rr DESIGN APPROACH TO WATER AND SEWERAGE PROBLEMS. RELATIVE TO URBAN (PREDOMINANTLY HIGH DENSITY) AND RURAL COMMUNITIES IN ZIMBABWE This Report was produced by + BRIAN COLQUHOUN, HUGH O'DONNELL AND PARTNERS in conjunction with HOUSING DEVELOPMENT SERVICES (MENTSTRY OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT ANO HOUSING) Prepared by Aw VAN DER SCHYFF, BSc(CivEng), MBA, CEng, MICE T, HALL, BSc(Tech), CEng, MICE, MZweTE, MInstHe S.P. ANDREWS, CEng, MICE, MZweIE, MInstHE RaW. HICKS, CEng, MIMunE, MIPHE JANUARY 1982 RCHOD TENDAL Maror AFOREWORD Zimbabwe has, over the years, refined its approach to the servicing of low income housing. However with the increase in inflation and the ever increasing demand for housing, alternative options to the level of servicing will be required. This report attempts to rationalise the design approach to the many possible alternatives and give some guidelines to the design of these alternatives for use in implementing a major programme of house construction. Housing policy to date has required all housing solutions and servicing to be contractor built. The solutions offered have all been fully serviced plots ranging in size between 200m* and 400m* with the largest proportion being towards 200m? in extent. Housing solutions have ranged from low cost, two and. three bedroom dwelling units to extremely low cost two bedroom units. The level of servicing has been fully reticulated water provision and in most cases waterborne sanitation has been provided. The maximum supply contractor built approach has enabled planners and designers the luxury of innovative design with few of the problems encountered in less speedy developments. Solutions that will have to be considered in the future range from the site end services approach on fully serviced 200m plots to a variety of service levels including “on-site” sanitation methods on larger plots. The ultimate levels of servicing and plot size will be dic- tated primarily by economic considerations but in addition by peoples’ aspirations and geographic location. It wouldbe unrealistic to consider very small plots in the service centres located in communal lands, whereas smaller plots could be considered essential in the larger municipal areas. It is not the intention of this report to influence policy but rather to assist in preparing the engineering rationale behind any possible policy direction. This report is designed to be read in conjunction with the "Standard Conditions of Contract and Specifications for Civil Engineering Works in High Density Housing Contracts” as prepared by Housing Development Services Branch and is one of three reports dealing with engineering and planning considerations. The other two reports are: - Design Approach to Roads and Stormwater Problems relative to High Density Housing Developments in Zimbabwe. - Principles of Planning and Layout Design for Low Income Housing Developments in Zimbabwe.A.cs Blair B.0.D. BP, B.R.L. B.S. c., Cap. C.A.S, We CLO Ds D d DVC. D.W.F. external G.1./6.8. ha. H.M.S.0. hut hr. i TD Internal, kg. km. kN kPa Kreal ks 2s lpd lpepd is ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS Asbestos Cement Blair Research Laboratory, Salisbury Biochemical Oxygen Demand (B-0.0,) Black Polythene Blair Research Laboratory British Standards Capita/Person Constart used in pipe flow/pond design formulae Central African Standards Cast Iron Chemicel Oxygen Demand Pipe diameter (either nominal or actual internal diameter) day Double Vault Composting Toilet Dry Weather Flow Houses/huts outside serviced area. Galvanised Iron/Galvanised Steel Hectare (10 000m?) Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London Informal or traditional dwelling in rural areas Hour Hydraulic Gradient/Head losses (m/m) Internal Diemeter (pipe) Houses/huts within serviced area Kilogramme Kilometre Kalonewton Kilopascal Family grouping of huts in rural areas Effective roughness factor (ma Litre Litres per day Litres per capita per day Litres per secondmm? ym mg. mg/l S.P. 8.7. UN upvc ViIsD.P. V.T.P. WAT 34 ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS (Cont'd) Metres, square meter, cubic metre Milligramme Milligrammes per litre Mega litre Mega litres per day (1 000 m*/d) Millimetre Metres per second Newton Net Positive Suction Head Pond Effluent 8.0.0. Pascal (1 Pa = N/m?) Pour Flush Toilet Maximum Pond Strength in 8.0.0. Pond Influent 8.0.0. Parts per million (p.p.m = mg/l) Flow, discharge, quantity through pipes etc. (M1/d, 1/s, m3/hr) Retention in ponds (days of flow) Reticulated (water or sewerage) Reed Odourless Earth Closet Standards Association of Australia Standpipe Septic Tank United Nations Unplasticised Polyvinyl Chloride Ventilated Improved Double Pit Latrine Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine Document used for design of sewage treat~ ment Ponds World Health Organisation1.0 INDEX FOREWORD ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS CERRMATIONS AND DEFINITIONS. INTRODUCTION Terms of Reference Local Government Structures Urbanisation Patterns Housing Density Classification Rural Villages POPULATION AND OCCUPATION ATION AND OCCUPATION 2.1 2.2 2.5 High & Medium Density Housing Areas Low Density Housing Areas Rural Villages WATER SUPPLY 3.4 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Water Demand and Usage Water Sources & Methods of Abstraction Water Quality Water Treatment Water Storage Water Reticulation HUMAN WASTE COLLECTION, TREATMENT & DISPOSAL RS LECTION, TREATMENT & DISPOSAL 44 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 47 Domestic Sewage Contribution Sanitation Options Reticulated Sewerage House Connections Raw Sewage Pumping Sewage Treatment Sewage Effluent Gaw w mye ne a 16 19 24 27 40 40 42 59 74 73 78 90 a Ee a sllPERE EEE ER ERER BBB BBB ee = LN DEX (Continued) 5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Housing Density 5.2 Population Densities 5.3 Water Human Waste Collection, Treatment and Disposal 6.0 GENERAL CONCLUSION 7.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 95 95 95 96 101 109 112APPENDIX I APPENDIX IT APPENDIX ITT APPENDIX IV APPENDIX __V APPENDIX VI APPENDIX VII APPENDIX VIII APPENDIX IX APPENDIX Xx APPENDIX XI APPENDIX _XIT APPENDIX XIII APPENOIX XI < APPENDIX XVI APPENDIX XVII LIST OF APPENDICES Population and House Occupancy Water Demand Peak Factors for Water Flow Water Quality - Standards for Water Treatment Water Treatment Process Chart Flow/Friction Chart - Water Pipes - Materials and Classifications Pipework Fittings - Water Thrust Blocks for Pressure Pipelines Sanitation Options Sewage Flow/Gradient/Pipe Chart Sewer Pipeline Fittings Manhole Construction Design of Ponds Water (Effluent and Waste Water Standards) Regulations, 1977 The Public Health (Effluent) Reg- ulations, 1972 References BEE EEE EEE EEEE EEE EEELali Local Government Structures 1.0 INTRODUCTION Terms of Reference To prepare a report to rationalise the design approach and formulate basic design parameters in respect of complete water and sewerage schemes to serve high den- sity urban development end further to investigate and recommend water supplies and sanitation options in the rural growth centres. The present system of Local Government can be sub-divided into the following categories in respect of administration: a. Municipalities b. Town Councils ce. Town Boards d. Rural Councils e. District Councils. Urbanisation Patterns Principally divisions of urbanisation could be encountered in the future, as follows: 1. Cities with Municipal Stetus 2. Towns, administered by Town Council or Town Board 3. Rural Council Villages - Administered by Rural Councils 4. District Service Centres 5. Local Service Centres 6. Rural Villages. Types 4,5 and 6 would be located within Communal Lands and be administered by District Councils.1.4 Housing Density Classification & in general, where development exists or is planned, residential areas may contain houses of varying standards. These standards will be reflected in sizes of plots or densities of housing. Site locations, topographic features and planners’ preferences will inevitably cause variations in densities used; In a report prepared by Housing Development Services the following guidelines have been recommended: Charasvorietic Stand Size Sey ange High Density less than 400m@ Above 14/ha Medium Density 40on® - 1 c00m® = 7 - 1ayha Low Density 1 000m? + less than 7/ha. Tt should be noted that the effective densities quoted make allowance for local streets, public open spaces, amenities etc. For further clarification reference should be made to the report “Principles of Planning and Layout Design for Low Income Housing Developments in Zimbabwe" Prepared by Housing Development Services Branch. Rural Villages in rural areas new development properly planned, as in ser- vice centres, will tend to follow the guidelines given in 1.4, In villages, however, formal housing will generally be of a standard similar to that quoted above for “high density” although in practice plot sizes may be considerably larger. Other properties within villages would include informal dwellings in huts or kraals.2. 