with the way it is
used.

Permits
A safe system is required for all work activities, but particularly for hazardous
maintenance activities. A large proportion of serious and fatal accidents occur
during maintenance operations. A permit to work system is a formal procedure
to ensure that the system of work is properly planned and implemented for jobs
which have a significant risk. Permits are most often required for maintenance
work where normal safeguards cannot be used, or where new hazards are
introduced by the work. They should not generally be used for low-risk
operations, as this tends to devalue the system.
The isolation process is also known in industry as 'lockout / Tagout' and is used to
isolate machinery and equipment from its energy source. It is important to
ensure the isolation of any unsafe machinery/equipment from potential
uncontrolled energy sources during repair, service or maintenance work.
Isolation can be used as a standalone method of ensuring the safety of
maintenance staff carrying out maintenance operations at a quarry where
permits to work are not necessary or as part of a Work Permits requirements. The
basic rules are that there should be isolation from the power source (usually, but
not exclusively, electrical energy), the isolator should be locked in position (for
example by a padlock), and a sign should be used to indicate that
maintenance work is in progress. Any stored energy (hydraulic or pneumatic
power, for instance) should also be dissipated before the work starts. Before
entering or working on the equipment, it is essential that the effectiveness of the
isolation is verified by a suitably competent person.

The means by which machines are isolated from

all energy sources
Where maintenance requires that normal guarding is removed, or access is

required inside existing guarding, then additional measures are needed to
prevent danger from the mechanical, electrical and other hazards that may be
exposed. There should be clear company rules on what isolation procedures are
required, and in what circumstances (for example, some cleaning of mixing
machinery may require isolation, even though it might not be considered a
maintenance task).
The basic rules, however, are that there should be isolation from the power
source (usually, but not exclusively, electrical energy), the isolator should be
locked in position (for example by a padlock), and a sign should be used to
indicate that maintenance work is in progress. Isolation requires use of devices
that are specifically designed for this purpose; not devices such as key-lockable
emergency stops or other types of switches that may be fitted to the machine.
Any stored energy (hydraulic or pneumatic power, for instance) should also be
dissipated before the work starts.
If more than one maintenance worker is involved in the work, each of them
should lock off the power with their own padlock. Multi-padlock hasps can be
used in such circumstances. Such isolation procedures can also be applied to
locking off valves for services (such as steam) and material supplies.
Before entering or working on the equipment, it is essential that the effectiveness

of the isolation is verified by a suitably competent person.

The typical causes of failures
Failure causes are defects in design, process, quality, or part application, which
are the underlying cause of a failure or which initiate a process which leads to
failure. Where failure depends on the user of the product or process, then
human error must be considered.
A failure, in this context, is not only those critical show-stopper issues that halt
production entirely, but also includes any loss of usefulness within a machine.
The tolerance threshold for machine failure will vary based on circumstances
since all systems degrade and lose effectiveness in some form or another over
time. Even perceived minor losses of usefulness can lead to huge resource
waste at-scale.
Following are the typical causes of machine failure:
Excessive stress
Abnormal external loading can place excessive stress on work equipment and
machinery components, which can lead to failure with potential safety
implications.
The main modes of failure that can arise from excessive stress on metal
components are:
 Metal fatigue
 Ductile failure
 Brittle failure
 Buckling
 Corrosive failure

Metal fatigue
Metal fatigue, weakened condition induced in metal parts of machines,

vehicles, or structures by repeated stresses or loadings, ultimately resulting in
fracture under a stress much weaker than that necessary to cause fracture in a
single application.
Metal fatigue occurs when metal parts are weakened due to repeated stresses.
There are three stages to metal fatigue:
Stage One: After a certain amount of load cycles, micro-cracks begin to form
on the metal during the metal fatigue process. The micro-cracks tend to form
around stress concentrating geometric features such as edges. The stress
required to create these micro-cracks can actually be less than the ultimate
tensile strength and yield tensile strength of the metal.
Stage Two: These micro-cracks continued to be stressed by cyclic loading,

causing them to increase in size.
Stage Three: Eventually, the enlarged micro-cracks reach a size where the
stresses are enough to cause rapid crack propagation, leading to metal failure.
The crack surface will be different in appearance depending on metal type and
metal tensile strength.
Ductile failure
Ductile fracture is the material failure that exhibits substantial plastic deformation
prior to fracture. The ductile fracture process is slow and gives enough warnings
before final separation. Normally, a large amount of the plastic flow is
concentrated near the fracture faces.

Ductile fracture occurs over a period of time and normally occurs after yield
stress, where as brittle fracture is fast and can occur at lower stress levels than a
ductile fracture. That is why Ductile fracture is considered better than brittle
fracture. Refer to Fig. 1 below that explains both the fracture mechanisms. The
area under the stress strain curve represents the absorbed energy before failure.
Clearly, the required energy in brittle failure is quite less than the ductile failure.
Ductile failure can be identified from:
 The high degree of deformation and distortion that will be present around
the fracture zone.
 Tearing of material accompanied by appreciable gross plastic
deformation and exhibit necking.
Brittle fracture
Brittle fracture is the sudden and rapid metal failure in which the material shows
little or no plastic strain. This is characterized by quick failure without any
warning. The generated cracks propagate rapidly and the material collapses all
of a sudden.
Brittle Fracture is a condition that occurs when a material is subjected to

temperatures that make it less resilient, and therefore more brittle. The potential
for material to become brittle depends on the type of material that is subjected
to these low temperatures. Some materials, such as carbon and low alloy steels
will become brittle at low temperatures and therefore susceptible to damage
ranging from cracking to shattering or disintegration of equipment.
When a material becomes brittle, the consequences can be very serious. If the
brittle material is subjected to an impact or an equivalent shock (ex. rapid

pressurization) the combination could potentially lead to a catastrophic failure

under certain conditions.
Buckling
This is a term normally applied to the failure of a load- bearing part of a structure
in compression.
When a compressive force is put into a rod, bar or beam, the force is resisted by
the material. As the force increases, the material will tend to distort, preventing a
straight transfer of the stress through the material. The next figure indicates how
the shape of the material changes, and the effect of the stress.
Buckling can be better resisted by a ductile material than by a brittle material

due to its ability to resist tensile forces introduced by the ‗bowing‘ on the outside
surface.
Figure – buckling
Corrosive failure

Corrosion failure is a material failure related to corrosion. This condition requires

immediate preservation and protection. Corrosion failure may require sampling
and testing of corrosion products, such as in the case of microbiologically
influenced corrosion (MIC), where viable cultures can provide the most
meaningful results.
Recognizing the symptoms and mechanism of a corrosion failure is an important

preliminary step to finding a solution. There are five methods of minimizing
corrosion failures:
 Change to a more suitable material

 Modifications to the environment
 Use of protective coatings
 Application of cathodic or anodic protection
 Design modifications to the system or component
The advantages and disadvantages of non-

destructive testing
The Advantages of Non-destructive Testing
Safety issues can be identified
Non-destructive testing is used to ascertain whether or not a component is in

need of repair, and whether it is safe to use.
The tests are carried out to ensure product safety, and also to make sure the
person carrying out the work on any machinery or components is safe too.

Most non-destructive tests are harmless to humans, although tests involving

radiographics must be carried out under strict settings. All tests must ensure that
products are left completely undamaged.
Non-destructive testing carried out professionally has the ability to save lives.
Particularly if it is being carried out in industries which rely on volatile or high-
pressure equipment and machinery.
It‘s main aim, when used properly, and the results of the tests accurately acted
upon is to identify and resolve problems that could otherwise be disastrous.
It provides reliability
If workers in industry want reliable and accurate results, non-destructive testing

will offer stability.
Any given piece of equipment or machinery can undergo a range of non-

destructive tests which will remove the risk of any inaccuracy of result, or
oversight.
It is cost effective
Different types of industry work to different safety standards and need to comply
to a range of rules and regulations.
Machinery will need to be inspected at different intervals, because of this. Non-

destructive testing will always be the most affordable option in terms of
inspecting and looking after equipment.
It offers reassurance
Reassurance is such a simple thing, but it can sometimes be the most important
advantage to non-destructive testing.

If a plant or factory know that their machinery is A1 and running as it should be,
it can provide all the stability, reassurance and peace of mind that you need.
Knowing that procedures are in place to make sure that testing is carried out on
a regular basis can also give an added layer of security.
When workers know they are safe, they feel more secure and this is something
that can benefit productivity and output, overall.
The Disadvantages of Non-destructive Testing
The disadvantages of non-destructive testing are few and far between.

Depending on the type of non-destructive testing used on a component minor
issues can crop up. These can include simple factors like:
 Components needing to be cleaned before and after inspection

 Sensitivity of inspection can sometimes be affected by the finish of a
component.
 Sometimes there might be a lack of depth sizing
 On some non-destructive test methods, only relatively non-porous surfaces
can be inspected
 Some test methods require electricity
 Some can also be affected by variations in magnetic permeability
 Some tests are only effective on materials that are conductive

10.7 Understand why and how risks from work equipment and
pressure systems should be managed - Work equipment
10.7.1 Work equipment
Why risk assessments must be carried out on

work equipment
Because of the general risk assessment requirements in the Management

Regulations, there is no specific regulation requiring a risk assessment in PUWER.
Risks to health and safety should be assessed taking into account matters such
as the type of work equipment, substances and electrical or mechanical
hazards to which people may be exposed.
There are many hazards involved in the use of workplace equipment. For
example:
 Cutting equipment could cause trapping or amputation of limbs.

 A forklift truck could roll over. This could cause crush injuries.
 Equipment that uses heat could cause injuries such as scalding and burns.
This includes ovens, grills and welding equipment.
 Equipment that emits very bright light could cause damage to skin or
eyes. This includes lasers or sources of ultraviolet light.
 Equipment that transmits vibrations into the hand or arm (HAV), or whole
body (WBV) could cause long-term illness or disability. This includes
grinding equipment and tractors.
 Certain equipment where people have to work in confined spaces can
pose a risk of asphyxiation. For example storage tanks that could develop
an unbreathable atmosphere or fill up with noxious fumes.

Your risk assessment needs to assess the likelihood of such hazards occurring.
Look at risks which occur not just during the normal operation of the equipment
but also during:
 installation
 maintenance
 repairs
 breakdowns
 servicing
The means by which all forms of energy used or

produced, and all substances used or produced
can be supplied and/or removed in a safe
manner
All machinery must be fitted with means to isolate it from all energy sources.
Such isolators must be clearly identified. They must be capable of being locked
if reconnection could endanger exposed persons. In the case of machinery
supplied with electricity through a plug capable of being plugged into a circuit,
separation of the plug is sufficient. The isolator must also be capable of being
locked where an operator is unable, from any of the points to which he has
access, to check that the energy is still cut off. After the energy is cut off, it must
be possible to dissipate normally any energy remaining or stored in the circuits of
the machinery without risk to exposed persons. As an exception to the above
requirements, certain circuits may remain connected to their energy sources in

order, for example, to hold parts, protect information, light interiors, etc. In this
case, special steps must be taken to ensure operator safety.
Operator intervention
Machinery must be so designed, constructed and equipped that the need for
operator intervention is limited. If operator intervention cannot be avoided, it
must be possible to carry it out easily and in safety.
Cleaning of internal parts
The machinery must be designed and constructed in such a way that it is

possible to clean internal parts which have contained dangerous substances or
preparations without entering them; any necessary unblocking must also be
possible from the outside. If it is absolutely impossible to avoid entering the
machinery, the manufacturer must take steps during its construction to allow
cleaning to take place with the minimum of danger.
Ergonomic, anthropometric and human

reliability considerations in use of work
equipment
Ergonomic, anthropometric and human reliability

considerations
Ergonomics is a science concerned with the ‗fit‘ between people and their
work. It puts people first, taking account of their capabilities and limitations.

Ergonomics aims to make sure that tasks, equipment, information and the
environment fit each worker.
From an ergonomics viewpoint, appropriate design needs to cater for the range
of humans at work. To do this, Ergonomists utilise anthropometric data.
Anthropometry refers to the dimensions of the human body and how these are
measured. It covers the size of people; their height and circumference; their
weight and percentage body fat; the length and range of movement of their
limbs, head and trunk; and their muscle strength.
To assess the fit between a person and their work, you have to consider a range
of factors, including:
The job/task being done:
 The demands on the worker (activities, workload, work pacing, shiftwork

and fatigue).
 The equipment used (its design in terms of size, shape, controls, displays,
and how appropriate it is for the task).
 The information used (how it is presented, accessed, and changed).
 The physical environment (temperature, humidity, lighting, noise,
vibration).
The individual‘s physical and psychological characteristics:
 Body size and shape

 Fitness and strength
 Posture
 The senses, especially vision, hearing and touch
 Mental abilities
 Personality

 Knowledge
 Training
 Experience
Design of controls and emergency controls
Controls should meet the ergonomic criteria. This says that they must be:
 Clearly visible.
 Appropriately marked.
 Positioned for safe operation.
 Designed so that movement of the control is consistent with the effect
required.
 Located outside the danger zone, except for certain controls, e.g.
emergency stop.
 Positioned so that their operation cannot cause additional risk.
 Designed to prevent unintentional operation.
 Made to withstand foreseeable strain, particularly emergency controls.
 Fitted with dials, etc. if required for safe operation.
 Starting of the machine can only be by means of the control, particularly
after adverse conditions, e.g. a power cut.
 Stopping devices to be fitted.
 Emergency stopping devices to be fitted, clearly marked and to work
effectively.
 The control must override any part of the system except the emergency
control.
 Any fault or failure must not lead to danger.
 Interactive software must be user-friendly to the operator.
The following is a list (not exhaustive) of control characteristics:

 Displacement
 Operating force
 Friction, inertia or drag
 Number of positions
 Direction of movement
 Predetermined stops (detents)
 Appropriate identification
 Compatibility with displays
 Size
The importance of size of openings; height of

barriers; and distance from danger
Size of openings
Technical information relating to this subject can be found in BS EN 294:1992

Safety of machinery. The information in this document relates to the
measurements and distances permissible in relation to operatives of machines
putting either their arm or fingers through openings and slots etc.
Arm:
Dimensions in millimetres
Limitation of Movement Safety Distance (sr)
Limitation of movement only at shoulder and ≥ 850

armpit
Arm supported up to elbow ≥ 550

Arm supported up to wrist ≥ 230
Arm and hand supported up to knuckle joint ≥ 130
Fingers:
Dimensions in millimetres
Part of Body Opening Safety Distance (sr)
Slot Square Round
Fingertip e≤4 ≥2 ≥2 ≥2
4<e≤6 ≥ 20 ≥ 10 ≥ 10
Finger up to knuckle joint or 6<e≤8 ≥ 40 ≥ 30 ≥ 20

Hand
8 < e ≤ 10 ≥ 80 ≥ 60 ≥ 60
10 < e ≤ 12 ≥ 100 ≥ 80 ≥ 80
12 < e ≤ 20 ≥ 900(1) ≥ 120 ≥ 120
Arm up to junction with 20 < e ≤ 40 ≥ 900 ≥ 550 ≥ 120

shoulder
30 < e ≤ 100 ≥ 900 ≥ 900 ≥ 900
Reach is limited by the length of arms, fingers and hands, legs and feet. The
distance a person can reach sets the minimum height for some guards or the
minimum distance of barriers from the hazard.
The average size and reach of humans is used to set design criteria. There will be
some people – the very tall or very slender – whose size means they are not fully
protected by the standard measurements given.
Height of barriers

The first variable to consider is the height of the hazard. If the hazard is
sufficiently far above the ground or expected working surface then guarding is
not required. A hazard that is more than 7 feet from the working surface does
not need to be guarded.
When considering the use of fixed guarding to safeguard machinery, it is

important to consider the height of the guards (as in fixed perimeter guarding)
and the distance of the guard from the danger.
Following figure shows how to determine guard height to protect against

reaching over a barrier to contact a hazard. In the figure, ―a‖ is the height of the
danger zone, ―b‖ is the height of the protective structure and ―c‖ is the
horizontal distance between the guard and the danger zone. Guards or other
protective structures less than 1,000 mm high (39 inches) are not considered
sufficient on their own for any application because they do not adequately
restrict movement of the body, and structures less than 1,400 mm high (55
inches) should not be used in high-risk applications without additional safety
measures.

Figure - Guard Height to Protect Against Reach Over
Distance from danger
Guards (physical barriers) must be designed to keep individuals from reaching

the hazard. On the other hand, devices that protect individuals by detecting
entry to a hazardous area must be mounted at a sufficient distance from the
hazard(s) so that the machine will stop before the operator‘s hand or other
body part can reach this hazardous point.
Calculating the minimum safe mounting distance is vital to ensure worker safety,
while excessive mounting distances use up valuable floor space and also can
increase the time required to service machinery, which in turn reduces
throughput.
Safeguarding devices, such as presence sensing devices, that do not prevent

an individual from reaching into a hazardous area must be located far enough
away from the hazardous area that the machine will stop before the operator‘s
hand or other body part can reach the hazard. The minimum safe distance is
based on the stopping time of the machine as well as the reaction time of the
safeguarding device and the estimated approach speed of the individual
towards the hazard.
The risks associated with using work equipment

which arise from its initial integrity, the location
where it will be used, and the purpose for which
it will be used and decommissioning/end of life
Work equipment must be suitable for the purpose for which it is used or
provided, and used only for operations for which it is suitable. In selecting work
equipment, employers must take account of:
 the working conditions and risk to health and safety from the premises it
will be used in
 who will use the equipment
 the work equipment itself
You must select suitable work equipment and consider:
 its initial integrity and conformity with product supply requirements

 where it will be used, and
 the purpose for which it will be used
You should also take account of:
 ergonomic factors, to avoid undue strain on the user

 the need for adequate space and safe access, including maintenance
activities (especially if working at height)
 the forms of energy used or produced (eg radiation, vibration, noise)
 the substances used or produced (eg fumes)
Information produced by the work equipment manufacturer can greatly help in

selecting suitable work equipment. Risk assessment will also help in this process,
identifying where hazards can be avoided or reduced by selecting suitable
work equipment (such as those with lower noise or vibration levels), or in
determining the specification of bespoke equipment.
Most new work equipment should comply with common minimum product
safety requirements but, before putting it into use, you should still make simple
checks:

 that the equipment is not obviously unsafe, comes with all features
necessary for safety (eg guarding for machinery) and is suitable for the
purpose to which it is to be used or provided
 that it comes with user instructions in English
 if machinery, that information on noise and vibration emissions is provided
 that it has appropriate conformity marking, is correctly labelled and
accompanied by a Declaration of Conformity, unless these are not
required because:
o no specific product supply regulation applies (mainly non-powered
access equipment and non-powered hand-held tools)
o it is partly completed machinery, in which case it should come with
a Declaration of Incorporation and assembly instructions
o it is electrical equipment, which does not need to be accompanied
by the Declaration of Conformity, but must still be appropriately
marked and labelled
The risks associated with using work equipment

which arise from its:
Incorrect installation or reinstallation
You must install or reinstall equipment properly, use it carefully and make sure it is
maintained to protect the health and safety of yourself, employees and others
who may be affected by the way you use it. Sensible risk assessment is the key,
following manufacturer's recommendations for use and maintenance, and
ensuring employees are trained and competent. This includes taking reasonable
steps to ensure new work equipment complies with the relevant legal

requirements for safe design and construction. You must not use, or permit the
use of, unsafe work equipment.
In some cases, installers may have additional responsibilities when they

effectively become the manufacturer of a new product. For example, if you
install a power mechanism on an existing manually-operated gate, you - as
installer - will now also effectively be the manufacturer of a 'new' machine and
so have to meet all of the manufacturer's obligations under supply law.
Deterioration
Work equipment which is exposed to conditions causing deterioration that

could result in a dangerous situation should be inspected at suitable intervals,
and after every event liable to jeopardise its safety. The frequency of inspection
may vary, depending on environmental conditions (eg equipment subject to
harsh outdoor conditions is likely to need more frequent inspections than if used
in an indoor environment).
The frequency of inspection should be determined through risk assessment,

taking account of the manufacturer's recommendations, industry advice and
your own experience. It may be appropriate to review the frequency of
inspection in the light of your experience. Intervals between inspections can be
increased if the inspection history shows negligible deterioration, or shortened
where experience shows this is necessary to prevent danger.
Exceptional circumstances which could affect the safe

operation of work equipment

In exceptional circumstances people may have to approach dangerous parts

of machinery, such as for maintenance purposes. Access to such positions
should only be allowed under strictly controlled conditions.
Each time exceptional circumstances (eg major modifications, known or

suspected serious damage, substantial change in the nature of use) are liable to
have jeopardised the safety of the work equipment.
Maintenance
Maintenance is a high-risk activity with specific hazards and risks and these
include working alongside a running process and in close contact with
machinery. During normal operation, automation typically diminishes the
likelihood of human error that can lead to accidents. In maintenance activities,
contrary to normal operation, direct contact between the worker and machine
cannot be reduced substantially - maintenance is an activity where workers
need to be in close contact with processes.
Maintenance often involves unusual work, non-routine tasks and it is often

performed in exceptional conditions, such as working in confined spaces.
Maintenance operations typically include both disassembly and reassembly,

often involving complicated machinery. This can be associated with a greater
risk of human error, increasing the accident risk.
Maintenance activities include:
 Inspection
 testing
 measurement
 replacement

 adjustment
 repair
 upkeep
 fault detection
 replacement of parts
 servicing
 lubrication
 cleaning
Inspection and testing
The purpose of an inspection is to identify whether the equipment can be

operated, adjusted and maintained safely and that any deterioration (for
example defect, damage, wear) can be detected and remedied before it
results in unacceptable risks.
There are no statutory requirements dictating the frequency or type of

inspections except in the following circumstances:
 where the safety of work equipment depends on the manner of

installation, it must be suitably inspected after installation and before
being put into use
 where exceptional circumstances have occurred which are liable to
jeopardise the safety of the work equipment ie major modifications,
refurbishment or major repair work, after known or suspected serious
damage , or after a substantial change in the nature of use for example
from an extended period of inactivity.
 where the equipment is subject to any specific requirements under other
regulations eg the Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations
(LOLER) 1998 or Pressure Systems Safety Regulations 2000

The frequency and nature of any inspection and testing is entirely a matter of
judgement to be made by the duty holder. Any assessment should be should be
based on how quickly the work equipment or parts of it are likely to deteriorate,
and should take into account the type of equipment, how it is used and the
conditions to which it is exposed.
An inspection may vary from a simple visual external inspection to a detailed

comprehensive inspection requiring dismantling and/or testing. Furthermore the
inspections may be simple enough to be carried out by a user or require the
expertise of a specialist. Lastly any contractual requirements should be
considered, eg the restriction on repairing and maintaining hired equipment.
The risk control hierarchy relating to work

equipment
You should also ensure that risks created by using the equipment are eliminated
where possible or controlled as far as reasonably practicable by:
 taking appropriate ‘hardware’ measures, eg providing suitable guards,

protection devices, markings and warning devices, system control devices
(such as emergency stop buttons) and personal protective equipment;
and
 taking appropriate ‘software’ measures such as following safe systems of
work (eg ensuring maintenance is only performed when equipment is shut
down etc), and providing adequate information, instruction and training
about the specific equipment.

A combination of these measures may be necessary depending on the

requirements of the work, your assessment of the risks involved, and the
practicability of such measures.
Providing guards
Think about how you can make a machine safe. The measures you use to
prevent access to dangerous parts should be in the following order. In some
cases it may be necessary to use a combination of these measures:
 Use fixed guards (eg secured with screws or nuts and bolts) to enclose the
dangerous parts, whenever practicable. Use the best material for these
guards – plastic may be easy to see through but may easily be damaged.
Where you use wire mesh or similar materials, make sure the holes are not
large enough to allow access to moving parts.
 If fixed guards are not practicable, use other methods, eg interlock the
guard so that the machine cannot start before the guard is closed and
cannot be opened while the machine is still moving. In some cases, trip
systems such as photoelectric devices, pressure-sensitive mats or
automatic guards may be used if other guards are not practicable.
 Where guards cannot give full protection, use jigs, holders, push sticks etc
if it is practicable to do so.
 Control any remaining risk by providing the operator with the necessary
information, instruction, training, supervision and appropriate safety
equipment.
Produce a safe system of work for using and maintaining the machine.
Maintenance may require the inspection of critical features where deterioration

would cause a risk. Also look at the residual risks identified by the manufacturer
in the information/instructions provided with the machine and make sure they
are included in the safe system of work.
Providing information, instruction and training
Failing to correctly plan and communicate clear instructions and information

before starting maintenance can lead to confusion and can cause accidents.
This can be a particular problem if maintenance is carried out during normal
production work or where there are contractors who are unfamiliar with the site.
Extra care is also required if maintenance involves:
 working at height or doing work that requires access to unusual parts of

the building;
 entering vessels or confined spaces where there may be toxic materials or
a lack breathable of air.
Do not let unauthorised, unqualified or untrained people use machinery – never

allow children to operate or help at machines. Some workers, eg new starters,
young people or those with disabilities, may be particularly at risk and need
instruction, training and supervision.
Adequate training should ensure that those who use the machine are
competent to use it safely. This includes ensuring they have the correct skills,
knowledge, experience and risk awareness, and are physically suited to the
task. Sometimes formal qualifications are needed, eg for chainsaw operators.
Injuries can also occur due to machinery becoming unreliable and developing
faults due to poor or no maintenance or when machines are used improperly
through inexperience or lack of training.

An example of level of risk based training:
Category 1 equipment: A complex piece of equipment or one with medium -

high risk that requires formalised training and assessment of competency before
use.
Category 2 equipment: Equipment which has medium complexity or risk,

requiring simple training for use.
Category 3 equipment: Equipment that requires little training and is of low risk.
10.7.2 Pressure systems
Definition of a pressure system
Pressure systems are defined as:
 a system comprising one or more pressure vessels of rigid construction, any

associated pipework and protective devices
 the pipework with its protective devices to which a transportable pressure
receptacle is, or is intended to be, connected
 a pipeline and its protective devices.
Examples of pressure systems and equipment are:
 boilers and steam heating systems

 pressurised process plant and piping
 compressed air systems (fixed and portable)
 pressure cookers, autoclaves and retorts
 heat exchangers and refrigeration plant

 valves, steam traps and filters

 pipework and hoses
 pressure gauges and level indicators
Principal causes of pressure-related incidents are:
 poor equipment and/or system design

 poor installation
 poor maintenance of equipment
 inadequate repairs or modifications
 an unsafe system of work
 operator error, poor training/supervision
The main hazards from pressure are:
 impact from the blast of an explosion or release of compressed liquid or

gas
 impact from parts of equipment that fail or any flying debris
 contact with the released liquid or gas, such as steam
 fire resulting from the escape of flammable liquids or gases
Types of inspection, frequencies and the

statutory basis for examination of pressure
systems
Under the Pressure Systems Safety Regulations, a written scheme of examination

is required for most pressure systems. Exempted systems are listed in the
Regulations. Generally speaking, only very small systems are exempted.

 The written scheme should be drawn up (or certified as suitable) by a

competent person. It is the duty of the user of an installed system and the
owner of a mobile system to ensure that the scheme has been drawn up.
You must not allow your pressure system to be operated (or hired out) until
you have a written scheme of examination and ensured that the system
has been examined.
 The written scheme of examination must cover all protective devices. It
must also include every pressure vessel and those parts of pipelines and
pipework which, if they fail, may give rise to danger.
 The written scheme must specify the nature and frequency of
examinations, and include any special measures that may be needed to
prepare a system for a safe examination.
 The pressure system must be examined in accordance with the written
scheme by a competent person.
 For fired (heated) pressure systems, such as steam boilers, the written
scheme should include an examination of the system when it is cold and
stripped down and when it is running under normal conditions.
Taking the UK as an example, steam and hot water pressure parts on power
plants are covered by the Pressure Systems Safety Regulations 2000 (PSSR). The
nature of the examination should be specified in the written scheme. This may
vary from out-of-service examination with the system stripped down, to in-
service examination with the system running under normal operating conditions.
When deciding on the periodicity between examinations, the aim should be to

ensure that sufficient examinations are carried out to identify at an early stage
any deterioration or malfunction which is likely to affect the safe operation of
the system. Different parts of the system may be examined at different intervals,
depending on the degree of risk associated with each part.

There are many factors to be considered by the competent person when

deciding the maximum interval between examinations under the written
scheme of examination. The competent person should use their judgement and
experience to determine the appropriate interval based on the relevant
information. Earlier legislation set out maximum examination intervals for some
types of equipment. The competent person may wish to consider using these as
a guide when drawing up or certifying the written scheme of examination, if
appropriate for that system. For steam plant the period was usually 14 months
with more frequent examinations specified where operating conditions were
arduous. The examination period for steam receivers linked to such plant was
generally in the range of 26–38 months. Air receivers on compressed air systems
were generally examined every 24–48 months, with examinations taking place
less frequently, ie every 72 months where corrosion was minimal and
maintenance of safety standards was high.
Prevention and testing strategies
The level of risk from the failure of pressure systems and equipment depends on
a number of factors including:
 the pressure in the system;

 the type of liquid or gas and its properties;
 the suitability of the equipment and pipework that contains it;
 the age and condition of the equipment;
 the complexity and control of its operation;
 the prevailing conditions (eg a process carried out at high temperature);
and
 the skills and knowledge of the people who design, manufacture, install,

 maintain, test and operate the pressure equipment and systems.
Design and construction
The designer, manufacturer, importer or supplier of pressure systems should

consider and take due account of the following, where applicable:
 the expected working life (the design life) of the system;

 the properties of the contained fluid;
 all extreme operating conditions including start-up, shutdown and
reasonably foreseeable fault or emergency conditions;
 the need for system examination to ensure continued integrity throughout
its design life;
 any foreseeable changes to the design conditions;
 conditions for standby operation;
 protection against system failure, using suitable measuring, control and
protective devices as appropriate;
 suitable materials for each component part; the external forces expected
to be exerted on the system including thermal loads and wind loading;
and
 safe access for operation, maintenance and examination, including the
fitting of access (e.g. a door) safety devices or suitable guards, as
appropriate.
Devices designed to protect the pressure system against system failure
Examples include:
 safety valves
 bursting discs
 vacuum release valves

 atmospheric and barometric legs.
Devices designed to warn of possible system failure
 pressure and/ or temperature gauges

 pressure and / or temperature cut-out devices / alarms
 overfill devices including load cells, liquid level gauges, and abnormal
operation/ condition protection devices.
Repair and modification
The main reasons for pressure-related incidents occur due to a number of

reasons:
 Manufacturing defects
 Poor installation
 Poor maintenance of equipment
 Inadequate repairs or modifications
 Operator error, poor training/supervision
 Unusual incidents e.g. damage through impact
 In rare cases, bad design, particularly for imported non-notified
equipment.
Each of these issues can be avoided with an efficient inspection and testing
process in place, which helps in identifying any defects and ascertain the need
and type of repairs required. Employers (or duty holders) have a responsibility to
ensure that these examinations are done, otherwise they risk being non-
compliant to Pressure System Regulations, which in turn jeopardises health and
safety in the workplace.

Documentation associated with previous modifications and repairs should be

reviewed to ensure that the work was undertaken satisfactorily; the period of
operation prior to modification/repair should be established.
This historic record will help in the diagnosis process of any future failure and in
preparing an effective repair plan. Moreover, background knowledge is
important for the safety of personnel carrying out the repairs.
Information and marking
All pressure systems must contain the following information:
Characteristics of relevant fluid e.g.
 Boiling point
 Pressure/temperature relationships
 Corrosive effects
 Likelihood of stress corrosion cracking.
Actual operating conditions e.g.
 Maximum and minimum pressure

 Maximum and minimum temperature
 Frequency and range of pressure/temperature cycles
 Frequency and range of filling/emptying cycles
 Details of any sudden changes of pressure or temperature.
Safe operating limits e.g.
 Pressure
 Temperature
 Capacity

 Fatigue and/or creep design.
Protective devices e.g.
 Type
 Size
 Location
 Capacity
 Setting
 Manufacturers' recommendations.
History
 Previous examination reports

 Records of non-destructive testing
 Experience with similar systems
 Safety record of the system
 Any changes to safe operating limits.
The manufacturer will be required to affix the CE marking to each item of

pressure equipment or assembly and draw up a declaration of conformity. The
CE marking will need to be accompanied by the identification number of the
notified body if it is involved at the production control phase (i.e. monitoring of
final assessment, product verification or surveillance of an approved quality
assurance system).
Safe operating limits
Limits established for critical process parameters, such as temperature, pressure,

level, flow, or concentration, based on a combination of equipment design
limits and the dynamics of the process.

Change of safe operating limits
Consideration should be given to any changes that have been made to the
safe operating limits and the effects that such changes may have on the
system.
Fatigue assessment
Assessment will require identification of relevant structural, fixed and moving

parts of the pressure system, including safety devices. A combination of
theoretical analysis, review of operating history, consideration of similar
applications, etc. should then permit the review to be undertaken by the
Competent Person. Where significant concern remains, the User/Owner should
be approached with a recommendation to undertake a thorough design
review over the ongoing suitability (for application) of the pressure system.
Creep life
The creep life of components operating within the creep range should be
established by calculation; where appropriate, metallurgical and non-
destructive testing should be undertaken to confirm the remnant life.
Written scheme of examination
A written scheme of examination is a document containing information about

items of plant or equipment which form a pressure system, operate under
pressure and contain a ‗relevant fluid‘. If your pressure system falls within the
scope of the relevant regulations, then you are required to have a Written
Scheme of Examination in place before the system is used. The HSE (Health and
Safety Executive) provide the following flow chart to easily determine which
parts of the Pressure Systems Safety Regulations (PSSR) apply to your system:

Where required, the typical contents of a written scheme of examination will

include:
 identification of the items of plant or equipment within the system;

 those parts of the system which are to be examined;
 the nature of the examination required, including the inspection and
testing to be carried out on any protective devices;
 the preparatory work needed for the item to be examined safely;
 where appropriate, the nature of any examination needed before the
system is first used;
 the maximum interval between examinations;
 the critical parts of the system which, if modified or repaired, should be
examined by a competent person before the system is used again;

 the name of the competent person certifying the written scheme of

examination and the date of certification.
Maintenance and record keeping
Pressure systems must be maintained according to a schedule appropriate to

system type and the operating conditions. Maintenance types include:
 Preventive, which is generally determined by the manufacturer

 Break down, which is an opportunity for maintenance due to unforeseen
equipment shutdown
 Periodic, which is required maintenance as determined by
manufacturer‘s recommendation and/or SLAC policy
Maintenance includes replacement or repair of defective or worn components.

