Assignment-2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Question number Page no.

QUESTION1-………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..2
QUESTION2-……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…3
QUESTION3-………………………………………………………………..………………...............................4-5
QUESTION4-………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………5-7
QUESTION5-……………………………………………………………………....………………………………..……7-8
QUESTION6-………………………………………………………………………………………………………………9-11

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Q1:Write a comparison between FDMA, TDMA and SDMA.

Ans:

BASIS OF
SDMA TDMA FDMA
COMPARISON

Segments sending time into Segment the

Segment spaced
Idea disjoint time slots demand frequency band into
into cells or sectors.
driven or fixed patterns. disjoint sub-bands.

Cell structure, Synchronization in time Filtering in the

Signal Separation
directed antennas. domain. frequency domain.

Depends on the cell

Cell Capacity Limited Limited
area.

Only one terminal All terminals are active for Every terminal has
Terminals can be active in one short periods of time on same its own frequency
cell or one sector. frequency. uninterrupted.

Transmission
Continuous Discontinuous Continuous
Scheme

Very simple &

increases Flexible & established fully Simple, established,
Advantages
performance digital. robust.
capacity.

It is inflexible as Guard space needed Inflexible,

Disadvantages antennas are (multipath propagation), frequencies are a
typically fixed. synchronization difficulty. scarce resource.

Only useful in It is a standard in fixed

Typically combined
combination with networks. Also together with
What To Note with TDMA and
TDMA, FDMA or FDMA or SDMA used in
SDMA.
CDMA. many mobile networks.

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Q2: what do you mean by packet radio protocols.

Ans: Packet radio protocols are sets of rules and conventions governing the transmission and reception of data
packets over radio frequencies in a network. In packet radio networks, data is broken down into smaller
packets, each containing a portion of the information being transmitted, along with addressing and control
information. These packets are then transmitted over radio waves and reassembled at the receiving end.

Here are some key aspects of packet radio protocols:

Packet Structure: Packet radio protocols define the structure of the data packets, including headers, payload,
and possibly error correction codes. The header typically contains information such as the source and
destination addresses, sequence numbers, and control flags.

Error Handling: Protocols often include mechanisms for error detection and correction to ensure reliable
data transmission over radio channels, which can be prone to interference and signal degradation.

Addressing: Packet radio protocols specify how devices on the network are addressed to facilitate
communication between them. This may involve assigning unique identifiers or addresses to each device.

Routing: In larger packet radio networks, protocols may include routing algorithms to determine the optimal
path for data packets to travel from the source to the destination, considering factors such as network topology
and congestion.

Medium Access Control (MAC): MAC protocols govern access to the radio channel to avoid collisions and
ensure efficient use of the available bandwidth. This may involve techniques such as carrier sense multiple
access (CSMA), time-division multiple access (TDMA), or frequency-division multiple access (FDMA).

Packet radio protocols are commonly used in various applications, including amateur radio networks, military
communications, emergency services, and IoT (Internet of Things) deployments in remote or challenging
environments where wired or cellular connectivity is not feasible. These protocols enable wireless
communication over long distances, often with low-power, battery-operated devices, making them well-suited
for applications requiring mobility or remote operation.

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Q3:Define Pure ALOHA & Slotted ALOHA.

Ans: Pure Aloha

Pure aloha is used when data is available for sending over a channel at stations. In pure Aloha, when each
station transmits data to a channel without checking whether the channel is idle or not, the chances of collision
may occur, and the data frame can be lost.

When a station transmits the data frame to a channel without checking whether the channel is free or not, there
will be a possibility of the collision of data frames. Station expects the acknowledgement from the receiver,
and if the acknowledgement of the frame is received at the specified time, then it will be OK; otherwise, the
station assumes that the frame is destroyed. Then station waits for a random amount of time, and after that, it
retransmits the frame until all the data are successfully transmitted to the receiver.

Slotted Aloha

There is a high possibility of frame hitting in pure aloha, so slotted aloha is designed to overcome it. Unlike
pure aloha, slotted aloha does not allow the transmission of data whenever the station wants to send it.

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In slotted Aloha, the shared channel is divided into a fixed time interval called slots. So that, if a station wants
to send a frame to a shared channel, the frame can only be sent at the beginning of the slot, and only one frame
is allowed to be sent to each slot. If the station is failed to send the data, it has to wait until the next slot.

However, there is still a possibility of a collision because suppose if two stations try to send a frame at the
beginning of the time slot.

Q3:Explain Zigbee & LTE- Advance systems.

Ans: Zigbee is one of the wireless personal area network (WPAN) specifications. It is designed to meet low-
power and low data rate applications and is developed under IEEE 802.15.4 standard by The Zigbee Alliance.
Typically, Zigbee is used in establishing a smart home for devices from different manufacturers to
communicate with each other to enable automation.