2.2 2.3 2.0 POPULATION AND OCCUPATION High and Medium Density Housing Areas Considerable investigations have been carried out, in various parts of the country, to ascertain the average occupancy of households. Some results are given in _ Appendix I~ these give averages ranging from 7 to 10. United Nations in-depth investigations in Salisbury and Que Que revealed that the numbers of people having the right to occupancy of individual houses often totalled 16 to 18. These figures included family members and friends who would normally be living elsewhere, such as children (at boarding school), men working away from home, relatives normally based elsewhere etc. The average num- ber of people sleeping in the houses per night was found to be between 7 and 8, For design purposes, average occupancy of high and medium density houses can be taken as 7 people per dwelling unit. Low Density Housing Areas This type of development is, in numbers of units, low in relation to the other types mentioned. It will not have ® significant impact on the overall demands for water con- sumption or human waste disposal. Little research has been carried out in relation to the number of people occupying households in low density housing areas and con- siderable variations can be expected for different locations. From casual observation however, it is noted that on aver-. age @ design figure of 6 persons per house would be reasonable. Rural Villages Current development in rural areas includes both formal and informal construction. Formal dwellings are similar2.3 (Cont'd) to those described above in high density housing areas with average occupancies of 7 people per dwelling unit. Infor- mal construction consists primarily of the traditional family cluster or "Kraal", Relatively detailed investiga- tions have revealed that, on average a family group may consist of 10 people but in some areas Kraals may have several family groups. It has been found that in general there are approximately three people per living hut. Living huts are the larger huts within a Kraal - they include dormitories and kitchens but exclude stores, gran- aries, shelters, etc. Service centres in rural areas may embrace all housing types referred to ebove. EEE BEEBE EEE EEE EEE3.0 WATER SUPPLY 3.1 Water Demand and Usage 3.1.1 3.1.2 Basic Human Requirements If only to satisfy his thirst and replace his body fluid losses man could survive on just a few litres of water per day. This quantity would make no allowances for washing clothes, person, pots, etc., or for use in cooking, toilet flushing or garaen watering. The quantity of water required for these functions is flexible - it can vary according to several factors including type of housing (and facilities provided), distance from water supply point, traditional customs/social behaviour, clim- atic environment, availability of water and costs of obtaining it. Water Demand by Housing Categories After considerable studies involving basic theories from first principles, site measurements and obser- vations, water meter records and detailed analyses (see Appendix II) basic design parameters have been evolved. These parameters are based upon the provi- sion that, for individually connected properties, supplies will be metered and the tariff structure will provide for a basic minimum quantity at a fixed rate before application of a charge per m* consumed per month. Records indicate that in high density housing areas where a tariff structure operates, average usage is restricted by the basic minimum. There is evidence of only Jimited garden watering in these areas. In other areas (e.g. mines housing), where water is available in any quantity without further charge, actual usage is considerably higher.3.1.2 (Cont'd) In many areas the basic minimum quantity is approximately 14m°/month (equivalent to 66 lpcpd at 7 cap/house). The data quoted in Appendix II show that although water usage was restricted by the tariff structure, average consumption corres- ponds to approximately 600 1/stand/day (85 lpcpd x 7 persons). This is further supported by a theoretical calculation given in the same appendix. Recent dtwelopments in urban areas within Zimbabwe have been of a high standard and houses have been provided with individual water connections and waterborne sewerage. Financiel restrictions could limit future development so that standpipe supplies may be provided and alternative sanitation methods may be adopted (see Section 4.2), Water demand will depend upon the supply and sanitation methods selec- ted but where a lower standard is initially adopted consideration should be given to any potential upgrading. In development within major cities and towns (urban areas) where reticulated water and sewerage systems are provided the assessed water demand per capita is 85, 200 and 300 litres per day for high, medium and low density housing respectively or 600, 1 400 and 1 800 litres per stand per day. Where lower standards of supply and/or sanitation are provided only high and medium density housing will be affec- ted. For individual supplies where sanitation is not waterborne demand is assessed at 60 Ipcpd (420 litres/stand) and for standpipe supplies 40 lpcpd — (280 litres/stand). Development in rural areas, including growth and service centres, may take place where there are existing kraals and huts of informal construction. Whereas demands for formal housing are assessed3.1.2 (Cont'd) Salad on the same basis as for urban areas, special consid- eration must be given to informal properties. For those situated within the area being developed and within 100m of a standpipe, per capita demands in informal housing are assessed at 40 litres per day. In addition there will be people living outside the developed area (external) who will walk in to the nearest standpipe (distances ranging from 100m to approximately 5km.). Demand for external proper- ties is assessed at 20 litres per capita per day. Demand figures per living hut are: ~ internal 120 and external 60 litres per day. Note : Living huts are those which are used as dormitories or kitchens - approximately half the total number of huts within any one kraal. Stores, granaries and animal or fowl shelters are not considered to be living huts. Recommended water demand design figures are summarised in Section 5. Water Demand for Other Properties Separate consideration should be made of water requirements for other properties. These could include institutions (schools, hotels, hospitals, prisons, service camps, etc.), administrative offices, commercial premises and industries. With institutions the water users may be either daily visitors or residents as in the cases of day and boarding schools. Daily visitors will generally have been included in the total water requirement figures (if they live within the area under con- sideration) but allowance should be made for some consumption at the institutional premises and for full usage by people in residence there.| 3.1.3 (Cont'd) Conmercial and administrative premises will have daily visitors (primarily employees) to be consid- ered on a similar basis. Allowances for premises occupied on a daily basis should be made when sizing tocal pipework but should not be included when asses- sing overall water demands.” Industries have varying water requirements - exact details could only be Provided by the potential consumers themselves. Summaries of recommended allowances for design pur- poses are given in Section 5. Wastage and Leakage Any public water supply system, however stringently controlled and maintained, will be subject to losses by wastage and leakage. These losses are caused by Various factors including leakage through small aper- tures, joints, fractures, etc., in water retaining structures or pipelines, faulty washers, glands, fittings, etc., failure to close taps, misuse of water and undue consumption. Wastage can be effec- tively controlled by metering supplies to individual Properties. With standpipe systems wastage must be expected and the rates given in Section 3.1.2 above make allowance for non-deliberate wastage. In order to restrict wastage at standpipes consider- ation may be given to allocating groups of properties to individual standpipes, metering the supplies and charging for usage. Leakage in a new scheme ie kept low by effective testing and control during construction but within a few years, unless stringently mainteined, losses by leakage will be highly significant. In @ well control- ied system losses by leakage and wastage cannot be BEEBE EEBEBE.3.1.4 (Cont'd) expected to be less than 15%. For design purposes @ figure of not less than 20% should be used. Note: This figure makes no allowance for water used in backwashing filters at a treatment works. Average Flows and Peak Factors Using the rates for water demand given above and applying the leakage/wastage factor average daily flows can be computed. There will naturally be periods when demands will exceed the average. On a monthly basis October usually has the highest demand. Within any month there will be a daily peak and during each day there will be periods of maximum usage. From investigations the following peak factors have been found to be most suitable. (See Appendix -I11) Average flows - factor 1,0 x average Peak Month - factor 1,25 x average Peak Day - factor 1,5 x average Peak Hour - factor 3,0 x average.3.2 Water Sources and Methods of Abstraction SeBed Sources of Supply Water may be obtained from one or more of a variety of sources in Zimbabwe including: a. Natural lakes b. Artificial lakes, dams, impounding reservoirs c. Rivers, streams, etc. d. River beds e. Naturally occurring springs f. Subterranean water (wells, adits, boreholes) Q- Precipitation (rain, sleet, snow, hail) Other sources could include moisture naturally retained in the air, soils and vegetation but these cannot be con~ sidered suitable for praceical exploitation in providing water supplies for a developed community. Methods of Abstraction The ideal method of abstraction is one where, for little or no capital expenditure water can be extrac- ted of sufficient pressure to obviate the need for any power input. Normally this situation is not possible and either high capital investment is required or, in the majority of cases, it is necessary to provide @ power input. In the simplest of cases the pever inPut may be human exertion in lifting, pumping or carrying water and for bigger projects pumps may be required driven by electric motors or internal combus~ tion engines, With surface water sources - lakes, dams or rivers ~ intake structures ae usuadly required. These may consist of permanent structures housing or supporting pumps and necessary ancillary equipment. In smaller