Maintenance does not include implementing modifications or alterations.
All maintenance must be recorded using Pressure Systems: Maintenance and

Repair Report Form. In addition, if a maintenance procedure includes pressure
testing as required by code, a record of the test must be submitted to the
pressure systems program manager.
Competent people
In general terms, the role and responsibilities of the competent person can be
summarised as follows:
 carry out examinations in accordance with the WSE including:

o review WSE and confirm it is suitable
o produce a written report for each examination
o notify user/owner of repairs required

o identify action in case of imminent danger

o agree postponements of examination, where appropriate
 draw up or certify written schemes of examination
An important feature of the in-house competent person is that they should be

independent from the operating functions of the organisation, and they must
have sufficient authority to stop the use of the pressure equipment should the
need arise.
10.8 Explain the principles of machinery safety integration and risk

assessment and generic hazards and controls for machinery -
Machinery
10.8.1 Safety integration and machinery risk assessment
Definition of machinery
Machinery and Equipment means machinery and equipment used by a

manufacturer. Machinery is any mechanical, electrical, or electronic device
designed and used to perform some function and to produce a certain effect
or result. The term includes not only the basic unit of the machinery, but also any
adjunct or attachment necessary for the basic unit to accomplish its intended
function. The term also includes all devices used or required to control, regulate,
or operate a piece of machinery, provided such devices are directly
connected with or are an integral part of the machinery and are used primarily
for control, regulation, or operation of machinery. Jigs, dies, tools, and other
devices necessary to the operation of or used in conjunction with the operation
of what would be ordinarily thought of as machinery are also considered to be
―machinery.‖

The role and application of standards relating to

machinery
C119 Guarding of Machinery Convention
The ILO adopted C119 on 25th June 1963. It deals with the prohibition of the
sale, hire and use of inadequately guarded machinery. The Convention covers
(per Article 1) ―All power-driven machinery, new or second hand…
Part II is concerned with the sale, hire or transfer of machinery and states that
machinery with certain dangerous parts as set out in Article 2 and which are not
appropriately guarded are to be prohibited by national laws or regulations.
Obligations to ensure compliance rest with the seller, hirer or transferor, as the
case may be.
Part III prohibits, through national laws etc, the use of machines, any dangerous
part of which is without appropriate guards. When guarding machines, the
employer has an obligation ―…to ensure that national regulations and standards
of occupational safety and hygiene are not infringed.‖
Employers also have a duty to bring national laws relating to machine guarding
to the notice of workers and to provide instruction on the hazards and
precautions associated with the use of the machinery.
Employees are obliged to ensure they do not use machinery without the guards
in position and do not make guards inoperative.

Reference -
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO
_CODE:C119
International Standards EN ISO 12100
In the European Union, EN ISO 12100 ―Safety of Machinery- Basic concepts,

general principles for design‖ describes a range of hazards associated with both
the normal operation of machinery and unexpected eventualities arising from
failures.
The intention is to provide designers with guidance for determining relevant,

significant hazards that may be generated by a given machine in the
environment in which it is to be used.
The hazards outlined can be sub categorised as mechanical and non-

mechanical.
Mechanical hazards associated with machinery include entanglement hazards,

drawing in or trapping hazards, crushing hazards and those associated with
shearing, impact, friction or abrasion, stabbing or puncture, cutting or severing
and the ejection of materials, including high pressure fluid injection.
Non-mechanical hazards include electrical hazards, thermal hazards, noise,

vibration, radiation, poor ergonomics and slip, trip and fall hazards.
Reference - https://standards.iteh.ai/catalog/standards/cen/74a41162-9d84-
4410-a8a3-606630770ab9/en-iso-12100-
2010#:~:text=ISO%2012100%3A2010%20specifies%20basic,designers%20in%20ach
ieving%20this%20objective
ISO/TR 14121
ISO/TR 14121-2:2012 gives practical guidance on conducting risk assessment for

machinery in accordance with ISO 12100 and describes various methods and
tools for each step in the process. It gives examples of different measures that
can be used to reduce risk and is intended to be used for risk assessment on a
wide variety of machinery in terms of complexity and potential for harm. Its
intended users are those involved in the design, installation or modification of
machinery (for example, designers, technicians or safety specialists).
Reference - https://www.iso.org/standard/57180.html
The principles of safety integration
Machinery must be designed and constructed to be fit for

purpose and to eliminate or reduce risks throughout the
lifetime of the machinery including the phases of transport,
assembly, dismantling, disabling and scrapping
Machinery must be designed and constructed so that it is fitted for its function,
and can be operated, adjusted and maintained without putting persons at risk
when these operations are carried out under the conditions foreseen but also
taking into account any reasonably foreseeable misuse thereof.
The aim of measures taken must be to eliminate any risk throughout the
foreseeable lifetime of the machinery including the phases of transport,
assembly, dismantling, disabling and scrapping.

In order to take into account the safety, all phases of the life cycle of the
machine shall be considered. The risk assessment must take into account all of
these phases of the life cycle.
The principles must be applied in order to eliminate or

reduce risks as far as possible; take necessary protective
measures where risk cannot be eliminated; and inform users
of any residual risks
In selecting the most appropriate methods, the manufacturer or his authorised

representative must apply the following principles, in the order given:
 eliminate or reduce risks as far as possible (inherently safe machinery

design and construction),
 take the necessary protective measures in relation to risks that cannot be
eliminated,
 inform users of the residual risks due to any shortcomings of the protective
measures adopted, indicate whether any particular training is required
and specify any need to provide personal protective equipment.
When designing and constructing machinery and when

drafting the instructions: the use and foreseeable misuse
must be considered
When designing and constructing machinery and when drafting the instructions,
the manufacturer or his authorised representative must envisage not only the
intended use of the machinery but also any reasonably foreseeable misuse
thereof.

The machinery must be designed and constructed in such a way as to prevent

abnormal use if such use would engender a risk. Where appropriate, the
instructions must draw the user's attention to ways — which experience has
shown might occur — in which the machinery should not be used.
The Principles of Safety Integration – gives the basic approach to be used in the
assessment of all risks to health and safety for any machine. It includes all stages
of the machine's use, from assembly to scrapping, under conditions of
foreseeable use and misuse. Designers should:
 Identify all hazards to health and safety; then

 Do a risk assessment; and, on the basis of the risk assessment
 Eliminate or minimise the risks by (in order of precedence):
o design measures.
o provision of protective devices.
o provision of information on residual risks and the precautions
needed to deal with them.
Take account of operator constraints due to necessary or

foreseeable use of personal protective equipment
Machine devices must be designed and constructed in such a way that include
taking into account the limitations to which the operator is exposed as a result of
the necessary or foreseeable use of personal protective equipment (PPE).
Machinery must be supplied with all the essentials to enable

it to be adjusted, maintained and used safely
Machine devices must be supplied with all the necessary special equipment
and accessories to enable them to be safely adjusted, maintained and used.

Reference - http://www.industry-finder.com/machinery-directive/article-1-1-2-
principles-safety-integration-annex-1-machinery-directive-2006-42
The factors to be considered when assessing risk
Risk assessment helps you build safety into your design. It also shows the residual
risks after you have included safeguards in the design. This can help you prepare
instructions that you need to supply with the machine.
Conducting a risk assessment is a step-by-step process that should be

undertaken by management with the involvement of everyone at the
workplace: the employers, management and workers and/or their
representatives. Each of these groups will provide valuable input to the different
stages of the process.
People at risk
For each hazard, the risk assessment needs to be clear about who might be
harmed thinking not just about employees, but also contractors, visitors and
members of the public where applicable.
Take into account people interacting with the hazard either directly or indirectly.
For example, a worker painting a surface is directly exposed to solvents at close
proximity, while other workers in the vicinity are inadvertently and indirectly
exposed.
Particular attention should be paid to groups of workers who might be at

increased risk, such as:

 staff with disabilities

 young and old workers
 pregnant women and new mothers
 untrained or inexperienced staff (e.g. new recruits, seasonal and
temporary workers)
 lone workers
 migrant workers
Use of anthropometrics
Anthropometry is the science that defines physical measures of a person‘s size,

form, and functional capacities. Applied to occupational injury prevention,
anthropometric measurements are used to study the interaction of workers with
tasks, tools, machines, vehicles, and personal protective equipment —
especially to determine the degree of protection against dangerous exposures,
whether chronic or acute.
Machine designs that are incompatible with normal anthropometric

measurements of a workforce may result in unwanted incidents:
 The misfit of a heavy equipment cabin to a worker may produce operator

blind spots that expose workers on foot to struck-by injuries.
 Inadequate length or configuration of seatbelts may lead to non-use of
seatbelts, which affect post-crash survivability.
 Inadequate fit of personal protective equipment cannot provide workers
with sufficient protection from health and injury exposures.
Severity of possible injury

Severity is a measure of how serious an injury or health effect could be, as a

consequence of unsafe working or of an accident. The severity can be
influenced by the following:
 the environment,
 the number of people at risk, and
 the steps already taken to control the hazard.
In a machinery risk assessment, the risk associated with a particular hazardous

situation depends on the severity of the injury (also called the severity of harm)
and the probability of occurrence of that harm (which is itself a function of a
person‘s exposure to the hazard, the occurrence of the hazardous event and
the possibility of avoiding or limiting harm).
The severity of the injury can be estimated by taking into account the severity of
the injuries or damage to health (e.g., slight, serious, death) and the extent of
harm (e.g., one person, several persons, etc.).
A simple estimation approach for the severity of the injury can be limited to two
parameters:
 S = 2 (high, severe, fatal, irreversible, etc.)

 S = 1 (low, slight, minor, reversible, etc.)
When these two parameters are combined with the probability parameters of
likely/unlikely, they form a 2×2 risk estimation matrix.
For stage machinery and automation risk assessments, a 2×2 matrix is probably
too simple and it doesn‘t really allow for good management of administration
and engineering requirements, therefore, the S2 parameter is commonly split
into two subsequent estimation categories:

 S2 = 4 (fatal or significant irreversible injury)

 S2 = 2 (major or irreversible injury)
 S1 = 1 (slight or reversible injury)
The numbers associated with a parameter, for example S2 = 4, are the numeric
representation of the estimated qualitive value and they should not be
confused with a quantitative value.
Probability of injury
Probability of occurrence is estimated taking into account the frequency,

duration and extent of exposure; speed of occurrence; human errors; training
and awareness; and the characteristics of the hazard. Occurrence probability
of an incident is often further divided into three influencing factors of exposure
of people to the hazard, occurrence of a hazardous event, and possibility of
avoiding or limiting harm (either technical or human).
The easiest way to do this is by having a risk matrix: a diagram used to define the
level of risk by considering the category of probability or likelihood of an incident
occurring against the category of consequence severity. Each category will be
given a score, typically between 1 and 5. By multiplying the scores for likelihood
and consequences together, a total risk score will be produced for each
activity.

In the above example, there are four risk levels: low (green), medium-low
(yellow), medium-high (orange) and high (red).
If the risk level is either low or medium-low, additional safety precautions that
could reduce the risk further could be considered if they can be easily
implemented and at minimal cost.
If the risk level is medium-high, additional safety precautions that could reduce
the risk should be considered, but the effort and cost of their implementation
may be taken into account.
If the risk level is high, additional safety precautions that will reduce the risk must
be implemented.

Need for access
When evaluating exposure of a person to the machine hazard, some of the

factors to be considered include:
 Need for access to the hazard (e.g., during normal operation,

maintenance / repair, correction of malfunction, cleaning, etc.)
 Nature of access (e.g., manual feeding of material, clearing jams, etc.)
 Time spent in the hazard zone
 Number of people requiring access
 Frequency of access (typically measured over a single work shift)
Duration of exposure
When estimating the probability of occurrence of a risk, one of the elements

that needs to be considered among others is the frequency and duration of
exposure to the hazard; this factor has a big influence in the output of the risk
estimation and it needs to be carefully assessed.
Every stage machinery should be designed to take into consideration time,

space and use limits, where the ―use limits‖ are the main factors foreseen
concerning the exposure of a person to the hazards associated with the
machinery. Some examples of such factors to be analysed are the need for
access to the hazard zone, the nature of it, the time spent, the frequency of
access, etc. However, at some point of the risk analysis process, the initial risks
need to be estimated and the frequency of exposure element score must be
determined. There is a big dilemma of when the low frequency of exposure can
be claimed and when instead the frequent and continuous exposure needs to
be considered.

Reliability of safeguards
A key consideration that must also be factored in when performing a risk

assessment is that hazards must be identified regardless of the existence of risk
reduction measures. No machine should be considered risk free as shipped and
guarded. To assure that all potential risks are addressed, hazard identification, as
well as the subsequent risk estimation, should be conducted with all risk
reduction measures (safeguards) conceptually removed. This will help assure
that hazards are not ignored due to an assumption that a supplied safeguard is
adequate for all tasks, including reasonably foreseeable misuse. During the
validation and verification portion of the process, the performance of existing
protective measures will be evaluated. If it is confirmed that these measures
help meet the risk reduction goals, they can be retained as part of the final risk
reduction solution.
Operating procedures and workers
Safe Operating Procedures (SOPs) (or Safe Working Procedures (SWP)) are
operational documents created locally to describe the safest and most efficient
way to perform a certain task, carry out an operation or operate a
machine/tool. Safe Operating Procedures will normally come from a risk
assessment as an administrative control. Written Safe Operating Procedures are
an essential part of a safe system of work and are an important part of an
overall occupational health and safety program.
Safe Operating Procedures are required for any routine, repeated activity or
process associated with a medium to high risk outcome from a risk assessment
(hazardous work). Medium to high risk in this context means any activity or
process where an injury may occur if the process is not performed in the
prescribed manner.

Comprehensive written operating procedures should be generated where

applicable that address:
 Standard operating procedures and operating philosophy;

 Abnormal operating procedures;
 Temporary operating procedures;
 Plant trials;
 Emergency operating procedures;
 Commissioning;
 Plant Start-up;
 Plant Shut-down;
 Bulk loading and unloading;
 Process change;
 Plant change.
These procedures should cover the following:
 Material safety data (COSHH);

 Plant operatives should have an awareness and understanding of
material safety data for raw materials, intermediates, products and
effluent / waste;
 Control measures and personal protective equipment;
 Location of plant where process to be undertaken;
 Roles and responsibilities of individuals involved in plant operations;
 Plant fit for purpose;
 The condition of main process plant and equipment (clean, empty etc. as
appropriate) should be established as being fit for purpose;
 The condition of ancillary process plant and equipment (clean, empty
etc. as appropriate);
 Plant correctly set-up for processing;

 Process monitoring and recording;

 Monitoring and recording of key process parameters (temperature,
pressure etc.) in plant logs;
 Quality;
 Sampling of raw materials, intermediates, products and effluent/waste;
 Packaging of final product.
Conformity assessments, the use of harmonised

standards, essential health and safety
requirements, the technical file and the
declaration of conformity
Conformity assessments
Under Article 12 of the Machinery Directive there are three routes for conformity
assessment:
 the procedure for assessment of conformity with internal checks on the

manufacture of machinery, provided for in Annex VIII
 the EC type-examination procedure provided for in Annex IX, plus the
internal checks on the manufacture of machinery provided for in Annex
VIII, point 3
 the full quality assurance procedure provided for in Annex X
Where the product is explicitly mentioned in Annex IV (part 4 of schedule 2 of

the Supply of Machinery (Safety) Regulations 2008) the first option above (Annex

VIII) is only available where the product is manufactured fully in accordance

with transposed harmonised standards that cover all relevant essential health
and safety requirements (EHSRs) for the product. Annex IV products include
many types of woodworking machinery, chainsaws, presses for the working of
cold metal, manually loaded and unloaded compression moulding machines
for plastics and rubber, certain types of lifting equipment, as well as various
safety components, including logic units ensuring safety functions.
Only the second and third options above are permitted for the conformity
assessment of Annex IV products that are:
 not manufactured in conformity with transposed harmonised standards, or

 only partly in accordance with such standards, or
 if the harmonised standards do not cover all the relevant EHSRs, or
 if no harmonised standards exist for the product in question
The use of harmonised standards
The identification of hazards should also build upon the applicable harmonised
standards used by the manufacturer. The standards also serve as a benchmark
for compliance. In exceptional cases, the product might be compliant with the
appropriate harmonised standard(s) but would nevertheless present a hazard. In
such a case, there might well be a shortcoming in the relevant harmonised
standard(s).
The concept of European Conformity (CE marking) revolves around European

harmonized standards as the minimum requirements for product design and
assessment. Strict adherence to these technical specifications should be the
focus of all designers and manufacturers. Manufacturers can and should do
more than the standards require and certainly should not do less.

The European Commission mandates the creation of standards to support the

essential requirements (ERs) of the directives. A standard is considered
harmonized at the time of announcement which is published in the Official
Journal of the European Communities (OJEC). Compliance with the harmonized
standards will, in most cases, ensure a product's conformity with the essential
requirements of the directives. Adherence to European harmonized standards is
the only proven and universally accepted method of showing conformity with
the ERs of the directives. Properly applying standards produces a "presumption
of conformity."
European standards are clearly the main path toward conformity. Although use
of European standards is voluntary in one sense, European harmonized
standards have become the technical governing rules and are in reality the
obligatory way for manufacturers to reduce unnecessary risks and to meet the
EU directives.
Essential health and safety requirements (EHSRs)
The EHSRs are comprehensive and cover all aspects of the health and safety of
machine users, and also others who may be affected (e.g. the safety of
products used by consumers processed by certain machinery).
They are laid out in six sections:
 general remarks common to all products in scope. They include: safety

principles, design to facilitate handling, ergonomics, control systems,
protection against mechanical hazards, other hazards such as from
electricity and other forms of energy, temperature, fire and explosion,
emissions from noise, vibration, radiation and hazardous substances,
maintenance, cleaning and information (including sales literature) and
markings / warnings
 those relating to certain classes of machines, including machinery for

foodstuffs, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals (e.g. to prevent cross
contamination of the materials processed), for portable hand-held and
hand-guided machinery (particularly information about vibration
emissions), and machinery for working wood and materials with similar
characteristics
 requirements to offset hazards due to the mobility of work equipment,
including operating / seating positions, controls, roll-over, turning over,
falling object protection, means of access, power transmission between
machinery, and towing
 requirements to offset hazards due to lifting operations, including stability,
lifting accessories, information and marking
 requirements for machinery intended to work underground, and
 requirements for machinery lifting persons, including for greater strength /
safety margins, and risks to persons being carried
The technical file
 An overall drawing of the machinery together with drawings of the control

circuits
 Full detailed drawings, accompanied by any calculation notes, test
results, etc. required to check the conformity of the machinery with the
essential safety requirements
o A list of:
o The EHSRs
o Applicable harmonized standards
o Other standards used
o Other technical specifications that were used when the machinery
was designed

 A description of methods adopted to eliminate hazards presented by the

machinery
 Any technical report or certificate obtained from a competent body or
laboratory (optional)
 A copy of the instruction for the machinery
 For series manufacture, the internal measures that will be implemented to
ensure that the machinery remains in conformity with the provisions of the
Directive
The documentation shall be retained and kept available for up to ten years
from the time of last manufacture of the machinery.
Declaration of conformity
After performing a critical design review, making changes to the product design
that will minimize risks of harm, and compiling the ―Technical file,‖ the
manufacturer may affix the CE-mark and prepare a ―Declaration of
conformity.‖
The Declaration must identify:
 Who you are

 What product it refers to
 What directives are involved
 What standards are applicable
 Where test results can be found
 Who is responsible in your company

10.8.2 Generic hazards
Common machinery hazards in a range of

general workplaces
Most machinery has the potential to cause injury to people, and machinery
accidents figure prominently in official accident statistics. These injuries may
range in severity from a minor cut or bruise, through various degrees of
wounding and disabling mutilation, to crushing, decapitation or another fatal
injury.
Drills
 seizure of hair by revolving shafts, spindles, chucks and drills;

 entanglement of gloves, loose sleeves, bandages and rings, usually at the
tip of the drill;
 violent spinning of the workpiece in the absence of proper clamping
arrangements.
Pedestal drill
 Contact with drive mechanism

 Contact by persons other than the operator with moving machine
 Contact with spindle and drill bit
 Direct contact with moving parts
 Unsupervised use of machines
 Electric shock, electrocution, burns, death
 Inadequate signage
 Flying fragments
 Contact with swarf or metal working fluids

 Ingestion of contaminated material

 Contact with hazardous materials
Circular saws
 Projected particles.
 Electric shocks.
 Breakage of the disc.
 Cuts and amputations.
 Blows caused by objects.
 Abrasions and becoming trapped.
 Overstrain.
 Ambient noise.
Guillotines
The most common metal guillotine injuries are crushed or amputated fingers.
Most of these accidents are not caused by the blade of the guillotine, but by
the clamps that hold the sheet of metal being cut. Other injuries are from fingers
jamming under the sheet of metal being cut, and strain injuries while handling
large and awkward sheets of metal.
Other hazards:
 Sheet metal
 Contact with clamp and blade
 Falling items
 Moving parts
 Viewing slots
 Noise

 Leaking hydraulic oil

 Slips, trips and falls
 Faulty/altered machinery (maintenance & cleaning)
Disc sanders
 Cutting, laceration, entrapment

 Crushing from transmission drive
 Object being thrown by the sander
 Manual handling when feeding the sander
 Slips, trips and falls
 Airborne contaminants (eg dust and vapours)
 Noise from machinery operation and production processes
Abrasive wheels
Touching the Wheel
An accidental touch of the wheel can cause the operator serious damage, and
this is down to the power of the machine. Tools which are designed to cut and
grind will cause significant damage if they come into contact with human skin.
Bursting Abrasive Wheels
A bursting wheel has the potential to be fatal for the operative or anyone within
its vicinity. This is a particular risk with new wheels, and it can be controlled with
practices such as ensuring the wheels are run within the suggested speed
parameters and providing the appropriate guarding.
Sparks

When in use, abrasive wheels can create sparks. This has the potential to lead to
fires or even explosions if their surroundings aren‘t keep clean and ventilated.
Reduced Blood Circulation
The vibrations associated with abrasive wheel operation can occur when the
incorrect type, size or weight of wheel is used with the machinery. Loose
bearings are also a possible cause of this, as well as a faulty wheel design.
Dust and Gas Inhalation
Although this does depend on the material in question, dust and gas inhalation
can affect the health of the operator and cause serious consequences to their
health.
Lathes
 Heavy lifting
 Contact, impact or entanglement from moving parts/ loose objects
 Contact with metal chips or swarf
 Contact with liquid coolant
 Leaking hydraulic hoses
 Inappropriate tooling and polishing techniques
 Noise
 Slips, trips & falls
 Contact, impact or entanglement from unexpected movement (during
maintenance, cleaning & repairs)
Automatic doors and gates

Powered gates can give rise to a number of significant hazards, including those
from being:
 hit by the moving gate

 crushed against fixed and / or other moving parts
 trapped between fixed, moving and other parts
 caught on moving parts, eg gears
 electrocuted, as most are powered by electric motors, or controlled
electrically
 affected by hydraulic or pneumatic parts, where these are present
Most powered gates are located outside where the weather can affect safety
at any time, eg:
 they can fall or be blown over

 rotate uncontrollable around hinges
 they may run freely off tracks if not restrained
 water ingress or damage to cabling, control boxes and the connections
between components may result in a risk of electric shock, or a failure to
operate safely
Hazards may also arise during work on them, eg:
 they may drop or move unexpectedly if not adequately restrained

 hydraulic and pneumatic components may have residual stored energy,
and so move unexpectedly when disconnected
 the disconnection of safety devices while still 'live' may result in a
significant uncontrolled crushing / trapping risks
 from being left in an unsafe condition, such as failing to properly set the
safety features

Mechanical and hydraulic presses
Power presses that shear, punch, form, or assemble metal or other material by
means of tools or dies attached to slides. Power presses can be mechanical,
hydraulic or pneumatic. In mechanical power presses, tools and dies are
mounted on a slide or ram, and move away from the stationary bed containing
the lower die. The upper and lower dies press together to punch, shear or form
the workpiece.
Hazards and their associated harm:
 Handling sheet metal (Sharp edges may cut, Strain injury)

 Entanglement when placing workpiece (Deep cuts or amputation, Crush
injuries)
 Contact impact or entanglement during operation (Deep cuts or
amputation, Crush injuries, Bruising, Fractures)
 Noise (Hearing damage or loss)
 Slips, trips and falls (Cuts, Bruising, Fractures)
 Contact, impact or entanglement from moving parts Faulty or altered
machinery (Deep cuts, Amputations, Bruising, Fractures)
Portable power tools
Power tools present hazards such as noise, vibration, electrical, moving parts
and projectiles. They have the power to cause severe and even fatal injury if
used incorrectly.
Check the power tool for faults before use and do not use a tool that has any
defects such as damage to the casing or faulty switches. Check that the outer
cover of the equipment is not damaged in a way that will give rise to electrical
or mechanical hazards.
Hazards in the environment can include dust, fumes, gases, water, light and
other restrictions.
Plugs and cables carry electricity to your tool and are exposed to the elements
so can easily get damaged.
Under abusive conditions, the battery may eject a hazardous liquid. Avoid
contact, battery liquid can cause irritation and burns.
One of the biggest hazards associated with power tools is electricity. Electricity
can kill and even non-fatal shocks can cause severe and permanent injury.
CNC machines
Mechanical hazards
Mechanical hazards involve moving machine parts and ways that a worker‘s
body could come in contact with those parts. The most common types of
mechanical hazards found in machine shops include the following:
 single rotating parts, like shafts or couplings, which have a risk of snagging
or entanglement
 two or more rotating parts working together, such as pulley drives, rollers,
or exposed gears, create nip points and pinch points hazard
 parts that slide or swivel, including sliding mills or robotic arms, create
shearing or crushing hazards
 parts that can rupture or fragment, such as in grinders, pose a risk of
impact injuries.
Health hazards

Along with potential physical injuries caused by moving parts, workers could
have exposure to hazards through inhalation, ingestion, skin contact, or
absorption through the skin. The most common health hazards found in machine
shops are from toxic or corrosive chemicals. These chemicals can irritate, burn,
or pass through the skin. Employees could also be at risk of inhalation of airborne
substances such as oil mist, metal fumes, solvents, and dust. The heat, noise, and
vibration of a machine shop can take a physical toll on employees. Lastly,
repetitive motion, awkward posture, extended lifting, and pressure grip can
cause soft tissue injuries to employees.
Other hazards
Several other dangers exist in machine shops. It is important to identify and

mitigate the risks around these hazards. Slips and falls around machinery, injuries
from unstable equipment, and faulty or ungrounded electrical components all
pose significant dangers. Fire risks are also present in machine shops and
depending on the type of equipment or machining operations, CNC machines
could also be at a higher risk of fire. Many of these other hazards are
addressable with good housekeeping measures and having processes for
regular equipment inspections to keep the shop floor and employees safe.
For slips and falls, ensuring proper signage during maintenance, requiring
suitable footwear, and keeping the floor free of debris is essential. Securing and
stabilizing equipment will help alleviate the risk of injuries, and making sure
electrical components and sockets are functioning properly will help protect
from electrical shocks or electrocution.
Robotics
Human Errors

Human error occurs in day-to-day activity and this is no different with regard to
a robotic work cell. Whether it is programming, preventative maintenance, or
teach pendant control, operators have the potential to place themselves in
hazardous positions due to over familiarity or lack of knowledge of the robot‘s
motion path.
Control Errors
Errors in the controls software and hardware can lead to hazards within a
robotic work cell. If the controls system faults, the system response may lead to
a dangerous working environment if it is closely coupled with human interaction.
Unauthorized Access
Access by an unauthorized operator into a safeguarded robotic work cell. If an

operator is unfamiliar with the safety hardware associated with the robotic work
cell, they can find themselves in a dangerous and potentially fatal area.
Mechanical Failures
During the design and programming stages, mechanical part failure is not
always taken into account. When an unexpected failure occurs, this can lead
to a potentially hazardous situation for the operator.
Environmental Sources
Outside factors and communication interference can create an undesirable

effect on a robotic work cell. Unsuppressed power surges or power loss can
lead to injury if they are not planned for during the initial stages of the project.
Power Systems

Power sources that have communication to the robotic cell can be disrupted
and lead to undesired actions. This can produce a release of energy, creating
a hazardous environment for an operator.
Improper Installation
Any time an industrial robot is installed it is vital to the success of the project and
safety of the operators that the system is installed correctly before it is fully
operational. If the robotic work cell is incorrectly setup, future hazards may
occur due to variance from the original design.
3D printing
3D printing hazards vary depending on the type of printer and materials used.
For example, print materials that are powders are more likely to be inhaled or
cause skin problems than others. 3D printers that use lasers have different
hazards than printers that use high temperatures to melt materials. Some
common hazards include:
 Breathing in harmful materials: 3D printing can release particulates and

other harmful chemicals into the air.
 Skin contact with harmful materials: Users can get hazardous materials,
such as metal powders, solvents and other chemicals, on their skin.
 Static, fire and explosion: Some materials used can be flammable or
combustible. High temperatures from some printers can cause burns.
The hazards, advantages and disadvantages

associated with artificial intelligence
The impact of artificial intelligence (AI) in the workplace might create

opportunities but also new challenges for occupational safety and health (OSH),
its management and regulation. The automation of tasks through the use of
robots can remove workers from hazardous situations and cobots can facilitate
access to work for ageing workers or those with disabilities.
AI has also facilitated the emergence of new forms of monitoring and

managing workers based on the collection of large amounts of real-time data.
These novel forms might provide an opportunity to improve OSH surveillance,
reduce exposure to various risk factors, and provide early warnings of stress,
health problems and fatigue. However, they might also give rise to legal,
regulatory and ethical questions, as well as concerns for OSH.
Hazards
When used in the workplace, AI also presents the possibility of new hazards.
These may arise from machine learning techniques leading to unpredictable
behavior and inscrutability in their decision-making, or from cybersecurity and
information privacy issues. Many hazards of AI are psychosocial due to its
potential to cause changes in work organization. These include changes in the
skills required of workers, increased monitoring leading to micromanagement,
algorithms unintentionally or intentionally mimicking undesirable human biases,
and assigning blame for machine errors to the human operator instead. AI may
also lead to physical hazards in the form of human–robot collisions, and
ergonomic risks of control interfaces and human–machine interactions. Hazard
controls include cybersecurity and information privacy measures,
communication and transparency with workers about data usage, and
limitations on collaborative robots.

Reference -
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_impact_of_artificial_intelligence
Advantages
Increased Productivity
Businesses are using artificial intelligence to improve the productivity of their

employees. One of the benefits of AI for business is that it handles repetitive tasks
across an organization so that employees can focus on creative solutions,
complex problem solving, and impactful work. One example of that is chatbots.
Fewer chances for error
Machine take decision based on previous data records. With algorithms, the
chances of errors are reduced. This is an achievement, as solving complex
problems require difficult calculation that can be done without any error.
AI doesn’t get tired and wear out easily
Artificial Intelligence and the science of robotics is used in mining and other fuel
exploration processes. These complex machines help to explore the ocean floor
and overcome human limitations.
Digital assistance helps in day to day chores
Siri listens to us and performs the task in one tap. GPS helps you to travel the
world. How can I forget the basic necessity? Food, clothing, shelter, and
smartphone. They are the ones that predict what we are going to type, in short,
they know us better than anyone.
The best is the autocorrect feature, it understands what you are trying to say
and present you the sentence in the best way possible.
Rational decision maker
Logic above all! Highly advanced organizations have digital assistants which
help them to interact with the users and save the need for human resources.
Repetitive jobs
The same old task, a task that doesn‘t add value is of no use. Also, repetitive jobs
are monotonous in nature and can be carried out with the help of machine
intelligence. Machines think faster than humans and can perform various
functions at the same time.
Tireless, selfless and with no breaks
A machine doesn‘t require breaks like the way humans do. They are
programmed for long hours and can continuously perform without getting
bored or distracted. The machine does not get tired, even if it has to work for
consecutive hours.
Right decision making
The complete absence of emotions from a machine makes it more efficient as

they are able to make the right decisions in a short span of time.
Implementing AI in risky situations
Human safety is taken care of by machines. Safety is vulnerable and with

machines that are fitted with predefined algorithms, this can be used.
Disadvantages
High cost

It‘s true that AI comes with a high cost, but there is no such thing as a free lunch
too. It requires huge costs as it is a complex machine. Apart from the installation
cost, its repair and maintenance also require huge costs.
No human replication
No matter how smart a machine becomes, it can never replicate a human.

Machines are rational but, very inhuman as they don‘t possess emotions and
moral values. They don‘t know what is ethical and what‘s legal and because of
this, don‘t have their own judgment making skills.
No improvement with Experience
Artificial intelligence cannot be improved with experience, they can perform

the same function again if no different command is given to them. With time, it
can lead to wear and tear. It stores a lot of data but the way it can be
accessed and used is very different from human intelligence.
Creativity is not the key for AI
Machines can‘t be creative. They can only do what they are being taught or
commanded. Though they help in designing and creating, they can‘t match
the power of a human brain.
Humans are sensitive and intellectuals and they are very creative too. They can
generate ideas, can think out of the box. They see, hear, think and feel which
machine can‘t.
Unemployment
This one is the riskiest and can have severe effects. With capital intensive
technologies, human-intensive requirements have decreased in some industries.

