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RAPID BOOK 8
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTERNATIONAL EUROPEAN UNION 46
RELATIONS TRILATERAL HIGHWAY 47

INSTC 48
UNITED NATIONS 01
ASHGABAT AGREEMENT 49
GENEVA CONVENTIONS 05
BCIM 50
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY 08
ORGANIZATION BBIN 51
BELT AND ROAD INITIATIVE 09 CARICOM 52

(BRI) INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL 52
BRI IN SOUTH ASIA 12 COURT
CHINA IN HORN OF AFRICA 15 INTERNATIONAL COURT OF 53

JUSTICE (ICJ)
PARTNERSHIP FOR GLOBAL 16
INFRASTRUCTURE AND ARCTIC COUNCIL 54
INVESTMENT (PGII) NEW QUAD 55
GLOBAL GATEWAY 18 KALAPANI REGION 57
SYKES-PICO AGREEMENT 19 SHANGHAI COOPERATION 59
BALFOUR DECLARATION 21 ORGANISATION (SCO)
ISRAEL AND PALESTINE 22 ORGANISATION OF ISLAMIC 61

CONFLICT COOPERATION (OIC)
OSLO PEACE ACCORDS 24 BRICS 62
TWO-STATE SOLUTION 24 BRICS SUMMIT 63
G4 (GROUP OF FOUR) 25 NORTHERN SEA ROUTE 64
G7 (GROUP OF SEVEN) 26 INDIA AND IRAN 65
G10 (GROUP OF TEN) 26 SOUTH CHINA SEA DISPUTE 66
G12 (GROUP OF TWELVE) 27 PERMANENT COURT OF 67

ARBITRATION
G20 27
SHERPAS 68
G20 SUMMIT, NEW DELHI 28
ACT EAST POLICY 69
BIMSTEC 31
WORLD FOOD PRIZE 70
THREE SEAS INITIATIVE (3SI) 32
ASIA-PACIFIC INSTITUTE FOR 71
INDIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 34
BROADCASTING DEVELOPMENT
PANGONG TSO 36
INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC 72
INDIA AND UNCLOS 37 COMMITTEE
ARMENIA AND AZERBAIJAN 39 ARAB LEAGUE 73
KYRGYZSTAN AND TAJIKISTAN 41 MIDDLE EAST/NORTH AFRICA 74
JCPOA 43 (MENA)
ASEAN 44
SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK (INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS)

SPECIAL EDITION FOR PRELIMS 2024
INTERNATIONAL LAW ON WAR/ 75 WIMBLEDON 2023 95
INTERNATIONAL (#Sport #Cycling)
CANARY ISLANDS 95
HUMANITARIAN LAW
(# Island chain of Spain)
APEC SUMMIT 2023 76 COCOS ISLANDS 96
GLOBAL SOUTH SUMMIT 77 (# territory of Australia)
NIGER 96
UNCAC 78 (# Country in Africa)
VENEZUELA AND GUYANA 78 POLAND AND LITHUANIA 97
DISPUTE (# Central Europe # Eastern Europe)
POLAND 97
INDIA AND ARGENTINA 79 97
LITHUANIA
PAKISTAN AND IRAN 80 ARASH-DORRA GAS FIELD 98
DISPUTE
19th NAM SUMMIT 82 (# Middle East)
ASIAN BUDDHIST CONFERENCE 83 LAMPUDESA 99
FOR PEACE (# Italy)
RED SEA 99
THIRD SOUTH SUMMIT 83 (# Middle East # Trade route)
BEKI RIVER 100
(# Bhutan # Assam)
LOCATION IN NEWS HAWAII 101
(# United States)
SOMALIA 85 102
MURMANSK PORT
(# country in Eastern Africa)
(# Russia # Arctic)
UGANDA 85 103
LAKE TITICACA
(# South America)
THE GREAT LAKES OF AFRICA 86 103
LACHIN CORRIDOR
(# Geography)
(# Armenia and Azerbaijan)
DONETSK AND LUHANSK 87 104
VANUATU
(# locations in Ukraine)
(# South Pacific)
WORLD CUP SQUASH 87 104
BAHRAIN
(# Sports)
(# Persian Gulf)
MALI 88 105
BAIRABI-SAIRANG RAILWAY
(# country in West Africa) PROJECT
SAHEL 89 (# Mizoram)
(# semi-arid region in Africa) LAKE GARDA 105
GAZA STRIP, PALESTINE 89 (# Italy)
(# Middle East) LEBANON 105
TURKEY AND GREECE 90 (# Middle East)
(# Eastern Europe) MOROCCO 106
JENIN REFUGEE CAMP 91 (# North Africa)
(# West Bank) LIBYA 107
CHECHNYA 91 (# North Africa)
(# a disputed region in Russia) BLACK SEA PORTS 107
SIACHEN GLACIER 92 (# Eastern Europe)
(# Leh district) IDUKKI DAM 108
UZBEKISTAN 92 (# Kerala)
(# Central Asia) BRAHMANI RIVER 108
AMAZON FOREST 93 (# Odisha)
(# South America) EAST AFRICAN CRUDE OIL 109
TOUR DE FRANCE 2023 94 PIPELINE PROJECT (EACOP)
(#Sport #Cycling) (# Eastern-Central Africa)