schemes the intakes may be based on floating structures. ve wit, “— ve yas we vest yess ae 8, a Pe] 1a _ =3 3 3 3.2.2 (Cont'd) In the cases of springs or river beds (sand abstraction) the source(s) may be tapped and flows diverted to common sumps before pumping. For underground water, after verifying the source, it may be necessary to sink wells, shafts or boreholes or drive adits. In these Gases pumping may be by submerged electrical pump units or, where electricity is not available by shaft driven submerged pumps with belt drives from diesel powered motors. Limits of Abstraction Many factors may limit the amount of water available from a source. Inflow to surface water sources will be affected by rainfall variations, areas of catchment, topography, geology, soil types, vegetation and the effect of other sources within the area. Potential yield from the source will be subject to inflow limit- ations and losses by evaporation, seepage, leakage, flow beyond intake and requirements for minimum downstream flows, water levels etc. Seasonal and annual variations in climate and other factors must be comprehensively studied in critical cases. Subterranean sources depend upon the ability of the soils or rocks to store or permit movement of water. Any given well or borehole will have a safe reliable yield which may be affected considerably if adjacent sources are used (including other wells and boreholes). Legal Requirements In connection with water supply schemes the direct provision and requirements legally enacted are set out in the Water Act 1976, With regard to public water supply systems they include the following relevant topics:12. 3.2.4 (Cont'd) 3.2.6 a. Rights to Public Water b. Control of Underground Water ©. Servitudes in Respect of Water d. Water Pollution Control e. Safety of Dams, Other provisions and requirements may be directly or indirectly applied by other legislation. Water Pumping Where water has to be moved and it cannot flow there naturally (by gravity) or where water in @ system hae insufficient pressure it is necessary to provide en input of power. In the simplest cases this may involve manually carrying the water but generally some form of pump will be required. Pumping rates (rate of discharge) relate to or may be restricted by yield or demand. In general raw water, and treated water to storage will be pumped at a rate of not less than peak daily (1,5 x average) rate. There will be occasions, however, when the above rate of pumping must be exceeded. In particular, where treatment works are designed to oper- ate for less than 24 hours per day, depending upon on-site storage, rates of water flow to and from the works should be sufficient to permit operation at the designed rates. (See Section 3.4.2). Water Pumping Equipment The simplest forms of pump can be operated by man or powered by animals. In most cases these will not be considered for public water supply schemes (except possibly the manual form for standby emergency use BEEBE RBE ERE EBEBEBBRBBBEERBERERPEREEREEBEEE EEE EERE ESR EEE 13. 3.2.6 (Cont'd) in rural areas). Where significant quantities, distances or pressures are required mechanically powered pumps are used. Where available, elect- rical power is generally the most efficient and economical to use. In the ‘absence of electrical power diesel, petrol of gas powered engines may be employed (diesel is generally more economical than petrol or gas). For water supply schemes two basic types of pump are usually employed ~ the submersible units and “dry” installations. ~ Submersible Pumps In general submersible units will be used in bore- holes, wells, shafts and sumps. Electrically driven unite will have close coupled electric submersible motors and the pumps themselves will be single, or, more commonly, multi-stage centrifugal pumps. Diesel powered submersible pumps will either be centrifugal (vertical axis) pumps or positive dis- placement rotary pumps with hardened steel impellers in rubber stators. In each case vertical shafts within the discharge pipeline (riser) will be coup- led to the pumps and connected to the prime mover with suitably selected pulleys and belts. - Centrifugal Pumps In dry installations centrifugal pumps should be used. The high-output units should have horizontal eplit-casings. Preferably the axis of the pump will be lower than the water to be pumped in order to give a “flooded suction". Where this is not practical care should be teken to ensure that the Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) characteristics of the pump, in all possible operating situations3.2.6 (Cont'd) la. will permit each installation without cavitation. If the pumps thus selected are not self-priming provision should be made for manual priming. - Booster Pumps In cases where pumps are ‘used to increase pipeline pressures (booster pumps) these will normally be centrifugal units installed ‘in line’, The low pressure pipeline (pressure not lower than pump NFSH requirement) will be. connected to the pump suction direct without entering a tank or chamber. - Pump Arrangements It is standard practice to install standby pumping equipment i.e. for small schemes ~ 2 pumps; 1 duty, 1 standby, With electric motors on critical schemes or where power failures are likely it is good practice to install a standby electric generator driven by a diesel engine or diesel driven pump. BEBREBEBERBRERB Generally pumps and electric motors will be mounted on a common baseplate close-coupled together. ~ Pump Selection Pumps should be selected on the basis of discharge and head conditions and where multi~pump configura tions are to be used pipeline systems curves should be produced in order to facilitate selection. Motors or engines should be selected to adequately meet the maximum power to be absorbed by the pumps as installed. The above notes relate to both raw water and treated water pumping configurations. The rates of discharge and pumping heads must be calculeted. Total pumping head is the sum of the following:3.2.6. (Cont'd) ~ Static Head - difference between top water level at discharge and bottom water level at suction. (Note in some cases this could be negative i.e. when pumping down- hall.) ’ - Friction Head calculated as set out in Section SiGe - Other Losses an allowance for bends, fittings etc. - either calculated or taken as a proportion of friction head. - Pressure at discharge point - if applicable. Screening In many situations it may be necessary to screen waters before pumping. This particulerly refers to raw water (untreated), At surface water intakes on small schemes intake pipes may be fitted with bellmouths protected by fixed screens. Lerger schemes may have intake chambers with removable screens fitted across the inflow channels or apertures. Where boreholes are situated in soile or rocks of an alluviel nature casing and screening of the boreholes may be required. In these cases it is recommended that gravel packing be used around the areas of casing screens.3.3 Water 3.301 le. ualit Possible Types of Contamination Any naturally occurring water is likely to contain impurities. In general these will consist of one, or a combination of the following: a. Suspended inorganic matter b. Dissolved inorganic matter c. Micro-organisms. In each case there could be matter which is harmful if consumed. Suspended inorganic matter could include dirt, sands, clays, sediments, etc. Any dissolved matter could include a range of chemical elements or compounds. Generally river waters are more likely to contain suspended matter which ere particularly noticeable during periods of turbulent flow. Waters from dams or lakes may still contain suspended matter whereas, in most cases subterranean water from sand abstrac- tion units, wells, shafts and boreholes, after satisfactory construction and development will be relatively free of suspended matter. Water from @ surface source is usually relatively soft, with less chemical impurities than subterranean water. Where an aquifier is situated in limestone (or other calcereous rock) the water is usually very hard. In some areas ground Waters have high saline content. Surface waters are more likely to have bacteriological contamination (micro-organisms) than ground waters. Either source can be easily affected by injudi.-ous disposal of human or animal excreta.International Standards for Potable Water apternationeal Standards for Potable Water In order to be suitable for human consumption (potable) water in public supply systems must be free of microbiological contamination and have lim- ited suspended or dissolved impurities. The United Nations World Health Organisation (W.H.O.) has published its recommended standards for public water supply - these are summarised in Appendix IV. Special Standards Since the W.H.0, standards were devised further research has indicated that other chemical factors are undesirable in potable water - these include phosphates and nitrates. Nitrates in particuler can cause serious medical conditions within a com- munity and as such should be guarded against. This is of particular importance where the source of water supply may be downstream of the point source pollu- tion caused by pit latrine discharges. Recommended limits for nitrates and phosphates are also given in Appendix IV, Control of these impuri- ties may best be exercised in the selection of suitable sanitation or sewage treatment systems. Water Quatity Control Samples of raw water should be taken and analysed to determine the concentrations of those items refer- red to above. These samples should, if possible, be taken at different times in order to determine the extent of seasonal effects.a 1s. 3.3.4 (Cont'd) Water for public supply should have no coliforms, have acceptable fluorides and ideally not have more than the recommended chemical concentrations though, in some cases the permissible concentrations may be reached. These are given in Appendix IV. Regular