If in the future, human beings don‘t add to their skills, then in no time, we can
see that they will be replaced with machines.
10.8.3 Machinery control systems
The key safety characteristics of machinery

control systems
General
A ‗Control system‘ may be defined as ‘a system or device which responds to

input signals and generates an output signal which causes the equipment under
control to operate in a particular manner.’
Input signals can be from the operator via manual control or from automatic
sensors and protection devices on the machinery itself. Automatic sensors may
include photoelectric guards, guard interlock devices, speed limiters etc.
The control system should be designed to make allowance for the failures, faults
and constraints to be expected in the planned circumstances of use and should
not create any increased risk to health or safety.
Failure of any part of the control system or its power supply should lead to a ‗fail-
safe‘ condition. Fail-safe can also be more correctly and realistically called
‗minimised failure to danger‘. This should not impede the operation of the ‗stop‘
or ‗emergency stop‘ controls. The measures which should be taken in the design
and application of a control system to militate against the effects of its failure
will need to be balanced against the consequences of any failure i.e. the

greater the risk, the more resistant the control system should be to the effects of
failure. It should always be possible to recover to a safe condition.
Failure of the energy source
The fluctuation, interruption and re-establishment after an interruption of the

energy source to the machinery should not lead to a dangerous situation (e.g.
fails-to-safe). Particular attention should be given to the following points:
 the machinery should not start unexpectedly;

 the parameters of the machinery should not change in an uncontrolled
way when such change can lead to hazardous situations;
 the machinery should not be prevented from stopping if the command
has already been given;
 no moving part of the machinery, or piece held by the machinery, should
fall or be ejected unintentionally;
 automatic or manual stopping of the moving parts, whatever they may
be, should be unimpeded; and
 the protective devices should remain fully effective or give a stop
command.
Controls for Starting or making a Significant Change in

Operating Conditions
It should only be possible to start or re-start equipment by a deliberate action

using appropriate controls. Operating the control need not necessarily
immediately start the equipment as control systems may require certain
conditions (for example, interlocked guards fully in position) to be met before
starting can be achieved.

It should not normally be possible to restart the equipment simply by re-setting a

protection device such as, for example, an interlock or by a person removing
themselves from the danger area.
Changes in operating conditions such as speed, pressure, temperature, power

etc should only be possible through the use of a control, unless the change does
not increase risks to health and safety. For example, certain multifunctional
machines are used in the metalworking industry for punching or shearing metal
using different tools located on different parts of the machines. Safety in the use
of these machines is achieved by means of a combination of safe systems of
work and physical safeguards which match the characteristics of the
workpiece. It is essential that the function of the machine (for example punching
or shearing) is changed by a conscious, positive action by the operator and that
unused parts of the machine cannot start up unintentionally.
The start control can be separate, combined with controls for operating
conditions, or more than one of each type of control can be provided. The
controls can be combined with stop controls but not with an emergency stop
control. ‗Hold-to-run‘ devices are examples of combined stop and start controls.
These should be designed so that the stop function has priority following the
release of the control.
Stop controls readily accessible and leads to a safe

condition
Controls should be designed and positioned so as to prevent, so far as possible,

inadvertent or accidental operation. Buttons or levers, for example, should have
an appropriate shrouding or locking facility. It should not be possible for the
control to ‗operate itself‘, for example due to the effects of gravity, vibration or
failure of a spring mechanism. Starting that is initiated from a keyboard or other

multifunction device should require some form of confirmation in addition to the

start command. Furthermore, the results of the actuation should be displayed.
The action of the stop control should bring the equipment to a safe condition in
a safe manner. It is not always desirable to bring all items of work equipment
immediately to a complete stop if this could result in other risks. For example,
stopping the mixing mechanism of a reactor during certain chemical reactions
could lead to a dangerous exothermic reaction.
The stop control does not have to be instantaneous in its action and can bring
the equipment to rest in sequence or at the end of an operating cycle if this is
required for safety. This may be necessary in some processes, for example to
prevent the unsafe build-up of heat or pressure or to allow a controlled run-
down of large rotating parts with high inertia.
Emergency stop controls provided and to be readily

accessible
An emergency stop control should be provided where the other safeguards in

place are not adequate to prevent risk when an irregular event occurs.
However, an emergency stop control should not be considered as a substitute
for safeguarding.
Where it is appropriate to have one an emergency stop should be provided at

every control point and at other appropriate locations around the equipment so
that action can be taken quickly. Although it is desirable that emergency stops
rapidly bring work equipment to a halt, this must be achieved under control so
as not to create any additional hazards.

As emergency stops are intended to bring about a rapid response to potentially

dangerous situations, they should not be used as functional stops during normal
operation.
Emergency stop controls should be easily reached and actuated. Common

types are mushroom-headed buttons, bars, levers, kick-plates, or pressure-
sensitive cables. Guidance on specific features of emergency stops is given in
national, European and international standards.
The position and marking of controls to be visible and

identifiable
It should be possible to identify easily what each control does and on which
equipment it takes effect. Controls and their markings should be clearly visible.
As well as having legible wording or symbols, factors such as the colour, shape
and position of controls are important; a combination of these can often be
used to reduce ambiguity. Some controls may need to be distinguishable by
touch, for example inching buttons on printing machines. Few controls will be
adequately identifiable without marking of some sort.
Controls used in the normal running of the equipment should normally not be
placed where anybody using them might be exposed to risk (e.g. in a position
where the operator has to reach over moving parts to gain access to the
controls). However, controls used for setting-up and fault-finding procedures
may have to be positioned where people are at some risk, for example on a
robot-teaching pendant. In such cases particular precautions should be
employed to ensure safety; examples include using hold-to-run controls,
enabling controls and emergency stop controls.
The consideration of ergonomic principles

Ergonomics may be described as the science of designing the workstation to fit

the person; the better the interface between the two, the lower the probability
of human error. Ergonomics does not only cover the physical working position
but is also concerned with the functionality of displays and controls, which
should reflect what the operator intuitively understands and expects.
Key ergonomic design principles include:
 Different types of users, such as operators and maintainers, should be

involved in the design process. This will help to ensure that the final
product is as ‗user-friendly‘ as possible;
 Consideration should be given to operator characteristics such as body
size, strength and mental capacity;
 Consider all foreseeable operating conditions, including abnormal
operation and emergencies;
 Movements of levers and switches should have a result corresponding to
the direction of movement e.g. turning a know to the right should cause
an increase or a movement to the right;
 Displays should be positioned close to the actuator that, if used, causes
them to change;
 The most important displays should be clear and unobstructed;
 Colour coding should be used to relate different groups of controls and
displays and to help identify important controls;
 It should be possible for the operator to identify an out of tolerance
condition quickly, without having to read each and every indicator e.g.
by having all dials pointing to the 12 o‘clock position when at nominal
operating conditions.
Reference -

HSE 2008. Safe use of work equipment. Provision and use of work equipment
Regulations 1998; Approved code of practice and guidance, L22, 3rd Edition.
HSE Books.
International Labour Standards, Guarding of Machinery Convention, C119, ILO,

Geneva, 1963
EN ISO 12100-:2010 Safety of machinery – General principles for design – Risk

assessment and risk reduction
ISO/TR 14121-2:2010 Safety of machinery. Risk assessment. Practical guidance

and examples of methods.
10.9 Outline the hazards and controls for mobile work equipment
and lifting equipment - Mobile work equipment, Lifting equipment
10.9.1 Mobile work equipment
The applications of different types of mobile

work equipment
Mobile work equipment is any work equipment which carries out work while it is
travelling or which travels between different locations where it is used to carry
out work. Such equipment would normally be moved on, for example, wheels,
tracks, rollers, skids etc.
Self-propelled
Self-propelled mobile work equipment is work equipment which is propelled by

its own motor or mechanism. The motor or mechanism may be powered by
energy generated by the mobile work equipment itself, for example by an

internal combustion engine, or through connection to a remote power source,
such as an electric cable, electric induction or hydraulic line.
Towed
Towed mobile work equipment refers to self-supporting equipment pulled

behind a powered vehicle. Some equipment will have moving parts that:
 draw power from the towing vehicle e.g. a power harrow used to
cultivate soil;
 has its own integral source of power e.g. a crop sprayer;
 has no moving parts and rely on the movement of the towing vehicle to
operate e.g. a plough.
Remote controlled
Remote-controlled mobile work equipment is operated by controls which are

not physically connected to it, for example, radio control.
Lift trucks
The lift truck is versatile and therefore an essential piece of equipment for many
workplace operations. An assessment should be made of the environment,
load, and task and the characteristics of the truck before selecting the correct
lift truck. There are many different types of lift trucks, as shown below.
Counterbalance
The counterbalance forklift features two forks at the front and has the ability to
drive up close to a load to pick it up and move it. The name comes from the

counterweight in the rear of the vehicle. This is to compensate for the heavy
load being lifted at the front. Counterbalance forklift trucks are versatile and
can be operated both indoors and outdoors. They drive best on flat, smooth
surfaces and should be used in more open spaces due to their large turning
circle. The counterbalance forklift comes in both a three and four-wheel variety
and can be powered by gas, diesel and electric. They are very powerful and
useful trucks for a number of different environments, lifting a variety of heavy
loads.
Reach
As the name suggests, the reach forklift is primarily designed to pick up loads
high in racking or storage. They serve a different kind of job to the
counterbalance forklift in a number of ways. Reach forklifts operate best inside,
in environments such as warehouses. They are very manoeuvrable and perfectly
suited to weaving between narrow aisles. They have the ability to reach loads
that sit up high and can extend to distances beyond their stabilising legs. It is the
combination of these stabilising legs and the battery that remove the need for a
cumbersome counterweight to maintain the truck's balance. A reach truck
provides a range of features to help you to do the job.
Rough terrain
Rough terrain lift trucks are two axle machines for materials handling on
unimproved ground. They either feature a vertical mast – similar to an industrial
forklift truck – or a telescopic boom. The latter are often called telescopic
handlers or simply telehandlers. Telehandlers can be fitted with a variety of
attachments, including pallet forks, bucks and access platforms, which combine
with their vertical and horizontal reach capabilities to provide a versatile
machine.

Telescopic materials handlers
A telescopic handler, also called a lull, telehandler or teleporter is a machine

widely used in agriculture and industry. It is somewhat like a forklift but has a
boom (telescopic cylinder), making it more a crane than a forklift, with the
increased versatility of a single telescopic boom that can extend forwards and
upwards from the vehicle. The boom can be fitted with different attachments,
such as a bucket, pallet forks, muck grab, or winch.
Side loading trucks
A side loader forklift, also known as a sideloader, is a piece of materials handling

equipment designed for long loads.
The operator‘s cab is positioned up front on the left hand side. The area to the
right of the cab is called the bed or platform. This contains a central section
within it, called the well, where the forks are positioned.
The mast and forks reach out to lift the load at its central point and lower it onto
the bed.
The load can then be safely carried on the bed with the operator facing
forward.
The whole of the machine can be tilted horizontally, to improve load picking
and security, much like a tilting mast on a forklift truck.
Pedestrian controlled trucks
Pedestrian operated forklifts (POFs) differ from forklift trucks because they are
not intended to be controlled by an operator riding on the vehicle.

The slower speed of the pedestrian truck can have its advantages. Operators
are more aware of their immediate surroundings as opposed to be wrapped in
a ‗metal bubble‘ aka a rider truck cab. The operation is at a safe walking
speed.
Agricultural tractors and works vehicles
A agricultural tractor is an engineering vehicle specifically designed to deliver a

high tractive effort (or torque) at slow speeds, for the purposes of hauling a
trailer or machinery such as that used in agriculture, mining or construction. Most
commonly, the term is used to describe a farm vehicle that provides the power
and traction to mechanize agricultural tasks, especially (and originally) tillage,
but nowadays a great variety of tasks. Agricultural implements may be towed
behind or mounted on the tractor, and the tractor may also provide a source of
power if the implement is mechanised.
The hazards associated with mobile work

equipment
Various types of vehicles can be found in industrial workplaces and incidents

associated with the operation of mobile equipment have resulted in worker
injury, death, and property damage. Key contributors to these incidences
include worker fatigue during operational time and the ability for the operator
to ‗see‘ and to be ‗aware‘ of what is in their work environment. Vibration
exposure while operating the equipment, particularly in consideration of the
postural demands of the operation are also key contributors to worker injury.

Rollover
Where there is a risk of rollover, this should be minimised by stabilising the work
equipment, with a structure provided - such as a ROPS (rollover protective
structure) - with sufficient clearance for anyone being carried. Where there is a
risk of crushing, a suitable restraint system should always be provided for anyone
being carried, unless such a system would:
 increase the overall risk to safety

 make the equipment significantly more difficult to operate (and thus not
be reasonably practicable)
 not be reasonably practicable to put in place (eg for very old equipment,
in use at work)
Fork lift trucks with either a mast or ROPS should, if not already fitted, be
provided with restraint systems (eg a seat belt) where appropriate, if such
systems can be fitted to the equipment, to prevent workers carried from being
crushed between any part of the truck and the ground, should it overturn.
Overturning
Vehicle overturns are caused by:
 The vehicle not being suitable for the task

 Driving on slopes that are too steep
 Driving on slippery surfaces, for example, oil spills
 Driving on poor or uneven ground, for example, soft ground, potholes or
over curbs
 Poor loading, for example, the vehicle is overloaded, unevenly loaded or
in the case of some fork lift trucks under loaded
 Speeding, especially going too fast around corners
 Loads being carried at a dangerous height, for example, forklift trucks

should not carry loads in a raised position
 Untrained and inexperienced drivers
Suitability for carrying passengers
Under no circumstances should passengers be carried on loads or on forks.

Passengers should not be carried on any part of the truck unless a properly-
constructed position is provided, such as a working platform or attachment.
Alternatively, more suitable equipment should be selected such as Mobile
Elevated Working Platforms (MEWPs).
Unauthorised start-up
Self-propelled work equipment should be prevented from unauthorised start up.

This can be achieved if it has a starter key or device which is issued or made
accessible only to authorised people. This means that access to starter keys and
starting devices, such as removable dumper starting handles, should be
controlled
Safe operating station/platform
Where lift trucks are used as working platforms, the following precautions are
necessary:
 The platform should be made of suitable material, soundly constructed, of

adequate strength and properly maintained. It should be securely
attached to the lift truck.
 The weight of the platform plus its load must not exceed one half the
actual capacity of the truck. The platform should be marked with means
of identification and the maximum allowable load.

 The dimensions of the platform should be as small as possible, compatible

with the number of people it is designed to carry. No more than two
passengers should be carried.
 All platform edges shall be guarded
 The floor of the platform should be even and non-slip.
 All trapping, crushing and shearing points must be guarded.
Excessive speed
Trucks must be driven at an appropriate speed for the conditions and visibility.
Where speed restrictions have been set, they must be obeyed. Particular care
must be taken when reversing and when driving on greasy, icy or wet roads. All
defects such as holes in the road surface and obstacles should be avoided and
reported to management.
Speed limits should be set and clearly-displayed on vehicle routes. Suitable

speed retarders (road humps) should be provided, preceded by a warning sign.
Failure to stop
All self-propelled mobile work equipment should have brakes to enable it to slow
down and stop in a safe distance and park safely. It should have adequate
braking capacity to enable it to be operated safely on gradients and its parking
brakes should be capable of holding it stationary (where appropriate, fully
loaded) on the steepest incline that the mobile work equipment may be parked
in use.
Where there are significant risks associated with failure of the main braking
device, a secondary braking system is required. The secondary braking system
may operate automatically through spring applied brakes or through a dual

circuit system on the service brakes. It may also be operated through the
parking brake system or other controls which are easily accessible to the driver.
Contact with wheels and tracks
Where there is a foreseeable risk of contact with wheels or tracks when mobile
equipment is travelling, adequate separation needs to be provided between
people and the wheels and tracks. This can be achieved by positioning cabs,
operator stations or work platforms and any suitable barriers, such as robust
guard rails or fenders, in positions which prevent the wheels and tracks being
reached.
Falls of objects
During MEWP operation it is important to keep workers and the general public
safe, so they are not exposed to potential hazards in the work area. Maintain a
controlled area below and around the MEWP to prevent persons and objects
from being struck by the MEWP or falling objects.
Barrier off the area around the platform so that falling tools or objects do not
strike people below.
Moving parts/drive shafts/power take-offs
A power take off or drive shaft is a mechanical device that transfers the vehicle
engine power to other components within or connected to the vehicle such as
a hydraulic pump on another piece of equipment. The pump generates the
hydraulic fluid to flow and directs it to cylinders or additional motors on the
attached equipment.
Overheating
Overheating and fires can be caused by various faults or misuses of the vehicle:
 Friction due to bearings running hot.

 Electric motors burning out.
 Lack of coolant or cooling system failure.
 Engine ceasing due to lack of fluids (oil, hydraulic).
Suitable, appropriate equipment to deal with these eventualities should be

available and workers trained in how they should be used correctly. There
should be provision for emergency rescue should the vehicle operator not be
able to escape the cab in case of overheating or a fire. The equipment should
include appropriate fire extinguishers and fire blankets as a minimum.
Refuelling or charging
Fuelling or charging the battery introduces hazardous fumes into the work area,
creating potential for fire or harm to workers. Fuel or charge batteries in a well-
ventilated area, free from flames, sparks, or other hazards that may cause a fire
or explosion. This area needs to be well ventilated and away from well-used
walkways. Remember that the lower the charge in a set of batteries the longer
that it will need to fully recharge. If you regularly fully discharge batteries without
allowing them the correct amount of time to recharge they will eventually fail.
The control measures to be used for mobile

work equipment
If you have mobile work equipment or provide it for someone else's use (eg
hiring it out), you must manage the particular risks arising from its mobility - in

addition to all the other requirements of PUWER (including suitability,

maintenance, inspection, training / information and general safety measures).
Safe layout of areas where mobile equipment is used
To prevent accidents occurring, the movement of vehicles should be governed

by stringent rules which are enforced by management supervision and control.
However, as direct supervision of site traffic is not always practicable and as
many visiting drivers may be unfamiliar with the site, the layout and design of
traffic routes within sites is a particularly important consideration. Routes should
not be used by vehicles which are inadequate or unsuitable. Restrictions on
such usage should be clearly indicated.
Traffic routes should be wide enough to allow vehicles to pass oncoming or

parked vehicles without leaving the route. One-way systems or restrictions
should be introduced where necessary. Where it is not practical to make the
route wide enough, passing places or traffic management systems should be
provided as necessary.
Traffic routes used by vehicles should not pass close to any edge or to anything
likely to collapse, unless fenced and adequately protected.
The need for vehicles with poor rear visibility to reverse should be eliminated as
far as possible, for example by the use of one-way systems.
Protection of pedestrians
The most significant MEWP dangers arise from operation and use of the machine
rather than from their movement as a site vehicle. The law says that these
hazards must be properly controlled.

However, a safe workplace for all vehicle operations needs be established by

separating pedestrians and vehicles and providing hazard-free traffic routes.
Pedestrian safety must be ensured whenever there is a risk of being struck by

mobile equipment. The employer is responsible for carrying out a risk assessment
and implementing appropriate controls to minimize any risk to pedestrians in the
workplace.
Where an enclosed pedestrian route, or a doorway or staircase, joins a vehicle

route, there should be an open space of at least one metre from which
pedestrians can see along the vehicle route in both directions (or in the case of
a one-way route, in the direction of oncoming traffic.) Similar measures should
be taken where the speed or volume of vehicles would put pedestrians at risk. In
areas where traffic is particularly heavy, bridges or subways may be
appropriate.
Audible warning devices and flashing beacons can provide warnings to

pedestrians; however, the effectiveness of audible devices is dependent on the
overall noise level in the operating area, and flashing beacons could trigger
epilepsy in some people. The use of such warning devices should be based on
risk assessments.
High-visibility clothing such as arm bands, tabards and jackets should be worn
where other methods cannot control the risk. Where there is a risk of falling
objects, head protection should be worn.
Use of lifting plans
When planning any lift, a number of key items have to be considered:
 The correct crane has been arranged and supplied.

 Crane access, egress and movement space is adequate.

 Ground conditions are capable of taking the load.
 The crane is level.
 Any underground services are protected (from the load, if it is to be
placed on the ground).
 There are no overhead or side obstructions (at least 600 mm clearance is
required).
 Any overhead power cables are isolated.
 The area around the lift is demarcated and only necessary persons are
within it during the lift (it may be necessary to plan a viewing area if visitors
are expected to watch the lift).
 Load(s) to be lifted are determined reasonably accurately (to include the
weight of the lifting accessories).
 The load is within the load radius capacity of the crane.
 The load is free to be lifted (it is quite common when lifting out an existing
component to find unknown fastenings still holding, which increases the
load the crane is trying to lift).
 Location of lifting points ensures that the lift is level and does not tilt
because it is out of balance.
 Lifting points sufficiently strong to take the load.
 There are no persons under the load AT ANY TIME.
 The crane driver is given clear instruction by the banksman, either by hand
signal or by radio.
 All involved understand their role in the lifting operation and are
competent to undertake it.
 All checks on crane and operator documentation are made and the
documentation is correct.

Safety helmets are required to be worn by all staff in the vicinity of a lifting
operation. This is not to protect them if the load falls on them, but to protect
them from small items, which may be attached to, or placed on, the load.
There are a number of other control measures that can reduce the risk from
MEWP hazards. These are:
 Confined overhead working: Brief operators on the dangers, and the safe
system of work to be followed. If there are overhead structures against
which an operator could be trapped and then pushed onto the MEWP
controls, consider selecting a MEWP that has been designed to prevent
such accidental contact.
 Ground conditions: The platform should be used on firm and level ground.
Any temporary covers should be strong enough to withstand the applied
pressure. Localised ground features, eg trenches, manholes and
uncompacted backfill, can all lead to overturning.
 Outriggers: Outriggers must be extended and chocked before raising the
platform. Spreader plates may be necessary – check the equipment
manual.
 Guardrails: Make sure the work platform is fitted with effective guard rails
and toe boards.
 Arresting falls: if there is still a risk of people falling from the platform a
harness with a short work restraint lanyard must be secured to a suitable
manufacturer provided anchorage point within the basket to stop the
wearer from getting into a position where they could fall from the carrier.
 Falling objects: barrier off the area around the platform so that falling
tools or objects do not strike people below.
 Weather: high winds can tilt platforms and make them unstable. Set a
maximum safe wind speed for operation. Storms and snowfalls can also
damage platforms. Inspect the platform before use after severe weather.

 Handling materials: if used to install materials check the weight and

dimensions of materials and consider any manual handling and load
distribution issues. You may need additional lifting equipment to transport
materials to the work position.
 Nearby hazards: do not operate a MEWP close to overhead cables or
other dangerous machinery, or allow any part of the arm to protrude into
a traffic route.
Using lift trucks to move people
Every employer shall ensure that no employee is carried by mobile work

equipment unless-
 it is suitable for carrying persons; and

 it incorporates features for reducing to as low as is reasonably practicable
risks to their safety, including risks from wheels or tracks.
Working platform attachments which are designed to lift/carry people can be

fitted to certain types of lift trucks, including reach and counterbalanced. The
two types, as described in Guidance Note PM28 Working platforms, are
integrated and non-integrated:
Integrated working platform - an attachment fitted with controls for the

operation of the truck, its movements, and the lift height which are controlled by
the person on the platform.
Non -integrated working platform - an attachment that has no controls in the

platform that allow a person in the platform to control the lift height of the
platform or move the truck. All movements are controlled by the truck operator.

Platforms are used to provide temporary places of work or to lift passengers from
one level to another. The selection and use of work equipment for working at
height should be dependent on the task.
The importance of:
Roll-over protection
Some types of mobile work equipment will only turn onto their sides if roll-over
occurs (i.e. they will only roll a maximum of 90 degrees). For example, the boom
of a hydraulic excavator, when positioned in its recommended travelling
position, can prevent more than 90 degree roll-over.
ROPS are normally fitted on mobile work equipment which is at risk of rolling 180
degrees or more. They may be structures, frames or cabs which, in the event of
roll-over, prevent the work equipment from crushing the people carried by it.
A protective structure may not be appropriate where it could increase the

overall risk of injury to people operating, driving or riding on mobile work
equipment. In these circumstances, where possible, the risks of roll-over should
be addressed by other means. An example of where protective structures are
not appropriate is when mobile work equipment is required to enter and leave
buildings with low roofs and contact could increase the risks to workers.
Falling objects protection
If people carried on the mobile work equipment are at significant risk of injury
from objects falling on them while it is in use, a Falling Object Protective
Structure (FOPS) should be provided. This may be achieved by a suitably strong

safety cab or protective cage which provides adequate protection in the

working environment in which the mobile equipment is used.
Speed Control Systems (Stopping and Emergency Braking)
All self-propelled mobile work equipment should have brakes to enable it to slow
down and stop in a safe distance and park safely. It should have adequate
braking capacity to enable it to be operated safely on gradients and its parking
brakes should be capable of holding it stationary (where appropriate, fully
loaded) on the steepest incline that the mobile work equipment may be parked
in use.
Where there are significant risks associated with failure of the main braking
device, a secondary braking system is required. The secondary braking system
may operate automatically through spring applied brakes or through a dual
circuit system on the service brakes. It may also be operated through the
parking brake system or other controls which are easily accessible to the driver.
Guards
Guard or isolate belts, gears, shafts, pulleys, sprockets, spindles, drums, flywheels,
chains, or other reciprocating, rotating, articulating or moving parts of
equipment to protect people and property. Guarding must comply with the
standards set forth in the current edition of applicable Safety Standard for
Mechanical Power Transmission Apparatus.
Do not remove or render ineffective guards and safety devices except for
necessary repairs or maintenance and then only after isolating the power.
Replace the guards and safety devices and make them operable before
restarting the equipment.

Barriers and restraining systems
Protect the operators of trucks loaded or unloaded by means of a crane, power

shovels, loaders, or similar equipment with a cab shield barrier and/or a
protective canopy adequate to stop or deflect falling or shifting material. When
such protection is not installed, the operator must leave the cab during loading
and unloading operations. Risks from equipment rolling over must be minimised
and there must be suitable restraining measures to prevent people being
crushed.
Employers should fit seat restraints if the machine is used for operations where
there is a risk of overturning in which the driver could be crushed between the
machine and the ground. Where a seat already has mounting points for a seat
restraint, then fitting a lap strap or seat belt costs very little.
HSE considers such risks are foreseeable in the following situations, based on
accident history. Seat restraints could reduce the likelihood of injury when:
 using a machine fitted with a roll bar or cab with no door where a 90°
overturn is possible, eg on rough or sloping ground, or with attachments
and/or conditions which could contribute to an overturn;
 using a cabbed tractor on sloping ground with attachments and/or
conditions which could result in loss of control and overturning, eg loaded
trailers, lime or fertiliser spreading, extracting timber in forestry etc;
 using a cabbed tractor for rolling silage clamps or mowing steep ditch
sides;
 using a self-propelled machine designed to be used on steep terrain, eg
forestry machines and all-terrain vehicles (except for ATV quad bikes);

 using a rough terrain fork-lift truck on slopes or rough ground or using a

counterbalanced fork-lift truck with a mast or roll bar/cage on uneven
ground.
Means of fire-fighting
In the event of a fire in the vehicle or in any load carried on or by the vehicle, if
those inside are unable to escape easily fire-fighting appliances should be
carried. The nature of supplied fire fighting equipment depends on the
foreseeable type of fire, but could include an appropriate type of fire
extinguisher or a fire blanket.
Local national legislation may also require specific types of fire fighting
equipment to be carried where dangerous loads are being transported.
Equip all trucks and combination vehicles operated on public roads including all
MEWPs, and vehicles carrying flammables, explosives, or hazardous materials
with emergency equipment. Equip all mobile machines with appropriate fire
extinguishers.
Vision aids
When mobile work equipment is about to move or while it is travelling (including

manoeuvring), the driver‘s direct field of vision may be inadequate to ensure
safety. In such situations, visibility aids or other suitable devices should be
provided so that operators should be able to see anyone who may be put at risk
when any control is operated. Therefore, if direct vision is impaired, mirrors or
more sophisticated visual or sensing facilities may be necessary. Such devices
may include mirrors or closed-circuit television (CCTV).
Examples of devices which can aid the driver‘s vision include:

 Plane, angled and curved mirrors;

 Fresnel lenses;
 Radar; and
 CCTV systems.
The selection of these devices is a matter for risk assessment, taking account of
the purposes for which the devices are provided and their ability to improve
driver visibility.
The operators of equipment should able to see from the control position that no
one is at risk from anything they set going. To be able to do this, operators need
to have a view of any part of the equipment that may put anyone at risk. A
direct view is best, but supplementing by mirrors or more sophisticated visual or
sensing facilities may be necessary.
Reference - https://arcadialite.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/wp-
content/uploads/2013/07/PUWER-1998.pdf
10.9.2 Lifting equipment
The applications and types of lifting equipment
Lifting equipment, also known as lifting gear, is a general term for any
equipment that can be used to lift and lower loads.[1] Types of lifting equipment
includes heavy machinery such as the patient lift, overhead cranes, forklifts,
building cradles, passenger lifts, and can also include smaller accessories such
as chains, hooks, and rope. Generally, this equipment is used to move material
that cannot be moved with manual labor, and are tools used in most work
environments, such as warehouses, and is a requirement for most construction

projects, such as bridges and buildings. This equipment can also be used to
equip a larger number of packages and goods, requiring less persons to move
material.
Mobile cranes
A mobile crane is a cable-controlled crane mounted on crawlers or rubber-tired

carriers or a hydraulic-powered crane with a telescoping boom mounted on
truck-type carriers or as self-propelled models. They are designed to easily
transport to a site and use with different types of load and cargo with little or no
setup or assembly.
Mobile cranes generally operate a boom from the end of which a hook is
suspended by wire rope and sheaves. The wire ropes are operated by whatever
prime movers the designers have available, operating through a variety of
transmissions. Steam engines, electric motors, and internal combustion engines
(IC) have all been used.
Tower cranes
Tower cranes are a modern form of balance crane that consist of the same
basic parts. Fixed to the ground on a concrete slab (and sometimes attached
to the sides of structures), tower cranes often give the best combination of
height and lifting capacity and are used in the construction of tall buildings. The
base is then attached to the mast which gives the crane its height. Further, the
mast is attached to the slewing unit (gear and motor) that allows the crane to
rotate. On top of the slewing unit there are three main parts which are: the long
horizontal jib (working arm), shorter counter-jib, and the operator's cab.
The long horizontal jib is the part of the crane that carries the load. The counter-
jib carries a counterweight, usually of concrete blocks, while the jib suspends the
load to and from the center of the crane. The crane operator either sits in a cab
at the top of the tower or controls the crane by radio remote control from the
ground. In the first case the operator's cab is most usually located at the top of
the tower attached to the turntable, but can be mounted on the jib, or partway
down the tower. The lifting hook is operated by the crane operator using electric
motors to manipulate wire rope cables through a system of sheaves. The hook is
located on the long horizontal arm to lift the load which also contains its motor.
Tower cranes are used extensively in construction and other industry to hoist and
move materials. There are many types of tower cranes. Although they are
different in type, the main parts are the same, as follows:
 Mast: the main supporting tower of the crane. It is made of steel trussed
sections that are connected together during installation.
 Slewing unit: the slewing unit sits at the top of the mast. This is the engine
that enables the crane to rotate.
 Operating cabin: on most tower cranes the operating cabin sits just above
the slewing unit. It contains the operating controls, load-movement
indicator system (LMI), scale, anemometer, etc.
 Jib: the jib, or operating arm, extends horizontally from the crane. A
"luffing" jib is able to move up and down; a fixed jib has a rolling trolley
that runs along the underside to move goods horizontally.
 Counter jib: holds counterweights, hoist motor, hoist drum and the
electronics.
 Hoist winch: the hoist winch assembly consists of the hoist winch (motor,
gearbox, hoist drum, hoist rope, and brakes), the hoist motor controller,
and supporting components, such as the platform. Many tower cranes
have transmissions with two or more speeds.

 Hook: the hook (or hooks) is used to connect the material to the crane. It
is suspended from the hoist rope either at the tip, for luffing jib cranes, or in
the hoist rope belly underneath the trolley for hammerhead cranes.
 Weights: Large, moveable concrete counterweights are mounted toward
the rear of the counterdeck, to compensate for the weight of the goods
lifted and keep the center of gravity over the supporting tower.
Overhead cranes
An overhead crane, commonly called a bridge crane, is a type of crane found

in industrial environments. An overhead crane consists of parallel runways with a
traveling bridge spanning the gap. A hoist, the lifting component of a crane,
travels along the bridge. If the bridge is rigidly supported on two or more legs
running on a fixed rail at ground level, the crane is called a gantry crane (USA,
ASME B30 series) or a goliath crane (UK, BS 466).
Unlike mobile or construction cranes, overhead cranes are typically used for
either manufacturing or maintenance applications, where efficiency or
downtime are critical factors.
Overhead cranes are commonly used in the refinement of steel and other
metals such as copper and aluminium. At every step of the manufacturing
process, until it leaves a factory as a finished product, metal is handled by an
overhead crane. Raw materials are poured into a furnace by crane, hot metal is
then rolled to specific thickness and tempered or annealed, and then stored by
an overhead crane for cooling, the finished coils are lifted and loaded onto
trucks and trains by overhead crane, and the fabricator or stamper uses an
overhead crane to handle the steel in his factory. The automobile industry uses
overhead cranes to handle raw materials. Smaller workstation cranes, such as jib

cranes or gantry cranes, handle lighter loads in a work area, such as CNC mill or
saw.
Telescopic handlers
A telescopic handler, also called a lull, telehandler, teleporter, reach forklift, or

zoom boom, is a machine widely used in agriculture and industry. It is somewhat
like a forklift but has a boom (telescopic cylinder), making it more a crane than
a forklift, with the increased versatility of a single telescopic boom that can
extend forwards and upwards from the vehicle. The boom can be fitted with
different attachments, such as a bucket, pallet forks, muck grab, or winch.
In industry, the most common attachment for a telehandler is pallet forks and
the most common application is to move loads to and from places
unreachable for a conventional forklift. For example, telehandlers have the
ability to remove palletised cargo from within a trailer and to place loads on
rooftops and other high places. The latter application would otherwise require a
crane, which is not always practical or time-efficient.
In agriculture the most common attachment for a telehandler is a bucket or

bucket grab, again the most common application is to move loads to and from
places unreachable for a 'conventional machine' which in this case is a
wheeled loader or backhoe loader. For example, telehandlers have the ability
to reach directly into a high-sided trailer or hopper. The latter application would
otherwise require a loading ramp, conveyor, or something similar.
The telehandler can also work with a crane jib along with lifting loads, the
attachments that include on the market are dirt buckets, grain buckets, rotators,
power booms. The agricultural range can also be fitted with three-point linkage
and power take-off.