COLUMBIA 109 (# Bhutan)
(# South America) PANAMA CANAL 127
BURKINA FASO 110 (#Central America)
(# West Africa) LAKE VICTORIA 128
TULKARM CAMP 111 (#Africa)
(# West Bank) SOMALILAND 128
KAOBAL GALI-MUSHKOH 111 (#Somalia #disputed region)
VALLEY ISHIKAWA PREFECTURE 129
(# Kashmir) (#Japan)
SLOVAKIA 112 ROMANIA 129
(# Central Europe) (#South-eastern Europe)
ABKHAZIA 112 BULGARIA 130
(# Georgia # South Caucasia) (#South-eastern Europe)
SINGARENI COLLERIES 113 CHADAR TREK 131
(# Telangana) (#Ladakh)
KAZAKHSTAN 113
(# Central Asia)
SOUTH AFRICA 114 SECURITY ISSUES
RAFAH CROSSING 115
OPCW 131
(# Gaza)
SINAI PENINSULA 115 PHOSPHORUS MUNITIONS 132
(# Egypt)
COMPREHENSIVE NUCLEAR 133
AKHAURA- AGARTALA RAIL LINK 116
(# India and Bangladesh) TEST BAN TREATY (CTBT)
SPAIN 116 SIR CREEK DISPUTE 135
(# Southwestern Europe)
117 INTERPOL 137
KLYUCHEVSKOY VOLCANO
(# Russia) AUSTRALIA GROUP 137
JORDAN 118 138
WASSENAAR ARRANGEMENT
(# Middle East)
DOKLAM and CHUMBI VALLEY 119 MISSILE TECHNOLOGY CONTROL 138
(# India, China and Bhutan border) REGIME
GULF OF GUINEA 119
FIVE EYES ALLIANCE 139
(# West Africa)
CAMBODIA 120 CFE TREATY 140
(# Southeast Asia)
Related information: Warsaw Pact 140
TONLE SAP LAKE 121
(1955)
(# Cambodia)
SIERRA LEONE 121 ADMM PLUS 141
(# West Africa)
CYBER SECURITY 142
GULF OF ADEN 122
(# Middle East) OCCRP 143
ICELAND 122
GALWAN VALLEY 144
(# North Atlantic)
MARAPI VOLCANO 123 ICAO 145
(# Indonesia) CAATSA 145
EGYPT 123
(# North Africa) S-400 TRIUMF 146
YEMEN 124 PROJECT KUSHA 147
(# Arabian Peninsula)
VIETNAM 125 KUKI INSURGENCY 147
(# South-East Asia) ASSAM RIFLES 149
GELEPHU SMART CITY PROJECT 126

ASTRA MISSILE 150 VIJAY RAGHAVAN COMMITTEE 159
FATF 151 EXERCISE DESERT KNIGHT 160
RAFALE MARINE JET 152 SADA TANSEEQ 160
TEJAS JETS AND PRACHANDA 153 PARAMILITARY, MILITARY AND 161
HELICOPTERS CENTRAL ARMED POLICE FORCE
ANTI-SUBMARINES WARFARE 154 GSOMIA 162
SHIPS LEMOA 162
AGNI 1 154 COMCASA 162
VINBAX-2023 155 BECA 163
INS Tarmugli 156 REPORTS 163
PIRACY IN ARABIAN SEA 156
DESERT CYCLONE 2024 157
NUCLEAR INSTALLATIONS LIST 157
EX-AYUTTHAYA 158
UGRAM RIFLE 159

INTERNATIONAL
RELATIONS
(SPECIAL EDITION FOR PRELIMS 2024)
 UNITED NATIONS
The United Nations is an international organization founded in 1945.
o It is currently made up of 193 Member States (south Sudan latest to join).
o The mission and work of the United Nations are guided by the purposes and principles
contained in its founding Charter.
Preamble of founding charter

o It resolves to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which has brought
untold sorrow to mankind, and
o To reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human
person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and
o To establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising
from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and
o To promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom
Main organs of UN
The main organs of the UN are the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic
and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice, and the
UN Secretariat. All were established in 1945 when the UN was founded.
▪ General assembly
o The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policymaking and representative
organ of the UN.
o All 193 Member States of the UN are represented in the General Assembly, making it the only
UN body with universal representation.
o Decisions on important questions, such as those on peace and security, admission of new
members and budgetary matters, require a two-thirds majority of the General Assembly.
o Decisions on other questions are by simple majority. The General Assembly, each year,
elects a GA President to serve a one-year term of office.
▪ Security Council
o The Security Council, the United Nations’ principal crisis-management body, is empowered to
impose binding obligations on the 193 UN member states to maintain peace.
www.shieldias.in RAPID REVISION BOOK FOR PRELIMS 2024 1

o The council’s five permanent and ten elected members meet regularly to assess threats to
international security, including civil wars, natural disasters, arms proliferation, and
terrorism.
o Structurally, the council remains largely unchanged since its founding in 1946, stirring debate
among members about the need for reforms.
o In recent years, members’ competing interests have often stymied the council’s ability to
respond to major conflicts and crises, such as Syria’s civil war, Russia’s annexation of Crimea,
and the coronavirus pandemic.
o The Security Council has five permanent members—China, France, Russia, the United
Kingdom, and the United States—collectively known as the P5. Any one of them can veto a
resolution.
o The council’s ten elected members, which serve two-year, nonconsecutive terms,
are not afforded veto power.
o The P5’s privileged status has its roots in the United Nations’ founding in the aftermath of
World War II. The United States and Soviet Union were the outright victors of the war, and,
along with the United Kingdom, they shaped the postwar political order.
o As their plans for what would become the United Nations took shape, U.S. President Franklin
D. Roosevelt insisted on the inclusion of the Republic of China (Taiwan), envisioning
international security presided over by “four global policemen.”
o British Prime Minister Winston Churchill saw in France a European buffer against potential
German or Soviet aggression and so sponsored its bid for restored great-power status.
The members of the P5 have exercised the veto power to varying degrees.
o Counting the years when the Soviet Union held its seat, Russia has been the most frequent user
of the veto, blocking more than one hundred resolutions since the council’s founding.
o The United States is second, last using the veto in 2020 to reject a resolution that called for the
prosecution, rehabilitation, and reintegration of those engaged in terrorism-related activities.
The country objected to the resolution’s not calling for the repatriation of fighters from the self-
proclaimed Islamic State and their family members.
o China’s use of the veto has risen in recent years.
o In contrast, France and the United Kingdom have not exercised their veto power since 1989
and have advocated for other P5 members to use it less.
o The council’s presidency rotates on a monthly basis, ensuring some agenda-setting influence
for its ten nonpermanent members, which are elected by a two-thirds vote of the UN General
Assembly.
o The main criterion for eligibility is contribution “to the maintenance of international
peace and security,” often defined by financial or troop contributions to peacekeeping
operations or leadership on matters of regional security likely to appear before the council.
o A secondary consideration, “equitable geographical distribution,” gave rise to the
regional groups used since 1965 in elections:
▪ the African Group has three seats;
▪ the Asia-Pacific Group, two;
▪ the Eastern European Group, one;
▪ the Latin American and Caribbean Group, two; and
▪ the Western European and Others Groups (WEOG), two.