monitoring of raw and treated water quality should be carried out. BEBE BEL RBEBEBEEBBEBBELBE REreatment Basic Treatment Processes In most cases the treatment of water will be under- taken by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Water Development, the respective Local Authority or Mine. The notes below are basic guidelines for use where treatment has to be provided. The processes used in water treatment are designed to remove or reduce impurities sufficiently to ren- der the water potable (drinkable) - see Section 3.3. The majority of water treatment works will utilise one or several of the following processes: a. Pre-treatment b. Flocculation c. Clarification d. Filtration e. Disinfection f. Sludge removel. Other processes not listed above, are unlikely to be incorporated in the majority of schemes. These could include: desalination, water softening, deodourising and special chemical techniques. The basic arrangement for water source and treatment processes is given in Appendix V. Selection of Suitable Treatment In selecting suitable processes and methods to be employed in a water treatment works the following factors should be carefully examined:4.2. (Cont'd) a. Quantity and quality of raw water. b. Quantity and quality of treated water required. ©. Seasonal variations in a, and b. d. Basis processes required in treatment. €. Equipment or structures for plant processes. f. Costs of Construction. g. Costs of maintenance. h. Ease of operation in relation to the skills or limitations of potential operatives. i. Flexibility of layout and design. j+ Suitability for future extensions. k. Local availability of equipment and spares. 1. Foreign exchange requirements for construction and operation. m. Availability, cost and foreign exchange requirements of materials or chemicals used in the treatment process. In most cases, within Zimbabwe, complicated or soph- isticated works will not be required. Surface waters can be treated using flocculation/clarification, filtration and disinfection. Waters of low turbidity may be filtered (with or without a flocculating agent) and disinfected. Borehole waters are often pure enough to require no treatment although precautionary chlorination is recommended for disinfection. Waters from river beds via sand abstraction can be reasonably pure and may need only filtration and chlorination but care should be exercised in design to allow for Variations in raw water quality relating to river flows. It is common practice to allow for treatment processes to operate for approximately 14 hours per day at average flows. This gives an operation for approximately 21 hours per day et peak daily flows and still provide -3.4.2 (Cont'd) a small margin of time for works maintenance, filter cleaning, etc. Where applicable pumping rates should be adjusted to suit treatment rates. In smaller schemes, however, it may be viable to consider sizing works for average operation of approx- imately 8 hours (one shift) thereby obviating the need for shift work and reducing operating costs. Flocculation/Clarification Generally the flocculation/clarification stage will consist of a small flow splitting chamber and upward flow settlement tanks. The chamber will be designed to maintain turbulence within the water and split flows to the settlement tanks in proportions rzlated to their capacities. At the chamber a coagulating agent will be administered, suitable agents include iron salts, silica, polyelectrolytes or more commonly aluminium sulphate (sometimes incorrectly called alum) possibly in conjunction with lime or soda ash, The agent should be in solution, constantly fed at the desired rate. The settlement tanks are traditionally square in plan with 60° pyramidal hopper bottoms. Alternative set- tlement tanks include rectangular horizontal flow and circular, redial flow unite with variations intro~ ducing specialist mechanical equipment. Filtration Rapid gravity filters are most commonly used in Zimbabwe. These consist of sand and gravel filter media through which water under treatment flows downwards. They have to be regularly cleared sy‘ 22. 3.4.4 (Cont'd) 3.4.5 backwashing with clear water. In this respect it is normal to include high level storage or backwash Pumps within the treatment worke site. Tanks or pumps should be designed to supply clearwater for backwashing at a rate of approximately 0,6m/minute for approximately 5 minutes per filter. In many cases air may be delivered through the media, to assist backwashing at @ pressure of 20 to 50 kPa. These filters are usually designed on a peak daily flow rate of 5m°/m@/hour. In rural situations it may be practical to install Pressure filters or slow sand filters (rated at 0,15m / m’ ?/hour). With slow sand filters a suitable area should be prepared with a concrete slab for sand washing, Slow sand filters are simpler to operate and are thus more suitable where trained personnel are not available. In addition they require relatively large areas of land thus for average flows exceeding say 1 000 to 2 000m*/day they may not be economically viable. Disinfection This process is designed to kill the micro-organisms (bacteria) within water. Earlier stages of treatment will have reduced these to low proportions. Chlorine, ozone and ultra-violet radiation are effective - the most popular method being chlorination, because it can leave a residual capable of inhibiting the growth of bacteria within a reticulation network. Ideally chlorine should be administered in gas form with an electric/mechanical device. Alternatively a simple gravity drip-feed chlorinator can be con~ structed to administer a hypochlorite compound in BEBRBEBBEBREBEBBEBEBBREBEBSE3.4.5 (Cont'd) solution, Where chlorine gas is used, provision should be made for adequate safety precautions including: good ventilation, breathing apparatus 3.4.6 and, possibly, emergency resuscitation equipment. Other Processes Other processes which can be used in water treatment but are not described within this text include: a. Pre-treatment b. Desalination ¢. Deodourisation d. Softening. In addition there are other methods of carrying out the stages described above. Special cases should be referred to the Division of Water Development or the Municipality concerned.24. 3.5 Water Storage 3. 1 Storage Requirements It is necessary in all cases to provide sufficient storage of treated water. This will give flexibility to a scheme in order to cater for the fluctuations in demand, with peak factors exceeding the rate of inflow, and provide standby potential for when a supply source or treatment works may be temporarily out of commission. Total storage on @ scheme should be adequate to provide reserves during the time required to re-start a supply system in the event of breakdown or stoppage. Con- sideration should be given to the potential user incon- venience if supplies cease. In rural villages where residents may be able to use alternative supplies total storage of 24 hours at average demand should be adequate. In urban areas, however, at least 48 hours total storage at average demand should be provided. A proportion of total storage should be retained at sufficient altitude (high level) to give the required residual pressures throughout the reticulated area. Ideally 12 hours high level storage should be provided but there may be instances where the provision of less high level storage (minimum 3 hours) and increased pumping rates will be required. (See Section 3.5.4.) In most cases water stored at a higher level will be held in elevated reservoirs. The balance of the total storage will be held at ground level to be subsequently transferred by pumping. In situations where ground level storage is sited to give positive gravitational supplies to all areas but where residual pressures would be less than the BE REBRBEBBEBBBBBE3.5.1 (Cont'd) 3.5.3 desirable minimum,consideration could be given to the use of booster pumps in lieu of high level storage. Ground Level Storage Wherever possible use should be made of ground level storage. In general reservoirs should be constructed of reinforced concrete or brickwork designed in accor~ dance with the relevant codes of practice for water retaining structures. The reservoirs should be com- pletely enclosed with access for maintenance and provided with scour facilities and adequate overflow apertures or drains. In addition the reservoirs should be ventilated to permit the flow of air during filling and emptying operations. All permanent openings should be screened with mosquito netting to prevent insects entering and breeding in the water. Inlet pipes may be fitted with ball-valves (depending on the type of controls). All reservoirs should be fitted with suit- able depth/water level indicetors which can be read externally. Elevated Storage The notes above for Ground Level Storage can be equally applied to elevated storage. The major dif- ferences will be the necessity to mount the tank (reservoir) on piers or legs. Extra care should be taken in foundation design and due consideration should be given as to where over- flow and scour waters are discharged in order to prevent softening of the ground and possible differ- ential movement within the foundations.3.5.4 26. Transfer PumPing Transfer of water from ground to elevated storage should be at a rate of not less than peak daily (1,5 x average) rate where 12 hours elevated storage (at average demand) is provided. With less storage the rate of transfer should be increased to at least peak hourly (3,0 x average) rate. EE BBB BEBEBEBEBBEEBBBRBEBE3.6 Water Reticulation 3.6.1 Pipelines and Rational Design Approach Pipelines are used to convey water from its source through treatment works and storage reservoirs to consumers. These pipelines may be rising mains, carrying pumped flows, or gravity mains. Rising mains and trunk gravity mains should take the most direct practical routes to the point or points where they