Hoists
A hoist is a device used for lifting or lowering a load by means of a drum or lift-
wheel around which rope or chain wraps. It may be manually operated,
electrically or pneumatically driven and may use chain, fiber or wire rope as its
lifting medium. The most familiar form is an elevator, the car of which is raised
and lowered by a hoist mechanism. Most hoists couple to their loads using a
lifting hook.
Overhead hoist
A machinery unit that is used for lifting or lowering a freely suspended

(unguided) load. These units are typically used in an industrial setting and may
be part of an overhead crane. A specific overhead hoist configuration is usually
defined by the lifting medium, operation and suspension. The lifting medium is
the type of component used to transmit and cause the vertical motion and
includes wire rope, chain or synthetic strap, or rope. The operation defines the
type of power used to operate the hoisting motion and includes manual power,
electric power, hydraulic power or air power. The suspension defines the type of
mounting method used to suspend the hoist and includes hook, clevis, lug,
trolley, deck, base, wall or ceiling.
Overhead hoists require proper installation, operation, inspection, and

maintenance. When selecting an overhead hoist, operators must consider the
average operating time per day, load spectrum, starts per hour, operating
period and equipment life.
Gin Wheels
A gin wheel is a single pulley block. It is very important that the gin wheel is
securely attached to its support, that it does not move about on the support

and the support is able to carry the total weight of the system. A safe working
platform should be available for the loading and unloading of items. Checks
should be made to ensure the free-running of wheels and ensure that they have
not rusted up.
Using hoists safely
It is important that safe working procedures are followed during hoisting to avoid
accidents that can result in serious or fatal injuries.
Problems include:
 selection of the wrong size sling – which can result in discomfort if the sling
is too small, and/or the person slipping through if it is too large. Staff should
be aware that sling sizes and coding vary between manufacturers
 wrong type of hoist or sling for the individual, or task – which can lead to
inadequate support and a risk of falling. For example, toileting slings give
a great degree of access, but little support
 incompatibility of hoist and sling can result in insecure attachment
between the two. Follow the manufacturer's advice and refer any
concerns about sling/hoist design, supply, manufacturer's instructions or
compatibility to the International standards
 failure of equipment due to lack of maintenance/inspection
 leaving a vulnerable person unattended in a hoist; or in a position where
they might be at risk of falling
 overturning of the hoist due to difficult surfaces, transporting an individual
over a long distance on a hoist, or not following the manufacturer's
instructions
 failure to use a safety harness, belt or attachment appropriately. Some
slings come with different length loops for attachment to the hoist to
increase comfort or the range of positions. You must choose the correct
loops so that an individual is not at risk of slipping from the sling. Use the
same loop configuration on both sides to reduce the risk of sideways
falling
The individual's risk assessment and care plan for hoisting should specify:
 which hoist to use for which task

 type and size of sling and any configurations of loops or leg attachments
 use of any additional safety devices such as safety belts
 number of carers needed to carry out the task
 any other relevant information specific to the person being hoisted
The hazards associated with cranes and lifting

operations
A lifting operation is an operation concerned with the lifting and lowering of a

load. A load is the item or items being lifted which could include a person or
people. A lifting operation may be performed manually or using lifting
equipment. Manual lifting, holding, putting down, carrying or moving is often
referred to as ‗manual handling of loads‘.
Lifting operations in construction occur during transportation of material from

the storage place to the place where it is being processed, and during the
processing of materials. A load includes any material or people that are lifted or
lowered by lifting equipment.

If your business or organisation undertakes lifting operations or is involved in

providing lifting equipment for others to use, you must manage and control the
risks to avoid any injury or damage.
Where you undertake lifting operations involving lifting equipment you must:
 plan them properly

 using people who are sufficiently competent
 supervise them appropriately
 to ensure that they are carried out in a safe manner
Lifting & Crane Hazards
Shifting of materials from one place to another place using Crane and Boom
truck (Lifting) is a critical work which has the following hazards:
 Falling of load
 Hitting & crushing of a load to existing facilities
 Toppling of Crane
 High wind speed, Poor communication and poor visibility
 Damage to underground utilities of earth
Other hazards of using lifting equipment
The hazards: associated with the use of lifting equipment are:
 Hazards related to the loads, e.g. crushing due to impact of moving

objects or loads falling from vehicles because they are not slinged
properly or the wrong type of slings were used
 Hazards from moving vehicles or collapsing structures, i.e. cranes falling
over because of improper fixation or strong wind, unsafe loads, loads
exceeding the safe weight limits, trapping/crushing risk in the use of

MEWPs while working at height, falling from height , limbs or bodies caught
in machinery
 falling from lifting platforms or being crushed when the platform moves
 musculoskeletal hazards related to force exertions, poor working postures
and/or repetitive work
 hazards related to poor environment that may interfere with
communication between workers or concentration needed for the task
(noise) or cause sweaty, slippery objects (heat, poor ventilation)
 Contact with overhead electrical cables.
The main hazards associated with using hoists

and lifts
The hazard associated with static lifts and hoists is that of failure under load,
which may lead to a falling weight or a flailing cable. There is also the potential
for crush injury where personnel come between the moving load (or crane) and
a fixed object.
Gin wheel
Using a gin or pulley wheel is a low-cost and convenient way of raising or

lowering a load. However, these are some risks associated with using gin or
pulley wheels:
 A hoisting rope that does not have a proper safety hook or knots at the
end.
 A hoisting rope that is worn and needs to be removed from service.

 A load that exceeds the weight capacity of the components or the ability
of workers to lift it.
 A load is not secured properly
 A bucket or load that strikes the scaffold or building, causing the load to
tip and fall.
 An improperly lashed item
 Improper use of the lift
 A poorly fitted or maintained lift
 Damaged rope or connectors
 Lack of or poor implementation of exclusion zones
 Items that aren‘t suitable to be lifted, such as buckets or pails.
Just from this, it should be evident that the gin wheel is a piece of machinery
that should be treated with care, the same as any other. Yet it‘s often treated as
a static tool with no moving parts, and no capacity to do anything unexpected.
This is patently the wrong approach to take, and it shouldn‘t take tragic
accidents to force a rethink in how we approach gin wheel safety.
Platform hoist
Platform hoist (vertical lifting platforms), like traditional passenger lifts, provide
access between floors. Platform lifts are hydraulically, or electrically powered.
Usually, they operate over two to three floors. They typically rely on hold to run
operation and operate at slower speeds than conventional passenger lifts.
There are number of incidents involving tampering with safety devices or

inappropriate maintenance of door switches or unlocking zone bypass switches
during maintenance. Combined with deterioration of the doors and their hinges,
landing doors have opened when the platform/lift car is not at that landing. This
resulted in people potentially accessing the hoist well when the lifting platform

was not at the same floor level/landing. This has resulted in members of the
public or workers falling down the open lift well or becoming trapped beneath a
descending platform.
There are number of hazards as a result of wear or inappropriate maintenance:
 Bent door lock switch contacts - The contacts on door lock switches have
been bent to increase the switch contact force; however, this can
prematurely signal to the control system that the door is locked, allowing
operation of the lift platform when the locking pin is only partially
engaged with the latch plate.
 Shortened door lock pins which do not provide adequate engagement
with the door lock plate, allowing the door to be opened
 Incorrect adjustment of Bowden cables
 Missing screws securing door locks and latch plates
 Poor adjustment of unlocking zone bypass mechanisms, meaning that the
switch remains permanently activated, allowing the platform to travel
between floors with the landing doors open.
 Damage to doors and door frames resulting in poor door alignment
Passenger and goods lifts
Operating and performing maintenance work on permanently installed electric

passenger and goods lift can be hazardous. The types of hazards generally
faced by competent maintenance workers in their working environment when
they carry out the maintenance work include:
 Mechanical hazards:
- crushing, for example, hit by counterweight or rail brackets
- shearing, for example, caught by moving or rotating machines
- pinching, for example, caught in-between moving objects
 Electrical hazards
 Working at height, such as:
- falling from car top
- falling through temporary open sides or gaps
 Falling objects
 Fire hazards
Scissor lifts
Scissor lifts provide a safe and reliable platform for workers to perform job tasks
when used according to the manufacturer‘s instructions. When not used
properly, scissor lifts can present a serious hazard to workers.
Touching Power Lines
One of the leading causes of injury and death on aerial and scissor lifts is
electrocution from overhead power lines. This can happen in a number of ways.
The employee might come into contact directly with the power line or it could
be the equipment that makes contact. Not wearing the correct footwear and
clothing is also often a factor. Workers should always assume that a power line is
active and anyone on the site but not working directly with the lines should stay
10 feet clear of them.
Toppling Over
Both aerial and scissor lifts are prone to tipping over under the wrong
circumstances. This can happen if the load is off-center or if a worker is leaning
out of the lift – once the center of gravity is off-kilter, it‘s unfortunately not difficult
for the entire machine to topple over. Again, there can be a number of reasons
for this.

Being Trapped Between the Lift and an Object
Workers being injured and even killed due to becoming trapped between an
object and the lift itself is, unfortunately, a fairly common occurrence. This most
often happens when the bucket is in movement and the employee gets
trapped between the edge of it and an object. Workers on the ground can also
be crushed if a lift topples over.
Falling from the Lift
Aerial and scissor lift operators work at height and so falls are one of the most
common causes of injury and death. The lift being unstable due to bad weather
or uneven surfaces is a contributing factor, as is the lift being hit by another
object such as a vehicle.
Failing to Follow Instruction Guidelines
Unfortunately, a large number of accidents involving aerial and scissor lifts are
down to human error. A worker might need an extra inch or two to reach the
work area and so decide to just stand on one of the side rails. This thought
occurs to many people operating aerial and scissor lifts each year and is sadly a
common cause of injury and death. Other errors include not properly assessing
a work area before using the machinery, failure to notice hazards, not wearing
the correct safety equipment, and not operating the lift properly.
MEWPs
Most fatal and serious injuries involving MEWPs arise from:
 Entrapment: operator trapped between part of the basket and a fixed

structure, eg when manoeuvring in confined overhead areas of steelwork.

Operators may become trapped against the platform controls, and if this
happens they may not be able to stop the machine running.
 Overturning: the machine may overturn throwing the operator from the
basket;
 Falling: an operator may fall from the basket during work activities; and
 Collision: the vehicle may collide with pedestrians, overhead cables or
nearby vehicles.
These hazards should be identified within a risk assessment and suitable control
measures put in place.
The control measures
Control measures for cranes
Selection
To meet the requirements of our changing engineering and built environments,

there is a need for a variety of different cranes. Therefore, cranes come in a
variety of sizes and lifting capacities.
The capacity of a crane is its maximum lift in perfect conditions. If the working
conditions are not perfect, a competent person may increase the factor of
safety, reducing the maximum load capacity.
To ensure that the lift can be achieved safely, we must ensure that we select the
correct crane for the lift.

The selection of the appropriate type of crane will depend upon the following
factors:
 Weight and dimensions of loads.

 Heights of lifts and distances/areas of movement of loads.
 Number and frequency of lifts.
 Length of time the crane will be required.
 Site ground conditions.
 Space available for crane access, erection, operation and dismantling.
 Other special operational requirements (e.g. adjacent operations).
Siting
The siting, setting up, use, dismantling and removal from site of a Crane (SETC)
requires careful planning if all these activities are to be carried out safely and
efficiently. One person with sufficient training, practical and theoretical
knowledge and experience should be appointed to be responsible for planning
and supervising the tasks. This person is known as the ―appointed person‖.
The area in which a crane is to be sited must be carefully assessed to ensure

that it is suitable before the crane is taken to site and put into service. During this
assessment, the following points should be considered:
Clearances
The area chosen must be of a sufficient size to enable the cranes to be

manoeuvred into position, set up, operated and dismantled, with sufficient
clearances between the crane and surrounding structures, as detailed in the
manufacture‘s operation and instruction manual.
Ground conditions

All cranes rely for their stability on the ability of the ground on which they are
standing to safely absorb the loads imposed by the crane. Most SETC
manufacturers supply information on the loads imposed by the crane on the
ground in the various operating and set up configurations of the crane. These
generally consist of:
 Maximum vertical load per stabiliser;

 Maximum horizontal reactions;
 Dimensions of stabiliser support plate (pad);
 Ground-level pressure under stabiliser support plate.
Some of the hazards that need to be considered when assessing ground

include:
 Underground services;
 Paved areas;
 Uncompacted fill;
 Open excavations;
 High water table;
 Basements;
 Cellars;
 Proximity to canals and rivers;
 Changes to site conditions during construction.
Overhead hazards
When siting a cranes care must be taken to ensure that the crane will not
contact or approach overhead hazards such as power lines, communications
cables or overhead structures. Some cranes will have a greater overall height
during erection than when in service.

Proximity to railways and airports
If the crane is to be sited adjacent to a railway or in the vicinity of an airfield or

airport the appointed person should contact the operator of the facility as they
may well impose restrictions on the height, lifting capacity and use of the crane.
Oversailing adjacent property
If the siting of the crane will result in oversailing of an adjacent property not in
control of the Principal Contractor, oversailing rights must be obtained in
advance by the Principal Contractor (hirer). Consideration needs to be given to
inadvertent oversailing whilst the crane is left, when not in use, in free slew.
Should the crane need to be guyed, tethered or the slew locked, when out of
service this must be considered at the initial planning stage and foundation
loads for the specific configuration obtained from the manufacturer.
Access & egress to and from the site
It is important when siting a crane to ensure that there is adequate access to

the crane position for both the crane and any supporting transport. It is equally
important to assess egress with regard to removing the crane from site. It has
been known for a building to be constructed around a crane, making it
extremely difficult and costly to remove at the end of the job!
Power supply
Before the crane arrives on site, checks should be made to ensure that there is
an adequate mains electricity supply. Larger cranes require a three phase
supply, whilst smaller cranes can run on a single phase supply. The crane
manufacturer‘s instruction manual will specify the type and size of supply
required. If a suitable mains supply is not available on site, the alternative is to

use an engine driven generator which must be adequately earthed and sized to
cope with the potentially high starting currents of the crane motors.
Wind
The crane supplier/manufacturer will be able to advise on the maximum in-

service and out of service wind conditions for the specific model of crane to be
used. The out of service wind loadings will often be much greater than the in-
service loads and the load bearing capability of the ground (foundation) must
be sufficient for the extra imposed loads due to out-of-service wind. Where the
crane is to be taken down when high winds are anticipated, the operator must
be made aware of any wind speed restrictions for dismantling.
Lightning Protection
When a crane is to left erected on a site for a period of time, consideration

should be made to providing lightning protection. Reliance should not be
placed on the earth conductor of any mains power supply. Normally the earth
bonding can be connected to the lowest metallic part of the crane structure as
the metal structure of a crane provides good continuity. To ensure an adequate
earth is achieved the resistance path between the bottom of the tower and
earth should be measured and should not exceed a value of 10 Ω.
Floodlights
It is not recommended that crane are used for mounting flood lights unless both
the lights and installation are approved by the crane manufacturer.
Zoning systems

Some cranes are fitted with working space limiters or ―zoning devices‖. These
prevent the load and/or parts of the crane from entering a prohibited place
such as a railway line.
Radio communication systems
Cranes often work on congested construction sites where the signaller is out of
sight of the crane operator and the standard hand signals specified in BS 7121
cannot be used. As an alternative, hand held VHF/UHF radios are often used.
Scale drawing
Where a mobile crane is to be used for installation or removal the crane owner‘s
appointed person should prepare, or have drawn up under his direction, a scale
drawing of the site. The drawing should include the following information:
 Plan and side elevation views;

 Outline envelope of the building under construction;
 The planned location of the mobile crane with dimensions to reference
points to aid location;
 The make and model of crane selected;
 The radius that the crane can reach;
 SWL at max radius;
 Height under hook;
 Outrigger loadings;
 Proximity hazards and delivery vehicle unloading areas.
Stability of cranes
The suitability of ground conditions is the responsibility of the Contractor, who

must ensure that all crane standing positions are prepared in accordance with

the loading provided by the Company Representative. The stability of mobile

cranes relies on the following factors:
 That the ground is suitably compacted and leveled. Underground services

or constructions may suffer damage or collapse due to a crane passing
over or nearby, which in turn may lead to the crane overturning.
Arrangements must be made to avoid underground services and
constructions, basements, and embankments.
 That the outrigger beams on the crane are extended to the required
lengths or positions in accordance with the crane manufacturer‘s
specified duties and dimensions.
 That the outrigger jacks are extended to raise the crane wheels off the
ground and free of weight.
 That adequate support material has been positioned under the outrigger
jacks to prevent them from sinking into the ground whilst lifting loads.
 That the crane carries out lifting strictly in accordance with the
manufacturer‘s tables of Safe Working Loads, i.e. Duty Charts.
 The outrigger jack loading tables are for guidance only and show the
maximum theoretical loads for a selection of various cranes in each
category. Loadings for other crane models and specific outrigger
loadings are available from the Crane Owner.
 The Crane Supervisor and Crane Operator must monitor ground
conditions during the course of erection, paying attention to deterioration
as a result of usage and adverse weather.
 If there is doubt about the ground condition, the Crane Operator should
be instructed to fully retract the main boom derrick to minimize radius and
then slew the counterweight in the direction of each outrigger in turn for
two minutes to simulate actual lift.
Control measures for hoists

Hoists must be:
 properly constructed of sound materials, stable and capable of lifting the

required loads;
 properly marked as to use, either for equipment and materials only, or for
passengers in addition to goods, and the number that can be carried,
together with a safe working load notice. Never allow passengers to ride
on a goods only hoist;
 erected only by trained and experienced people following the
manufacturer's instructions and properly secured to the supporting
structure;
 operated only by trained and competent people;
 thoroughly examined and tested after erection, substantial alteration or
repair and at relevant intervals. Regular safety checks should be carried
out and the results recorded. As a general guide, daily pre-use checks
should be carried out by the operator, with additional formal inspections
carried out at least monthly or in accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions where timescales are shorter.
Set the controls up:
 so that goods hoists can be operated from one position only, e.g. ground
level and the operator can see all the landing levels from the operating
position; and
 so that passenger hoists with controls on the platform can only be
operated from the platform, other than in emergencies.
To prevent people being struck by the platform or other moving parts:
 enclose the hoistway at places where people might be struck, e.g.

ground level, working platforms or window openings; and

 provide gates at all landings and at ground level.
Prevent people falling down the hoistway by making sure:
 the hoistway is fenced where people could fall down it;

 the gates at landings are kept closed except during loading and
unloading. Gates should be secure and not free to swing into the
hoistway; and
 the standoff distance from the platform edge to the landing is
appropriate and the platform is fitted with a ramp so there is no gap to fall
through.
Prevent people being hit by falling materials e.g. by:
 enclosing the hoistway;

 ensuring travel platforms have toe-boards and are enclosed with mesh or
solid sides where loads exceed toe-board height;
 transporting loose materials in containers such as wheelbarrows or
stillages;
 ensuring all containers are secured to prevent inadvertent movements;
and
 ensuring loads are distributed evenly on the platform and do not impose
any point loading in excess of the manufacturer's instructions.
Control measures for lifts
There are four key aspects to the safe use of cranes:
 Planning lifting operations

 Safe systems of work
 Supervision of lifting

 Thorough examination
Planning lifting operations
All lifting operations should be planned so they are carried out safely with
foreseeable risks taken into account.
The person appointed to plan the lifting operation should have adequate
practical and theoretical knowledge and experience of the lifts being
undertaken.
The plan will need to address the risks identified by a risk assessment, the
resources required, procedures and the responsibilities so that any lifting
operation is carried out safely.
The plan should ensure that the lifting equipment remains safe for the range of
lifting operations for which the equipment might be used.
You must plan lifting operations carefully to ensure they are carried out safely.
Your plan should result in a safe system of work and this information should be
recorded. This record is sometimes known as a method statement and you must
ensure that everyone involved understands it.
Key elements include:
 planning – including site preparation, crane erection and dismantling;

 selection, provision and use of a suitable crane and work equipment
 including safe slinging and signalling arrangements;
 maintenance and examination of the crane and equipment;
 provision of properly trained and competent personnel;

 supervision of operations by personnel having the necessary authority;

 thorough examinations, reports and other documents;
 preventing unauthorised movement or use of the crane; and
 measures to secure safety of persons not involved in the lifting.
Supervision of lifting
The right level of supervision must be in place for lifting operations, reflecting the
degree of risk and personnel involved in the particular lifting operation.
The crane supervisor should direct and supervise the lifting operation to make
sure it is carried out in accordance with the method statement.
Thorough examination
There are strict legal requirements concerning the thorough examination of all
cranes:
 Lifting equipment must be thoroughly examined at the prescribed

intervals. This is a detailed and specialised examination by a competent
person.
 The examination will usually be arranged by the crane hire company,
although it is the responsibility of the crane user to ensure that all
necessary examinations are carried out and that the required reports are
in order.
 Records of thorough examinations and tests must be: readily available to
enforcing authorities; secure; and capable of being reproduced in written
form.
Integrity of lifting equipment

Always have lifting equipment thoroughly examined following ‗exceptional

circumstances‘, e.g. if it is damaged or fails, is out of use for long periods, or if
there is a major change in how it is used which is likely to affect its integrity.
To ensure the integrity of lifting equipment, it shall be subject to a

detailed/thorough examination by a qualified inspector who has sufficient
detailed knowledge of its design, operation and failure modes to recognise
significant defects. The scope, methods and standards of that examination, and
acceptance/rejection criteria shall be specified for all equipment, taking into
account the following:
 Legal requirements;
 Manufacturer‘s recommendations;
 Operating conditions (including infrequently used and mothballed
equipment);
 Utilisation and age of the equipment;
 Degree of risk;
 Results of previous inspections.
Load Integrity and Stability:
 Load shall not exceed dynamic and/or static capacities of the lifting
equipment.
 The integrity and stability of loads shall be verified before lifting.
Competence of personnel
In a broad sense, a competent person is an individual who, by way of training

and/or experience, is knowledgeable of applicable standards, is capable of
identifying workplace hazards relating to the specific operation, is designated
by the employer, and has authority to take appropriate actions.

Competence of personals involved in the lifting operations:
 All persons involved in planning/performing lifting and maintaining lifting

equipment shall be trained and competent for their role.
 Refresher training and periodic assessment is necessary to assure
competence.
The management system shall define the standards required for critical roles
and the process for assuring the competence of those involved in planning and
executing lifting operations. Generally, to be regarded as competent a person
shall have received the necessary training and subsequently demonstrated their
ability to perform at the required level in the field. The system shall allow the PIC
to easily confirm personnel competence. To facilitate this, records of
competence shall be available on site, and if practicable on the person.
Periodic assessment (preferably every two years, but normally not longer than
four years) and refresher training shall be conducted as necessary to ensure the
required level of performance is maintained.
Equipment specific training will be necessary for certain operations.
Additional considerations are:
 Formal certification shall always comply with legislative and management

system requirements;
 When technical authorities or advisors are used, their roles shall be defined
in the management system and they shall have the required level of
competence and access to specialist advice;
 Companies should consider the relevance and benefits of simulator
training for crane operators.

Maintenance and inspection
In addition to the requirements for safe design and construction, all lifting
equipment should also be checked and maintained as necessary to keep it
safe for use, so:
 users may need to undertake simple pre-use checks (eg on lifting chains
and slings), or make checks on a daily basis (eg for lift trucks)
 in some cases, inspections and checks should be made on a regular
basis, often weekly, but this may be on a monthly or quarterly basis (eg
the checks undertaken by an operator on their crane)
 employers should ensure that lifting equipment is thoroughly examined
(normally once or twice a year but, in some cases, this may be more or
less frequent)
These checks are necessary to verify that the lifting equipment can continue to
be safely used.
What is a 'thorough examination' under LOLER?
This is a systematic and detailed examination of the equipment and safety-

critical parts, carried out at specified intervals by a competent person who must
then complete a written report. This report must contain the information required
by LOLER Schedule 1, including:
 the examination date

 the date when the next thorough examination is due
 any defects found which are (or could potentially become) a danger to
people

Where serious defects are identified, the competent person carrying out the
examination must immediately report this verbally to the dutyholder. This should
then be followed by the written report, a copy of which must also be sent to the
relevant enforcing authority.
You should ensure that the person carrying out a thorough examination has
such appropriate practical and theoretical knowledge and experience of the
lifting equipment to be thoroughly examined as will enable them to detect
defects or weaknesses and to assess their importance in relation to the safety
and continued use of the lifting equipment.
When should thorough examinations be carried out?
 before use for the first time - unless the equipment has a Declaration of
Conformity less than one year old and the equipment was not assembled
on site. If it was assembled on site, it must be examined by a competent
person to ensure that the assembly (eg a platform lift installed in a
building) was completed correctly and safely
 after assembly and before use at each location - for equipment that
requires assembly or installation before use, eg tower cranes
 regularly, while in service - if the equipment is exposed to conditions that
cause deterioration which is likely to result in dangerous situations. Most
lifting equipment will be subject to wear and tear and so will need regular
in-service examination. Some may be exposed to significant
environmental conditions which may cause further deterioration.
 following exceptional circumstances - liable to jeopardise the safety of
lifting equipment, which may include:
o damage or failure
o being out of use for long periods

o major changes, which are likely to affect the equipment's integrity

(eg modifications, or replacement / repair of critical parts)
Statutory examinations
As well as governing the way in which we undertake lifting operations, there are
requirements to ensure that all lifting equipment and their accessories are
routinely inspected by a competent person, this is called thorough examination.
Departments that own lifting equipment, whether it is used for lifting goods or
people, must ensure that their equipment is on the Estates Department statutory
inspection register, such that it becomes incorporated into the statutory
inspection regime that Estates manage on behalf of Procurement and
Insurance Services. For more information, see Responsibilities.
The Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998 (LOLER) requires
statutory inspection of lifting equipment and lifting accessories at the following
frequencies:
Equipment Type Frequency of

Statutory Inspection
Equipment used to carry people (e.g. lifts, stairlifts, people Every 6 months
hoists)
Lifting accessories, e.g. eyebolts, shackles, wire ropes, Every 6 months

lifting slings, magnetic and vacuum devices (used for
lifting), pulley blocks and ropes for climbing or work
positioning
Equipment used to lift goods (anything other than Every 12 months

people) e.g. motor vehicle lifts, fork lift trucks, vehicle tail
lift, overhead crane, engine hoist.

The only time when the above frequencies may alter would be when an
examiner deems it necessary, or where circumstances may alter the conditions
(such as certain lifting equipment being used outside), where there may be a
requirement to examine the equipment on each occasion it is used, or after an
accident or dangerous occurrence.
Emergency arrangements
An emergency procedure should be developed and included in the safe

system of work. The procedure should specify the equipment for handling the
collapsed lifting appliance, removing of test weights, assignment of personnel in
charge of the emergency procedure. It is also important to secure medical
assistance within the shortest possible time for medical treatment in case of a
mishap.
10.10 Identify the hazards and outline control measures associated

with electricity (including work on high voltage systems) and risks
associated with portable electrical equipment – Electricity
10.10.1 Hazards of electricity and static electricity
Electric arcs
An arc flash is a short circuit through air that flashes over from one exposed live
conductor to another conductor or to ground.
Simply put, an arc flash is a phenomenon where a flash over of electric current
leaves its intended path and travels through the air from one conductor to
another, or to ground. The results are often violent and when a human is in close
proximity to the arc flash, serious injury and even death can occur.
Arc flash can be caused by many things including:
 Dust
 Dropping tools
 Accidental touching
 Condensation
 Material failure
 Corrosion
 Faulty Installation
 Coming close to a high-amp source with a conductive object can cause
the electricity to flash over.
 Dropping a tool or otherwise creating a spark can ignite an arc flash
 Equipment failure due to use of substandard parts, improper installation, or
even normal wear and tear
 Breaks or gaps in insulation.
Typical hazards from an Arc Flash:
 Burns (Non FR clothing can burn onto skin)

 Fire (could spread rapidly through building)
 Flying objects (often molten metal)
 Blast pressure (upwards of 2,000 lbs. / sq.ft)
 Sound Blast (noise can reach 140 dB – loud as a gun)
 Heat (upwards of 35,000 degrees F)
 Radiation
Molten metal splash
When water, moisture, or any sort of liquid comes into contact with molten
metal, it turns into steam and can create an explosion. This type of hazard

exposes workers and anyone within the area to high-temperature liquids and
materials that can cause severe or fatal burns.
Arc flash temperatures can reach or exceed 35,000 °F (19,400 °C) at the arc
terminals. The massive energy released in the fault rapidly vaporizes the metal
conductors involved, blasting molten metal and expanding plasma outward
with extraordinary force.
Radiation
A literature review was conducted to determine the effects of arc radiation and
heat on the health, safety, and comfort of welders. The direct effects of arc
radiation are discussed as a function of the wavelength and intensity at which
energy is radiated from welding arcs. Ultraviolet and infrared radiation present
potential problems because of their effects on the eyes, skin, and other parts of
the body; however, the protective equipment and clothing to minimize or
eliminate such problems is readily available. Visible radiation does not appear to
be hazardous, but it does produce vision-obstructing glare, eye discomfort, and
fatigue. The physical and process-oriented variables that affect arc radiation
are discussed, and the specific effects of ultraviolet, visible, and infrared
radiation on welder physiology are viewed. In addition to its direct effect on
welder health and safety, ultraviolet radiation reacts with atmospheric oxygen
and the chlorinated hydrocarbons that are used to clean metal surfaces to
produce gases that may be hazardous. These reactions and their dependence
on the welding and process variables are discussed along with a review of the
physiological effects associated with the presence of these gases in the welding
environment. The effects of heat are more difficult to assess than those
associated with radiation, because psychological as well as physiological
reactions that may adversely affect efficiency and production capacity can
occur.

Circumstances giving rise to the generation of

static electricity
Static electricity is the electric charge generated when there is friction between
two things made of different materials or substances, like clothes tumbling in
your dryer. Static electricity is what causes the sparks when you comb your hair
or touch a metal object, like a doorknob, after walking across a carpet on a
cold, dry day (especially during Canadian winters). It can also be generated by
repeated contact and separation between unlike materials, like a flat belt on a
rotating pulley.
Electric charges can build up on an object or liquid when certain liquids (e.g.,
petroleum solvents, fuels) move in contact with other materials. This charge can
occur when liquids are poured, pumped, filtered, agitated, stirred or flow
through pipes. This buildup of electrical charge is called static electricity. Even
when liquids are transported or handled in non-conductive containers,
something rubbing the outside surface of the container may cause a static
charge to build up in the liquid. The amount of charge that develops depends,
in part, on how much liquid is involved and how fast is it flowing or is being
agitated or stirred.
The main causes of static electricity are:
 Contact and separation between two materials (including friction,

travelling over rollers, etc)
 Rapid heat change (e.g. material going through an oven)
 High energy radiation, UV, X-ray, intense electric fields (not very common
in industry)
 Cutting action (e.g. a slitter or sheet cutter)

 Induction (standing in the electric field generated by a static charge)
Contact and Separation
Contact and separation is probably the most common cause of static in industry
where film and sheet are being processed. It happens when material unwinds
or passes over a roller. This process is not fully understood, but the clearest
explanation of how the static is generated here is an analogy with a plate
capacitor where mechanical energy to separate the plates of a capacitor is
converted into electrical energy.
When the material touches the roller, a small charge flows from the material to
the roller causing an imbalance. As the material leaves the roller the voltage is
magnified like the separating plates of a capacitor.
Rapid Heat Change
Pyroelectricity is the term used to describe the ability of certain materials to

generate static when they are heated or cooled. Plastic mouldings are
particularly prone to developing a static charge while they cool after moulding
or subsequent heat treatment.
A plastic product is not electrically stable until it is relatively cool: 40º - 50º C is a
typical target figure for electrical stability.
High Energy Radiation
Although not so common in industry, exposure to UV, X-rays or intense electric

fields can cause a static charge to develop. Plastic films that have been
subjected to Corona treatment to improve printability will often exhibit
unwanted levels of static electricity.

Cutting Action
Sheet cutting or slitting and trimming processes will generate a static charge.
On an individual sheet basis, this may not be too much of a problem, but when
multiple sheets or components are stacked, the ‗battery effect‘ can produce a
significant and problematic static charge.
Induction
If an operator, wearing insulative shoes, stands within the field of a static

generative process then moves away and touches an earthed structure, they
can experience an uncomfortable but generally harmless static discharge.
This can be dangerous not because of the electric shock itself but due to the
uncontrolled ‗recoil‘ reaction of the operator.
Hazards and controls for static electricity
Depending on circumstances, static electricity can be a nuisance or a hazard.

Static cling in your clothes can be a nuisance but a spark that has enough
energy to cause a fire or explosion is a definite hazard. To decide if static
electricity is likely to be a hazard, you must consider several factors:
 Is there an ignitable mixture (e.g., solvent vapour or dust in the air) in the
area where a static electricity discharge can occur?
 Can a static electric charge be generated under the operating
conditions?
 Can the charge accumulate?
 If it discharges, will it cause a spark?

 Will the discharge generate an incendive spark, i.e., a spark that has
enough energy to ignite the mixture in air?
If the answer to the above five questions is yes where a solvent or fuel is used,
then static electricity can be a fire / explosion hazard. It means that the spark
can ignite a vapour/air mixture that is in its flammable range, the concentration
range between the upper and the lower flammable limits.
Be aware that when a person walks around, there is a redistribution of the static
electric charge on their body as they get close to or leave an area where there
is a charge. This change is also related to any items the person may have on
their body, such as clothing, tools, flashlights, pens, etc.
Some hazards posed by static electricity are:
 Electric shock due to the flow of current through the body, causing a
person everything from an uncomfortable zap to falls, burns, or stopping
the heart.
 Fires or explosions due to the ignition of flammable or explosive mixtures.
 Production disturbances in the processing of paper, plastics, composites,
powder, granules, and liquids.
 Damage to electronic equipment and components from electrostatic
discharge (ESD).
 Damage to mechanical components such as bearings due to sparking
through the oil films on bearing surfaces.
Controls for static electricity
One effective way of preventing sparks is by connecting all objects to a

conductor (bonding) and to the earth (grounding).