o Subsidiary organs that support the council’s mission include ad hoc committees on sanctions,
counterterrorism, and nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons, as well as the international
criminal tribunals for Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia.
o Within the UN Secretariat, the Department of Peacekeeping Operations and the Department
of Operational Support manage field operations. The Peacebuilding Commission,
established in 2005 as a repository of institutional memory and best practices, serves an
advisory role.
Functions and Powers

Under the United Nations Charter, the functions and powers of the Security Council are:
o to maintain international peace and security in accordance with the principles and purposes of
the United Nations;
o to investigate any dispute or situation which might lead to international friction;
o to recommend methods of adjusting such disputes or the terms of settlement;
o to formulate plans for the establishment of a system to regulate armaments;
o to determine the existence of a threat to the peace or act of aggression and to recommend what
action should be taken;
o to call on Members to apply economic sanctions and other measures not involving the use of
force to prevent or stop aggression;
o to take military action against an aggressor;
o to recommend the admission of new Members;
o to exercise the trusteeship functions of the United Nations in "strategic areas";
o to recommend to the General Assembly the appointment of the Secretary-General and,
together with the Assembly, to elect the Judges of the International Court of Justice.
Current permanent and non-permanent members

The Council is composed of 15 Members:
o Five permanent members: China, France, Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and
the United States, and ten non-permanent members elected for two-year terms by the General
Assembly (with end of term year):
o Current non-permanent members: Albania (2023); Brazil (2023); Gabon (2023); Ghana
(2023); India (2022); Ireland (2022); Kenya (2022); Mexico (2022); Norway (2022); UAE
(2023)
What are the prospects for reform?

o The odds of substantial reform are seen as remote because amending the UN Charter requires
an affirmative vote and domestic ratification by two-thirds of UN member states. This
includes all of the Security Council’s permanent members, which are unlikely to take measures
that would curb their own influence.
o While there is broad agreement among UN members that the Security Council’s makeup is
outdated, each of the various proposals for reform inevitably leaves some aspirants alienated.
o Some proposals call for additional permanent members and others for a new class of
elected seats that have the possibility of renewal. In the absence of charter reform, smaller

states have advocated for procedural changes, including greater transparency and closer
consultations with troop-contributing countries.
o Still, in early 2021, UN General Assembly President Volkan Bozkir said that reforming the
Security Council should be an important objective. The implementation of the Council’s
decisions, and it’s very legitimacy, could be enhanced if the Council was reformed to be more
representative, effective, efficient, accountable and transparent.
▪ Economic and Social Council

o The Economic and Social Council is the principal body for coordination, policy review, policy
dialogue and recommendations on economic, social and environmental issues, as well as
implementation of internationally agreed development goals.
o It serves as the central mechanism for activities of the UN system and its specialized agencies
in the economic, social and environmental fields, supervising subsidiary and expert bodies.
o It has 54 Members, elected by the General Assembly for overlapping three-year terms. It is the
United Nations’ central platform for reflection, debate, and innovative thinking on sustainable
development.
▪ International Court of Justice

o The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations.
o Its seat is at the Peace Palace in The Hague (Netherlands).
o It is the only one of the six principal organs of the United Nations not located in New York
(United States of America).
o The Court’s role is to settle, in accordance with international law, legal disputes submitted to
it by States and to give advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by authorized United
Nations organs and specialized agencies.
o The Court is composed of 15 judges, who are elected for terms of office of nine years the
United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council. It is assisted by Registry, its
administrative organ. Its official languages are English and French.
o The Court may entertain two types of cases: legal disputes between States submitted to it by
them (contentious cases) and requests for advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it
by United Nations organs and specialized agencies (advisory proceedings)
o In order to ensure a degree of continuity, one third of the Court is elected every three
years. Judges are eligible for re-election. Should a judge die or resign during his or her term
of office, a special election is held as soon as possible to choose a judge to fill the unexpired
part of the term.
▪ Secretariat
o The Secretariat comprises the Secretary-General and tens of thousands of international UN
staff members who carry out the day-to-day work of the UN as mandated by the General
Assembly and the Organization's other principal organs.
o The Secretary-General is chief administrative officer of the Organization, appointed
by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a fiveyear,
renewable term.
o UN staff members are recruited internationally and locally, and work in duty stations and on
peacekeeping missions all around the world.
▪ Trusteeship Council

o The Trusteeship Council was established in 1945 by the UN Charter, to provide international
supervision for 11 Trust Territories that had been placed under the administration of seven
Member States, and ensure that adequate steps were taken to prepare the Territories for self-
government and independence.
o At the end of World War I, control over territories that had once been part of the German and
Ottoman Empires was transferred by the League of Nations (predecessor of the UN) to other
European countries. These territories, referred to as League of Nations Mandates, were
renamed United Nations Trust Territories once the UN Charter came into force in late 1945.
o By 1994, all Trust Territories had attained self-government or independence. The
Trusteeship Council suspended operation on 1 November 1994.
o The Council amended its rules of procedure to drop the obligation to meet annually and agreed
to meet as occasion required -- by its decision or the decision of its President, or at the request
of a majority of its members or the General Assembly or the Security Council.
 GENEVA CONVENTIONS
o The Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols are international treaties that contain
the most important rules limiting the barbarity of war.
o They protect people who do not take part in the fighting (civilians, medics, aid workers)
and those who can no longer fight (wounded, sick and shipwrecked troops, prisoners of
war).
The 1949 Geneva Conventions

First Geneva Convention
o The first Geneva Convention protects wounded and sick soldiers on land during war.
o This Convention represents the fourth updated version of the Geneva Convention on the
wounded and sick following those adopted in 1864, 1906 and 1929. It contains 64 articles.
o These provide protection for the wounded and sick, but also for medical and religious
personnel, medical units and medical transports.
o The Convention also recognizes the distinctive emblems. It has two annexes containing a draft
agreement relating to hospital zones and a model identity card for medical and religious
personnel.
Second Geneva Convention

o The second Geneva Convention protects wounded, sick and shipwrecked military
personnel at sea during war.
o This Convention replaced Hague Convention of 1907 for the Adaptation to Maritime
Warfare of the Principles of the Geneva Convention. It closely follows the provisions of the first
Geneva Convention in structure and content. It has 63 articles specifically applicable to war at
sea. For example, it protects hospital ships. It has one annex containing a model identity card
for medical and religious personnel.
Third Geneva Convention

o The third Geneva Convention applies to prisoners of war.