connect with other works, Retic~ ulation pipework should be designed at peak hourly rates (3,0 x average) to serve all properties with economy and flexibility. In general layouts should consist of a series of networks with major (usually larger diameter) pipes providing rings or spines from which the minor pipes will extend. In areas of undulating topography it may be practical to zone reticulation networks within arbitrary contour bands. Each zone may be subjected to a different static pressure head as given by its respective supply reservoir. The selection of sizes will depend on flows and head conditions. Pressures, usually expressed in terms of head of water, must be calculated for all pipes. Pressures at supply points should b = Urban areas with 2 storey development sm - 20m - Urban areas with single storey development 10m ~ 15m — Rural areas with single storey development 5m - 10m. In some instances maximum (static) pressures up to 50m head of water may be tolerated but higher pres- sures should be avoided. If revised reticulation’ a BSB SS SBS SS SS SSE SEE ERE BEE EE Ee 3.6.4 23. (Cont'd) Scimeni (for A.C. pipes only) i = 926,80 x 103 911785 p479 Where = Hydraulic gradient/head loss (n/n) a Q@ = Flow in I/s D = Pipe internal diameter (mm) iB = Constant relating to pipe type and condition (usually between 100 and 150) Other acceptable formulae not given here were prepared by Messrs. Manning and Colebrook-White. For lowest pressure situations, maximum flows in all sections must be considered. In networks where water may flow in alternative ways, a special analysis like that devised by Professor Hardy-Cross may be used. Where proposed reticulation networks are complex and precise designs are required, computerised — analyses may be utilised. In such cases, however, where a low level of service is initially provided, due consideration should be given to the future positioning of strategic pipes to boost supplies in the event of subsequent upgrading or increased demand, For local distributor branch pipes (without looping), an acceptable “rule of thumb" guide can be used : - Up to 40 pairs high density houses on a SOmm distributor and up to 80 pairs high density houses on a 75mm distributor.28. 3.6.1 (Cont'd) and storage configurations are not economically feasible (including reduced pumping costs) pressure reducing valves should be strategically installed. By reducing pressures, pipe costs may be reduced (lower pressure class) and losses by wastage, leakage and from faulty domestic Fittings, pipe bursts, etc., will be less. Static pressure is the difference in altitude -bet- ween the water level in the service reservoir sup- plying @ particular point and the level of that point. This situation will occur in conditions of zero flow, For reticulation systems, the peak hourly flows are calculated (see Section 3.1.5) and from them frictional losses in pipelines can be determined. Where local sections of a reticulation network may become deficient of pressure during period of peak flow it may be viable to consider installing booster pumps. In these situations the booster pumps (see Section 3.2.6) should be rated at not less than peak hourly flows (3,0 x average). Calculation of the pipe size required can be based upon the chart given in Appendix VI. Alternatively data sheets supplied by the various pipe manufac- turers may be used or suitable formulae such as those prepared by Messrs. Hazen-Williams, and Scimeia (as below) : Hazen-Williams Formula (metricated) 9 gl.Bs a = 12,03 x 10? gh pl 88 p4.87 BERR EEE EERE RRB EEE30. (Cont'd) In general major pipelines should have their own servitudes and in reticulation networks the pipe- lines will be adjacent to the rear boundaries of property stands, one metre from the boundary on the higher side (opposite side to the sewer line). Water Hammer One aspect of pipeline design that is frequently ignored is surge or water hammer. This phenomenon is caused by the sudden stoppage of water as when valves close rapidly or pumps stop instantly. The effect of water hammer is higher where pipelines are long and/or when velocities are high. Several techniques can be employed to déal with surge depen- ding on various parameters including pipeline profile. Each scheme should be separately considered and where necessary pipelines should be designed to withstand surge pressures in addition to the normal operating pressures. Water hammer is generally not @ problem where there are several potential outlets of flow as with retic- ulation systems, Calculations for water hammer will normally only be considered on major supply pipelines or rising mains. Pipeline Materials Acceptable pipeline materials for water suppl: schemes are: - asbestos-cement - galvanised iron > steel - unplasticised polyvinyl chloride (UPVC). BEEBEEEBEREBREBBEBEBE31. 3.6.3 (Cont'd) Suitable sizes of pipelines for use in reticulation networks are given in the table below together with an indication (*) of material availability.(See Appendix VII for further details.) NOM _T.D. 6.8. 25 - . * ae . . . . 59) . . . . i 76 . . . . 100 . . . * 150 + Z « . | 200 . - * - 250 : 2 . : 300 . - * - For each pipe material the correct grade of pipe should be used to suit working and test pressures for the pipeline. Steel pipes tend to be expensive and usually need internal and/or external protective coatings in order to prevent corrosion from aggres~ sive water, acid soils or electrolytic action. | These would only be used in high pressure, high | loading or elevated sections of pipelines. It should be noted that some pipe products are classi-~ fied by the manufacturers in terms of external dian- eter; thus nominal internal diameters may be consider- ably less. Black polyethylene (8.P.) pipes may be used for house connections provided they are to a minimum of Type 2 Class 9 (CAS 177) because of potential weaknesses in the pipe walls. The use of black polyethylene pipes should be conditional upon the production of satis- factory test certificates by the manufacturers and strict testing during installation.32. Cover to Buried Pipelines It is standard practice to install most pipelines below ground level. Exceptions would include water works sites, pipe bridges (to cross very low ground, rivers, ete.) and difficult ground (solid rock). Under normal conditions pipes will be laid with a minimum cover of 750mm in gardens (450mm for service connections) and 1,0m under roads and verges. Cover may be increased, however, in order that high and low points are avoided wherever possible. Inench Widths and Pipeline Bedding Trenches should be wide enough to enable a pipelayer to bed and joint pipes. An acceptable trench width de: - 500mm more than the pipe diameter, but not less than 550mm overall. Bedding and thrust block designs are based upon these widths, Where a contractor elects to vary trench widths to suit excavating machinery he would normally be required to allow within his rates for additional use of materials in bedding, concrete, etc., or increasing trench widths to accommodate works brought about by such variation. Buried pipelines must be adequately supported in order to prevent localised overloading from soils and traffic above. There are detailed recommenda~ tions for pipeline bedding set out in Central African Standard Code of Practice No. CA4:1964 (Australian Standard CA33:1962). Alternatively the "Simplified Tables of External Loads on Buried Pipelines" by Young and Smith, 1970 published by H.M.S.0. London, may be used. BEBE BBEBEREERE BRB BEBBBBBEBEBEEBE HEEEBESEEESBEE SRE EEE EE EB 33. 3.6.5 (Cont'd) Under most circumstances flexibly jointed rigid pipes could be laid on a carefully prepared trench bed with additional excavation at joints, and sur rounded with suitably selected and compacted fill. With flexible pipes e.g. UPVC, considerable etten- tion must be given to bedding and haunching in order to eliminate excessive deformation and potential perforation of the pipes. In these circumstances reference should be made to the pipe manufact’rers’ specifications for laying. Connections, Junctions and Bends With most pipes, junctions and bends are made of the same materials. In the case of asbestos-cement pipes junctions and bends may be made of cast iron, Pipe connections should generally be flexible for rigid pipelines except for some elevated or small diameter steel or galvanised iron pipelines. Synthetic pipes will normally be welded or fused by suitable solvents. Other fittings likely to be used in pipelines include special junctions (tees and crosses), blank end caps, flange adaptors, reducers, saddles, etc. All fittings should be suitable for operating at the pipeline design pressures. Valves Valves are used throughout water supply schemes for the control of flows and pressures. Specifications for the valves are given in “Standard Conditions of Contract and Specifications for Civil Engineering Works in High Density Housing Contracts". Sketches of standard installations are given in Appendix VIII.3.6.7 (Cont'd) The types of valves most likely to be incorporated in water supply schemes are described below: - Gate (Sluice)Valves These are commonly used’ throughout water supply schemes where flows may need to be stopped or sections of pipework or areas of reticulation (usually approximately 200 units) may need to be isolated. Gate valves are used on scour pipes (washouts), in pumping stations and in treatment works. Smaller units are normally hand operated but larger units may have geared handwheels or be electrically actuated. ~ Air Valves At high points in pumping or gravity mains air Valves are normally installed. These are des- igned to release air from pipelines (and/or in some cases permit entry of air). In retic- ulation networks air valves are usually instal- led where there are significant high points. In addition individual house connections can act as air valves but, in designing to allow for this contingency consideration should be given to phasing of works so that the reticula- tion is not required to function without air valves prior to the installetion of connections. - Non-Return (Reflux or Check) Valves Non-return valves automatically permit forward flows and prevent reverse flows. They are com- monly used in pumping stations and are sometimes used in treatment works, at storage reservoir sites or employed in devices for dealing with surge. BEBEBEBEREEEEREERa BR Be SBS SeSESESBEeESEeEeRE RE REE EB EE 35. 