Bonding is a secure joining of metallic parts that form an electrically conductive

path, dropping their voltage difference to near zero. Yet, there may be a
voltage difference relative to the ground or another object. Bonding prevents
sparks from jumping between two things that are at the same potential.
Grounding is a connection between the objects and the earth, allowing the
discharge of electrostatic electricity to the ground.
In addition to facilities, people sometimes need to be grounded. Personnel

grounding employs specialized flooring and grounding fabrications worn on the
wrists or over the shoes.
10.10.2 Control measures for the use of electrical equipment and working
on electrical systems
The selection and suitability of equipment
Check that the electrical equipment is suitable:
 The equipment should be physically capable of doing the job, and

designed and constructed so that mechanical and electrical stresses do
not cause the equipment to become unsafe.
 If the environment is damp you may choose to use battery or air powered
equipment, or equipment that operates at a reduced voltage such as
that supplied by a transformer with an output that is centre tapped to
earth (this halves the voltage between a live wire and earth). These are
used in the construction industry and are readily available from hire shops.
 If the environment is conductive with restricted movement (eg inside a
metal tank) additional precautions are necessary.
 If there is the chance that there is an explosive atmosphere (containing
flammable aerosols, vapours, gases or dusts) nearby you should ensure

the work can be carried out safely and that the right equipment is
chosen.
Check that the electrical equipment is suitable for the electrical supply
Make sure that the electrical equipment you are intending to use is suitable for
the electrical supply to which you are connecting it. Check the voltage is
correct and that the supply can deliver the current required by the equipment
(the power requirements of the equipment will be shown on its rating plate).
Selection of electrical equipment
When an electrical apparatus is to be installed in areas where dangerous

concentrations and quantities of flammable gases, vapours, mists, ignitable
fibres, or dusts may be present in the atmosphere, protective measures are
applied to reduce the likelihood of explosion due to ignition by arcs, sparks, or
hot surfaces produced either in normal operation or under specified fault
conditions. The following International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
standards are relevant for the correct selection and installation of electrical
apparatus in hazardous areas:
 IEC Standard 60079-14: Electrical Apparatus forExplosive Gas

Atmospheres, Part 14: Electrical Installations in Hazardous Areas (Other
Than Mines)
 IEC Standard 61241-14: Electrical Apparatus for Use in the Presence of
Combustible Dust, Part 14: Selection and Installation. In this article, we
discuss IEC Standard 60079-14, which was revised in 2007.
It has been found practical to classify hazardous areas into zones according to
the likelihood of an explosive gas atmosphere being present (see IEC Standard
60079-10 for definitions). Such classification allows appropriate types of

protection to be specified for each zone. In the ATEX directive 94/9/EC, the new
idea "Criteria Determining the Classification of Equipment-Groups into
Categories" now defines different levels of safety for the electrical apparatus
against the possibility of becoming a source of ignition. Therefore, the user can
have a second selection criterion for choosing the correct product for a given
application.
In order to select the appropriate electrical equipment for hazardous areas, the
following information is required:
 classification of the hazardous area including the equipment protection

level (EPL);
 gas group IIA, IIB or IIC;
 dust group IIIA, IIIB or IIIC;
 temperature class;
 min. ignition temperature of the dust cloud/layer;
 intended application of the equipment;
 external influences;
 ambient temperature.
Strength and capability of electrical equipment
No electrical equipment shall be put into use where its strength and capability
may be exceeded in such a way as may give rise to danger.
The term ‗strength and capability‘ of electrical equipment refers to the ability of
the equipment to withstand the thermal, electromagnetic, electrochemical or
other effects of the electrical currents which might be expected to flow when
the equipment is part of a system. These currents include, for example, load
currents, transient overloads, fault currents, pulses of current and, for alternating
current circuits, currents at various power factors and frequencies. Insulation
must be effective to enable the equipment to withstand the applied voltage

and any likely transient over-voltages.
A knowledge of the electrical specification and the tests, usually based on the
requirements of national or international standards, will assist the user in
identifying the withstand properties of the equipment so that it may be selected
and installed to comply with this regulation. Such tests are normally carried out
either by the manufacturer or by an accredited testing organisation.
Rating
The strength and capability of electrical equipment is not necessarily the same
as its rating. Usually the rating is that which has been assigned by the
manufacturer following a number of agreed tests.
Electrical equipment should be used within the manufacturer‘s rating

(continuous, intermittent or fault rating as appropriate) and in accordance with
any instructions supplied with the equipment.
Fault conditions
So that equipment remains safe under prospective fault conditions, you must
select equipment that takes account of the fault levels and the characteristics
of the electrical protection which has been provided for the purpose of
interrupting or reducing fault current. Most electrical equipment will be able to
withstand short-circuit currents safely for limited periods only. The considerations
also extend to conductors and equipment provided solely for protective
purposes, eg earthing conductors must be adequately rated to survive beyond
fault clearance times to ensure satisfactory protective gear operation and fault
clearance.

Reducing the risk of shock by using protective

systems
The term ‗protective equipment‘ can be of wide application but typically

includes those special tools, protective clothing and insulating screening
materials etc necessary to do work safely on live electrical equipment. The
requirement for suitable precautions to prevent injury may arise under
regulation. The regulation requires the protective equipment to be:
 suitable for use;

 maintained in that condition;
 properly used.
Reduced voltage systems
Reduced voltage systems are particularly appropriate for portable and

transportable equipment, and in highly conducting locations such as boilers and
tunnels where the risk of mechanical damage to equipment and trailing cables
is high, and/or the body may be damp and have large areas of contact with
the conducting location and on construction sites.
Cutting of supply/isolation
The isolation of a power system from earth may reduce the risks associated with
a single fault. However, if this first fault has the effect of referencing the system to
earth or other exposed conductor, subsequent faults may lead to very
destructive and hazardous short circuits so extra precautions will be necessary to
prevent this danger. These may include the bonding of metallic enclosures,
earth fault detection, insulation monitoring or the use of an earth-free non-

conducting environment. Regular inspection and testing to ensure that system

isolation integrity is maintained will also be necessary.
Residual current devices
The danger of shock can be reduced by the use of a residual current device
(RCD) designed to operate rapidly at small leakage currents (typically not
exceeding 30 mA), although these devices do not eliminate the risk of electric
shock. RCDs should not be considered as the sole means of protection but as an
additional protective measure. They should be operated regularly using the test
trip button. This test trip procedure is important in maintaining the effectiveness
of most types of RCD.
Double insulation
The principle of ‗double insulation‘ is that the live conductors of the electrical
equipment are covered by two discrete layers or components of insulation,
each of which would adequately insulate the conductor but which together
ensure an improbability of danger arising from insulation failure. This
arrangement avoids the need for any external metalwork of the equipment to
be connected to a protective conductor or to earth. Double insulation has
been found to be particularly suitable for certain types of portable equipment,
eg electric motor-driven tools etc. However, the integrity of this safety protection
depends upon the layers of insulation remaining in sound condition and this in
turn requires the equipment to be properly constructed, used and maintained.
Earth free zones
If a system is supplied from a source which is earth-referenced, the path for fault
current and the existence of dangerous potentials to earth can be eliminated in

a defined area by ensuring that the area is ‗earth-free‘. This does not necessarily
mean that metallic components or fittings need to be prohibited but rather that
no part of the defined area is earthed. It is easier to ensure the integrity of an
‗earthfree‘ area by constructing it from non-metallic components, in which case
it is more appropriately known as a non-conducting location or area. ‗Earth-
free‘ and ‗non conducting‘ areas are specialised applications and are used
mainly in certain testing of electrical equipment. Advice is available in the
publications on electrical testing listed in References and further reading.
Fuses
Many power installations are designed so that the automatic interruption of the
supply in the event of an earth fault is achieved by the operation of fuses or
automatic circuit breakers (MCBs etc). In most cases, these devices will have
been selected to provide the additional protective function of interrupting
excess current required under regulations. In these circumstances the earth fault
current must be large enough to rupture the fuse quickly. The magnitude of the
fault current under full earth fault conditions is governed mainly by the
combined impedance of the fault loop, which will include the impedance of
the fault itself, that of the earthing or protective conductors, the circuit
conductors and that of the source.
Reference - https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/hsr25.htm
Insulation, protection and placing of conductors
All conductors in a system which may give rise to danger shall either:

 be suitably covered with insulating material and as necessary protected

so as to prevent, so far as is reasonably practicable, danger; or
 have such precautions taken in respect of them (including, where
appropriate, their being suitably placed) as will prevent, so far as is
reasonably practicable, danger.
Some form of basic insulation, or physical separation, of conductors in a system

is necessary for the system to function. That functional minimum, however, may
not be sufficient to comply with the requirements of regulation 7. Factors which
must be taken into account are:
 the nature and severity of the probable danger;

 the functions to be performed by the equipment;
 the location of the equipment, its environment and the conditions to
which it will be subjected;
 any work which is likely to be done on, with or near the equipment.
Insulation
Conductors must be insulated. Suitable insulation of the conductors in an

electrical system is, in the majority of cases, the primary and necessary
safeguard to prevent danger from electric shock, either between live
conductors or between a live conductor and earth. It will also prevent danger
from fire and explosion arising from contact of conductors either with each
other or with earth. Energy from quite low levels of voltage (and levels
insufficient to create a shock risk) can ignite a flammable atmosphere. The
quality and effectiveness of insulation therefore needs to be commensurate with
the voltages applied to the conductors and the conditions of use.
Other precautions including placing

Regulation permits the alternative of having such precautions taken in respect

of the conductors. These precautions may include the suitable placing of
conductors. They may comprise strictly controlled working practices reinforced
by measures such as written instructions, training and warning notices etc. The
precautions must prevent danger so far as is reasonably practicable. Examples
where bare conductors are used in conjunction with suitable precautions are to
be found in many applications including overhead electric power lines, down-
shop conductors for overhead travelling cranes in factories etc, railway
electrification using either separate conductor and running rails or overhead
pick-up wires, and certain large electrolytic and electrothermal plants.
Electric railway and tramway operators, in conjunction with the Office of Rail
and Road, have developed standards and safety specifications for the
construction of those parts of their systems which use bare conductors at
overhead and at track level, together with safe systems of work.
Safety is ensured in electrochemical plants which use high current by such

means as the separation of conductors which are at different potentials, the use
of insulating working platforms and unearthed or isolated electrical supplies.
Suitable placing of the conductors may, on its own, go a considerable way

towards preventing danger, for example where the conductors are within a
secure enclosure or where they are placed overhead at such a height that
contact with these conductors is not reasonably foreseeable.
Dutyholders should carefully consider the inherent risks that may still exist if bare
conductors are placed where they cannot normally be touched, eg
maintenance activities around the conductors of an electric overhead crane
system.

Working space, access and lighting
For the purposes of enabling injury to be prevented, adequate working space,

adequate means of access, and adequate lighting shall be provided at all
electrical equipment on which or near which work is being done in
circumstances which may give rise to danger.
Working space
Where there are dangerous exposed live conductors within reach, the working
space dimensions should be adequate:
 to allow people to pull back away from the conductors without hazard;
 to allow people to pass one another with ease and without hazard.
Regulations specified minimum width and height dimensions of switchboard

passageways where there were bare conductors exposed or arranged to be
exposed when live so that they may be touched. That regulation and the
relevant definitions used are reproduced in Appendix 1. The dimensions
specified were arrived at after much consideration of the circumstances in a
Public Inquiry when those Regulations were being drafted. However, those
dimensions can still provide guidance for an appropriate level of safety in many
circumstances and where the voltages do not significantly exceed 3000 V. This
does not condone the use of equipment having normally bare and exposed
conductors if a safe alternative can reasonably be adopted.
Lighting
Natural light is preferable to artificial light, but where artificial light is necessary it
is preferable that this be from a permanent and properly designed installation –

in indoor switchrooms etc. However, there will always be exceptions and special
circumstances where these principles cannot be achieved, eg where
handlamps or torches may be the sole or most important means of lighting.
Whatever level of lighting is used, it must be adequate to enable injury to be
prevented.
Reference - https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/hsr25.htm
Inspection and maintenance strategy
The law requires electrical equipment to be maintained to prevent danger. The

type and frequency of user checks, inspections and testing needed will depend
on the equipment, the environment in which it is used and the results of previous
checks.
User checks
The undertaking of user checks prior to using equipment is often neglected as

part of the overall maintenance regime but it is recommended that users are
encouraged to undertake visual checks for obvious signs of damage or wear
and tear.
Formal inspections can then be regularly completed that build on the user
checks. The HSE suggests that this can be undertaken by a nominated
employee who has sufficient knowledge and information to complete this task
following written guidance.

For many organisations, the combined inspection and test will be required to
identify faults such as the loss of earth integrity and insulation deterioration that
may not be identified through user checks and formal inspections.
The nominated person/s undertaking this part of the regime (be they in-house or
external) must be appropriately trained with the HSE giving the following
definitions of competency.
 Level 1: A person not skilled in electrical work routinely uses a simple

―pass/fail‖ type of portable appliance tester where no interpretation of
readings is necessary.
 Level 2: A person with appropriate electrical skills uses a more
sophisticated instrument that gives readings requiring interpretation.
Frequency of user checks, inspections and testing is according to the HSE ―a

matter of judgment by the dutyholder, and should be based on an assessment
of risk‖ although suggested periods are provided in HSG107.
Formal visual inspections
An important part of a maintenance regime is the formal visual inspection. Such

inspections are necessary because they can reveal most potentially dangerous
faults. They can normally be carried out by a member of staff who has sufficient
information and knowledge of what to look for, what is acceptable, and who
has been given the task of carrying out the inspection (that is, they are
competent to do the task). To avoid danger, trained people should know when
the limit of their knowledge and experience has been reached. Simple, written
guidance relating to the formal visual inspection can be produced that
summarises what to look for and which procedures to follow when faults are
found or when unauthorised equipment is found in use. This guidance can also
help equipment users.
As part of the visual inspection, you should also consider whether:
 the electrical equipment is being used in accordance with the

manufacturer‘s instructions;
 the equipment is suitable for the job;
 there has been any change of circumstances;
 the user has reported any issues.
Combined inspection and test (PAT)
The checks and inspections outlined in the previous paragraphs should reveal
most potentially dangerous faults. However, some faults, such as loss of earth
integrity (eg broken earth wire within a flexible cable), deterioration of insulation
integrity, or contamination of internal and external surfaces, cannot be
detected by visual examination alone. Such faults can only be reliably detected
by a combined visual inspection and test. This should be carried out periodically
to back up the checks and inspections and is likely to be justified:
 whenever there is reason to suppose the equipment may be defective

and this cannot be confirmed by visual examination;
 after any repair, modification or similar work; or
 at periods appropriate to the equipment, the manner and frequency of
use and the environment.
The inspection carried out in conjunction with testing should usually include
checking:
 the correct polarity of supply cables;

 the correct fusing;
 effective termination of cables and cores;
 that the equipment is suitable for its environment.

Records of maintenance and tests
There is no legal requirement to keep maintenance logs for electrical

equipment. However, a suitable log is useful as a management tool for
monitoring and reviewing the effectiveness of the maintenance plan.
The log can include faults found during inspection, which may be a useful
indicator of places of use or types of equipment that are subject to a higher
than average level of wear or damage. This will help monitor whether suitable
equipment has been selected. Entries can also highlight any adverse trends in
test readings that may affect the safety of the equipment, and as a result
enables remedial action to be taken. Be careful when interpreting trends where
a subsequent test may be done with a different instrument, as differences in the
results may be due to difference in the instruments rather than deterioration in
the equipment being tested.
Frequency of inspection and testing
Determining the frequency of inspection and testing is a matter of judgement

by the dutyholder, and should be based on an assessment of risk. It is
recommended that this is carried out as part of the general risk assessment.
Alternatively, the dutyholder may wish to seek advice from a competent person
who has the knowledge and experience to make the necessary judgement, eg
original appliance manufacturers or suppliers, or relevant trade associations.

Table - Suggested initial maintenance intervals
Use of competent workers to carry out inspections
User checks and formal visual inspections can be carried out by a competent
employee. In this context ‗competent‘ means having suitable training, skills and
knowledge for the task to prevent injury to themselves or others. When testing is
necessary, a greater degree of competence will be required. People in control
are, however, free to take other action or use alternative control measures that
achieve the same standard of safety.
An important part of a maintenance regime is the formal visual inspection. Such

inspections are necessary because they can reveal most potentially dangerous
faults. They can normally be carried out by a member of staff who has sufficient
information and knowledge of what to look for, what is acceptable, and who
has been given the task of carrying out the inspection (that is, they are
competent to do the task). To avoid danger, trained people should know when
the limit of their knowledge and experience has been reached. Simple, written
guidance relating to the formal visual inspection can be produced that
summarises what to look for and which procedures to follow when faults are
found or when unauthorised equipment is found in use.
Safe systems of work on installations made

dead
Adequate precautions shall be taken to prevent electrical equipment, which

has been made dead in order to prevent danger while work is carried out on or
near that equipment, from becoming electrically charged during that work if
danger may thereby arise.
The regulation may apply during any work, be it electrical or non-electrical. The
regulation requires adequate precautions to be taken to prevent the electrical
equipment that has been made dead from becoming electrically charged,
from whatever source, if this charging would give rise to danger.
The precautions

The precautions must be effective in preventing the electrical equipment from

becoming charged in any way which would give rise to danger.
In the first place, the procedures for making the equipment dead will probably
involve use of the means required for cutting off the supply of electrical energy.
Isolation of the electrical equipment will be necessary. Ideally, a means of
locking off an isolator can be used. Where such facilities are not available, the
removal of fuses or links and their being held in safe keeping can provide a
secure arrangement if proper control procedures are used.
These precautions will prevent the equipment from becoming charged by

connection to its own or normal sources of electrical energy but may not, alone,
be sufficient to prevent charging. The presence of electrical energy as a result
of electromagnetic induction, mutual capacitance or stored electrical energy
may have to be guarded against, eg by applying earthing connections for the
duration of the work (temporary earths). The precautions may need to include
means of preventing further accumulation of electrical charge, following initial
discharge, because latent energy may be stored in the system, eg in the
dielectric of high-voltage cables or capacitors within equipment. For work on
high-voltage power distribution circuits, isolation procedures should include the
application of circuit main earths (primary earths) at points of isolation and
additional earthing around the point of work.
Written procedures
The safety isolation procedures should be formalised in written instructions or

house rules. Safety documentation, including ‗permits-to-work‘, may form part of
the written procedures and their use is considered essential to ensuring a safe
system of work where this involves work on the conductors or equipment of high-
voltage power distribution systems (typically where the working voltage exceeds
1000 V) or where the system is very complex. Properly formulated and regulated
‗permit-to-work‘ procedures focus the minds of those issuing and of those

receiving the permits, both on the manner in which the work is to be done and
on how the equipment has been made safe.
Decommissioned equipment
Before electrical equipment is decommissioned, dismantled or abandoned for

any reason, it must be disconnected from all sources of supply and effective
steps taken to ensure that it is dead and cannot inadvertently become re-
energised or dangerously charged. It may be necessary to securely mark or
otherwise suitably label equipment, circuits, switches etc to guard against
inadvertent re-energisation.
Reference - https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/hsg107.pdf
When permits-to-work must be used
An electrical permit-to-work is primarily the statement that the circuit or the item
of the equipment is safe to work on. A permit should not be issued on the
equipment that is live.
A permit applied any time work is to be the performed on or the near electrical
equipment that is in an energized state. Maybe the subset of the Permit to Work
system but must include the additional safety requirements and the approvals.
Electrical Safe Work Practice, Annex H: Energized Electrical Work Permit Form for
a sample of the Energized Electrical Specialized Work Permit and a description
of the minimum requirements for this permit.

An EEWP (Energized Electrical Work Permit) is the document that clearly

describes the following:
 The circuit, the equipment, and the location of the job/task at hand.
 The work that is to be done.
 Justification of why the circuit or the equipment cannot be de-energized
or the work deferred until the next scheduled outage.
The EEWP document should also include the section for the Electrically Qualified
Person to assess the task at the hand and determine if the job can be done
safely. In order to do this he or she must be able to provide the following
information:
 A detailed job description procedure to be used when performing the

job/task at the hand.
 A description of the safe work practices to be employed.
 Results of the Arc Flash Hazard Analysis and the Shock Hazard Analysis.
 Shock Protection Boundaries.
 Necessary personal protective equipment to safely perform the assigned
task.
 Means employed to the restrict the access of unqualified persons from the
work area.
 Evidence of the completion of the Job Briefing including the discussion of
any job-related hazards.
Safe systems of work and criteria of

acceptability for live working

Live work is work on or near conductors that are accessible and ‗live‘ or
‗charged‘. Note that testing of live exposed conductors using a test instrument is
live work.
No person shall be engaged in any work activity on or so near any live

conductor (other than one suitably covered with insulating material so as to
prevent danger) that danger may arise unless –
a) it is unreasonable in all the circumstances for it to be dead; and

b) it is reasonable in all the circumstances for him to be at work on or near it
while it is live; and
c) suitable precautions (including where necessary the provision of suitable
protective equipment) are taken to prevent injury.
The employer should concerned only with those situations where people are at
work on or near live electrical conductors which may foreseeably give rise to
danger. Such work is permitted only if conditions (a), (b) and (c) are satisfied.
‗Work‘ is not confined to electrical work but includes any work activity, eg
electrical testing.
The system of work must:
 allow only people who are competent to do so to work on or near

exposed, live conductors; and
 indicate within what limits the work is to be attempted; and
 indicate what levels of competence apply to each category of such
work; and
 incorporate procedures under which the person attempting the work will
report back if the limits specified in the system are likely to be exceeded.
Suitable precautions should include, as appropriate:

 the use of people who are properly trained and competent to work on
live equipment safely;
 the provision of adequate information to the person carrying out the work
about the live conductors involved, the associated electrical system and
the foreseeable risks (NB: when excavation work is ongoing the insulation
of a cable is not an effective measure against damage to the cable or
penetration of it by a mechanical tool);
 the use of suitable tools, including insulated tools, equipment and
protective clothing;
 the use of suitable insulated barriers or screens;
 the use of suitable instruments and test probes;
 accompaniment by another person or people if the presence of such
person or people could contribute significantly to ensuring that injury is
prevented;
 the restriction of routine live test work (eg product testing) to specific
areas and the use of special precautions within those areas, such as
isolated power supplies, non-conducting locations etc;
 effective control of any area where there is danger from live conductors.
10.10.3 High voltage systems
Common high voltage systems and the

prevention of danger
High voltage is a voltage in excess of 1000 V ac or 1500 V dc (direct current).

Low voltage is a voltage up to and including 1000 V ac or 1500 V dc.

Working safely around high-voltage conductors is a challenge for many workers

. High-voltage systems are generally associated with utility services and heavy
industry, such as pulp mills, sawmills, and mining operations. With care and
precise planning, you can operate equipment and tools safely around these
potentially lethal power lines.
Where can we find high voltage?
 Power supplies and power cables

 Capacitor banks
 Certain batteries
 Any electrically conductive surfaces energized by the above
Identifying High-voltage overhead conductors
Overhead high-voltage conductors are usually installed at the top of utility

poles. If there is more than one conductor, they are usually placed side by side
on a cross arm. If there is a transformer on the pole, the high-voltage conductors
are mounted above it. These are general guidelines. Employers are responsible
for accurately determining the voltage of all conductors on the pole or in the
work area.
Why energized high-voltage systems are dangerous
Accidents involving high voltages can result in severe injuries and death. When
an electric current passes through the body, it generates heat and can
extensively damage internal tissues. In some cases, the entry and exit wounds
are so severe that a foot or hand has to be amputated. The electric current can
also stop the heart.
Step potential

Step potential is the voltage difference between two places that are a step
apart on energized ground. For example, if you are standing on energized
ground, there could be a significant difference in voltage between where one
foot and the other are placed, and an electric current could flow up one leg
and down the other.
Touch potential
Touch potential is another danger that comes from the difference in voltage. It
occurs when you touch something that is energized while standing on lower-
voltage ground. For example, if a tree or equipment is in contact with a power
line, it will be energized to the same voltage as the power line; the surrounding
ground will be energized to a lower voltage. If you touch the energized
equipment or tree at the same time as you touch the ground with your feet,
electricity will flow through your body from the higher voltage tree or equipment
to the lower voltage ground.
Prevention
Ensure proper personal protective equipment (PPE). For example, NFPA Arc
Flash approved arc-rated clothing that can protect you from a potential
electrical incident. This also includes approved equipment used for live voltage
and phasing checking at high voltage should be tested immediately before
and after use against a high voltage test supply.
Make sure you have a Self-Inspection Electrical Safety Checklist. Contains OSHA
standards and the NEC National Electrical Code for complete and specific
guidelines that may apply to your work environment.
Test voltage test indicators immediately. This includes before and after use
against a test supply designed for the purpose.

Never work alone. Always have a partner who knows your equipment and the
risks and hazards involved. That way, you have a second set of eyes to insure
safety, and someone who can shut off the power and get help if you are
injured.
Never assume a circuit is safe just because it is powered off. Make sure to
CHECK that a safe, de-energized state has been achieved. Some equipment
operates at voltages that are so low that they cannot cause a harmful electric
shock, but even at these extra- low voltages, an arc can occur and burns can
result from overheating.
Safe systems of work, permit-to-work

procedures
If there are high-voltage lines, carrying 132 kV, 275 kV and 400 kV (kilovolts),
additional safe distances need to be implemented over and above the normal
cordoning requirements of an incident.
It should always be assumed that the high-voltage system is live or that there
may be a residual current hazard present, until the electricity supplier confirms
otherwise, for example, through a permit-to-work certificate.
Personnel will benefit from having access to risk information about equipment
and its location such as:
 Substations

 Transformers
 Switchgear
Personnel should not enter any enclosure surrounding electrical assets, or climb
any steel tower, structure or pole supporting overhead lines, unless permission
has been received from the electricity supplier,
Risk assessments
Any operational activity under or near to high-voltage equipment, including

transmission towers and overhead lines, should be subject to a risk assessment,
taking into account:
 The conditions, such as fire or dense smoke

 Wind direction
 Weather conditions, especially lightning
 The equipment being used, such as ground monitors or aerial ladder
platforms
Exclusion zones
If there are high-voltage assets, including transmission tower or overhead lines,

additional safe distances need to be implemented over and above the normal
cordoning requirements of an incident.
Exclusion zones vary depending on the incident:
 Exclusion zones for overhead lines

 Exclusion and safety corridors for major asset failure
 Exclusion zones to minimise touch and transfer potentials
Rescuing a casualty

If it is necessary to rescue a casualty who is within 5m of high-voltage electricity,

the following steps should be taken:
 Request permission from the electricity supplier to rescue a casualty,

providing information such as:
o The condition of the casualty
o The distance and position of the casualty in relation to the point of
contact of the high-voltage electricity
o Whether the casualty is at, above or below ground level
o Weather conditions
o Transmission tower markings and signs
 Record permission when received
 Carry out a risk assessment
 Proceed with caution
Permit-to-work procedures
On high-voltage systems (and often on high-energy systems) a permit-to-work

should be issued but only after all the precautionary actions have been carried
out. It is not common practice to issue permits-to-work for work on low-voltage
systems but they should be considered if their use would contribute to safety in
specific circumstances.
An electrical permit-to-work is primarily a statement that a circuit or item of

equipment is safe to work on it has been isolated and, where appropriate,
earthed. You must never issue an electrical permit-to-work for work on
equipment that is still live or to authorise live work. The information it contains
should be precise, detailed and accurate. It should state which equipment etc
has been made safe, the steps by which this safety has been achieved, and
exactly what work is to be done.

You should not allow anyone to work on equipment that is not specified in the
electrical permit-to-work as having been made safe. This restriction should be
understood and complied with by everyone in the premises, including directors
and senior staff.
If a programme of work must be changed, the existing electrical permit-to-work

should be cancelled and a new one issued before any variation is made to the
work. The only person who has the authority to agree the change in programme
and issue the new electrical permit-to-work is either the person who issued the
original permit or the person nominated by management to take over the
responsibility, eg at the end of a shift or during absence on leave.
An electrical permit-to-work should be issued by only a designated competent

person who has been assessed to be so by means of technical knowledge
and/or experience and who is familiar with the system and equipment. The
person should be authorised, in writing, by the employer to issue safety
documents such as electrical permits-to-work relating to specified equipment or
systems. Before issuing the permit, they should work out, in detail and in writing,
what the various steps are to disconnect, isolate, prove dead, lock OFF, earth
the equipment, post warning notices, and identify the equipment to be worked
on and adjacent equipment which will still be live.
The electrical permit-to-work should state clearly:
 the person the permit is addressed to, ie the leader of the group or
working party, who will be present throughout the work;
 the exact equipment which has been made dead and its precise
location;
 the points of isolation;
 where the conductors are earthed;
 where warning notices are posted and special safety locks fitted;
 the nature of the work to be carried out;

 the presence of any other source of hazard, with cross-reference to other
relevant permits;
 further precautions to be taken during the course of the work.
Reference - https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/hsg85.pdf
Additional precautions needed for high voltage

working and working near overhead lines
Additional precautions needed for high voltage working
High-voltage equipment should be designed and installed so that it is not

necessary to work on exposed live parts. However, it is commonly necessary for
voltage checks or tests to be carried out, and for observations to be made from
safe distances such as when carrying out phase rotation tests.
Because high voltages can arc across an air gap, you can suffer a shock or burn
without touching live voltage parts. The dead working procedure must therefore
be followed. Isolation should be by means of a device that has a safe isolating
gap between live parts and those that have been made dead for work to be
carried out. Earthing conductors at the point where the supply is disconnected
are essential and additional earths may be necessary at the place of work.
The system of locking OFF while work is in progress should use safety locks which
have unique keys so that the apparatus cannot be inadvertently re-energised.
The keys should be retained in a key safe or other suitable place available only
to the person in charge of the activity. The precautions should be backed up

with a disciplined documentation system; the electrical permit-to-work is an

established system that has proved to work well in practice.
Additional procedures will be necessary to adequately cover shift changes or

work extending over long periods. It may also be necessary to have special rules
or procedures for particular items of equipment and for particular working
practices such as testing (eg it may be necessary to remove earths to facilitate
testing under a clearly defined sanction-to-test procedure).
Precautions must be taken to prevent people approaching dangerously close

to uninsulated high-voltage conductors. This will normally mean that any work
on high-voltage equipment is undertaken only after all the precautions set out.
There are, however, some special situations where, by the use of appropriate
tools, apparatus, and precautions, work on live high-voltage conductors may be
permissible while the people involved are at a safe distance.
Some transmission and distribution network operators carry out live, hands-on
working on overhead conductors. For this type of work special vehicles, work
equipment, tools, clothing etc, together with exacting working methods, are
necessary to ensure safe working. For all the special situations referred to,
specific work procedures need to be devised and a very high degree of
competence and discipline are essential for everyone involved. These special
situations are not within the scope of this document.
Reference - https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/hsg85.htm
Working near overhead lines
The law requires that work may be carried out in close proximity to live overhead
lines only when there is no alternative and only when the risks are acceptable

and can be properly controlled. You should use this guidance to prepare a risk
assessment that is specific to the site.
Businesses and employees who work near to an overhead line must manage the
risks. Overhead line owners have a duty to minimise the risks from their lines and,
when consulted, advise others on how to control the risks. The line owner will
usually be an electricity company, known as a transmission or distribution
network operator, but could also be another type of organisation, eg Network
Rail, or a local owner, eg the operator of a caravan park.
Good management, planning and consultation with interested parties before

and during any work close to overhead lines will reduce the risk of accidents.
This applies whatever type of work is being planned or undertaken, even if the
work is temporary or of short duration. You should manage the risks if you intend
to work within a distance of 10 m, measured at ground level horizontally from
below the nearest wire.
Remove the risk
The most effective way to prevent contact with overhead lines is by not carrying
out work where there is a risk of contact with, or close approach to, the wires.
If you cannot avoid working near an overhead line and there is a risk of contact
or close approach to the wires, you should consult its owner to find out if the line
can be permanently diverted away from the work area or replaced with
underground cables. This will often be inappropriate for infrequent, short-
duration or transitory work.
Risk control
If the overhead line cannot be diverted or switched off, and there is no

alternative to carrying out the work near it, you will need to think about how the

work can be done safely. If it cannot be done safely, it should not be done at
all. Your site-specific risk assessment will inform the decision. Things to consider as
part of your risk assessment include:
 the voltage and height above ground of the wires. Their height should be
measured by a suitably trained person using non-contact measuring
devices;
 the nature of the work and whether it will be carried out close to or
underneath the overhead line, including whether access is needed
underneath the wires;
 the size and reach of any machinery or equipment to be used near the
overhead line;
 the safe clearance distance needed between the wires and the
machinery or equipment and any structures being erected. If in any
doubt, the overhead line‘s owner will be able to advise you on safe
clearance distances;
 the site conditions, eg undulating terrain may affect stability of plant etc;
 the competence, supervision and training of people working at the site.
Working near but not underneath overhead lines – the use of barriers
Where there will be no work or passage of machinery or equipment under the

line, you can reduce the risk of accidental contact by erecting ground-level
barriers to establish a safety zone to keep people and machinery away from the
wires. This area should not be used to store materials or machinery. Suitable
barriers can be:
 constructed out of large steel drums filled with rubble, concrete blocks,
wire fence earthed at both ends, or earth banks marked with posts.
 If steel drums are used, highlight them by painting them with, for example,
red and white horizontal stripes.
 If a wire fence is used, put red and white flags on the fence wire.
 Make sure the barriers can be seen at night, perhaps by using white or
fluorescent paint or attaching reflective strips.
Passing underneath overhead lines
If equipment or machinery capable of breaching the safety clearance distance

has to pass underneath the overhead line, you will need to create a
passageway through the barriers.
Working underneath overhead lines
Where work has to be carried out close to or underneath overhead lines, eg

road works, pipe laying, grass cutting, farming, and erection of structures, and
there is no risk of accidental contact or safe clearance distances being
breached, no further precautionary measures are required.
However, your risk assessment must take into account any situations that could
lead to danger from the overhead wires. For example, consider whether
someone may need to stand on top of a machine or scaffold platform and lift a
long item above their head, or if the combined height of a load on a low lorry
breaches the safe clearance distance. If this type of situation could exist, you
will need to take precautionary measures.
Reference - https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/gs6.htm
10.10.4 Portable electrical equipment
Why portable electrical equipment could be

more of a risk than static equipment
Portable equipment can be defined as, equipment that is intended to be

connected to a generator or a fixed installation by means of a flexible cable
and either a plug and socket or a spur box, or similar means. This includes
equipment that is either hand-held or hand-operated while connected to the
supply, intended to be moved while connected to the supply, or likely to be
moved while connected to the supply.
Special attention should be given to joints and connections in cables and

equipment which will be handled, eg flexible cables for portable equipment.
Plugs and sockets for portable equipment must be constructed in accordance
with appropriate standards and arranged so that, where necessary, earthing of
any metal casing of the equipment is automatically effected by the insertion of
the plug.
Electrical risks from portable appliances
A simple definition of risk is the chance (large or small) of harm actually being
done when things go wrong (eg risk of electric shock from faulty equipment).
Electrical risk from portable generators
Generator users should operate their equipment in accordance with the

manufacturer's instructions. Generators are frequently hired from plant-hire
companies which are in turn responsible for providing the hirer with information
for the safe use of their equipment. On no account should users interfere with
the internal electrical connections of hired equipment. If questions arise about
the operation of the equipment or its safety, users should refer to their suppliers in
the first instance.