Hence, it is also called the smart home protocol. For example, the light system can be linked to the security
cameras, and the coffee maker can be linked to the alarm system so that the coffee is ready for you when you
wake up.

If we want a network for short-range communication for streaming audio, we opt for Bluetooth. For streaming
videos and larger files, we use Wi-Fi. But, we need a network using which we can connect a large number
of battery-powered device. We can't go for Wi-Fi because of its high energy requirements, and we can't
choose Bluetooth even though it consumes less power, as only a small number of devices can be connected
using Bluetooth.
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We need a network that can connect many battery-powered devices, and the main aspect here is low energy
power consumption. This is the whole purpose of developing Zigbee Technology. Zigbee revolves around
control and sensor networks. Hence, it is one of the most common standards and applications for the Internet
of Things (IoT).

Types of ZigBee Devices:

• Zigbee Coordinator Device: It communicates with routers. This device is used for connecting the
devices.

• Zigbee Router: It is used for passing the data between devices.

• Zigbee End Device: It is the device that is going to be controlled.

LTE-Advanced Systems:

LTE stands for Long Term Evolution and it was started as a project in 2004 by telecommunication body known
as the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). SAE (System Architecture Evolution) is the
corresponding evolution of the GPRS/3G packet core network evolution. The term LTE is typically used to
represent both LTE and SAE.

LTE evolved from an earlier 3GPP system known as the Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
(UMTS), which in turn evolved from the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM). Even related
specifications were formally known as the evolved UMTS terrestrial radio access (E-UTRA) and evolved
UMTS terrestrial radio access network (E-UTRAN). First version of LTE was documented in Release 8 of
the 3GPP specifications.

A rapid increase of mobile data usage and emergence of new applications such as MMOG (Multimedia Online
Gaming), mobile TV, Web 2.0, streaming contents have motivated the 3rd Generation Partnership Project
(3GPP) to work on the Long-Term Evolution (LTE) on the way towards fourth-generation mobile.

The main goal of LTE is to provide a high data rate, low latency and packet optimized radioaccess technology
supporting flexible bandwidth deployments. Same time its network architecture has been designed with the
goal to support packet-switched traffic with seamless mobility and great quality of service.

LTE Evolution
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Year Event

Mar 2000 Release 99 - UMTS/WCDMA

Mar 2002 Rel 5 - HSDPA

Mar 2005 Rel 6 - HSUPA

Year 2007 Rel 7 - DL MIMO, IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem)

November 2004 Work started on LTE specification

January 2008 Spec finalized and approved with Release 8

2010 Targeted first deployment

Q4:Explain FDMA, SDMA & TDMA.

Ans:
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) :
FDMA is a type of channelization protocol. In this bandwidth is divided into various frequency bands. Each
station is allocated with band to send data and that band is reserved for particular station for all the time
which is as follows :

Figure – FDMA
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The frequency bands of different stations are separated by small band of unused frequency and that unused
frequency bands are called as guard bands that prevents the interference of stations. It is like access method
in data link layer in which data link layer at each station tells its physical layer to make a band pass signal
from the data passed to it. The signal is created in the allocated band and there is no physical multiplexer at
the physical layer.
2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) : TDMA is the channelization protocol in which bandwidth of
channel is divided into various stations on the time basis. There is a time slot given to each station, the
station can transmit data during that time slot only which is as follows :

Figure – TDMA

Each station must aware of its beginning of time slot and the location of the time slot. TDMA requires
synchronization between different stations. It is type of access method in the data link layer. At each station
data link layer tells the station to use the allocated time slot.

SDMA:

SDMA stands for Space-division multiple access, it is a channel access method based on creating parallel
spatial pipes (focused signal beams) using advanced antenna technology next to higher capacity pipes through
spatial multiplexing and or diversity, by which it is able to offer superior performance in radio multiple access
communication systems (where multiple users may need to use the communication media simultaneous.

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Q6:Explain Following:-

a)4G & 5G Mobile Techniques

Ans:4G Mobile Phones: 4G is a mobile phone network technology, and like its predecessor 3G, it can be
used for downloading data and accessing internet, but the difference is that it’s a lot faster than 3G. It
provides broadband cellular network services. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU-R) set the
standards for 4G and are denoted as the International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced (IMT-
Advanced). It is expected to provide services with bandwidth higher than 100 Mbps. With this bandwidth,
high quality of multimedia content can stream.
It’s development started in 2000 and completed in 2010 with LTE and WiMax technology. Access System
for the same is CDMA ( Code Division Multiple Access) with bandwidth of 2000 Mbps to 1 Gbps.

It’s purpose is to provide high quality , high speed and high capacity to users with improving security. It
also lowers the cost of voice and data services, multimedia and the internet over IP. It can also communicate
through 2G and 3G network.