3.6.7 (Cont'd) - Float Valves These are installed on the inlets to reservoirs where it is desirable to stop inflow and possible over spilling as the reservoir fills. - Pressure Control Valves In areas where mains are at high pressure the smaller service mains or pipes may be fed through pressure reducing valves. Pressure sustaining valves can be used to prevent outflow when jres- sures drop to a predetermined value and pressure release valves may permit the outflow of water from systems where pressure build up has exceeded the desired maximum. Other valves less commonly used but suitable for incorporetion in water supply schemes include: - Butterfly Valves These are used to control flows and rates of flow, They may be used in some cases ae alternatives to gate velves especially where there is a restric- ted length of pipe available for valve insertion. - Diaphragm (Saunders) Valves Diaphragm valves are used to control rates of or stop flows. These valves are particularly useful for corrosive fluids. The smaller versions of this type of valve (12mm and 19mm) have been found to be particularly durable when used on standpipes. - Altitude (Clayton) Valves These are used to control the altitude of water36. 3.6.7 (Cont'd) surface in @ reservoir (or pressures in a pipe~ line) by restriction of flow into or out of the reservoir (or pipe). - Other valves are generally derivatives of those mentioned above. Stop valves (taps or cocks) and bib taps are smaller versions or variations of the gate valves. Ball valves are essentially smaller float valves. The larger gate and non-return valves are often equipped with smell valved by-passes. Meters Meters are used to measure and record flows or rates of flow, All systems should have bulk meters to monitor total water production and flow through major pipelines serving particular areas of supply should be separately metered, This will enable the sources of any hidden leaks in a system to be detected. In addition individual service connections should be metered so that water usage at each plumbed pro- perty can be monitored and charges can be levied for water consumption. Fire Hydrants These are relatively expensive fittings requiring large flows in order to be effective. They should be placed in areas where fire damage is most prob- able or where fires would cause the most damage €.g. neer institutions or in commercial and indus- trial areas. Specific fire hydrant allocations are:3.6.9 (Cont'd) 3.6.10 3.6.11 37. - Adjacent to Schools 1 No/1 000 pupils ~ Adjacent to Shopping Centres 1 No/2 hectares of developed area - Adjacent to Hospitals and 1 No/100 beds Primary Health Care Centres (min 1 No.) ~ Adjacent to Stadia or large Recreational Centres 1 No/S 000 popu~ lation capacity. No special allowance need be made in pipeline design for extra flows to hydrants. Temporary interruption of domestic supplies during periods of fire fighting are deemed acceptable. Hydrants should be installed on pipelines (preferably looped) of minimum 75mm die~ meter. Liaison with the local fire officer is essen- tiel in order to ensure that hydrants, especially outlet threads conform with those of available fire fighting apperatus. Chambers Where fittings like valves, meters or hydrants are installed on buried pipelines, permanent access to them should be provided. In general this contingency is covered by constructing surface boxes above fit- tings on mains of sizes below 250mm diameter and constructing brick or concrete chambers around fit- tings on pipes of 300mm diameter or greater. Details are given in Appendix VIII. Identification Markers Suitable marker posts should be erected to identify the type and show the position of buried pipeline fittings, including gate valves, hydrants, air Valves, washouts and, in places, the mains them~ selves, (See Appendix VIII.)3.6.12 3.6.13 3.6.14 3.6.15 38. Thrust Blocks At bends and junctions the internal pressures within pipelines give resultant lateral forces. In order to resist these and prevent pipeline damage suitable concrete thrust blocks should be constructed as shown in’Appendix IX. Trench Steps Where pipelines are laid to steep gradients the disturbed soils (in the trench above the pipe) may easily be damaged by scour during periods of rain- fall. In order to prevent this erosion precast concrete trench steps should be installed across the trenches at, or just above the surface level. Other Services In planning, designing or constructing water supply works the positions of other services should be noted. In this connection liaison should be made with Public Utilities, Authorities or private organisations to ascertain the location, depth, height, size and extent of their existing and pro- posed apparatus. Testing and Sterilising All water retaining structures and pipelines must be tested before commissioning. Pipelines are gen~ erally tested at a pressure in excess of the designed working pressure but less than the manu~ facturer's test pressure. Where manufacturers recommend maximum working pressures at half their test pressures, site test pressures should be set between these values. A test pressure of 1,5 x the a we ee eeLEE 39. 3.6.15 (Cont'd) the rated pipeline working pressure is commonly specified. Reservoirs should be filled and tested for water tightness. After testing and completion of final or remedial works all those units designed to hold or convey treated water should be cleared and sterilised with chlorine. When in operation mains should be regularly flushed at scour points and dead ends.al 4.0 HUMAN WASTE COLLECTION, TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL Domestic Sewage Con 4.11 bution Urban Housing Areas Site investigations have taken place in connection with probable sewage contribution from urban areas. Generally it has been found thet where water supply metering is practised and a fully reticulated water- borne sewerage system is provided the volume of sewage ‘from high density housing areas is in the order of 85% of the water consumption. In medium density housing areas, stands are larger, thus more water is used on gardens and consequently approximately 70% of the water consumed is converted into sewage. In the case of low density housing areas approximately 50% of the water consumed is converted into sewage. Where other sanitetion and/or water supply systems are used the quantities of sewage to be dealt with will vary ~ see Section 4.2. Rural Areas The formally developed sections of rural areas, e.g. district centres, if provided with reticulated water and sewerage systems will be as in 4.1.1 above. Because of available space however, house types sim- iler to those in urben areas may be placed on larger plots, thus on-site sanitation options described in Section 4.2 may become more viable even with retic- ulated water supplies. z :4.1.3 41. Sewage Composition Human waste consists of liquid and solid matter of which some is inorganic and most is organic. The organic content can be measured in terms of B.0.D, (Biochemical Oxygen Demand - usually meas- ured over a five day test). The total 8.0.0. contribution per person is basically static (0,05kg/day) (see Section 4.6.2) but the strengths of raw sewage may vary between 300 ppm and 1 000 ppm B.0.D. depending on the quantity of water used. Using the data given within this report the aver- age domestic raw sewage strengths can be calculated: ~ High Density Housing pop = 2% 0,08 x 10%. esemg/1 600 x 0,85 = Medium Density Housing 80D = 2X 908 x 19%. s57mg/1 1400 x 0,7 = Low Density Housing BOD = 6 x 0,05 x 10°= 333mg/1. 1800 x 0,542. 4.2 Sanitation Options A201 Introduction Human waste consists of two basic elements - excreta and sullage. Excreta has’ a high solid content and is highly infected with pathogenic organisms. Sul- lege is basically liquid; waste water from kitchens, baths, wash tubs, etc., and has a lower pathogenic content. Both excreta and cullage require satisf- actory treatment or disposal. There are many alternative methods of dealing with the disposal of human waste. These can range from the simplest form of pit latrines to full water- borne reticulated sewerage systems. Effectively human waste may be dispose of by "on-sit “off-site” systems. or via Earlier experiences in Zimbabwe with low technology sanitation systems have predominantly concerned: ~ Bucket latrines and nigh soil collection in urban areas; and - Pit letrines. Experiences with pit latrines may not have been completely successful because of inadequate con- struction or insufficient user education. In recent years the Blair Research Laboratory in Zimbabwe (B.R.L) has developed a low cost, low tech= nology improved pit latrine (see Section 4.2.5). Elsewhere research into other sanitation options hes been carried out. Many of the findings and conclu- sions of such research, published by the World Bank : 2 ?4.2.1 (Cont'd) in their series “Appropriate Technology for Water Supply and Sanitation", have been used as a basis for formulating the proposals given within this report. Sketches of the methods discussed within this report are given in Appendix X. On-Site Systems On-site systems ere those where all human waste is dealt with at its source. They include pit latrines, composting toilets, pour-flush toilets, aquaprivies and waterborne sanitation with treatment and effluent disposal via septic tanks and soakaways or drain- fields. The type of on-site sanitation system to