The main means of protection against electrical shock should be by using a well-
maintained generator which is correctly installed and adequately earthed. This
affects the safety of the whole installation, so it should only be installed by
someone who is competent to do so.
It should not be possible to connect the generator(s) in parallel with the public
supply system unless written agreement has been reached with the electricity
supplier.
The electricity supplier will set out the arrangements necessary for you to ensure
a safe connection. If there is more than one generator and they are to be
operated in parallel, the system should be designed so that the load is shared
between them.
Unless the generator is supplying only double insulated equipment within a few
metres of itself, there is a risk that a fault in the equipment, the cables or the
generator could cause the equipment casing to become live without blowing
the fuse or tripping any circuit breakers. To avoid this, one point (usually the
neutral or star point) of the generator output circuit should be earthed, and
bonded to the structural steelwork of the building and any scaffolding etc.,
which may carry electrical equipment.
Reference - https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/gs50.pdf
Arc/mig/tig welding
MIG and TIG welding both use an electric arc to create the weld. The difference
between the two is the way the arc is used. MIG (metal inert gas) welding uses a
feed wire that constantly moves through the gun to create the spark, then melts
to form the weld. TIG (tungsten inert gas) welding uses long rods to fuse two
metals directly together.

Health hazards from welding, cutting, and brazing operations include exposures
to metal fumes and to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Safety hazards from these
operations include burns, eye damage, electrical shock, cuts, and crushed toes
and fingers. Many of these can be controlled with proper work practices and
personal protective equipment (PPE).
The arc welding process requires a live electrical circuit. This means all arc
welders using hand-held equipment are at risk of electric shock and electrical
burns. The risk for MIG/ MAG and TIG welding is much less, as the welding current
is normally switched on and off using the trigger or foot switch.
For all arc welding, make sure:
 welding equipment conforms to the appropriate international (ISO) or

British (BS) standards
 installation of fixed welding equipment is carried out by a suitably
qualified person and is connected as recommended by the
manufacturer
 the insulation on the welding and current return leads is undamaged and
the conductor is thick enough to carry the current safely
 all connectors are clean, undamaged and correctly rated for the current
required
 insulation on the welding cables, plugs, clamps or torch/electrode holder
on welding equipment is undamaged
 welders use the appropriate personal protective equipment for the task
Issues relating to the aspects of supply to

portable electrical equipment
Height of cables
Portable equipment and the electrical connections to it (eg the plug and
flexible cable and its terminations) are likely to be subjected to, and more
vulnerable to, physical damage and wear or harsh treatment in use than
equipment which forms part of the fixed installation. The fixed installation is
usually provided with a significant degree of protection against damage by the
fabric of the building or fixed enclosure. However, floor boxes containing socket
outlets can easily trap and damage cables if not properly used. It is important to
remember that the same legal requirement to maintain systems applies to the
fixed installation and all electrical equipment connected to it.
The risk of receiving an electric shock will be greater when the user of portable
electrical equipment is standing on a surface that is a good electrical
conductor (such as a wet floor, the ground outside, a concrete floor or on
scaffolding) than if they are standing on a wooden floor or dry carpet and not in
contact with earthed metalwork.
The most vulnerable item of any portable equipment is often the cable
(sometimes called cord, lead or flex) that supplies the equipment. Most portable
equipment is supplied by a flexible cable, which is made up of thin, flexible wires
covered in insulation and then enclosed in an overall sheath. The cable may
deteriorate due to ageing or environmental effects, abuse or misuse, fail
because of repeated flexing, or suffer mechanical damage. The most obvious
examples of mechanical damage are being struck or penetrated by objects.
Siting of RCDs
The application of a residual current device to a conventionally earthed system

should be considered where it is vital to provide an additional backup

protection against failure of the primary earthing system. A RCD will prevent a
person from being subjected to a lethal shock from a fault current to earth, by
limiting the duration of the shock, usually to 30 milliseconds.
RCDs in the distribution will provide additional protection but ensure that
discrimination is effective by using appropriate settings on devices. For example,
a faulty appliance connected to a socket on the stage should operate the 30
mA RCD protecting that socket, not the 300 mA RCD on the output of the
generator. However, seek the manufacturer‘s advice before installing an RCD
where there is vibration, such as on a generator.

10.11 Describe the different types of construction activities and

outline how people can be protected during construction works, safe
work at height practices, and the hazards and controls for demolition
and excavation work - Construction, Work at height, Demolition,
Excavation
10.11.1 What is construction
―construction work‖ means the carrying out of any building, civil engineering or
engineering construction work and includes:
 the construction, alteration, conversion, fitting out, commissioning,

renovation, repair, upkeep, redecoration or other maintenance (including
cleaning which involves the use of water or an abrasive at high pressure,
or the use of corrosive or toxic substances), de-commissioning, demolition
or dismantling of a structure;
 the preparation for an intended structure, including site clearance,
exploration, investigation (but not site survey) and excavation (but not
pre-construction archaeological investigations), and the clearance or
preparation of the site or structure for use or occupation at its conclusion;
 the assembly on site of prefabricated elements to form a structure or the
disassembly on site of the prefabricated elements which, immediately
before such disassembly, formed a structure;
 the removal of a structure, or of any product or waste resulting from
demolition or dismantling of a structure, or from disassembly of
prefabricated elements which immediately before such disassembly
formed such a structure;
 the installation, commissioning, maintenance, repair or removal of
mechanical, electrical, gas, compressed air, hydraulic,
telecommunications, computer or similar services which are normally fixed
within or to a structure,

The health and safety professional’s role in

construction projects
A company that promotes safety measures will have a higher retention

percentage in their workforce. Safety measures also create an adequate
working conditions, resulting in better performance and a pleasant work
environment. Construction safety officers are responsible for creating and
implementing safety measures in constructions.
A construction safety officer implements safety policies and regulations in an

construction site, and makes sure they are followed. Their main responsibility is
creating a safe environment for construction workers, but they may take
additional roles and responsibilities during a project.
Summary of Construction Safety Officer Responsibilities:
 Continuous inspection of project sites, to ensure a hazard-free

environment
 Assessment and approval of subcontractor safety plans
 Verification of tools and equipment to ensure good quality
 Promoting safe practices on site
 Creating and enforcing safety guidelines and programs
 Carrying out drills and exercises on managing emergency situations
 Conducting investigations on accidents
 Verifying that all safety reports are submitted to related government
institutions.
 Responding to workers‘ safety concerns

 Manages all communications with government departments in regards of

safety
 Arranges mandated evaluations of the site
 Coordinates all issues regarding hazardous materials or waste
 Assisting with the preparation of a construction health and safety plan
 Attending project planning meetings and collaborating with construction
managers
 Establishing and maintaining health and safety communication structures
 Testing effectiveness of site emergency response plans
 Continuous monitoring of all safety related documents, reports and issues
to keep them updated.
Overall the HSE professional is responsible for promotion of a positive health and
safety culture on the construction site.
To prevent damages, injuries and ill-health accident investigation is also among

the tasks of construction safety officers. The main objective of a construction
safety officer is preventing work accidents, but if an accident occurs they must
investigate and gather evidence to determine its causes. Once an investigation
takes place, they will document findings and recommendations to prevent
similar accidents from happening again.
Types of work
Renovation

Renovation refers to the process carried out to upgrade an existing structure to

improve performance by either altering the scope of structure, providing
additional facilities or improving existing facilities.
In some situations, domestic clients wishing to extend, refurbish or demolish parts

of their own property will, in the first instance, engage an architect or other
designer to produce possible designs for them. It is also recognised that
construction work does not always follow immediately after design work is
completed. If they so wish, a domestic client has the flexibility of agreeing (in
writing) with their designer that the designer coordinates and manages the
project, rather than this role automatically passing to the principal contractor.
Where no such agreement is made, the principal contractor will automatically
take over the project management responsibilities.
Alteration
A building may need to be altered at some point after it has been constructed
during its in-use period. This will necessitate alteration work.
Alteration work may be required for a wide range of reasons, including:
 Factors unforeseeable at the design stage, e.g new efficiency standards

become possible.
 Total or partial change of use e.g an office block converted into housing.
 Change of ownership necessitating enlargement, extension or other
changes.
 Failure of building components.
 Changing technological possibilities.
 Fashion
 Wear and tear.

Common examples of alterations include:
 Extension.
 Partial demolition.
 Linking or separating spaces.
 Making or closing openings.
 Retrofitting a new component or feature.
 Refurbishing an existing component or feature.
 Renovating an existing component or feature.
 Repairing an existing component or feature.
 Maintenance.
 Decoration.
Maintenance of existing premises (occupied or

unoccupied)
In this context, maintenance simply means keeping the workplace, its structures,
equipment, machines, furniture and facilities operating safely, while also making
sure that their condition does not decline. Regular maintenance can also
prevent their sudden and unexpected failure.
There are two main types of maintenance:
 preventive or proactive maintenance - periodic checks and repairs; and

 corrective or reactive maintenance - carrying out unforeseen repairs on
workplace facilities or equipment after sudden breakage or failure. This is
usually more hazardous than scheduled maintenance.
Maintenance-related accidents are a serious cause of concern. For example,

analysis of data from recent years indicates that 25-30% of manufacturing
industry fatalities in Great Britain were related to maintenance activity.
Undertaking maintenance activities can potentially expose the workers involved

(and others) to all sorts of hazards, but there are four issues that merit particular
attention because of the severity of the harm that could be involved, and
because they are commonly encountered during plant and building
maintenance.
 Disturbing asbestos
 Falls from height
 Isolation and permits to work
 Falls of heavy items
 Selection of contractors
Civil engineering
Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the

design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built
environment, including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams,
airports, sewage systems, pipelines, structural components of buildings, and
railways.
Works of engineering construction
Works of engineering construction means the construction, structural alteration

or repair (including repointing and repainting) or the demolition of: any bridge,
gas-holder, harbour pipeline, reservoir, sewer, sewage works, watercourse or
waterworks.
Demolition

The law says that all demolition, dismantling and structural alteration must be
carefully planned and carried out in a way that prevents danger by
practitioners with the relevant skills, knowledge and experience. Key issues are:

 Injury from falling materials
 Uncontrolled collapse
 Risks from connected services
 Traffic management
 Hazardous materials
 Noise and vibration
 Fire(local link)
 Worker involvement
The range of activities
Site clearance
The process of site clearance is generally undertaken as part of enabling works,

carried out to prepare a site for construction. It involves the clearing the site to
allow other remedial, treatment or demolition works to take place before the
actual construction works can begin.
It involves clearing a site of any machinery or equipment, unwanted surplus

materials, rubbish, and so on. Site clearance may also involve clearing away
vegetation and surface soil, and levelling and preparing the ground for the
planned construction works. Care should be taken to ensure that there are the
correct approvals in place, particularly for trees which may be protected.

A site waste management plan (SWMP) may be prepared before site clearance
begins. This describes how materials will be managed efficiently and disposed of
legally, explaining how the re-use and recycling of materials will be maximised.
All types of waste present on the site must be removed safely and efficiently. If
there is any contaminated waste or potentially hazardous substances (such as
asbestos), professional disposal experts must be consulted to safely handle
them.
Demolition
Demolition is the most high risk activity in the construction sector.
The essence of safe demolition lies in efficient risk control, environmental

management and careful planning. The CDM Regulations have provided a
platform from which the industry should adopt best practice, demanding written
plans of work for demolition even where a project is not notifiable.
Clients and their professional advisors play a vital role in safe demolition and
must:
 Allow sufficient time for planning the works.

 Procure an appropriate contractor (carry out safety and environmental
audits).
 Provide sufficient information to a good standard.
General demolition procedures include:
 Site compound and security set-up.

 Intrusive pre-demolition surveys (such as; asbestos survey for demolition,
structural survey, hazardous materials surveys, etc).
 Isolation of utilities and removal of meters.

 Disconnection of utilities.
 Asbestos removal (in accordance with the Control of Asbestos
Regulations).
 Soft strip (taking the structure back to construction materials including the
removal of windows and door frames).
 Superstructure demolition with special measures as constraints demand,
such as de-build or protection of adjacent structures.
 Processing of superstructure arisings.
 Slab and foundation demolition.
 Processing of arisings.
 Site finishes as required.
Dismantling
Dismantling involves the careful deconstruction of building components for

repair, re-use, re-purposing or recycling. Dismantling differs from deconstruction
in that it can be undertaken as a means of conservation, maintenance and
repair works, whereas deconstruction involves taking a building down, albeit in a
careful way that aims to minimise waste and maximise re-use. Dismantling also
differs from demolition in that it does not generally involve the clearance of an
entire structure.
Dismantling can be required on projects where it is necessary to remove

intricate components, where there is a safety risk (for example if a structure
contains asbestos or other hazardous materials), where it is necessary to move a
component from one place to another, or where the structure and/or
surrounding environment is particularly sensitive.
Excavation

In construction terms, excavation is the process of removing earth to form a

cavity in the ground.
On small sites or in confined spaces, excavation may be carried out by manual

means using tools such as picks, shovels and wheelbarrows. Larger scale
excavation works will require heavy plant such as bulldozers and backactors. For
more information, see Excavating plant.
Loading, unloading and storage of materials
Using mechanical equipment to move and store materials increases the

potential for employee injuries. Workers must be aware of both manual handling
safety concerns and safe equipment operating techniques. Employees should
avoid overloading equipment when moving materials mechanically by letting
the weight, size, and shape of the material being moved dictate the type of
equipment used. All materialshandling equipment has rated capacities that
determine the maximum weight the equipment can safely handle and the
conditions under which it can handle that weight. Employers must ensure that
the equipment-rated capacity is displayed on each piece of equipment and is
not exceeded except for load testing.
Site movements
The law says that you must organise a construction site so that vehicles and
pedestrians using site routes can move around safely.
The routes need to be suitable for the persons or vehicles using them, in suitable
positions and sufficient in number and size.
The term 'vehicles' includes: cars, vans, lorries, low-loaders and mobile plant such
as excavators, lift trucks and site dumpers etc.

The key message is: construction site vehicle incidents can and should be
prevented by the effective management of transport operations throughout the
construction process.
Key issues in dealing with traffic management on site are:
 Keeping pedestrians and vehicles apart

 Minimising vehicle movements
 People on site
 Turning vehicles
 Visibility
 Signs and instructions
Fabrication
In construction, a ‗fabrication‘ is an item that is manufactured by a fabricator

for installation on a building site as part of an ongoing construction project, for
example, a window, door, steel member, staircase and so on that is typically
made off-site to the specification required for the project.
A building‘s windows are normally fabricated off-site to special dimensions that

the fabricator has either taken off the drawings or specification, or else has
visited the site and measured for the item to be supplied. The fabricator can
then proceed to manufacture. It should be noted that a fabrication can be
termed ‗prefabricated‘ if it is made off site. Delivered to site ready to install
means that these items can help reduce waste and time and cut emissions.
Decoration
In its widest sense, 'decoration' refers to the process of making something more
attractive, or to the items that are used to make something more attractive.

In the construction industry, decoration refers to the ‗dressing‘ of a room or

interior space. It can be referred to as ‗interior decoration‘ or 'decor' and relates
to the aesthetics of a space and its furniture, furnishings, surface finishes, lighting,
and so on. It generally does not include the shape of the space, position of
walls, and so on.
The purpose of decoration is to make the space more aesthetically pleasing

and functionally useful for the occupants, but this may include consideration of
wider contextual issues such as fashion, culture, and so on.
Cleaning
When you think of the typical office space, you think of a clean, efficient area
for workers to get the job done. The truth is professional cleaning of a
construction site is even more important – helping to reduce costs, build
reputations and secure future work.
According to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE), last year there were 54,000
cases of non-fatal work-related injury on construction sites in the UK (source:
https://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/industry/construction.pdf ) . However,
workplace injury doesn‘t just pose a question of the human cost, it also has a
large economic cost. Millions of working days have been lost due to workplace
injury and illness and many of them can be prevented with professional
cleaning practices.
Installation
In general, installation is the act of installing something in a fixed, semi-fixed or

temporary location. It can also refer to a complete unit which has been
installed.

In terms of construction, it often refers to machinery, plant, apparatus, etc.,

being placed in position or connected for use. Often this can refer to a system
or unit with accompanying assemblies, accessories, parts, and so on. It can also
include connection to the services which are required to enable the installation
to operate.
Removal and maintenance of services
The law says you must keep every part of your construction site in 'good order'
and every place of work clean. The objective is to achieve what is usually called
a good standard of 'housekeeping' across the site.
In addition, all contractors must plan, manage and monitor their work so it is
carried safely and without risks to health. This includes careful planning on how
the site will be kept tidy and housekeeping actively managed.
The standard of housekeeping you achieve on site will be affected by how

effective you are at:
 Materials storage
 Waste management
Landscaping
Landscape design, also known as landscape architecture and landscaping, is

the arranging and modifying of features in a landscape, urban area or garden.
It involves the planning, designing and managing of open spaces to create
urban and rural environments.
Landscape design can be incorporated into a wide variety of projects, from

parks and green spaces, to gardens, sports sites and large estates such as

housing developments, business parks, universities, hospital complexes, and so

on. It may be used to regenerate or improve sites such as brownfield sites or
contaminated sites and may be part of a biodiversity offsetting programme to
help mitigate for the loss of habitat that may result from a new development.
Particular construction issues
Transitory nature of workers
A transient worker, sometimes also known as a peripatetic worker, is defined as

someone who works away from their normal work base either for part or all of
their work. It can also refer to someone who has no fixed work base. Risk
assessments for transient workers will need to take into account the type of work
they are doing away from the normal work base - this would usually include:
 working alone
 late, evening and night shift work
 working in confined spaces
 violence towards staff
 safe use and maintenance of tools and equipment
 working with harmful substances, manual handling and other health
requirements such as health surveillance
 provision, use and maintenance of personal protective equipment (PPE)
 first aid and emergencies
Temporary nature of construction activities and the

constantly changing workplace

Nearly all construction sites are temporary in nature, and during the construction
process are constantly changing. This always leads to the temptation to
compromise on health and safety issues, such as the provision of adequate
welfare facilities or the safe re-routing of site traffic. Finally, at any given time,
there are many young people receiving training on site in the various
construction trades. These trainees need supervision and structured training
programmes. As a building or structure is built it gradually becomes more stable
and permanent, but as it is demolished it gradually becomes weaker and less
stable; construction requires temporary elements such as shuttering and
excavations, which present transitory risks. As such, hazards and risks are
constantly changing and the workforce will need to be consistently re-apprised
on the changes. This will mean that site management will have to regularly
update risk assessments and safe systems of work to reflect changing conditions
and then communicate the changes to the workforce.
Fire arrangements
The arrangements section of the health and safety policy comprises details of
the means used to carry out the policy statement. This will include health and
safety rules and procedures and the provision of facilities, such as a first aid
room and wash rooms. It is common for risk assessments (including COSHH,
manual handling and PPE assessments) to be included in the arrangements
section, particularly for those hazards referred to in the policy statement. It is
important that arrangements for fire and other emergencies and for information,
instruction, training and supervision are also covered. Local codes of practice
(e.g. for fork lift drivers) should be included.
Time pressures from clients

Clients may express a desire to take over the completed building by a certain
date. This may place pressure on contractors to do what they can to save time
and/or money and so there may be a temptation to take short cuts that may
compromise safety standards.
Weather conditions
The construction industry is one of the most vulnerable to adverse weather

conditions due to its reliance on labour and outdoor activities. Weather events
pose major uncertainty factors that negatively impact construction projects‘
productivity and duration. Forty five percent of all construction projects are
affected, to some degree, by weather, resulting in billions of dollars in additional
costs worldwide, on an annual basis. These events can impact project
stakeholders through schedule slippage and decreased worker safety, resulting
in potential legal repercussions.
Weather events directly impact the ability to complete construction tasks, also
called task feasibility. Effects on task feasibility range from complete work
stoppage to reduced worker productivity and ultimately delays the project
schedule. The delay of any project has financial implications, which are shared
by the contractor, owner, and external stakeholders.
Levels of numeracy and literacy of workers
Literacy involves listening, speaking, reading, writing, numeracy and using

everyday technology to communicate and handle information. It includes more
than the technical skills of communication: it also has personal, social and
economic dimensions. Literacy increases the opportunity for individuals to
reflect on their situation and initiate change. Levels of numeracy and literacy
may be quite poor among construction workers as a good standard of

education is not a requirement for recruitment. This has implications for the
worker‘s ability to understand information, especially that provided in written
form.
Workers who do not speak the native language
Language barriers may be caused by the fact that the nature of a construction
workforce is transitory as outlined above. A lack of understanding of the
language most commonly used in the host country will inevitably lead to
misunderstandings and can seriously compromise safety initiatives.
Communications should therefore be made using a variety of media and,
where appropriate, translated into different languages, to ensure that key
messages are properly understood. If your employees have difficulties
understanding English, or employees have low literacy levels, there are a
number of ways you can communicate with them to encourage their
involvement. The aim is to achieve the same standard of understanding and
involvement as for an English speaker.
10.11.2 General health and safety duties for construction projects
The relevance of site layout; access and egress;

protection of the public
The relevance of site layout
Site layout plans are prepared by contractors as part of their mobilisation

activities before work on site commences.

They are a crucial part of construction management, as sites can be very

complex places involving the co-ordination and movement of large quantities
of materials as well as high-value products, plant and people. Effectively and
accurately laying out a site can help ensure that the works are undertaken
efficiently and safely.
Careful sizing and positioning of temporary facilities can help reduce travel
times, congestion, waiting times, and so on, and help to make the site a more
effective workplace with better worker morale.
Site layout planning involves four basic processes:
 Identifying the site facilities that will be required.

 Determining the sizes, and other constraints of those facilities.
 Establishing the inter-relationships between the facilities.
 Optimising the layout of the facilities on the site.
Site layout plans might include locations for and sizes of:
 Zones for particular activities.

 Cranes (including radii and capacities).
 Site offices.
 Welfare facilities.
 Off-loading, temporary storage and storage areas (laydown area)
 Sub-contractor facilities.
 Car parking.
 Emergency routes and muster points.
 Access, entrances, security and access controls, temporary roads and
separate pedestrian routes.
 Vehicle wheel washing facilities.
 Waste management and recycling areas.

 Site hoardings and existing boundaries.

 Protection for trees, existing buildings, neighbouring buildings, and so on.
 Signage.
 Temporary services (including electrical power, lighting, water distribution,
drainage, information and communications technology, site security
systems, and so on)
 Temporary works (such as propping solutions to retained structures, sheet
piling details, and so on).
 Areas for the construction of mock-ups for testing.
 Fabrication facilities.
Problems caused by poor site layout planning can include:
 Inappropriate storage which can result in damage to products and

materials.
 Poor siting of plant.
 Poor siting of welfare facilities.
 Inadequate space provision.
 Unsatisfactory access.
 Security and safety issues.
 Poor way finding (due to complex layouts or inadequate signage).
 Demoralised workers, delays and increased costs.
Access and egress
Access and egress refer to the rate or means of entry and exit to a workplace or
work area. Routes that provide access and egress should be controlled, safe,
suitably constructed, kept free of obstructions and well maintained. Serious
injury can result from hazards such as fires, slips and trips, contact with moving
vehicles, unauthorised entry into hazardous work areas, falls into floor openings

and falls into water, when access and egress arrangements are not properly
maintained.
Site Access
It is extremely important to always know who is on site at any given time, and
aware of personnel present in a particular work area. In the event of an
emergency, such as a fire, it will then be possible to determine whether anyone
has been unable to evacuate the site. It will also be possible to direct rescue
services to the appropriate work area. You should, therefore, always follow the
appropriate access control procedures every time you enter or exit a site or a
controlled work area.
Egress Routes
Egress routes need to be clearly marked out, well lit, unobstructed and well
maintained if they are to allow personnel and others on site to exit quickly in the
event of an emergency. For these reasons, you should never lay down or store
tools, equipment, work pieces or other items on routes of egress. Operations
should be planned so that they do not damage egress routes, and any
accidental damage should be rectified immediately.
Protection of the public
Construction sites can be dangerous places. Often, they are home to large
pieces of machinery, heavy objects, and moving vehicles. Those who work on
construction sites must receive sufficient training to work in this environment and,
as a site manager, it‘s your responsibility to reduce the risks so far as is
reasonably practicable.

However, your responsibilities focus on more than your employees. It‘s also
paramount that you prioritise public safety and ensure that work activities don‘t
put members of the public in danger.
If you don‘t take adequate health and safety precautions, you put yourself, your
employees, and the public at risk. Under section 3 of the Health and Safety at
Work etc Act 1974, employers must ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable,
that persons as well as themselves and their employees aren‘t exposed to health
and safety risks.
The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) state that the public commonly suffer
injuries on or near construction sites due to:
 Tools and materials falling outside the site boundary.

 Falling into trenches.
 Being struck by moving vehicles.
It‘s your responsibility to reduce these risks and promote good health and safety
on and around your site.
The use of method statements and permits-to-

work
Method statements
Method statements are widely used in construction as a means of controlling

specific health and safety risks that have been identified (perhaps following the

preparation of a risk assessment), such as lifting operations, demolition or

dismantling, working at height, installing equipment, the use of plant, and so on.
A method statement helps manage the work and ensures that the necessary
precautions have been communicated to those involved.
The process of preparing a written method statement provides evidence that:
 Significant health and safety risks have been identified.

 The co-operation of workers has been ensured.
 Safe, co-ordinated systems of work have been put in place.
 Workers have been involved in the process.
Method statements are not a requirement of the Construction (Design and

Management) Regulations, however they are identified by the Health and
Safety Executive (HSE) as being one way of satisfying the requirements of the
regulations and as an effective means of assessing risks, managing risks,
collecting workers‘ views and briefing workers.
Permits-to-work
Permit to work for construction
Permit to work (PTW) systems are formal procedures used to control activities
that are considered high-risk. Permits only allow authorised personnel to perform
those activities at specified times and in a way set out in the permit and
referenced documents.
A permit to work might be required for activities such as:
 Electrical works.
 Hot works.

 Excavation.
 Lone working.
 Lifting operations.
 Work in confined spaces.
 Work to high risk spaces such as laboratories, or industrial plant.
 Work at height.
 Work to roofs.
 Temporary works.
 Work with asbestos.
 Demolition.
 Work to high pressure systems.
A permit to work system should:
 Only allow permits to be issued by authorised, competent personnel.

 Prevent high-risk work being carried out without a risk assessment having
been undertaken.
 Consider whether any other work will impact on, or be impacted by, the
permitted work.
 Ensure control measures and supervision are in place.
 Ensure method statements and emergency procedures are prepared.
 Ensure work is checked and returned to a safe state.
 Provide information to other parties that might be affected by the work.
 Include a system for handing back and cancelling permits.
Permits should:
 Describe the work and its location.

 Provide information about foreseeable risks.
 Provide information necessary for working safely.
 Set out requirements for personal protective equipment.
 Set out the time when the work can be carried out.
 Provide information about other permits.
Issuing permits to work can be a complicated and time-consuming process and

so adequate notice should be given before a permit to work is required.
Permit to work systems do not in themselves make activities safer, this is only
possible through the implementation of the correct procedures. It is important
therefore that systems not box-ticking exercises, that they are explained at site
inductions and that they are continuously monitored, reviewed and kept up to
date.
General duty for:
Cooperation and communication between all parties on site
As construction projects become more complex, effective cooperation is

increasingly becoming a key factor in completing projects on time and within
budget while delivering a quality product to the client. Good cooperation leads
to many benefits like innovation, time and cost-saving, added value for the
client, reduced errors, and unnecessary rework.
Good project cooperation and communication is more than just everyone

completing tasks on schedule. It involves building a strong relationship with all
stakeholders based on trust and respect to work together to successfully
complete a project. Being able to cooperate and coordinate efforts to improve
productivity is essential.

Effective communication is vital to the successful completion of any

construction project. Good communication can improve teamwork and lead to
better project collaboration. Poor communication can result in
misunderstandings, delays, and issues down the road.
Cooperation goes hand in hand with good communication and keeping

everyone together on the same page. It revolves around trusting all parties and
valuing their input as integral members of the team. This can be accomplished
by having a good communication plan in place.
It‘s important to determine a chain of command for communication on a

construction project. These are typically spelled out in the contract documents
and usually require the owner and general contractor to communicate with
each other through the architect. The architect is responsible for
communicating with its consultants and the general contractor is responsible for
communicating information to the suppliers and subcontractors. The
superintendent on a project is typically the main point of contact for the general
contractor.
Establishing a clear line of communication that includes identifying points of

contact with contact information for key team members is vital to ensuring that
information is getting to the right people in a timely manner. Collaboration will
fail if there‘s a breakdown in communication.
Reporting unsafe work to the person in control of the project
If you are concerned about an unsafe work site or conditions, you must report it
to your employer or supervisor to determine next steps.
If you think something at your workplace is unsafe for you or other workers, but
does not put you in imminent danger, you must:

 Tell your employer / supervisor – your employer is responsible for looking

into your concern.
o If you feel your concern is not addressed, then take the problem to
your health and safety committee or representative – if there is one
at your workplace.
 If there is no committee or representative, or if you are still not satisfied,
you should connect with the OHS Contact Centre and ask someone to
look into the situation.
 Anyone has the right to call, whether directly involved in the work or not.
 It's better if you identify yourself, but even if you don't, your complaint will
be followed up.
Provide comprehensible information and instruction to

relevant parties when required
There is no legal definition of 'information', 'instruction' or 'training' but in practice:
 information means providing factual material which tells people about

risks and precautions;
 instruction means telling people what they should do; and
 training means helping them learn how to do it, but can include giving
information and instruction.
The health and safety standards place general duties on employers and others
to provide information, instruction and training in order to ensure health and
safety.
This is employer's legal duty to provide relevant and comprehensible information

to relevant parties when required about:
 risks to health and safety

 preventive and protective measures

 emergency/evacuation procedures
 health and safety law (via a poster or leaflet)
 their responsibilities to comply with site rules
 how to use work equipment and personal protective equipment
10.11.3 Protecting workers and others before and during construction work
The application of design risk management at

design phase and how residual risk should be
handled
Design Risk Management (DRM)
The purpose of Design Risk Management (DRM) is to control or limit design-

related uncertainty in order to prevent harm coming to those involved in the
construction and use of structures, as well as those who may be directly or
indirectly impacted by them. In construction we have a great deal of
uncertainty that has to be managed effectively; for example, in addition to
safety, health and wellbeing there are cost, quality, time, fitness for purpose,
aesthetics and environmental impact; constraints that may affect the design
choices. Therefore, the contribution of other team members engaged on the
project may be invaluable to the designer.
Remember that while a team approach may provide a wider insight that could
prove to be useful in the delivery of a safe and healthy construction project,
providing advice or being part of a conversation relating to a design doesn‘t

automatically mean you are considered to be a designer. Not all team

members may have the competence and/ or capability to act as a designer,
but they may have useful input that could inform good design choices.
CDM is quite clear on who may be deemed a designer and that is an individual
or an organisation who prepares or modifies a design for a construction project
(including the design of temporary works) or indeed an individual or
organisation who arranges for or instructs someone else to do so. However, only
the designer (an individual or an organisation) assumes the responsibility for
completing the actual design task for that design element, taking due
cognisance of any advice or assistance received, and in so doing so they are
responsible for ensuring compliance with regulations.
How residual risk should be handled
Residual risk is the remaining risk after your control measures are in place. There
will always be some level of residual risk, but it should be as low as reasonably
practicable. As in, as low as you can reasonably be expected to make it.
There are four basic ways of approaching residual risk: reduce it, avoid it,
accept it, or transfer it. Since residual risk is often unknown, many organizations
choose either to accept or transfer it - for example, outsourcing services with
residual risk to a third party organization.
You are not expected to eliminate all risks, because, quite simply it would be
impossible. You can't eliminate the risk of tripping on stairs, not unless we remove
all the stairs in the world. Replace them with ramps? But even then, people
could trip up the ramp simply because the floor level is rising. Even if we got rid
of all stairs and ramps, and only had level flooring. People could still trip over
their shoelaces. We could remove shoelaces, but then they could trip when their
loose shoe falls off.
Residual risk should not be left uncontrolled. In fact, residual risk in its very
definition is the risk that remains when the rest of the risk has been controlled.
Residual risk should only be a small proportion of the risk level that would be
involved in the activity if no control measures were in place at all.
In health and safety, you can look at residual risk as being the risk that cannot
be eliminated. This could be that it just can't be removed, because there are no
control measures that would prevent it. Or that to reduce that risk further you
would introduce other risks. Or that it would be grossly disproportionate to
control it.
To control residual risk to it's lowest possible level, you need to pick the best
control measure, or measures, for a task.
What needs to be considered if the site has

access/egress points on a public road
When planning any construction activity on or near a public road, traffic and
pedestrian management must be considered as part of the detailed Risk
Assessment. As part of this assessment, where other controls are identified, these
must also be planned for and implemented. All works on public roads have the
potential to involve a high degree of risk: therefore an appropriate Traffic
Management Plan is essential. Where a Traffic Management Plan has been
prepared, the controls detailed in the Plan must be implemented and
monitored, e.g. guarding, lighting and signage.
A traffic management plan is usually required to outline the traffic hazards, and
specify the measures needed for traffic control. A traffic management plan can

be defined as: ―the strategies designed to safely mitigate the impact of

construction, rehabilitation, maintenance, incident management and special
events on roadways to maintain mobility and worker safety.‖ (From: British
Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure).
Plan the traffic diversion so that the flow of traffic ensures the safety of the
workers, and the road work does not endanger the other road users.
Plan the traffic diversion in the work zone to take into account:
 the type of work and how much of the road will be closed
 the duration of the work (long/short/very short, stationary or mobile work)
 the hours in which the work will take place
 the classification of the road (e.g., highway, non-highway)
 the legal maximum speed limit
 the location such as urban/rural road
 the number of vehicles that will use the road in a day (traffic volume)
 the road surface (in general, and during construction, such as loose
gravel)
 any pedestrians or cyclists that could pass through or near the work zone
Traffic control is managed through three systems:
 traffic control devices: signs, signals, lighting, flares, blocker trucks, crash
trucks, pavement markings, channelizing devices, barriers, barricades,
etc.
 traffic control layout
 traffic control persons, which includes their responsibilities, conduct,
clothing, equipment, communications, and safety

Where ever possible, the hierarchy of controls (using

elimination/engineering/administrative/personal protective equipment) should
be used.
Elimination Controls: Ideally, the elimination of the hazards should start at the
design phase by considering structures, materials, processes, and measures that
would allow for minimal and safe maintenance. Alternatively, when planning a
work activity that would close part of the road, consider if it is possible to close
the road completely. Are alternate routes available?
Engineering Controls: If total closure is not possible, develop a written traffic

management plan. Try coordinate road work with other necessary works (e.g.,
tree clearing) to minimize the length of time the road is obstructed. Use barriers
or other devices to channel traffic, and, where possible, provide a physical
separation between the work zone and passing traffic.
Administrative controls: If possible, plan most of the work during non-peak hours
or night time when the traffic is light.
Appoint a competent supervisor to establish and monitor the work zone.