o This Convention replaced the Prisoners of War Convention of 1929. It contains 143
articles whereas the 1929 Convention had only 97.
o The categories of persons entitled to prisoner of war status were broadened in accordance with
Conventions I and II. The conditions and places of captivity were more precisely
defined, particularly with regard to the labour of prisoners of war, their financial
resources, the relief they receive, and the judicial proceedings instituted against
them. The Convention establishes the principle that prisoners of war shall be released and
repatriated without delay after the cessation of active hostilities.
o The Convention has five annexes containing various model regulations and identity and other
cards.
Fourth Geneva Convention

o The fourth Geneva Convention affords protection to civilians, including in occupied territory.
o The Geneva Conventions, which were adopted before 1949. were concerned with combatants
only, not with civilians.
o The events of World War II showed the disastrous consequences of the absence of a convention
for the protection of civilians in wartime.
o The Convention adopted in 1949 takes account of the experiences of World War II. It is
composed of 159 articles. It contains a short section concerning the general protection of
populations against certain consequences of war, without addressing the conduct of hostilities,
as such, which was later examined in the Additional Protocols of 1977.
o The bulk of the Convention deals with the status and treatment of protected persons,
distinguishing between the situation of foreigners on the territory of one of the parties to the
conflict and that of civilians in occupied territory. It spells out the obligations of the Occupying
Power vis-à-vis the civilian population and contains detailed provisions on humanitarian relief
for populations in occupied territory. It also contains a specific regime for the treatment of
civilian internees. It has three annexes containing a model agreement on hospital and safety
zones, model regulations on humanitarian relief and model cards.
Common Article 3
o Article 3, common to the four Geneva Conventions, marked a breakthrough, as it
covered, for the first time, situations of non-international armed conflicts. These types
of conflicts vary greatly.
o They include traditional civil wars, internal armed conflicts that spill over into other
States or internal conflicts in which third States or a multinational force intervenes alongside
the government.
o Common Article 3 establishes fundamental rules from which no derogation is permitted.
It is like a mini-Convention within the Conventions as it contains the essential rules of the
Geneva Conventions in a condensed format and makes them applicable to conflicts not of an
international character:
o It requires humane treatment for all persons in enemy hands, without any adverse distinction.
It specifically prohibits murder, mutilation, torture, cruel, humiliating and degrading
treatment, the taking of hostages and unfair trial.
▪ It requires that the wounded, sick and shipwrecked be collected and cared for.
▪ It grants the ICRC the right to offer its services to the parties to the conflict.
▪ It calls on the parties to the conflict to bring all or parts of the Geneva Conventions into force
through so-called special agreements.

▪ It recognizes that the application of these rules does not affect the legal status of the parties to
the conflict.
▪ Given that most armed conflicts today are non-international, applying Common Article 3 is of
the utmost importance. Its full respect is required.
States Party to the Geneva Conventions

o The Geneva Conventions entered into force on 21 October 1950.
o Ratification grew steadily through the decades: 74 States ratified the Conventions during the
1950s, 48 States did so during the 1960s, 20 States signed on during the 1970s, and another
20 States did so during the 1980s. Twenty-six countries ratified the Conventions in the early
1990s, largely in the aftermath of the break-up of the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia and the
former Yugoslavia.
o Seven new ratifications since 2000 have brought the total number of States Party to 194,
making the Geneva Conventions universally applicable.
The Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions

o In the two decades that followed the adoption of the Geneva Conventions, the world witnessed
an increase in the number of non-international armed conflicts and wars of national liberation.
In response, two Protocols Additional to the four 1949 Geneva Conventions were adopted in
1977.
o They strengthen the protection of victims of international (Protocol I) and non-international
(Protocol II) armed conflicts and place limits on the way wars are fought. Protocol II was the
first-ever international treaty devoted exclusively to situations of non-international armed
conflicts.
o In 2005, a third Additional Protocol was adopted creating an additional emblem, the Red
Crystal, which has the same international status as the Red Cross and Red Crescent emblems.
▪ Additional Protocol I - international conflicts
▪ Additional Protocol II - non-international conflicts
▪ Additional Protocol III - additional distinctive emblem.
o The first Additional Protocol of 1977 supplements the rules applying to international
armed conflicts contained in the four Geneva Conventions. It imposes restrictions on the
conduct of hostilities; for example, it prohibits attacks against civilians and civilian objects and
restricts the means and methods of warfare.
o The second Additional Protocol of 1977 supplements Article 3 which is common to the
four Geneva Conventions and is the sole provision applicable to non-international armed
conflicts.
o The third Additional Protocol provides for an additional emblem in the form of a red
crystal. Since 1 January 2007, it has been possible to use this emblem as an alternative to the
red cross or red crescent – the emblems recognised by the Geneva Conventions for identifying
persons and objects entitled to special protection.

 NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION

o North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a military alliance that was established by the
North Atlantic Treaty (also called the Washington Treaty) of April 4, 1949.
o It sought to create a counterweight to Soviet armies stationed in central and eastern Europe
after World War II.
o At present, NATO has 30 members. In 1949, there were 12 founding members of the
Alliance: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands,
Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom and the United States. The other member countries
are: Greece and Turkey (1952), Germany (1955), Spain (1982), the Czech Republic, Hungary
and Poland (1999), Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia
(2004), Albania and Croatia (2009), Montenegro (2017) and North Macedonia (2020).
Historical Background
o After World War II in 1945, western Europe was economically exhausted and militarily weak
(the western Allies had rapidly and drastically reduced their armies at the end of the war), and
newly powerful communist parties had arisen in France and Italy.
o By contrast, the Soviet Union had emerged from the war with its armies dominating all the
states of central and eastern Europe, and by 1948 communists under Moscow’s sponsorship
had consolidated their control of the governments of those countries and suppressed all non-
communist political activity. What became known as the Iron Curtain, a term popularized
by Winston Churchill, had descended over central and eastern Europe. Further, wartime
cooperation between the western Allies and the Soviets had completely broken down. Each side
was organizing its own sector of occupied Germany, so that two German states would emerge,
a democratic one in the west and a communist one in the east.
o In 1948, the United States launched the Marshall Plan, which infused massive amounts of
economic aid to the countries of western and southern Europe on the condition that they
cooperate with each other and engage in joint planning to hasten their mutual recovery. As for
military recovery, under the Brussels Treaty of 1948, the United Kingdom, France, and the
Low Countries—Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg—concluded a collective-defense
agreement called the Western European Union. It was soon recognized, however, that a
more formidable alliance would be required to provide an adequate military counterweight to
the Soviets.
o By this time Britain, Canada, and the United States had already engaged in secret exploratory
talks on security arrangements that would serve as an alternative to the United Nations (UN),
which was becoming paralyzed by the rapidly emerging Cold War. In March 1948, following a
virtual communist coup d’état in Czechoslovakia in February, the three governments began
discussions on a multilateral collective-defense scheme that would enhance Western security
and promote democratic values. These discussions were eventually joined by France, the Low
Countries, and Norway and in April 1949 resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty.
Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty

o an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered
an attack against them all; and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs,
each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defense recognized by
Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by
taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems

necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North
Atlantic area.
o NATO invoked Article 5 for the first time in 2001, after the September 11 attacks on World
Trade Center in New York City
Article 6 of the North Atlantic Treaty

o defines the geographic scope of the treaty as covering “an armed attack on the territory of
any of the Parties in Europe or North America.” Other articles commit the allies to
strengthening their democratic institutions, to building their collective military capability, to
consulting each other, and to remaining open to inviting other European states to join.
 BELT AND ROAD INITIATIVE (BRI)

o According to the Asian Development Bank (ADB), Asia faces an infrastructure funding
gap of estimated USD 26 trillion through 2030. To address this gap, various regional and sub-
regional initiatives aim to develop better transport connectivity within Asia.
o This includes, among others, the Association of South East Asian Nation (ASEAN)
Connectivity initiative, the Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation (CAREC)
Program, the Greater Mekong Sub-Region (GMS) Cooperation Program, the South
Asia Sub-regional Economic Cooperation (SASEC) Program, and the Belt and
Road Initiative (BRI).
About BRI
o BRI is a
transcontinental
long-term policy
and investment
program which aims
at infrastructure
development and
acceleration of the
economic integration
of countries along the
route of the historic
Silk Road.
o The Initiative was
unveiled in 2013 by
China`s president
Xi Jinping and
until 2016, was
known as OBOR –
One Belt One Road.
o In 2015, the official outline for the Belt and Road Initiative was issued by the National
Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) and
the Ministry of Commerce (MOFCOM) of the People`s Republic of China (PRC), with
authorization of the State Council.

Aims of the Belt and Road Initiative

o BRI aims to promote the connectivity of Asian, European and African continents and
their adjacent seas, establish and strengthen partnerships among the countries along the
Belt and Road, set up all-dimensional, multi-tiered and composite connectivity networks, and
realize diversified, independent, balanced and sustainable development in these countries.
o BRI is a global initiative but by its nature of building on the historic Silk Road puts a major
focus on countries in Asia, Eastern Africa, Eastern Europe and the Middle East, a region mainly
composed of emerging markets.
o According to the Belt and Road Portal, currently 71 countries are taking part in the Initiative,
together representing more than a third of the world`s GDP and two thirds of the world`s
population.
o The Belt and Road Initiative combines two initiatives
1. The (land based) Silk Road Economic Belt, comprising six development corridors
2. The 21st Century Maritime Silk Road
The Silk Road Economic Belt

The Silk Road Economic Belt is a long-term vision for the infrastructural development,
connectivity and economic
cooperation of Eurasia and is
spanning six development
“corridors”, namely:
1. New Eurasian Land Bridge
Economic Corridor (NELBEC)
2. China – Mongolia – Russia
Economic Corridor (CMREC)
3. China – Central Asia – West Asia
Economic Corridor (CCWAEC)
4. China – Indochina Peninsula
Economic Corridor (CICPEC)
5. Bangladesh – China – India – Myanmar Economic Corridor (BCIMEC)
6. China – Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC)
The 21st Century Maritime Silk Road

o The 21st Century Maritime Silk Road connects China to Southeast Asia, Indonesia, India, the
Arabian peninsula, Somalia, Egypt and Europe, encompassing the South China Sea, Strait of
Malacca, Indian Ocean, Gulf of Bengal, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf and the Red Sea.
Additionally the map shows the Polar Silk Road, referring to the Northern Sea Route (NSR),
as officially mentioned in China`s Arctic policy.

The Polar Silk Road

o In 2018, People`s Republic of China published a white paper, titled “China`s Arctic Policy”,
vowing to actively participating in Arctic affairs. The document is a blueprint for China`s Arctic
strategy and its ambition to develop a “Polar Silk Road” under the “Belt and Road Initiative”.
o The land based Silk Road Economic Belt, the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road and the Polar
Silk Road cannot be considered separately and need to be understood as complement to each
other regarding the strategic integration of the regions under BRI.
Cooperation Priorities
o The official Belt and Road Initiative outline promotes the joint formulation of development
plans and measures for advancing cross-national or regional cooperation between countries
involved in BRI.
o This includes intergovernmental cooperation and multi-level macro policy exchange,
communication mechanisms and policy support for the implementation of large-scale projects
and the coordination in monetary policy.
According to the outline, the Belt and Road Initiative is based on five cooperation priorities:
1. Policy coordination (Promotion of intergovernmental cooperation, multi-level
intergovernmental macro policy exchange and communication mechanism)
2. Facilities connectivity (Improvement of connectivity of infrastructure construction plans and
technical standards systems)
3. Unimpeded trade (Reduction of investment and trade barriers, promotion of regional
economic integration)
4. Financial integration (Coordination and cooperation in monetary policy, set-up of financing
institutions)
5. People-to-people bonds (Cultural and academic exchange and dialogue, media cooperation)
Coordination of the Initiative

o The Belt and Road Initiative has no formal institutionalized body and its implementation
includes multiple actors and stakeholders.
o The overseeing body of BRI is the “Office of the Leading Group on Promoting the
Implementation of Belt and Road Initiatives” which is under the National Development and
Reform Commission (NDRC). The leading group is in charge of guiding and coordinating work
related to the initiative.
o An important role in the implementation of BRI plays China`s new State International
Development Cooperation Agency (SIDCA).
o The agency was unveiled in 2018 and will be responsible for strategic guidelines and policies
on foreign aid. SIDCA will be answerable to the State Council and according to State Council
“will better serve the country’s global strategy and to build the Belt and Road Initiative”.
o Various Chinese governmental agencies are involved in the formulation and implementation
of BRI, including the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), the Ministry of
Commerce (MOFCOM), the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) or the Ministry of Culture
(MoC).
o To complement the BRI blueprint, almost all provinces in China such as Hebei or Henan have
elaborated own BRI implementation plans.