be used may depend upon several factors including housing plot size, house types, water supply and usage, soil characteristics, ground water table, costs of const- ruction and operation and social acceptance of selected alternatives. In generel, on-site systems are more suited to areas of medium to low density development or locations where the cost of constructing and/or operating of f- site systems would be high. An on-site sanitation system creates point source pollution. Pathogenic pollutants from such point source can usually be effectively reduced with percolation laterally through lon of soil (greater distances in sands and gravels). Where several point sources are within one area the polluting effect may be greater. Although pathogenic pollutants may be broken down in soils chemical pollutants are less likely to be dispersed especially4.2.2 (Cont'd) where there are several point sources. On-site sanitation systems are therefore not suitable for use in areas where shallow wells or boreholes are used for water supply purposes as the pathogenic and chemical discharges could contaminate the water. In locations where on-site sanitation options could pollute potential water supplies, consideration must be given to providing water piped from a source not polluted by the sewage disposal method. On-site systems are not suitable for use in areas of high density development or where soils have insufficient permeability to facilitate disposal. Where on-site systems are installed with a view to subsequent up=grading, pits, tanks and super- structures should not be located within two metres of backstand boundaries. Off-Site Systems Off-site systems involved the removal of some portion of the human waste from site on a regular basis. This may entail the mechanical removal of excreta (either fresh or composted) or the drainage of partially treated effluent or sewage through a piped system. Examples of off-site sanitation methods include bucket/ night soil collection (not considered within this report), double pit latrines and composting toilets with removal of compost/sludge organised as a civic function, pour flush toilets and equaprivies where tank effluents discharge to a system of sewers, septic tank systems with effluent discharge to sewers, communal facilities and fully reticulated sewerage. BEBBBBBEE48. 4.2.3 (Cont'd) In general off-site systems are less likely to cause point source pollution and thus are more suitable for high density development. They may also be required where soils are not sufficiently permeable to facilitate disposal by on-site methods, Under certain circumstances on-site systems may be installed with a view to subsequent upgrading to an off-site system. Alternative Systems Several sanitation methods can fall within either the on-site or off-site groupings depending upon methods of final disposal; succeeding sections of this report refer to alternative sanitation methods and indicate where or how they may be used as on- site or off-site systems. Pit Latrines These units which are purely on-site, operate on the basis of discharging excreta directly into a pit(or pits), The pit may have an area of approx~ imately lm® and depth ranging from 3 to 8 metres. In certain soils the top section may have to be lined in order to support the squatting plate and superstructure. For design purposes, World Bank recommend effective pit capacities (that portion lower than lm below the ground) of 0,06m> per per- son per year if the pit is dry. In wet situations, because of the higher bacterial activity a reduced figure of 0,04m> per person per year is given. B.R.L. originally designed for 0,087m> per person per year but found it to be conservative. In family(Cont'd) and school latrines sludge accumulation rarely exceeds 0,024 m* per person per year where the latrine is regularly washed down and paper of some sort is used for anal cleansing. School latrines which remain wet have @ very extensive life since the sludge digests without the addition of wastes during periods of school holidays. Bacteria within the pit help to break down the excreta and the limited amount of liquid in excreta will seep into the soil. Pit letrines should not be sited where surface water could enter the pits and the bases of pits should be at least 1 m above the water table. All pit letrine systems require sullage to be dis- posed of separately. A high proportion of sullage disposal will be at water supply points (standpipes) which should have concrete slabs to catch spillage, collect sullage discharges and drain to soakaways, Where water cupplies are via communal standpipes additional individual sullage soakaways should be constructed on each stand. World Bank recommend that pit letrines should only be considered suitable where population densities are less than 300 people per hectare and plot sizes are sufficient for at least two pits. In Zimbabwe, until results indicate otherwise, the more conservative Limit of 200 people per hectare is justified. Thus, in general, for high density housing in urban areas pit latrines are not considered suitable. Various pit latrine alternatives are described below: ; 3 | 7 ri |47. 4.2.5 (Cont'd) - Basic Pit Latrines This simple unit has been most commonly used in the past throughout Zimbabwe. Although cheap it is not recommended because of the associated odour, fly and mosquito problems. - Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine (V.1.P.) Several variations of this unit are available but for Zimbabwe the version developed by the Blair Research Laboratories is considered to be most suitable. It can be purchased in packaged form, it is easy to fabricate, relatively inexpensive and conforms with local and international health standards. Mounted above a conventional pit, the cover slab/squatting plate supports a spiral wall fabricated from easily available materials ~ usually mesh and plaster. The spiral provides privacy without the need for a door (a doored version is also availeble) and an external vent pipe passes through the slab and extends above the super- structure roof. The superstructure is painted black internally and white externally; the vent pipe is painted black. When constructed the vent pipe should be positioned on the sunny side (north) and the door either north or south but never east or west. The warm vent pipe encourages ventilation by con~ vection. Air enters the door, passes down to the pit and up through the vent out to the air, removing odours. A screen in the vent traps flies and . mosquitoes as they try to leave the pit via the vent = the only source of light in the pit and the insect problem is thus removed. A sketch of this unit is given in Appendix X-48, 4.2.5 (Cont'd) When the pit is full to within 0,4m of ground level it is completely filled with earth and the slab and superstructure are moved to a fresh loca~ tion. After about two years the original pit may be dug out and the now harmless compost may be used as a fertilizer. Ventilated Improved Double Pit Latrine (V.1.0.P. These units, which have been used successfully in Botswana and Lesotho, obviate the need for slab (and possibly superstructure) removal. Two pits, adequately sized for a minimum period of one year's use, are located side by side (in practice this may be @ single, double sized pit with central dividing wall). In this arrangement the cover slab may be common and the superstructure may be fixed above both with a provision of alternative squat~ ting positions. Alternatively, superstructure may be moved on the common slab as pit use is changed. When a pit is full it should be covered with earth and after a period of not less than one year, when the composted excreta is free of patho- gens ( and not before) it may be removed and used as a fertilizing agent, The emptying (desludging) of pits may be carried out es a civic function, especially where V.I.D.P's are used on a large scale. One system of operation thet could be used is for the Authority concerned, working in one location, to move superstructures or squatting plate covers, and close the used pits, at two yearly intervals. Just before the second change over is due all the old pits in the same locality can be mechanically emptied. Suitable planning of this work can give @ constant work load for a small team of operators. BEBREBEEEEELE BEB BBBBBBBE49. 4.2.5 (Cont'd) 422.6 When this method is employed, the Authorities, on initially servicing sites, may excavate the pits and construct the slabs. The super~ structures could be individually constructed. ~ Reed Odourless Earth Closet (R.0.E.C.) A development of the pit latrine, this system has the pit or chamber offset from the superstructure and squatting pan. The two are connected by a chute inclined at approximately 70° to horizontal. The pit is separately ventilated and covered by removable panels. Its advantages over other pit latrines ar. . larger pit capacity » increased life + users (children) do not fear falling in + easily emptied without removing superstructure. A major disadvantage is the possibility of excreta fouling the chute and encouraging flies. Regular cleaning would be required. Composting Toilets These units primerily differ with pit latrines by generally being sealed chambers of smaller size and requiring the regular addition of biodegradeable matter. Toilets of this type are particularly useful in areas where there is a great desire or need to reuse excreta in the form of fertilizer. As with pit latrines, sullage has to be separately disposed.50. 