Communicate the plan to the workers, and train the workers who will work, set
up, install, and remove the signals or barriers in the area. Attention must be
given to the set up and installation phase since those workers will be exposed at
an increased risk of injury.
Personal Protective Equipment: Workers wear high visibility clothing as

appropriate for the situation and time of day/night.
Site security
The law says you must conduct your business without putting members of the
public at risk. This includes the public and other workers who may be affected
by your work.
All construction sites require:
 Measures to manage access across defined boundaries; and

 Steps to exclude unauthorised people.
While the numbers of children being killed or injured on construction sites has
reduced, there is no room for complacency. Each year, two or three children
die after gaining access to building sites, and many more are injured.
Perimeter fencing
A construction site can be a dangerous place to work due to changing and

ongoing risks, including those associated with:
 demolition of existing structures

 excavations
 slips, trips and falls
 temporary electrical installations
 partially constructed structures
 stored construction materials
 on-site plant and equipment
When a security fence is used to control unauthorised entry onto a construction

site, it should be:
 at least 1.8m high

 well-constructed — gates and joints in fence sections should be securely
connected, without any weak points for entry

 stable and able to withstand anticipated loads or forces, such as strong

winds (Note: fencing with signage and shade cloth type coverings may
require additional support to resist wind loadings)
 difficult to climb and prevent access from underneath (Note: sheets of
reinforcing mesh should not be used as site fencing because it may allow
adequate hand and foot hold for children to climb over. Protruding ends
may also cause injury)
Signs
The requirement for safety signs was mandated by the Health and safety at
work etc act 1974. This was further enforced by the Health and Safety (Safety
Signs and Signals) Regulations 1996.
The regulations require that safety signs are provided and maintained in
circumstances where a health and safety risk is present that other methods have
not been employed to remove or control. The primary aim of such signage is to
further reduce risks presented by the hazards.
Signs convey information or instructions through a combination of shape, colour,

and symbol (pictogram). Supplementary text can also be provided, such as ‗Fire
exit‘. Signs can be illuminated by using transparent or translucent materials lit
from behind.

Figure – example of safety signs at construction site
Safe viewing points
To satisfy curiosity of public who are often intrigued by construction sites, the site
owner or contractor should place safe viewing points in the perimeter fencing.
That can help to satisfy public curiosity and not expose them to the hazards
within the construction site.
Means of securing plant/chemicals
It is not always possible to store large equipment and chemicals indoors. Doing
so can also be very expensive because it would mean setting up a hangar or a
big warehouse for storing all of the equipment your company needs. Plant
machinery is easier to handle since it can be installed in a dedicated space.

There are several things you can do to protect construction machinery parked
in a yard or storage facility. For starters, it is a good idea to add crash barriers
around the space. A crash barrier can prevent heavy machinery from
accidentally exiting the parking space. Crash barriers can also be used to
safeguard the road leading up to the storage facility.
Add tall fences and implement 24/7 security to protect the facility further. It‘s
hard to steal or damage big pieces of machinery, but cases of parts theft are
not uncommon. Security guards and proper fences around the facility can help
minimise the risk of break-ins.
There are many types of chemicals that construction workers can be exposed to
on a daily basis, including pesticides and pest control substances, fuel and
mechanical oils and lubricants, or bacterial exposure from sewage or
wastewater. Four commonly used chemicals and compounds that pose a
significant health risk to construction laborers are PVC, mercury, lead and flame
retardants.
International standards provides mandatory procedures that clearly identify

chemicals, and requirements for employers to contribute training and safety
equipment to handle them. Visit the Code of Federal Regulations online for
more information on specific requirements.
One of the biggest challenges to protecting construction workers from chemical

injury is awareness. While protective gear and protocols are followed
concerning chemicals that have an immediate physiological impact, workers
need to be educated that long-term health risks to exposure and unsafe work
practices are equally hazardous. As such, even when a chemical appears to be
a ―low threat‖ to daily safety, apparatus including eye protection, air filtration
and gloves are essential to avoid exposure and absorption of toxic substances.

Means of controlling dangers such as mud on public

highways
Mud on the road is mainly caused by heavier vehicles such as lorries and
tractors leaving sites under development, quarries or agricultural fields; it occurs
more frequently when the weather is wet. Recent weather patterns suggest
climate change is leading towards wetter autumns and winters.
What you must do
 Do everything possible to prevent mud being deposited on the road. This

includes cleaning mud from vehicles, as far as practicable, before they
are taken onto the road. The fact that the cleaning of mud off vehicles,
tractors and their attachments is commercially inconvenient is not a
defence.
 Comply with all Planning Conditions imposed on the site, including the first
15 metres of road leading off the Highway should be surfaced and that
the provision of adequate on-site wheel washing equipment be installed
as appropriate.
 Only use signs that are authorised. The recommended sign shows 'Slippery
Road' triangle with 'Mud on the Road' sub plate. If appropriate, the 'Men
at Work' sign should be used. Make sure they are positioned to give
maximum visibility and warning to other road users.
 Clean the road as necessary during the working day and always at the
end of the working day.
 Ensure that labour and equipment is available and is suitable for the soil
and weather conditions present.
 Where a contractor is used, ensure that prior agreement is reached on
who is responsible for mud on road issues (such as signage or cleaning)
and ensure that adequate public liability insurance is in place.
Arrangements
Site rules
The construction phase plan must set out the health and safety arrangements
and site rules during the period construction work is carried out and suitable site
inductions must be provided.
Site rules should cover (but not be limited to) topics such as:
 Personal protective equipment;

 Use of radios and mobile phones;
 Smoking;
 Restricted areas;
 Hot works;
 Traffic management systems;
 Pedestrian routes;
 Site tidiness;
 Fire prevention;
 Permit-to-work systems; and
 Emergency arrangements.
The rules should be clear and easily understandable and should be brought to
the attention of everyone on site who should be expected to follow them. Any
special requirements such as the need to have translations of the rules available
for non-English speaking workers on site should be considered.

Clients may insist on certain health and safety precautions, especially where
their business continues at the premises while construction work is in progress. It
may assist everyone if site rules are applied.
Make it clear where your site rules apply and where the client premises rules
apply. Make sure everybody knows and follows the rules relevant to them.
Cooperation
Cooperation is generally purported to be vital to construction project success.

However, there has been, as yet, no empirical work done to quantify explicitly
the extent to which cooperation, in relation to other factors, determines
construction project success.
Cooperation about safety and joint responsibility between managers and

workers is one of the cornerstones of health and safety work. However, attempts
at ensuring safety in the workplace run the risk of focussing on formalities and
compliance rather than on joint engagement in safety. Drawing on an
understanding of safety as practice, this study attempts to empirically unpack
the difference between cooperation as engaging with local knowledges and
the disciplining of unsafe behaviour. The research involved an ethnographic
study at two large construction sites in Denmark and follows empirical examples
of how safety breaches are identified, catalogued, and revealed later on at
safety meetings. Managers saw this as an attempt to engage the workers.
However, the workers saw this as a punitive way of criticizing their work at a
distance. They felt that this practice of moving safety from the construction site
and in to meeting rooms ran counter to aims of establishing engaging and
effective safety practices close to the work. Efforts to engage workers in safer
ways of working should therefore acknowledge the integrated nature of safety

practice and the value placed on independence, discretion and negotiation

when developing cooperation about workplace safety.
Shared facilities
Where a number of employers share a workplace and their workers face the
same risks, one employer should arrange contacts on behalf of themselves and
the other employers.
On projects where there is more than one contractor, the client and the
principal contractor have a similar duty to ensure suitable and sufficient welfare
facilities are provided for before any construction work starts and for the
duration of the construction work. The principal contractor should liaise with
other contractors involved in the project to ensure appropriate welfare facilities
are provided. This should continue throughout the construction phase to take
account of any changes which might change the requirement for the provision
of welfare facilities.
The minimum welfare facilities required includes:
 Sanitary conveniences
 Washing facilities
 Drinking water
 Changing rooms and lockers
 Facilities for rest.
First aid and welfare facilities
Employers are responsible for first aid in the workplace. To determine the first aid
needs of your workplace, first you‘ll need to do an assessment. Then, you can

review the findings and take necessary steps to put proper first aid procedures in
place. If you‘re an employer, you are responsible for first aid in the workplace.
First aid in the workplace is about providing workers with prompt, easily
accessible, and appropriate first aid treatment. Depending on your workplace,
some or all of the following might be needed:
 Occupational first aid attendants with the training appropriate for the
type of workplace, number of workers, and time to a hospital.
 Proper facilities, such as first aid rooms or dressing stations.
 First aid kits with appropriate types and quantities of supplies.
 A record-keeping system so incidents can be logged.
 Appropriate means of transporting injured workers to medical aid.
 Effective means of communication between first aid attendants and
workers served, and for the first aid attendant to call for assistance.
Welfare facilities
Contractors are required to provide welfare facilities and clients must ensure this
happens. Decisions and action on this need to be taken at an early stage of
project planning.
 Commercial clients – you must make sure contractors have arrangements

for providing the right welfare. This applies to all construction work.
 Contractors – you must provide the right welfare for workers under your
control while they are on site. Principal Contractors must ensure that this is
done from the start of the project until it finishes.
Clients should co-operate with contractors and help them in situations where
providing welfare facilities are difficult.

Schedule 2 of the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 2015

(CDM 2015) lists the welfare facilities that should be in place at any site. This
includes:
 toilets and washing

 changing, eating and rest areas
The type and number of facilities you need depends on the size and type of
work. You may need additional facilities (such as showers) to control the risks
from hazardous substances like cement, lead or micro-organisms. Also,
remember that separate facilities may be needed for men and women.
Consider the positioning of your facilities before starting on site. This will depend
on the work you are doing. For fixed sites think about:
 whether they will have to be moved during the project

 access for cleaning and maintenance
 encouraging the use of washing facilities by positioning them near to rest /
eating areas
 the distance from the furthest part of the site to the nearest facilities and
how long it takes someone to get there (either walking or by vehicle). This
time should be as short as possible. You may need additional toilets and
washing facilities for workers in more remote parts of larger sites
 arrangements for using any existing facilities. You can use those in a local
café, public toilets or an occupied building. However, you need to make
sure:
o you have proper agreement with the owner allowing their use (not
necessarily in writing)
o they are available all the time that workers are on site
o there are measures for keeping them clean and replacing towels,
soap, toilet paper etc
Arrangements for site inductions
Every site worker must be given a suitable site induction. The induction should
be site specific and highlight any particular risks (including those listed in
Schedule 3 of the CDM 2015 Regulations) and control measures that those
working on the project need to know about. The following issues should be
considered:
 Senior management commitment to health and safety;

 Outline of the project;
 Management of the project;
 First-aid arrangements;
 Accident and incident reporting arrangements;
 Arrangements for briefing workers on an ongoing basis, e.g. toolbox talks;
 Arrangements for consulting the workforce on health and safety matters;
 Individual worker's responsibility for health and safety.
Site inductions should also be provided to those who do not regularly work on
the site, but who visit it on an occasional (e.g. architects) or once-only basis
(e.g. students). The inductions should be proportionate to the nature of the visit.
Inductions provided to escorted visitors need not have the detail that
unescorted visitors should have. Escorted visitors only need to be made aware
of the main hazards they may be exposed to and the control measures.
10.11.4 Work at height
The hazards associated with working at height

Managing work at height follows a hierarchy of controls – avoid, prevent, arrest

– which begins with the question – can the work be done safely from the
ground? Fall restraints and safety netting should only be considered as a last
resort if other safety equipment cannot be used.
 Assessing work at height - Assess the risks, take precautions, and issue clear
method statements for everyone who will work at height.
 Roof work - Plan safe access, and prevent falls from edges and openings.
 Fragile surfaces - The hierarchy of controls for working on or near fragile
surfaces is avoid, control, communicate, co-operate.
 Ladders - When it's appropriate to use ladders – and the three key safety
issues – position, condition and safe use.
 Tower scaffolds - Select the right tower for the job; erect, use, move and
dismantle the tower safely; ensure that it is stable; inspect it regularly;
prevent falls.
 Mobile elevating work platforms (MEWPs) - Care must be taken to select
the most appropriate MEWP and ensure use of the machine is properly
planned and managed. Operator instruction and training are important
requirements.
There are certain activities involving working at height that present an obvious
hazard. These include work from ladders, scaffolds and platforms.
Other examples can include work:
 on roofs
 on elevated structures
 over tanks, pits or water
 on cliffs and steep ground
 on top of vehicles or trailers.

If a worker falls from a height of two or more meters, they are likely to sustain a
serious injury, permanent disability or die.
Types of access and work at height equipment
For people who work at height, it is important to know the different types of
equipment that can be used. Of course, each piece of equipment comes with
risks which should be fully understood to ensure your safety.
Self-propelled, trailer and truck-mounted hydraulic lifts

(MEWPs)
Mobile elevating work platforms (MEWP) are a types of 'plant', or equipment

that facilitate working at height. They consist of a working platform on an
extending structure and chassis, with controls for operation.
There are two basic types of MEWPs – 'booms', such as cherry pickers, which
have both static and mobile forms; and 'verticals', such as scissor lifts, that can
also be static or mobile.
Push around vertical (PAV)
This is a small type of mobile vertical lift with scissor operation. It is compact and
lightweight which means it is often used for low-level access in warehouses,
factories, and so on. It can be easily moved from place to place, including
between floors.
Mast lift

A mast lift is a small type of cherry picker with a boom lift operation. It is
compact, and so can be used in restricted spaces and busy environments, and
has a caged platform that keeps users safe.
Scissor lift
This can be used in indoor and outdoor spaces where a straight vertical lift is
required for access. The caged platform is elevated by linked, folding supports
in an ‗X‘ pattern, known as a pantograph. Pressure is applied to the external
side of the lowest set of supports, which elongates the criss-crossing supports
and raises the platform. For more information, see Scissor lift.
Cherry picker
A cherry picker is mobile and versatile and has a boom able to extend forwards
and upwards. Different attachments can be fitted to the end of the boom, such
as a cradle, bucket, pallet forks, muck grab, winch, and so on. It is flexible and
multi-purpose, ideal for jobs that require the user to work at height in awkward of
locations. For more information, see Cherry picker.
Stick boom lift
Also known as a telescopic boom, a stick boom lift offers an extensive range of
movement similar to the cherry picker. The platform is capable of extending
sideways as well as vertically, and is often used for moving around and above
obstacles, machinery or buildings.
Track mount
Also known as a spider lift, a track mount is often used when ground is uneven or
has a steep incline. The tracked chassis helps to spread weight more evenly,

reducing the pressure on the ground, and making it suitable for use on soft
ground or delicate floors.
Truck mount
Also known as a lorry-mounted platform, a truck mount is often used for installing
signage and telecoms systems, high-level maintenance, pest control, and so on.
It can be moved between sites quickly and is ready to use straight away.
Loaders
A loader is a heavy equipment machine used in construction to move or load

materials such as soil, rock, sand, demolition debris, etc. into or onto another
type of machinery (such as a dump truck, conveyor belt, feed-hopper, or
railroad car).
There are many types of loader, which, depending on design and application,
are variously called a bucket loader, front loader, front-end loader, payloader,
high lift, scoop, shovel, skip loader, wheel loader, or skid-steer.
The hazards arising from lack of mechanical

strength of the carriers or lack of loading control
and control devices
The most significant carrier dangers arise from operation and use of the machine
rather than from their movement as a site vehicle. The law says that these
hazards must be properly controlled.

However, a safe workplace for all vehicle operations needs be established by

separating pedestrians and vehicles and providing hazard-free traffic routes.
Most fatal and serious injuries involving carriers arise from:
 Entrapment: operator trapped between part of the basket and a fixed

structure, eg when manoeuvring in confined overhead areas of steelwork.
Operators may become trapped against the platform controls, and if this
happens they may not be able to stop the machine running.
 Overturning: the machine may overturn throwing the operator from the
basket;
 Falling: an operator may fall from the basket during work activities; and
 Collision: the vehicle may collide with pedestrians, overhead cables or
nearby vehicles.
People falling from the carrier
Operator stations with seats or work platforms normally provide a secure place
on which the drivers and other people can travel on mobile work equipment.
Carrier should normally be specifically designed for carrying additional

passengers.
Under exceptional circumstances, mobile work equipment may be used to

carry people although it is not specifically designed for this purpose, for
example, trailers used to carry farm workers during harvest time.
Under these circumstances, the mobile work equipment must have features to
prevent people falling from it and to allow them to stabilise themselves while it is
travelling, for example, trailers with sides of appropriate height or by providing a

secure handhold. People would also need to be able to safely mount and
dismount.
Movements of the carrier
All operators of machines should be briefed on limits to their movements and

they must understand only specific operators can work in the exclusion zone.
All controls must have words or symbols that show the direction of the MEWP‘s
movements. Protect the controls against faults that could cause the MEWP to
move in a direction other than that selected by the operator. Controls must be
strong enough to stand up to normal use. A guard must be in place to prevent
accidental activation of hand controls.
Controls must be on the work platform and in reach of the operator.
Protect the controls against:
 faults that could cause the MEWP to move in a direction other than the
one selected by the operator
 being accidentally turned on.
 Clearly mark platform control boxes with which way up they go if they are
not permanently attached.
 Foot controls should have non-slip surfaces and be easy to clean.
 Install guards at least 50mm above the highest point of the hand controls.
Objects falling from the carrier
If people carried on the mobile work equipment are at significant risk of injury
from objects falling on them while it is in use, a falling object protection system
(FOPS) should be provided.

This could be a suitably strong safety cab or protective cage which provides
adequate protection in the working environment in which the mobile
equipment is used.
Control measures to protect people:
 Isolate the area around the MEWP so that falling tools or objects do not
strike people below.
 Anyone working nearby should wear a hard hat.
Exceeding safe working load/people permitted
The safe working load (SWL) must never be exceeded. Always ensure that the
safe working load of the machine is sufficient for the job, allowance must be
made for any additional loads that may have to be carried by the carrier during
the task.
Carriers that are overloaded or loaded unevenly can become unstable and fail.
Boom-type machines are especially sensitive to overloading. Always stay within
the operating range specified by the manufacturer.
The appropriate control measures for use of

access and work at height equipment
Any equipment that is specifically designed to allow the user to work safely at
height (eg ladders, scaffolds, tower scaffolds) is commonly called 'access
equipment'.

Considering the risks associated with work at height and putting in place
sensible and proportionate measures to manage them is an important part of
working safely.
There are many different types of MEWP with various rated capacities, working
heights, and outreaches. Before deciding which type of MEWP is the most
suitable for the job, the following should be considered:
 What work needs to be done?

 At what stage in the job will the MEWP be needed and what will the
ground conditions or supporting structure be like at that stage (i.e. rough,
prepared, poured slab, finished surface etc)?
 What access is there onto the site to deliver/collect a MEWP and to travel
it to and from the work location?
 What terrain and gradient will the MEWP have to cross to get to the work
position and is operator visibility and segregation adequate for the
manoeuvre?
 Are there any overhead power lines or subterranean hazards on site to be
avoided?
 How much space is available to position and operate the MEWP at the
work position?
 What is the maximum ground bearing capacity at the work area and
along the route to and from the work positions?
 How many people need to be lifted?
 What is the required safe working load (SWL) of the machine?
 What height and outreach are required?
 Will the MEWP be expected to move in the elevated position?
 Are there likely to be any overhead structures that the operator could be
crushed against?

 Are there any materials to be lifted and if so what is their

weight/shape/length?
 Are material handling devices required?
Once the most suitable type and size of MEWP for the job has been chosen, the
hazards associated with its use need to be considered, the risks assessed and
control measures identified to develop a safe working method.
Reference - https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/geis6.pdf
The safe use of temporary (immobile) access

equipment
Ladders
Every time you use a ladder you should do a pre-use check beforehand to
make sure that it is safe for use. A pre-use check should be carried out by:
 the user
 before using the ladder for a work task
 after something has changed, ie a ladder dropped or moved from a dirty
area to a clean area (check state or condition of feet)
The benefit of conducting pre-use checks is that they provide the opportunity to
pick up any immediate/serious defects before they cause an accident.
Five rules of ladder safety:
 Select the right ladder for the job

 Inspect the ladder before you before you use it

 Set up the ladder with care
 Climb and descend ladders cautiously
 Use common sense when working on a ladder
Trestles
A trestle (sometimes tressel) is a rigid frame used as a support, historically a

tripod used both as stools and to support tables at banquets. A trestle bridge is a
bridge composed of a number of short spans supported by such frames.
Set up trestles on even level surface, and support feet if placed on soft ground.
Ensure that trestles are stable and levelled before placing working planks. Ensure
that safe access is available to persons accessing working platform. Ensure
planks are fully supported, and perform all work between the trestles only.
In considering whether a platform is suitable for work at height, employers need

to ensure that it is:
 of sufficient dimensions to allow safe passage and safe use of equipment

and materials;
 free from trip hazards or gaps through which persons or materials could
fall;
 fitted with toeboards and handrails;
 kept clean and tidy, e.g. do not allow mortar and debris to build up on
platforms;
 not loaded so as to give rise to a risk of collapse or to any deformation
that could affect its safe use. This is particularly relevant in relation to
blockwork loaded on trestles;
 erected on firm level ground to ensure equipment remains stable during
use.
Scaffolds
A Scaffold is a temporary structure erected to support access or working

platforms. Scaffolds are commonly used in construction work so workers have a
safe, stable work platform when work cannot be done at ground level or on a
finished floor.
There are two main types of scaffolding:
 Freestanding scaffolds, such as Independent towers,

 Independent tied scaffolds, such as independent towers tied to an
adjacent structure.
Use the following steps to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, that

workers and other people are not exposed to health and safety risks.
Find out what could cause harm. The following can help you identify potential
hazards:
 Observe the workplace to identify areas where scaffolds are used or

scaffolding work is performed and where there is interaction with vehicles,
pedestrians and fixed structures.
 Look at the environment in which the scaffold is to be used including
checking ground conditions.
 Identify the major functional requirements of the scaffold like the
maximum live and dead loads and access requirements.
 Inspect the scaffolding before and after use.
 Ask your workers about any problems they encounter or anticipate at
your workplace when constructing or interacting with scaffolds and
scaffolding work-consider operation, inspection, maintenance, repair,
transport and storage requirements.

 Inspect the erected scaffold.

 Review your incident and injury records including near misses.
The requirements for the erection, use and

dismantling of scaffolds and falsework
Scaffolds
Construction workers sometimes rush when dismantling scaffolding in an effort to

finish on site quickly, involving workers without adequate training, and
proceeding during unsuitable conditions. But the safe and efficient dismantling
of scaffolding demands as much training and careful consideration as its
erection. Unless it is unavoidable, scaffolding should not be taken down in
potentially hazardous conditions such as high winds, rain, snow, and so on.
The first step in the dismantling process is to clear a space where the scaffolding
components can be set down and stacked in an organised and safe manner.
Access for a vehicle to transport the components to a loading area should be
provided wherever possible with a clear path to carry them from the structure.
Workers should have all the necessary personal protective equipment (PPE),
including safety boots, hard hats, gloves and protective eyewear to guard
against the risk of falling materials. When on the scaffold itself, safety harnesses
may be necessary. Particualr care should be taken, as during the course of the
scaffold being used, edges can become sharp and pose risks to those
dismantling.

The scaffold structure should then be examined from the base to the top for any
visible hazards, loose items on the working platforms, or hung items on the
piping. Ties, braces or timber that has been loosened or removed should be put
back in place before dismantling begins.
The process of dismantling proceeds in the reverse order of erection, beginning

at the top with the piping and guardrail before proceeding to the platform
planking. The components can be passed down from person-to-person, or
lowered to the ground using a rope system or hoist. They should not be stacked
or left on the structure temporarily but brought to the ground straight away.
Care should be taken to ensure that no one is stood directly below where the
components are being dismantled, and they should never be thrown off the
structure to the ground.
Part of the platform planking will need to be removed while still being used, and
the remainder removed from the section beneath. Only once the entire
platform being supported has been removed should the ties securing the
structure to the building be removed.
The scaffolding components should be inspected when they have been

dismantled and those that need to be disposed of set to one side away from
those that are fit for re-use.
Falsework
Falsework is any temporary structure used to support a permanent structure

while it is not self-supporting, either in new construction or refurbishment. Any
failure of falsework may lead to the collapse of the permanent structure. This
could cause injury or death to those working on or near to it, as well as loss of
time and money.

Statutory responsibilities
Contractors‘ responsibilities include:
 preventing the falsework collapsing under load;

 ensuring that those constructing and dismantling it can carry out their
work safely, with particular regard to preventing falls from height; and
 minimising risks to the health and safety of others who may be working on,
or passing by, the construction activity. Risks could arise, for example, from
falling materials, wind-blown plywood or scaffold boards, noise and dust.
Management
The law requires falsework to be erected and dismantled only under the
supervision of a competent person (regulation 9(3) of the Construction (Health,
Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996). As early as possible, a person should be
appointed for each site as a falsework co-ordinator, with responsibility for co-
ordinating the various items and stages of use of the falsework.
 The falsework co-ordinator is commonly known as the temporary works

co-ordinator.
 On a large contract, the appointed co-ordinator might be a suitably
qualified engineer, whereas on a small building contract the role might be
taken on by the site agent or foreman appointed by the contractor.
 Whoever it is, the appointed co-ordinator is responsible for ensuring that
correct falsework procedures are followed and that operations are
carried out safely.
Planning

All concerned should contribute towards the preparation of a design brief,

which should serve as the starting point for subsequent decisions, design work,
calculations and drawings. Initial planning should cover:
 what needs to be supported, and how it should be done; and

 how long the falsework will be in use.
Erecting the falsework
Before erection begins a risk assessment should be carried out and a safe system
of work developed. A method statement which includes how all the hazards are
to be managed should be prepared. This should be read and understood by
those doing the work.
To ensure safety, falsework should be stable at all stages of erection and be

regularly checked. Only ‗Working Drawings‘ and not ‗Preliminary Drawings‘
should be used. Erectors should know:
 where to start;
 whether the equipment supplied is the same as that ordered;
 at what stage checks or permits are required; and
 whether checks and permits have already been carried out or issued.
Reference - https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/cis56.pdf
Safe methods for roof work
All work on roofs is highly dangerous, even if a job only takes a few minutes.
Proper precautions are needed to control the risk.

Those carrying out the work must be trained, competent and instructed in use of
the precautions required. A 'method statement' is the common way to help
manage work on roofs and communicate the precautions to those involved.
On business premises contractors should work closely with the client and agree
arrangements for managing the work.
Key issues are:
 Safe access to roofs(local link)

 Roof edges and openings(local link)
 Fragile surfaces
Everyone involved in managing or carrying out work on roofs should be aware

of the following facts:
 High risk: almost one in five deaths in construction work involve roof work.
Some are specialist roofers, but many are just repairing and cleaning
roofs.
 Main causes: the main causes of death and injury are falling from roof
edges or openings, through fragile roofs and through fragile rooflights.
 Equipment and people: many accidents could be avoided if the most
suitable equipment was used and those doing the work were given
adequate information, instruction, training and supervision.
Safe access
Safe access to a roof requires careful planning, particularly where work

progresses along the roof.
Typical methods to access roofs are:

 general access scaffolds;

 stair towers;
 fixed or mobile scaffold towers;
 mobile access equipment;
 ladders; and
 roof access hatches.
Roof edges and openings
Falls from roof edges occur on both commercial and domestic projects and on
new build and refurbishment jobs. Many deaths occur each year involving
smaller builders working on the roof of domestic dwellings
 Sloping roofs: sloping roofs require scaffolding to prevent people or

materials falling from the edge. You must also fit edge protection to the
eaves of any roof and on terraced properties to the rear as well as the
front. Where work is of short duration (tasks measured in minutes), properly
secured ladders to access the roof and proper roof ladders may be used.
 Flat roofs: falls from flat roof edges can be prevented by simple edge
protection arrangements – a secure double guardrail and toeboard
around the edge.
Fragile surfaces
Always follow a safe system of work using a platform beneath the roof where
possible. Work on or near fragile roof surfaces requires a combination of
stagings, guard rails, fall restraint, fall arrest and safety nets slung beneath and
close to the roof.
 Fragile roofs: all roofs should be treated as fragile until a competent

person has confirmed they are not. Do not trust any sheeted roof,

whatever the material, to bear a the weight of a person. This includes the
roof ridge and purlins.
 Fragile rooflights are a particular hazard. Some are difficult to see in
certain light conditions and others may be hidden by paint. You must
provide protection in these areas, either by using barriers or covers that
are secured and labelled with a warning.
Reference - https://www.hse.gov.uk/construction/safetytopics/roofwork.htm
The means of temporary access
There are a variety of temporary access, fall protection or temporary roof

anchor products available. These allow a person to safely work at heights when
a permanent or fixed height safety system is not present.
Temporary roof anchors and fall protection solutions are often used during the
construction of a building, when a permanent system is yet to be installed or if
access is only needed rarely.
Types and safety features of cradles
This is a specialised suspended platform to work at heights and you must ensure
that only competent and properly trained and instructed operators use this
equipment. Users must ensure:
 The manufacturers safe working load is NEVER exceeded by the weight of

people and equipment
 The equipment is not used in weather conditions outside the
manufacturers 'safe' quoted ranges

 They use suitable fall prevention/fall arrest equipment e.g. a full body
harness with energy absorbing lanyards. Such equipment should conform
to relevant standards.
 All tools and equipment taken into the cradle are secured e.g. by suitable
lanyard.
The use of equipment such as cradles can involve exposure to many hazards
not least falling persons and/or objects, trapped body parts, mechanical or
electrical failures, unauthorised access and adverse weather conditions.
If not well managed, such hazards can create risks which, if they materialised,
could result in significant unwanted outcomes including injuries and fatalities.
According to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) website, the use of
specialised access equipment such as cradles often involves a number of
organisations and states that ―everyone in the risk management chain must
ensure their collective activities are co-ordinated and controlled, minimising risks
to their employees and others who may be affected by their activities‖.
In general terms, there are three key stakeholders:
 these being the equipment and/or building owner

 the contractor
 the operatives.
Boatswains’ chairs
A bosun's chair (or boatswain's chair) is a device used to suspend a person from
a rope to perform work aloft. Originally just a short plank or swath of heavy
canvas, many modern bosun's chairs incorporate safety devices similar to those
found in rock climbing harnesses such as safety clips and additional lines.

Boatswains chairs were originally just a piece of plank that a person sat on.
These were intended to suspend a sailor to perform work aloft and evolved to
raise commodores or admirals on-board of navy ships whilst at sea. This required
the use of a block and tackle rigging system to provide the necessary
mechanical advantage.
Modern bosun‘s chairs are based on the naval officer hoisting chairs but using
modern equipment and safety devices. The piece of plank has been replaced
with a moulded seat made from a polymer matrix and glass fibres. The
suspension system is a modern version of a block and tackle with a 4:1 reeving
arrangement and fitted with a controlled descent apparatus. The person
(operator) in the chair is secured to it with a built-in webbing harness.
Modern bosun‘s chairs fill the gap between electrically powered Temporary
Suspended Platforms and Rope Access operations. They are designed to be
used by persons that need to perform work using both hands whilst in elevated
positions. These persons are trained in the safe use of the system but do not
need to be certified as rope access technicians. These chairs can be used on
structures with heights up to 30m and fit comfortably through trapdoors in silo /
tank roofs.
Rope access
The advantage of using rope access methods lies mainly in the speed with
which workers can get to or from difficult locations and then carry out their work,
often with minimal impact on other operations.
With rope access we use ropes, climbing techniques and safety equipment to
gain access to inaccessible areas. This can be at height or in depth, such as
work sites above water, in confined spaces or within buildings. Working with rope

access allows us to avoid obstacles in a safe and efficient way in order to carry
out work at height.
Rope access is used when other working methods are not safe, not possible or
have a negative impact on the environment. Think, for example, of sloping roofs
that you cannot reach with aerial work platforms or of work sites above water
that you cannot reach with scaffolding.
Rope access can make any place accessible.
In height or depth, there is always a solution to reach an ‗inaccessible‘ place by

using rope access.
It is a safe way to work at height.
Rope access, carried out according to the IRATA guidelines, is a safe way of
working at height. Technicians are attached to two independent anchor points,
so there is always a backup line present. Read about all the reasons why IRATA is
an even more safe way of working at height.
It is fast & efficient.
Rope access is quickly built up and broken down. This makes it time-saving and
also suitable for urgent assignments.
It brings minimal inconvenience.
Rope access takes up very little space compared to other working methods,
which means that the inconvenience for the ongoing business processes is kept
to a minimum.
It is an environmentally friendly working method.