5G Mobile Phones: 5G is the fifth generation of wireless network technology. It is built on what’s called
millimeter waves, a section of very high frequency spectrum upwards of 20 GHz all the way up to 96 GHz.
5th Generation of phones are currently under development and latest iteration of cellular technology. It is
to promised to offer much faster speed than 4G networks, more reliability with much lower response times.
It used OFDM (orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing) and millimeter wireless that enables data rate
of 20Mbps and frequency band of 2-8 GHz. It is going to be a packed based network.

It can reach upto 1000 Mbps or even upto 2.1 Gbps. It can be used for streaming high-quality videos, more
accurate location tracking, low-latency communication and better ability for real-time analytics. It also
offers management features .

b)Emerging Technologies.

Ans: 1. Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Artificial Intelligence is the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer
systems. These processes include learning (the acquisition of information and rules for using the information),
reasoning (using the rules to reach approximate or definite conclusions), and self-correction.

What it means for application development: Though Hollywood seems to villainize AI as the eventual end of
human existence, its capabilities are far more helpful than destructive. AI advances in the last couple of years
have opened the door to new business software capabilities.

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Recently, AI is also making complex medical diagnoses faster and more accurate with its ability to access
and analyze vast data sources and against diagnostic data. Personal digital assistants are amongst some of the
most popular AI applications.

2. Automation
Automation is a method to control or operate a process, system, or device without continuous human
involvement.
What it means for application development: Automation can be used to mimic previously human-exclusive
tasks like writing, speech, and driving. Common applications include standardized graphic design work,
agriculture, journalism, and marketing. Automation is being applied to ebusiness privacy and compliance
management within applications. It can also be paired with 3D printing to create specialty parts on demand
for manufacturers or machine learning to improve virtually everything more quickly.

3. Robotization
Robotization is automating tasks using a machine that can perform complex and/or repetitive tasks
automatically or one that is controlled by software programs.

What it means for application development: Robotics applications are making a huge impact in a wide variety
of industries. In the agriculture industry farmers have paired with developers to program robots to eliminate
weeds without having to use harmful herbicides on the crops. They can also be used to fertilize and even
harvest crops.

They are also being used in the foodservice industry to drastically reduce overhead, and allow foodservice
businesses to run 24/7; advanced robotic programming can mimic the processes of a cook or barista.

4. Cryptocurrencies
Cryptocurrency is a digital currency in which encryption techniques are used to regulate the generation of
units of currency and verify the transfer of funds, operating independently of a central bank. A major example
is Bitcoin, the world’s first decentralized ledger currency.
What it means for application development: With popularity in cryptocurrencies growing among today’s
consumer, there is a growing demand for businesses to have the technology to accept them as a form of
payment.

5. IoT (Internet of Things)

The Internet of Things, or IoT, is revolutionizing day-to-day business decision making and information
gathering. Businesses can stream incoming data from connected devices, buildings, vehicles, wearables, and

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other devices that have sensors to optimize systems, help predict failures, improve efficiency, and create better
outcomes.

What it means for application development: Utilizing the data gathered through IoT, software applications can
be used to automate specific operations, improve the efficiency of processes, and find new insights once the
data has been analyzed. Recently, companies have developed IoT devices that record, analyze, and interpret
data to personalize functions to complement your day to day processes, manage health conditions, streamline
the purchasing process, and deliver better customer service. Examples include smart lights that know exactly
when to turn on and off based on your habits and mood, Amazon Dash Buttons for easy product reordering,
sleep monitors to optimize, and fitness trackers.

c)Introduction to Bluetooth.

Ans: Bluetooth technology is a high speed and low powered wireless technology designed to connect phones
or other portable equipment for communication or file transmissions. This is based on mobile computing
technology. Following is a list of some prominent features of Bluetooth technology:

o Bluetooth is also known as IEEE 802.15 standard or specification that uses low power radio
communications to link phones, computers and other network devices over a short distance without
using any type of connecting wires.
o As Bluetooth is an open wireless technology standard so, it is used to send or receive data to connected
devices present across a certain distance using a band of 2.4 to 2.485 GHz.
o In Bluetooth technology, the wireless signals transmit data and files over a short distance, typically up
to 30 feet or 10 meters.
o Bluetooth technology was developed by a group of 5 companies known as Special Interest Group
formed in 1998. The companies are Ericsson, Intel, Nokia, IBM, and Toshiba.
o The range of Bluetooth technology for data exchange was up to 10 meters in older versions of devices,
but the latest version of Bluetooth technology i.e., Bluetooth 5.0, can exchange data in the range of
about 40-400 meters.
o The average speed of data transmission in Bluetooth technology was around 1 Mbps in the very first
version. The second version was 2.0+ EDR, which provided the data rate speed of 3Mbps. The third
was 3.0+HS, which provided the speed of 24 Mbps. The latest version of this technology is 5.0.

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