4.2.6 (Cont'd) An advantage of composting toilets over pit lat- fines is their suitability for use in difficult ground conditions, providing there is an outlet for marketing, using or disposing the composted excreta. This advantage does not apply when the compost is reused in the individual plots. In locations where the handling of human excreta is socially unacceptable they are not suitable unless a programme of user education precedes installation. Composting toilets should only be double vaulted batch types. As with pit latrines, under no circumstances should compost (excreta) be hand~ led when in a pathogenic state. ~ Continuous Composting Toilet The pit or vault of this on-site type is specially designed to permit composted excreta to move into an adjacent pit for continuous removal. To operate satisfactorily regular additions of biodegradeable matter are required and the composted excreta (humu should be removed at the correct rate. These units require a high degree of user care and are prone to operational problems. for use in Zimbabwe. hey are not recommended = Double Vault Composting Toilets (D.V.C.) Two adjacent sealed vaults are used with common or separate cover slabs. As with the V.I.D.P. the superstructure may be moved from vault to vault or constructed centrally with alternative squettin positions. In common with the V.I.0.P. one chanber will operate until approximately three- quarters full then be filled with earth and afterinf sl. 4.2.6 (Cont'd) a year (or thereabouts) using the other chamber, the excreta will be dug out. For successful oper- ation the excreta must be dry (40 ~ 60% moisture content) and to facilitate this the vault bases may be perforated. Vault emptying may be organised as an off-site system ~ i.e. with civic involvement. Pour Flush Toilets These units utilise a squatting pan complete with water seal and are flushed with water or sullage. Flushing is normelly manual (hand pouring) although in some cases the units may be upgraded to have email (2-3 litres) cisterns. Because of the smell quantities of water required per flush (2-3 litres) they give a considerable saving in water usage when compared with the full waterborne flush toilet (approximately 13 litres). In the simplest (on-site) version of the pour flush toilet the squatting plate (chiang mei) and super~ structure are located directly above a pit. An alternative system is to use the offset pit design. In this case a short length of sewer laid at a grad- ent of not less than 1:40 connects the pan to an offset pit up to 8m away, A further adaption is to use two offset pits whereby either can be used whilst the other is full. This can be achieved by using a small chamber with a 'Y' junction in it and blocking _ off one of the two outlets at a time. The pit not in use is emptied when the other is almost full; this work can be safely carried out by manual labour.4.2.7 (Cont'd) Pit capacity (that portion lower than inlet, or with single pit, lower than Im below ground) can be taken as 0,04m° per person per year. As actual water usage is small this on-site sanitation technique can be used in poorer soils. Pour flush toilets can be used in a variety of ways. The next advancement is for the flows to enter a septic tank with surplus liquid being conveyed into a soakaway, french drainage system or to a sewer. Sullage could thus be disposed by discharging into the secondary stage of the septic tank. he twin tank system of septic tank and soakaway with sullage bypassing the septic tank has certain advan- tages. Because of the low water content in the excreta the septic tank will give a high retention period to permit higher pathogen removal and by keep- ing sullage away the risk of disturbing and flushing excreta out to the soakaway is reduced. In the off-site version, where septic tanks on pour~ flush systems discharge their effluent to sewers, the lack of gross solids means that, in theory, they could be laid to slacker grandients or use smaller diameter Pipes. In practice this system would complicate or Prevent final upgrading to full waterborne sewerage. With @ sewerage system for septic tank effluents it would be necessary to provide a sewage treatment facility although the septic tank system will have reduced the B.0.0. content by approximately 30 - 50% Direct sewering of pour flush toilets, without the intervening septic tanks, should never be considered. A major advantage of pour flush systems is the pos- sibility of incorporating the toilet within the house BEBE BH EB BEER EEE EE EB4.2.7 (Cont'd) 4.2.8 but without problems associated with odours or insects. The system also lends itself for upgrading as eventually excreta and sullage could be diverted directly into full waterborne sewerage systems. The major disadvan- tage is the requirement for relatively permeable soils which may restrict the possible density of units on a given area. Aqua Privies An aqua privy consists of a superstructure and squat~ ting plate above a small sealed (septic) tank with direct discharge into the tank through an intergral drop pipe. Providing the drop pipe extends 10-15mm into the liquid a water seal is formed preventing fly and odour nuisances. In order to maintain this water seal it is often necessary to add water, usually in the form of sullage, on a regular basis. Although anaerobic action will cause some of the sludge to be digested, it will still be necessary to desludge manually, or via tanker, every 2 to 3 years. Surplus liquid drains off to a soakaway chamber or french drain in on-site systems or to a sewer with off-site systems. The sealed tank is usually vented. Variations on the aqua privy include the self topping (or sullege) aqua privy. This unit has the waste pipe of a sink connected to discharge into the sealed tank to help maintain the top water level and keep the seal in tact. Unless this sullage is adequately trapped (and well maintained) before entering the tank there . could be a rapid build up of sand and grit within the tenk. In general the basic aqua privy is not succes- sful because of the need to maintain an adequate4.2.8 (Cont'd) concerned are fully plumbed. Excreta is flushed into the house drainage system from the squatting pan or seat pedestal by a water cistern, Sullage is also discharged into the drainage system. This systen readily permits the installation of wash hand basins, showers, bath tubs and other high water users. Water borne sanitation can be “on-site” with a septic tank system or “off-site” using full sewerage reticulation and sewage treatment works. With septic tanks there are possible constructional variations. A two com- partment septic tank is now generally preferred, the second compartment being half as big as the first. Further developments include the two-compartment unit with upflow filter and three-compartment tanks. Where septic tanks are used the effluent has to be’ dealt with. This will normally be done with soakaways or drainage systems. Because of this, septic tank sys- tems are not suitable for denselypopulated areas. In 54. water seal, The self-topping aqua privy is more. sat~ isfactory, unlikely to be clogged by cleaning materials and may possibly be installed within a dwelling. They do, however, require municipal involvement in desludging and high cost arid skill inputs during construction, The pit latrines, V.1.P. (Blair) and V.I.D.P. and pour-flush toilet are easier to operate and less likely to cause odour or insect nuisance. Waterborne Sanitation In general a full waterborne sanitation system is considered to be the most desirable. Unfortunately in terms of original capital investment it may prove to be the most expensive. In this system the houses |BEBE SB SBS SS SS RSS RS SE ERE RE EEE SE EB 56. 4.2.9 (Cont'd) 4.2.10 such areas the effluent could be conveyed into an off-site sewer system but in general this arrangement could prove to be more expensive than a full reticula- ted sewerage system. With waterborne sanitation systems, water usage and total sewage flows are higher: thus sewage strengths may be diluted thereby aiding the processes of sewage treatment. The fully reticulated sewerage system and sewage treatment facilities are described in succeeding sections of this report. Septic Tanks Septic tanks are usually constructed of concrete or brickwork although other materials may be used. The tanks should be designed as sealed water retaining structures provided with inlet, outlet, access and vent. Inlet and outlet pipes are usually tee-junctions designed to prevent disturbance of the scum, It is now generally preferred to provide septic tanks with at least two compartments. For full waterborne sanitation systems designs should comply with the recommendations of Central African Standards (CAS) CAl (1959). For pour flush toilets the first compartment, twice the size of the second, usually has a liquid depth of 1-2 metres_and capacity 0,1m> per person but not less than 1,0m° overall (1,5m> two compartments). The Central African Standard recommends siting septic tanks and soakaways 9m from habitable buildings but permits a reduced distance of 6m for septic tanks where the 9m may prove impracticable. The World Bank4.2.10 4.2.11 56. (Cont'd) gives recommendations as set out in the table below (minimum distances in metres, for common well- developed soils): Item Septic Tank — Soekaways Buildings 1,5 3,0 Property boundaries 1.58 1.5 Wells 10,0" 10,0° Streams 78 30,0 Cuts or embankments 78 30,0 Water pipes 3,0 3,0 Paths 1.5 LS Large trees 3,0 3,0 up to 30 metres for sands and gravels; larger values for jointed or fissured rocks. The CAS figures given above were originally compiled to be used in areas of low density housing, whereas the World Bank data, of necessity, take account of extremely high density housing areas. On this basis @ compromise of the figures given may be justified. Sludge build up in septic tanks is in the order of 0,03 - 0,04m* per person per year. Septic tanks should | be desludged at regular intervals of approximately once every two to five years. Soakaways and Drainfields Effluent from septic tanks is highly contaminated and, unless piped to a sewer should be discharged via soakaways and drainfields. Soakaways are pits with permeable walls and bases. Where only sullage or surface water enters they may be filled with rub- ble or other lerge granular materiel.