Where other working methods emit a lot of gases, the rope techniques are used
to reach the work site. This makes it an environmentally friendly working method.
Positioning systems
Positioning system is a personal fall arrest system that limits the distance of free
fall to two feet or less while working on elevated vertical surfaces.
When a worker is required to work on an unprotected vertical surface, a

properly designed work positioning system can provide a safe means to perform
the work and prevent a worker from falling more than 2 feet, which could result
in injury or death. Work positioning systems provide a safe means to perform
work by requiring the employee to connect one end of their positioning lanyard
to a secured anchor point and the other ends to their harness. When the
employee is secured in place, they can stabilize their position with the feet
against the vertical surface and have their hands free to work. A properly used
positioning system can result in a fall of less than 2 feet, which can result in minor
injuries. If the positioning system failed during use the employee would then fall
to the lower level. The safe work practice recommended to eliminate this risk is
for the employee to use an additional (back-up) connector such as a
retractable lifeline, vertical lifeline or shock absorbing lanyard connected to the
center back D-Ring of the full body harness and to an adequate anchor point.
The use of personal and collective fall arrest

devices
A great diversity of personal fall protection systems are used by workers who
have to work at height to position the worker or to restrain his/her movements in
order to prevent falls or to protect him/her in case of fall. A fall arrest system is
used where there is a risk of free fall from height.
Safety nets
Safety nets are one option that can be used as part of a fall protection plan.
Workplaces that have the risk of falling should have a fall protection plan that
outlines the policy and procedures involved in assembling, maintaining,
inspecting, using, and dismantling equipment such as ladders, scaffolds, or
platforms used for working at heights as well as any fall protection equipment.
Safety nets are classified as a passive fall protection system which can be
installed as either a barrier to prevent a fall, or beneath the work to catch a
falling worker. Safety nets are designed to decrease the fall distance, to absorb
the energy of a fall, and to reduce the likelihood or seriousness of an injury.
However, safety nets do not stop the worker from falling. Installing a fixed barrier
such as guardrails, opening covers, or walls are always the preferred method to
prevent a worker from falling. Safety nets are most often used when it is
impossible or impractical to install fixed barriers or to use an anchored and
lifeline system (fall arrest system).
Airbags
Air bags are another form of collective passive fall protection that can be used
for storey heights of 1.9m - 4.5m. They are predominantly used on blockwork or
concrete structures where no suitable anchor points for safety nets are
available.
To install the system, the Air bags are laid out and connected together in the
area where fall protection is required. The Air bags are then inflated as one

complete area to form the fall protection. This method of fall protection is slow
and requires careful planning to ensure the area to receive Air bags is 100%
clear of obstacles with all openings and windows boarded over.
Belts and harnesses
A safety harness is a form of protective equipment designed to safeguard the

user from injury or death from falling. The core item of a fall arrest system, the
harness is usually fabricated from rope, braided wire cable, or synthetic
webbing. It is attached securely to a stationary object directly by a locking
device or indirectly via a rope, cable, or webbing and one or more locking
devices. Some safety harnesses are used in combination with a shock-absorbing
lanyard, which is used to regulate deceleration and thereby prevent a serious
G-force injury when the end of the rope is reached.
There are four classes of fall protection systems:
Class 1
Body belts (single or double D-ring), designed to restrain a person in a hazardous

work position, prevent a fall, or arrest it completely within 3 feet (OSHA).
Class 2
Chest harnesses, used only with limited fall hazards (including no vertical free
fall), or for retrieving persons, as from a tank or bin.
Class 3
Full body harnesses, designed to arrest the most severe free falls.
Class 4

Suspension belts, independent supports used to suspend a worker, such as

boatswain's chairs or raising or lowering harnesses.
10.11.5 Demolition work
The main hazards from demolition work
The law says that all demolition, dismantling and structural alteration must be
carefully planned and carried out in a way that prevents danger by
practitioners with the relevant skills, knowledge and experience. Key issues are:

 Injury from falling materials
 Uncontrolled collapse
 Risks from connected services
 Traffic management
 Hazardous materials
 Noise and vibration
 Fire(local link)
 Worker involvement
Falling materials
Workers and passers-by can be injured by the premature and uncontrolled

collapse of structures, and by flying debris.
A safe system of work is one that keeps people as far as possible from the risks.
This may include:

 establishing exclusion zones and hard-hat areas, clearly marked and with
barriers or hoardings if necessary
 covered walkways
 using high-reach machines
 reinforcing machine cabs so that drivers are not injured
 training and supervising site workers
Premature collapse of buildings
Premature collapse of the structure is one of the main causes of serious injury
resulting from demolition activities. The most common for this type of incident is
the lack of effective planning before the commencement of the demolition
process.
The pre-demolition survey, a detailed site risk assessment and the development
of a comprehensive method statement. Premature collapse usually begins with
the structure collapse of floors and is often caused by plant operating on floors
which are not certified safe and/ or back-propped where required.
Hazardous materials used in construction
Hazardous materials that should to be considered include dust, asbestos and

respirable crystalline silica (RCS).There may also be material or contamination on
site that has not been cleared, for example:
 acids from industrial processes

 paints
 flammable liquids
 unidentified drums
 microbiological hazards (especially in old hospital buildings).

The main controls for demolition work
Demolition is the most high risk activity in the construction sector.
The essence of safe demolition lies in efficient risk control, environmental

management and careful planning. The CDM Regulations have provided a
platform from which the industry should adopt best practice, demanding written
plans of work for demolition even where a project is not notifiable.
Planning
Building demolition sites are highly regulated and must meet national, state, and
local requirements.
Demolition requires notification to be submitted to the local authority to

determine whether prior approval is required for the method of demolition
where buildings are over 50 cubic metres, and for walls or gates.
Planning permission is required for demolition of unlisted buildings in

conservation areas and listed building consent is required for demolition of any
part of a listed building.
Where demolition works may have an environmental impact, a screening

opinion may be obtained from the local authority to determine whether a full
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is necessary.
Structural surveys and surveys for hazardous substances
Prior to initiate demolition work a range of surveys and reports will be needed -
for example, to check for presence of asbestos; structural stability of site and
nearby structures; the location of above and below ground live services in the
work area; etc. These should be done before work begins and not be left for the
principal contractor to organise once the demolition work has started.
The structural survey should consider:
 the age of the structure

 its previous use
 the type of construction
 nearby buildings or structures
 the weight of removed material or machinery on floors above ground
level
The method statement for the demolition should identify the sequence required
to prevent accidental collapse of the structure.
Requirement for hazardous substances survey
If a building is old, has moisture leaks and mold build-up, or contains hazardous
building materials (HBMs) such as asbestos, lead, or other toxic chemicals, it‘s
often more sensible (and cost-effective) to demolish it rather than attempting
renovation.
Provision of working places and means of access/egress
At the demolition site adequate and safe means of access to and egress from
all workplaces should be provided, indicated where appropriate and
maintained in a safe condition.
Loose materials which are not required for use should not be placed or allowed
to accumulate on the site so as to obstruct means of access to and egress from
workplaces and passageways.

Use of method statements and permits-to-work
Method statements
The purpose of this statement is to define the rules and conditions designed to
ensure that demolition work is planned so as to enable personnel to be aware of
all the procedures and dangers involved and to decide on the safest method of
work.
Tools/Equipments Required:
Air compressor, electrical and pneumatic jack hammers, electrical and

pneumatic grinders, relevant scaffoldings with platforms and hand tools.
Preparation and Planning:
A detailed survey shall be conducted to ensure the identification of any

structural problems and risks associated with flammable substances and
hazardous substances to health. The survey shall take into account any
adjoining properties likely to be affected by the demolition works.
Safety Measures:
Temporary electrical services required for the demolition works shall be made in
accordance with HSE rules and regulations.
Demolition survey shall be noted the location of all known services on and
adjacent to the site whether they are overhung or underground.
During demolition, a horizontal distance of 6 m radius shall be kept as a

restricted area to allow the fall of debris.
Execution:

Prior to starting work, necessary approvals shall be made from the Company.
Existing services, pipelines and fittings still in are shall be protected in a proper
way to prevent any damage or clogging during demolition.
In case of demolition of existing building, adequate information shall be given

well in advance to allow and plan any shutdown is necessary during
changeover.
Adequate protection and preservations shall be given to existing trees, hedges,

shrubs, lawns, pathways and roads.
In case of any obstructions or fall of debris on roads, the area shall be cleaned
on immediate basis.
Permits-to-work
A demolition permit is a legal document that provides you with the right to
demolish any structure that requires a building permit to construct. But just
because a building permit was not acquired before construction does not
mean you don‘t need a demolition permit. If the structure was improperly built
without obtaining a permit, you still have to get a permit to demolish it.
If you‘re working on more than one structure, you have to get a separate
demolition permit for each one that requires demolition. A shed and detached
garage on the same property, for instance, each requires their own demolition
permit. So in that case, you would need to demolition permits.
Depending on the area where you will be doing the demolition, various code
provisions will specify permit requirements and the review process.
You need a demolition permit when:

 A primary structure or structures will be razed or removed from a lot.

 Any accessory structures with utility systems, mechanical systems,
hazardous materials, or a basement-type foundation will be raised or
removed from a lot.
 A building that is having an addition renovation requires a substantial
amount of demolition.
Security of site boundaries and protection of the public
 Prominent danger signs shall be posted all around the property, and all
openings giving access to the structures shall be kept barricade or
manned except during the actual passage of workers or equipment.
 During the night, warning lights shall be placed on or above all
barricades.
 All gas, water, electricity, steam, and other service lines shall be shut off
outside the property line after notifying the service companies and
concerned authorities and obtaining their approval.
 When work is not in progress, security guards shall be provided to prevent
unauthorized entry of the public in the anger zone.
 All necessary safety appliances shall be issued to the workers prior to
starting of work.
 Suitable safety precautions for fire shall be provided.
Protection of the Public:
 Proper safety distances shall be ensured for the safety of the public.
Warnings shall be clearly marked and prominently signposted.
 Every sidewalk or road adjacent to the demolition work shall be protected
or closed.
 The sidewalks shall be lighted sufficiently to ensure safety at all times.

10.11.6 Excavations
The hazards associated with excavation work
The law says you must prevent danger to workers in or near excavations. To
maintain the required precautions, a competent person must inspect
excavation supports or battering at the start of the working shift and at other
specified times. No work should take place until the excavation is safe.
Commercial clients must provide certain information to contractors before work

begins. This should include relevant information on:
 Ground conditions
 underground structures or water courses; and
 the location of existing services.
Collapse
Excavation/Trench collapse is a hazard that few contractors take seriously since

most don't take the weight of soil into account. A single cubic yard of soil
amounts to 4000 pounds which is the weight of a small pickup truck. When a
trench caves in, unprotected workers are buried under that mass instantly which
can prove fatal.
Safety measures:
Temporary support - Before digging any trench pit, tunnel, or other excavations,
decide what temporary support will be required and plan the precautions to be
taken.

Make sure the equipment and precautions needed (trench sheets, props, baulks
etc) are available on site before work starts.
Battering the excavation sides - Battering the excavation sides to a safe angle of
repose may also make the excavation safer.
In granular soils, the angle of slope should be less than the natural angle of
repose of the material being excavated. In wet ground a considerably flatter
slope will be required.
Access
Access and egress into excavations over the years has sometimes been a bone
of contention.
Provide a safe means of getting into and out of an excavation. If a risk

assessment identifies that ladders are a reasonable means of access and egress
from an excavation, they must be suitable and of sufficient strength for the
purpose.
They must be on a firm level base, secured to prevent slipping and, unless a
suitable alternative handhold is provided, extend to a height of at least 1 m
above the landing place.
Falls of people
Prevent people from falling - Edges of excavations should be protected with

substantial barriers where people are liable to fall into them.
To achieve this, use:

 Guard rails and toe boards inserted into the ground immediately next to
the supported excavation side; or fabricated guard rail assemblies that
connect to the sides of the trench box
 the support system itself, eg using trench box extensions or trench sheets
longer than the trench depth.
Objects and vehicles
Loose materials - may fall from spoil heaps into the excavation. Edge protection
should include toeboards or other means, such as projecting trench sheets or
box sides to protect against falling materials. Head protection should be worn.
Effect of plant and vehicles - Do not park plant and vehicles close to the sides of
excavations. The extra loadings can make the sides of excavations more likely
to collapse.
Use of transport
To begin excavation, pieces of heavy equipment not designed for roadways

need to be moved to the construction area. Hauling essential building supplies
into a site on time can make the difference between failure and success for any
project.
After the extensive process of moving equipment and supplies, the project itself
must be completed. Then, once finished, transportation equipment is just as
valuable for hauling debris during the cleanup phase of the construction
project.
For all of these tasks on a job site, crews may utilize several different types of
hauling and material handling equipment — depending on the needed

application. Almost every building project needs a type of hauler for material
handling or equipment transport.
Fence off all excavations in public places to prevent pedestrians and vehicles
falling into them.
Flooding
Depending on the permeability of the ground, water may flow into any
excavation below the natural groundwater level.
The supports to the side of the excavation should be designed to control the
entry of groundwater and the design should take any additional water loading
into account.
Particular attention should be given to areas close to lakes, rivers and the sea.
Water entering the excavation needs to be channelled to sumps from where it

can be pumped out; however, the effect of pumping from sumps on the
stability of the excavation should be considered.
Alternative techniques for de-watering (such as ground freezing and grout

injection) could also be used. Designers will need to consider these issues.
There should be a safe system of work in place to prevent this from happening.
Employers should have addressed this hazard in their risk assessment and
adequate control measures should be in place. A plan for evacuation of
personnel and equipment in case of emergency and flooding shall be
developed.
Buried services

Many serious accidents have occurred when buried services have been
damaged during excavation work.
Contact with any electricity cables can result in explosion and burns to those in
the vicinity. Escaping gas which ignites can cause serious injury and/or property
damage as a result of fire and explosion.
Excavation work should not start until steps have been taken to identify and
prevent any risk of injury arising from underground services.
Burns and electrocution can result if raised tipper truck bodies or excavators
touch or come close enough to overhead power lines to cause arcing.
There is a risk to all those close to the item of plant which becomes live, as well
as to the operator.
The need to undertake excavation work close to or below such lines should be
very carefully considered and avoided where possible.
The main controls for excavation work
The need for temporary shoring
Temporary shoring is an emergency band-aid that provides a shelter for

structural integrity when a building has lost its stability. Not a ―fix,‖ it is a way to
hold the problem steady until a repair can be made and it helps to stop any
further insult to the building in the interim.
There are many reasons why a building might need temporary shoring, but most
commonly it is necessary when:

 There is a disaster such as a flood or fire that compromises the structural

integrity of a facility, house, or building
 If a building‘s foundation is compromised through settlement and it leads
to a crack in the exterior wall
 If the walls of a building or your home start to bulge outward creating
structural problems
 When an opening in a wall becomes larger either through construction or
another disaster
Drag boxes
Drag boxes are intended to be used to provide local support to trenches as

moveable ‗shields‘ generally in stable or self-supporting ground conditions. They
are not intended for full panel height support of trench walls, as in the case of a
traditional trench box, however correct use will considerably enhance
productivity and safety. It must be noted that drag boxes are very heavy pieces
of equipment and certain Drag Box models permit the use of top boxes and/or
rear extensions so will require large excavators to handle them safely.
Piling
Sheet piles are inserted into the ground before an excavation begins. A sheet
pile is a steel sheet with an interlocking edge so that each pile can be joined to
the next one in sequence. They are sized to reach the specified depth.
Vibratory hammers or impact hammers are used to force the sheet piles into the
ground. Their function is to support the side walls and also to prevent
groundwater ingress into the excavation while it is in process.
The methods for checking for buried services and the

precautions to be observed
Contact with underground services can be deadly, and expensive. Buried

services are a major construction site hazard, particularly in excavation work.
There is often uncertainty regarding the location of underground services, as
they may have been in place for many years.
Locating underground services is usually a three-step process.
1. Desktop study Requestion information from the client and service

drawings from utility providers, to give you an idea of the type and
location of services located on the site.
2. Site Investigation Which would usually involve a physical site inspection,
looking for signs of services (e.g. manhole covers, telecoms boxes etc).
The survey would use detection tools to get a more accurate idea of
service locations.
3. Physical Identification Using trial holes and tracing devices to get an
exact location, depth and identity of services.
The following precautions can help you to avoid danger from underground
services before and during excavation work.
Visual checks
Visit the site and visually check the site for obvious signs of services include
patching of road surfaces, valve covers and manholes. These are all indications
of what lies beneath.
Check plans
Get plans from utility providers to see what services are likely to be present. Plans
from utility or service providers will help to establish if there are underground
services within the work area and give an indication of the location of services.

Service plans should be available on-site and used to help locate underground
services. However, remember that service plans may not be 100% accurate.
Cable location devices
Plans are not always accurate in giving the exact position of services and
therefore cable and pipe locating devices should be used to develop accurate
site service and plans and to mark services on site. Cable locators should be
used to trace services and get an accurate picture of where services are laid
under the site. The locator eg. CAT scan is used to trace the line of any live pipe
or cable and to confirm the location and depth.
Marking ground
Once identified ground marking should be used to mark up the services that
have been identified on-site. This allows the workforce to easily located the
position of services, and to take precautions when working nearby.
Assume live
Unless confirmed otherwise, always assume services are live. It is better to

assume a cable is live and play it safe than to assume it is dead and potentially
put your life and the lives of others at risk.
Safe Digging
Any digging carried out close to services must be safe. Where there is a reason
to believe there may be underground services present, hand digging with
insulated tools should be used. Always use insulated tools. Power tools or
machinery should not be used within 0.5m of pipes or cables. Excavating
alongside the services and then digging horizontally to expose them is best
practice as it greatly reduces the risk of damage through downwards pressure.

Tool choice
Your choice of tool can reduce the risk to yourself and minimise the risk of
damage to installed services. Spades and shovels are less likely to pierce cables
than picks, forks or other sharp tools.
Provide Support
Once exposed, services may need additional support providing, as they are no
longer supported by the ground. Services may also need extra protection if their
location means they are at risk of damage. Never use exposed services as hand
or footholds.
The use of 3600 excavators
When you want to get more work done day after day, the EX3600-6 is the
choice for you. It combines proven designs with the newest technological
advances to provide you with efficiency, reliability and durability for all kinds of
jobs.You get strong horsepower, an efficient engine, a comfortable cab,
advanced hydraulics, tough frames, powerful arm and bucket-digging forces
and more. It‘s available in backhoe and front-shovel configuration, and you can
choose between a diesel engine or electric motor. The EX3600-6 comes
standard equipped with Hitachi‘s Global e-Service remote machine
management system, which gives you access to each on-site machine from a
PC in your office.
The requirements for inspections and examinations of

excavations
A competent person who fully understands the dangers and necessary

precautions should inspect the excavation at the start of each shift.

Excavations should also be inspected after any event that may have affected
their strength or stability, or after a fall of rock or earth.
A record of the inspections will be required and any faults that are found should
be corrected immediately.
A written report should be made following most inspections and should contain
the following information:
 name and address of the person the inspection was carried out for;
 location and description of the place of work or work equipment
inspected;
 date and time of the inspection;
 details of:
o any matter identified that could give rise to a risk to the health or
safety of any person;
o any action taken as a result of any matter identified;
o any further action considered necessary; and
 name and position of the person making the report.
10.12 Outline the duty to manage workplace transport risks and how
to manage work-related driving risks using a Plan, Do, Check, Act
approach - Work-place transport, Work-related driving
10.12.1 Workplace transport
What should be considered in a workplace transport

risk assessment

A risk assessment is a careful examination of what, in your work, could harm

people. It helps you decide whether you have done enough to prevent anyone
coming to harm, or need to do more.
By law, the risk assessment must be 'suitable and sufficient'. This means it must be
good enough to protect people from any harm that you can predict. Your risk
assessment does not need to be complicated or technical. Most employers
carry out risk assessments during the normal course of their work.
For example, if you were to hire a new driver, you would identify how much
information, instruction or training they will need do their work without making
mistakes or causing accidents. By recognising that there are risks associated with
having new drivers, and then deciding what precautions to take, you do a risk
assessment and act on it.
Your risk assessment is thorough and accurate because you need to use it when
you decide what to do to control risks. It will help you to decide what is
'reasonably practicable' because it will help you decide how serious risks are,
and how much effort and cost is necessary to control them.
If your organisation employs five or more people (including managers), you must
write down any significant findings from the risk assessment.
Step 1 – Identify the hazards
First you need to look at work activities that involve vehicles (including visiting
vehicles) over a reasonable period. This could be over the course of a day, a
week or a month. You need to build up a clear picture of vehicle and
pedestrian traffic in the workplace, and to make sure you miss nothing
important.

List all the activities you know will happen in your workplace, such as deliveries,
loading or collecting waste. You can do this by watching the workplace and
observing:
 where vehicles are;

 what drivers are doing;
 how they are doing it; and
 why they are doing it.
Step 2 – Decide who might be harmed and how
Hazards involving workplace transport involve drivers – both those employed at

one site and drivers visiting sites owned by other companies. Think all other
employees, contractors, subcontractors, customers, part-time employees,
cleaners, maintenance staff, visitors and members of the public. Which of these
types of people are likely to be near to vehicles, and why?
Step 3 – Evaluate the risks
The risk posed by each hazard is the chance that somebody will be harmed
(high or low), and how seriously they might be harmed (seriously or not). High
risks are ones where someone is very likely to be harmed or where the harm is
likely to be serious (or both).
Once you have identified the hazards and who is in danger, you should think
about how likely it is that an accident will happen and, if it does, how severe the
injury is likely to be. Transport accidents are usually serious, or at least have the
potential to be serious.
Step 4 – Record your findings

If your organisation employs five or more people (including managers), by law

you must record the significant findings of your assessment.
This means recording the more significant hazards (usually in writing) and your
most important conclusions (for example, 'Risk of dislodged load because of low
branches – cut back regularly and put up a warning sign').
Step 5 – Review the risk assessment
You should review the risk assessment form regularly, to check that it is still
relevant. Each risk assessment should include a date for when a review is due,
which should take account of the type of work and the speed of changes,
which are likely to be different for every workplace.
New hazards may emerge when you:
 introduce new vehicles;

 change the traffic routes; or
 change the nature of the work.
Operations at a shared workplace The employer exercising the main authority at

a shared workplace where employees from several employers work has more
extensive obligations that the other employers. However, all actors must ensure
that their activities do not endanger the safety and health of the employees.
The reasons for providing information to all

workers and visitors to site relating to workplace
transport issues
Workers
You are legally required to consult all your employees, in good time, on health
and safety matters. In workplaces where a trade union is recognised, this will be
through union health and safety representatives. In non-unionised workplaces,
you can consult either directly or through other elected representatives.
Consultation involves employers not only giving information to employees but

also listening to them and taking account of what they say before making
health and safety decisions.
Issues you should consult employees on could include:
 health and safety and the work they do;

 how risks are controlled;
 the best ways of providing information and training.
Shared premises
Employers, employees and the self-employed who share a workplace should

co-operate and communicate with each other on the site. Site operators should
take responsibility for co-ordinating any health and safety measures and
ensuring everyone on-site understands their health and safety responsibilities
and the site rules.
Vehicles on which employees of more than one company are at work are
considered to be shared workplaces, for example where supermarket
employees are loading a trailer owned by a distribution company.
Whenever this occurs, those involved should be fully aware of their roles and
responsibilities before any activity is undertaken. Clear, written instructions and
information should be available to those involved. If you do not own the site you

should liaise with your landlord as you both have legal responsibilities to ensure
the site is safe.
The visitors
The visitors often have access to workplaces where vehicles operate. As they will
generally be unfamiliar with the workplace, they should be kept away from any
work activities wherever possible.
Where this is not possible, you should put in place suitable traffic management
arrangements to:
 control pedestrian access;

 separate people from vehicles;
 control vehicle movements;
 monitor activities on-site.
Reference - https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg199.pdf
Why drivers are at risk from fatigue and how

fatigue can be managed
Fatigue can result when you do not get enough sleep or do not get quality
sleep. It can impair your driving, similar to alcohol impairment. A survey of the U.S
population found that 37% of workers got less than the recommended minimum
of 7 hours of sleep.

Maintaining good sleep habits is important to your health and safety, on and off
the job. If your job involves long hours of work or driving, shiftwork, or a long
commute, you may be at increased risk of fatigue at work, including driver
fatigue.
What causes fatigue?
 Being awake for many consecutive hours

 Not getting enough sleep over multiple days
 Time of day: Your body has a sleep/wake cycle that tells you when to be
alert and when it‘s time to sleep. The urge to sleep is the most intense in
the early morning hours.
 Monotonous tasks or long periods of inactivity
 Health factors such as sleep disorders or medications that cause
drowsiness
What are the effects of driver fatigue?
 Nodding off
 Reacting more slowly to changing road conditions, other drivers, or
pedestrians
 Making poor decisions
 Drifting from your lane
 Experiencing ―tunnel vision‖ (when you lose sense of what‘s going on in
the periphery)
 Experiencing ―microsleeps‖ (brief sleep episodes lasting from a fraction of
a second up to 30 seconds)
 Forgetting the last few miles you drove
What can employers and workers do to prevent driver fatigue on the job?

Employers:
 Implement policies that set overtime limits and maximum allowable

consecutive shifts.
 Ensure sufficient staffing levels across operations.
 Provide employee training on sleep health and fatigue management.
 Implement a workplace sleep disorder screening and management
program.
 Allow for rest breaks and napping during extended work shifts.
 Give supervisors and workers fatigue-symptom checklists and encourage
self-reporting.
 Encourage peer monitoring of fatigue symptoms among co-workers.
 Review data from in-vehicle monitoring systems to detect signs of possible
fatigue episodes, such as lane departures.
 Consider using wearables such as an instrumented wristband to monitor
driver fatigue.
 Train incident investigators to assess the role of fatigue in incidents and
near-miss incidents.
Workers:
 Get enough sleep (7-9 hours each day). If fatigue persists after adequate
sleep, get screened for health problems that may be affecting your sleep.
 Plan your activities outside work to allow enough time for adequate sleep.
 Create a sleeping environment that helps you sleep well: a dark, quiet,
cool room with no electronics.
 If you feel fatigued while driving: pull over, drink a cup of coffee, and take
a 15-30 minute nap before continuing. The effects are only temporary –
the only ―cure‖ for fatigue is sleep.
 Watch yourself and your co-workers for signs of fatigue.

 Report instances of fatigue in yourself and others to your direct supervisor,

who can help to determine the safest course of action.
 Speak honestly if you are questioned about a fatigue-related incident.
Fatigue is a normal biological response – it is not a reflection of how well
you do your job.
Reference - https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/newsroom/feature/driverfatigue.html
Use of telematics to control the risk from

workplace transport activities
Telematics is a combination of two words: telecommunications and informatics.

It is often defined as ―the blending of computers and wireless
telecommunications technologies, with the goal of efficiently conveying
information over vast networks to improve a variety of services.‖
There are many ways telematics can improve how you manage your
equipment fleet. Risk management and monitoring driver behavior are two
ways telematics can help you improve your bottom line.
How Do Telematics Systems Work?
Telematics systems work by connecting a device, such as a GPS tracker or other

data logging tool, to an asset. Then, the tool collects key performance data
about the asset. Once collected, the device will send the information to a data
center where it can be collated, interpreted, and analyzed.
So, what does a telematics system in a car or truck do? In the case of fleet
telematics, the telematics system will store information in a database that can

be accessed by your fleet management system. Whether this database is a

remote cloud server or a server/computer on your network may vary from one
telematics solution to the next.
Once the data has been uploaded, the fleet manager can access it via the
telematics system‘s software - the specific operation of which may vary
depending on the telematics solution used.
Some items that can be monitored by a telematics system include:
Headway monitoring and warning allows companies to know how closely their
drivers are following vehicles in front of them. Many drivers overestimate how
much headway they have to the car in front of them, resulting in insufficient
time to react if the car ahead unexpectedly stops or slows down.
Hard braking is a good indication of driver behavior. Hard braking is a measure

of driver events where there has been rapid deceleration. It can also be an
indicator of following too closely, aggressive, inattentive or unsafe driving.
Speed measurement can relay how fast a driver is going. Management may set
parameters, and if they are broken, an alert is generated, such as an email.
The requirements to plan in break-times for

driving activities
Drivers' working hours is the commonly used term for regulations that govern the
activities of the drivers of commercial goods vehicles and passenger carrying
vehicles. In the United States, they are known as hours of service.

In the European Union, drivers' working hours are regulated by EU regulation (EC)
No 561/2006[5] which entered into force on 11 April 2007. The cumulative driving
time must not exceed 4.5 hours. After 4.5 hours of driving the driver must take a
break period of at least 45 minutes. However, this can be split into 2 breaks, the
first being at least 15 minutes, and the second being at least 30 minutes in
length.
The daily driving time shall not exceed 9 hours. The daily driving time may be
extended to at most 10 hours not more than twice during the week. The weekly
driving time may not exceed 56 hours. In addition to this, a driver cannot
exceed 90 hours driving in a fortnight. Within each period of 24 hours after the
end of the previous daily rest period or weekly rest period a driver must take a
new daily rest period. An 11-hour (or more) daily rest is called a regular daily rest
period. Alternatively, a driver can split a regular daily rest period into two
periods. The first period must be at least 3 hours of uninterrupted rest and can be
taken at any time during the day. The second must be at least 9 hours of
uninterrupted rest, giving a total minimum rest of 12 hours. A driver may reduce
his daily rest period to no less than 9 continuous hours, but this can be done no
more than three times between any two weekly rest periods; no compensation
for the reduction is required. A daily rest that is less than 11 hours but at least 9
hours long is called a reduced daily rest period. When a daily rest is taken, this
may be taken in a vehicle, as long as it has suitable sleeping facilities and is
stationary.
Driving while fatigued will still be prohibited, making off-duty rest breaks an
important option for many drivers. If a driver is fatigued and needs to take a
break, even if he or she has more driving time available under the new rule, a
supervisor may not require the driver to continue driving.

There is a strong business case for plan in break-times for driving activities. Fewer
road incidents mean:
 less days lost to injury

 fewer repairs to vehicles
 fewer missed orders
 reduced running cost
10.12.2 Work-related driving
Managing work-related driving activities using a

Plan, Do, Check, Act approach
Organisations have a legal duty to put in place suitable arrangements to

manage health and safety. This is a wide-ranging requirement, so HSE
encourages a common-sense and practical approach. It should be part of the
everyday process of running an organisation and part of good management
generally.
The following pages explains how you can follow a ‗Plan, Do, Check, Act‘
approach to help you achieve this. Here are some examples of how this
approach can be applied to work-related road safety.
Plan – Describe how you manage health and safety in your organisation and
plan to make it happen in practice
 Assess the risks from work-related road safety in your organisation.

 Produce a health and safety policy covering, for example, organising
journeys, driver training and vehicle maintenance.

 Make sure there is top-level commitment to work-related road safety in

your organisation.
 Clearly set out everyone‘s roles and responsibilities for work-related road
safety. Those responsible should have enough authority to exert influence
and be able to communicate effectively to drivers and others.
Do – Prioritise and control your risks, consult your employees and provide training
and information
 In larger organisations, make sure departments with different

responsibilities for work-related road safety co-operate with each other.
 Make sure you have adequate systems to allow you to manage work-
related road safety effectively. For example, do you ensure your vehicles
are regularly inspected and serviced according to manufacturers‘
recommendations?
 Make sure you involve your workers or their representatives in decisions.
This is a good way of communicating with them about health and safety
issues.
 You must provide training and instruction where necessary.
Check – Measure how you are doing
 Monitor performance to ensure your work-related road safety policy is

effective and has been implemented.
 Encourage your employees to report all work-related road incidents or
near misses.
Act – Review your performance and learn from your experience

 Make sure you collect enough information to allow you to make informed
decisions about the effectiveness of your existing policy and the need for
changes, for example targeting those more exposed to risk.
 Regularly revisit your health and safety policy to see if it needs updating.

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Unit ID 3 Learning Outcome - 10

PAGE 1 Redhat Safety

PAGE 2 Redhat Safety

10.7.1 Work equipment ........................................................................................................ 203

PAGE 3 Redhat Safety

PAGE 4 Redhat Safety

PAGE 5 Redhat Safety

10.1 Outline the practical considerations for maintaining a safe

10.1.1 Safe working environment

A "workplace" is defined as anywhere workers need to be or to go by reason of

Practical considerations in providing and

 Make sure buildings are in good repair.

PAGE 6 Redhat Safety

Safe Access and Egress

As previously mentioned, A "workplace" is defined as anywhere workers need to

Examples of safe access requirements encountered in a workplace include:

 Pedestrian pavement access into an office block.

PAGE 7 Redhat Safety

 Vehicle road access into a refinery, segregated from pedestrian

 Providing ladders. Especially long ladders (such as inside wind turbines)

Safety Signs in the Workplace

Employers should only install safety signs to warn of a hazard, or course of

To avoid confusion as a result of language or reading difficulties, the shape,

Types of safety signs

PAGE 9 Redhat Safety

Employers must ensure that:

 Signs are maintained. Any defective or faded signs should be replaced.

The impact of lighting levels on safety issues

PAGE 10 Redhat Safety

Incorrect Perception and Failure to See Clearly

Low levels of lighting can affect visual perception, as demonstrated by the

The stroboscopic effect in a fluorescent lamp is a phenomenon which causes

When a worker in a factory observes a running machine (for example, a

PAGE 12 Redhat Safety

All types of light have a particular colour.

However, some lighting makes objects and surfaces appear to be a different

Sodium lighting is known for changing our perception of colour.

Incorrect perception of colour by an individual can be a contributory factor in

In the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, there is a condition called Seasonal

PAGE 13 Redhat Safety

People with prior eye conditions, such as uncorrected vision or muscle

Why different work areas will need different light conditions

The amount of light we need varies and depends on:

The amount of light falling on a surface is measured in units called lux.

PAGE 14 Redhat Safety

Recommended Illumination Levels*

PAGE 15 Redhat Safety

Where possible, natural lighting should be used as preference over artificial

10.2 Recognise risks and design safe working practices in confined

The Meaning of Confined Spaces

A confined space must have both of the following features:

PAGE 16 Redhat Safety

1. Substantially enclosed (but not always entirely)

The definition of ―specified risk‖ is given as:

 Serious injury to any person at work form fire or explosion;

PAGE 17 Redhat Safety

Examples of where confined space entry may

It is not possible to provide a comprehensive list of confined spaces. Some

Confined space examples in the workplace:

PAGE 18 Redhat Safety

Industrial trunking ductwork typically qualify as a permit-required confined

For example, welding exhaust ductwork has the potential to contain a

Open trenches and excavations such as building foundations aren‘t generally