What are the risks for countries involved?

o More recently, governments from Malaysia to Pakistan are starting to rethink the costs of these
projects. Sri Lanka, where the government leased a port to a Chinese company for 99 years
after struggling to make repayments, is a cautionary tale.
o Earlier this year, the Center for Global Development found eight more Belt and Road countries
at serious risk of not being able to repay their loans.
o There are some extreme cases where China lends into very high risk environments, and it
would seem that the motivation is something different. In these situations the leverage China
has as lender is used for purposes unrelated to the original loan.
Why is the initiative sparking global concern?

o As Belt and Road expands in scope so do concerns it is a form of economic imperialism
that gives China too much leverage over other countries, often those that are smaller and
poorer.
o Some worry expanded Chinese commercial presence around the world will eventually lead to
expanded military presence. Recently, China established its first overseas military base in
Djibouti. Analysts say almost all the ports and other transport infrastructure being built can be
dual-use for commercial and military purposes.
o “If it can carry goods, it can carry troops,” says Jonathan Hillman, director of the Reconnecting
Asia project at CSIS.
 BRI IN SOUTH ASIA

PAKISTAN
CPEC Launched in 2015.
China pledged $62 billion in low-interest loans and financing from Chinese
state-owned banks and the Asian Development Bank (ADB)
The CPEC involves multiple projects, including the development of a port in
the city of Gwadar in the Balochistan province, providing a port to China’s
Xinjiang province that would be closer than other eastern ports in China.
China envisioned that Gwadar would provide it with a position on the
Arabian Sea without having to go through the busy shipping lane of the
Malacca Strait.
Coal power Multiple Chinese power firms operating in Pakistan threatened to close
plants down if the latter did not pay dues of 300 billion in Pakistani rupees
(approximately $1.5 bn).
Main Line 1 The project involved the total overhaul of the 1,872-km ML-1 railway line
(ML-1) rail: from Peshawar to Karachi with Chinese loans of over $8 billion, later
reduced to $6.8 billion over China’s concerns about Pakistan’s ability to
repay.
Gwadar Gwadar is strategically important as it is an hour’s drive from Iran and less
development than 320 km from Oman. According to the master plan for Gwadar’s
development under BRI, approved in 2020, it would increase the city’s GDP
to $30 billion by 2050 and create over a million jobs.

Orange Line The $1.6-billion Orange Line Metro covering 27 km in Lahore, described as
Metro “China’s gift” to Pakistan, became operational in late 2020.
SRI LANKA
Central The $1.16 billion Central Expressway project connecting with two other
Expressway highways- the Outer Circle Highway and the Colombo-Katunayake
project Expressway, and multiple other roads in Dambulla and Kandy, is currently
under construction.
Colombo China also developed the Colombo International Container Terminal (CICT)
International at the Colombo port, where a Chinese state-owned firm holds an 85 per cent
Container stake under a 35-year Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) agreement.
Terminal In 2021, Colombo ejected India and Japan out of a deal to develop the East
(CICT) Container Terminal at the Colombo Columbo port, getting China to take up
the project. It then awarded the project for the Western Side of the Terminal
to the Adani Group.
Hambantota The Sri Lankan government took $1.4 billion in Chinese loans for the port’s
port expansion. Unable to service the huge loan and incurring $300 million in
losses due to delays, the government handed Hambantota port to a Chinese
state-owned company on a 99-year lease in 2017. The rate of traffic at the
port currently remains slow.
Hambantota The Hambantota International Airport or the Rajapaksa Airport, built with
International a $200 million loan from China became operational in 2013. Described as
Airport the “world’s emptiest airport” it is used sparingly, and was unable to cover
its electricity bill at one point.
NEPAL
35 Kathmandu formally joined the Belt and Road Initiative in 2017, submitting
infrastructure a list of 35 infrastructure projects it wished China to finance. China asked
projects Nepal to narrow the list to an achievable target and after nearly two years of
negotiations, nine projects including an ambitious trans-Himalayan rail
road from Nepal to China, construction of roads, laying of power
transmission lines, hydropower projects, and a technical institute were
shortlisted.
Kerung- The proposed Himalayan railway project Kerung-Kathmandu Rail link will
Kathmandu connect Kerung city (also known as Gyirong) in south Tibet to the Nepalese
Rail link capital of Kathmandu.
The rail link is the extension of the railroad being built to connect China’s
Qinghai province to Tibet.
AFGHANISTAN
Investments The projects have not materialised so far and uncertainties have deepened
worth $100 after the Taliban takeover last year. Many analysts contended that China
million

would step in with the BRI to fill the void left by the withdrawal of the United
States.
The Taliban regime has called China its “main partner” and China also said
last year that Taliban leaders support BRI and believe it will enhance much-
needed infrastructure development in the country.
MALDIVES
Situated in the middle of the Indian Ocean, Maldives comprises two hundred Islands, and both
India and China are strategically attracted to it.
Sinamale One of the most prominent BRI projects undertaken in the Maldives is the 2
bridge km long Sinamale bridge or the China-Maldives Friendship Bridge- a $200
million four lane bridge.
o Most of China’s infrastructure investment happened in the Maldives under former President
Abdullah Yameen, seen as pro-China.
o The Maldives’ current regime of President Ibrahim Solih has tried to distance itself from the
BRI, focusing more on its ‘India First’ policy.
o India has also in recent years sought greater ties with the Maldives under Prime Minister of
India’s ‘Neighbourhood First’ policy, funding the Greater Male Connectivity Project
in the Maldives by providing a $100 million grant and a $400 million loan.
BANGLADESH
Investment In 2016, when the Chinese government promised Dhaka BRI investment
worth around $40 billion , India followed up in 2017 by extending a $5
billion line of credit and economic assistance.
Bangladesh has also avoided Chinese interference in its internal matters by
stressing its sovereign power when China warned it about joining the Quad.
Dhaka also agreed to work on a free-trade agreement with India.
Projects BRI projects include China-Bangladesh Friendship Bridges, special
economic zones (SEZs), the $689.35 million-Karnaphuli River tunnel
project, upgradation of the Chittagong port, and a rail line between the port
and China’s Yunnan province.
The Marine Drive Expressway was hampered after Sri Lanka blacklisted
the Chinese company building it, over bribery reports. Work on the project
is now expected to start in 2022.
China also refused to carry out two rail projects after Bangladesh adjusted
their costs downwards.
The Bangladesh government reduced the total cost of the $1.045 billion
Joydebpur-Ishwardi rail line by over 12 per cent and that of the $1.2
billion Akhaura-Sylhet line by about 20 per cent.

 CHINA IN HORN OF AFRICA
“China-Horn of Africa Peace, Governance and Development Conference” was held in

Ethiopia witnessed the participation of foreign Ministries from the following countries of the
Horn: Kenya, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Sudan, Somalia, South Sudan, and Uganda.
Recent projects between China and countries from the Horn of Africa
o China’s three objectives in Africa: controlling the pandemic, implementing a Forum on
China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) outcomes, and upholding common interests while fighting
hegemonic politics.
o The FOCAC promotes China’s role in the infrastructural and societal development of the Horn.
In the 2021 forum, the entire region of the Horn participated and four resolutions were
adopted:
▪ the Dakar Action Plan,
▪ the China-Africa Cooperation Vision 2035,
▪ the Sino-African Declaration on Climate Change, and
▪ the Declaration of the Eighth Ministerial Conference of FOCAC.
o The “2035 vision for China-Africa cooperation” aims to transform the health sector,
alleviate poverty, promote trade and investments, and expand digital innovation.
o The vision also focuses on green development, capacity building, improving people-to-people
exchanges and facilitating peace and security in the continent.
China’s primary interests/investments in the Horn of Africa

China’s interests are related to four major areas:

infrastructural o One of its landmark projects was fully funding the $200 million
projects African Union headquarters in Addis Ababa.
o it is building the Addis-Djibouti railway line connecting the land-
locked country with Eritrean ports in the Red Sea.
o Also invested in the Mombasa-Nairobi rail link in Kenya, and has
already delivered on railway projects in Sudan.
o It also has a viable military hardware market in Ethiopia and has
built over 80 infrastructural projects in Somalia.
financial o Ethiopia, is one of the top five African recipients of Chinese
assistance investments, and also has a debt of almost $14 billion. China accounts
for 67% of Kenya’s bilateral debt.
o In 2022, China promised to provide $15.7 million assistance to Eritrea.
natural o China has invested $400 million in Mombasa’s oil terminal.

resources o China is also interested in minerals such as gold, iron-ore, precious
stones, chemicals, oil and natural gas in Ethiopia.
o South Sudan, a source for petroleum products, has had continued
Beijing investment in the industry since the latter’s initial entry in 1995.
maritime o China’s first and only military base outside its mainland is in Djibouti.
interests o China is willing to develop Eritrea’s coast which would connect to
China’s investments in land-locked Ethiopia.
o China wishes to build another military base in Kenya and Tanzania,
thereby increasing its military presence in the region.
China’s new found focus in Africa

o China’s move towards peace in Africa indicates a shift in its principle of non-intervention. It is
China’s message that its presence in the continent has a larger objective and is not likely to be
limited to the Horn of Africa.
o This includes an aim to project itself as a global leader and boost its international status.
o Further, the recent developments imply that China is focussing on a multifaceted growth
in the continent for the long run.
o For Africa, China’s presence is an alternative to the European powers, many of whom are
facing criticism from African governments.
o Further, African governments, which do not conform to Western standards of
democracy, interact better with powers like China and Russia.
 PARTNERSHIP FOR GLOBAL

INFRASTRUCTURE AND INVESTMENT (PGII)
U.S. President Joe Biden along with his G7 allies unveiled the ambitious Partnership for Global
Infrastructure and Investment (PGII).
He announced the collective mobilisation of $600 billion by 2027 to deliver “game-
changing” and “transparent” infrastructure projects to developing and middle-income
countries.

The PGII is being seen as the G7’s counter to China’s multi-trillion dollar Belt and Road
Initiative (BRI) to build connectivity, infrastructure, and trade projects in Asia, Europe, Africa,
and Latin America.
Counter to BRI
o The West has been sceptical of the BRI, since it was launched in 2013 by President Xi Jinping,
as it was considered to be part of China’s larger strategy to increase geopolitical influence in
Asia and other developing countries.
o The U.S., along with G7 partners the U.K., Japan, France, Canada, Germany, Italy, and the
European Union (EU), had in 2021 announced the launch of the Build Back Better World
(B3W) with the aim of narrowing the $40 trillion infrastructure gap in the developing world.
o PGII is therefore, a relaunch of Mr. Biden’s B3W plan.
Priority Pillars of the proposed project

First o Aims to tackle the climate crisis and ensure global energy security
through clean energy supply chains.
Second o The projects will focus on bolstering digital information and
communications technology (ICT) networks facilitating technologies
such as 5G and 6G internet connectivity and cybersecurity.
Third o The projects aim to advance gender equality and equity, and lastly, to
build and upgrade global health infrastructure.
Fourth o To build and upgrade global health infrastructure.
PGII vs. BRI

o The G7 has specifically touted the PGII as a values-based plan to help underfunded low and
middle-income countries meet their infrastructure needs.
o PGII has laid focus on climate action and clean energy, while China has built large coal-
fired plants under BRI along with solar, hydro, and wind energy projects.
o While the G7 has pledged $600 billion by 2027, Morgan and Stanley estimate that China’s
overall funding for BRI by that time could reach $1.2 to 1.3 trillion dollars with the actual
funding being higher.
o Under the PGII, large private capital will be also mobilised while China’s BRI is majorly
state-funded.
o While G7 leaders emphasised ‘transparency’ as the cornerstone of PGII projects, the BRI
has faced criticism for making countries sign confidential tenders for extending massive loans,
leaving countries indebted to China. For instance, after the BRI’s flagship $62 billion China-
Pakistan Economic Corridor, Pakistan owes Beijing a large proportion of its foreign debt.
o China builds BRI’s projects by extending large, low-interest loans to countries that have to
usually be paid over 10 years. There have been cases of debt-saddled countries failing to
repay on time. Sri Lanka, for instance, had to cede its key Hambantota Port on a 99-year lease
to China.
o PGII aims to build projects through grants and investments.

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 GLOBAL GATEWAY
The European Commission plan to mobilise €300 billion ($340 billion) in public and
private infrastructure investment around the world. It is a move seen as a response to
China’s Belt and Road strategy.
More about Global Gateway

o The European Commission and the EU High Representative have set out the Global Gateway,
a new European strategy to boost smart, clean and secure links in digital, energy and
transport sectors and to strengthen health, education and research systems across
the world.
o The EU is stepping up its offer to its partners with major investments in infrastructure
development around the world. Between 2022 and 2027, Team Europe, meaning the EU
institutions and EU Member States jointly, will mobilise up to EUR 300 billions of investments
in: digital, climate and energy, transport, health, education and research.
o The Global Gateway will deliver sustainable and high-quality projects, taking into
account the needs of partner countries and ensuring lasting benefits for local communities.
This will allow EU’s partners to develop their societies and economies, but also create
opportunities for the EU Member States’ private sector to invest and remain competitive,
whilst ensuring the highest environmental and labour standards, as well as sound financial
management.
o The Global Gateway is the EU’s contribution to narrowing the global investment gap
worldwide. It is in line with the commitment of the G7 leaders to launch a values-driven, high-
standard and transparent infrastructure partnership to meet global infrastructure
development needs.
o The Global Gateway is also fully aligned with the UN’s Agenda 2030 and its Sustainable
Development Goals, as well as the Paris Agreement.
o The Global Gateway will be delivered through a Team Europe approach, which brings together
the EU and EU Member States with their financial and development institutions, including the
European Investment Bank (EIB) and the European Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (EBRD).
Principles of the Global Gateway

o The European model of trusted connectivity in partner countries is long-term and in line with
EU’s interests and values: rule of law, human rights and international norms and
standards.
o It is about smart, clean and secure investments in quality infrastructure, connecting goods,
people and services around the world in a sustainable way
o Global Gateway partnerships will be based on 6 principles:
▪ democratic values and high standards
▪ good governance and transparency
▪ equal partnerships
▪ green and clean
▪ security focused

▪ catalysing private sector investment
 SYKES-PICO AGREEMENT
o The Sykes-Picot Agreement was a secret treaty drawn up in 1916 between Great Britain
and France. It was named after Mark Sykes and François Georges-Picot, the primary
negotiators.
o The treaty divided up Arab lands of the Ottoman Empire into British and French
zones of control following the end of World War I.
o A century on, the Middle East continues to bear the consequences of the treaty, and many
Arabs across the region continue to blame the subsequent violence in the Middle East, from
the occupation of Palestine to the rise of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), on the
Sykes-Picot treaty.
Background of the Sykes-Picot Agreement

o When World War I broke out in 1914, the Russian, French and British Empires
held discussions among themselves on how the erstwhile territories of their enemies would be
divided among them.
o Parallel to this, the British also entered into agreements between Arab
nationalists, promising that should a revolt against the Ottoman Empire be carried,
independence would be granted in return. Such agreements would be ignored as events
unfolded.
o The Sykes-Picot Agreement was based on the assumption that the Allies would defeat
the Ottoman Empire.
o The primary negotiations leading to the agreement occurred between 23 November 1915 and
3 January 1916. The agreement was ratified by their respective governments on 9 th and 16th
May 1916.
o The Sykes-Picot agreement in practice divided the Ottoman provinces outside the Arabian
Peninsula into areas of British and French influence.
o The United Kingdom was allocated modern-day southern Israel, Jordan, southern
Iraq and port areas of Haifa and Acre.
o France was handed control of south-eastern Turkey, northern Iraq, Syria and
Lebanon.
Ottoman Arab provinces

o The Ottoman Empire , in the last few decades before its collapse, lost control over many of
its territories to the growing powers of colonial countries.
▪ France took control of Algeria (1830) and Tunisia (1881),
▪ Italy took over Libya (1911),
▪ Britain gained control of Aden protectorate (1939), Oman (1861), Arabian Gulf chiefdoms
(1820) and Kuwait (1899).
o As World War I erupted in July 1914, the weakening Ottoman Empire allied with Germany
and the Austro-Hungarian Empire to confront Britain and France.

o It was then that the political regimes and the region’s maps began to transform.
The Agreement: parties and course

o During World War I, the foreign ministries of France, Russia, Britain and Italy assigned a
group of selected diplomats to hold talks that would determine each country’s share of the
inheritance of the Ottoman Empire, which at that stage was dubbed “The Sick Man”.
o Between November 1915 and May 1916, secret negotiations and memos of understanding
were exchanged among the foreign ministries of those countries, mainly represented by
Britain’s Sykes and France’s Picot.
o Britain was the most powerful party among those countries. It was, at the same time, in contact
with the Emir and Sharif of Mecca Hussein bin Ali, who had been plotting for a revolution that
aimed at establishing an Arab kingdom in the region.
o On May 16, 1916, a deal was secretly signed between Sykes and Picot, and approved Russian
Foreign Minister Sergey Sazonov.
The content of the deal:

• The deal called for the
establishment of five
entities in the
Levant.
• Levant, (from the
French lever, “to rise,” as
in sunrise, meaning the
east), historically, the
region along the
eastern
Mediterranean
shores, roughly
corresponding to
modern-day Israel,
Jordan, Lebanon,
Syria, and certain
adjacent areas.
1. The first entity

extended from Baghdad
to the south to include Kuwait, reaching to the Gulf coast. This entity was under direct
control of the British.
2. The second entity combined what is today northern Iraq, Jordan and the Negev desert,
reaching all the way to Sinai. This part was under British influence.
3. The third entity included a coastal area that extended from southern Lebanon to the north
towards the provinces of Mersin, Iskenderun and Adana. It extended anteriorly to the inside
of Anatolia. This part was under direct French control.
4. The fourth entity comprised the Syrian Desert. This part was under French influence.
5. The fifth entity included the Ottoman Jerusalem, which was the northern part of historic
Palestine. This part was an international zone due to its religious significance. Britain was,
however, allocated control of Acre and Haifa.

o With regards to Russia, the agreement stated that Russia’s tsar would keep his stake in
Istanbul, the territories adjacent to the Bosphorus strait and four provinces near the
Russian borders in east Anatolia. Greece was allocated control of Turkey’s western coasts. Italy
was given control of Turkey’s southwest.
Consequences of the Sykes-Picot Agreement

o The agreement is seen by many as a turning point in Western and Arab relations. It
negated the UK’s promises to Arabs regarding a national Arab homeland in the area of
Greater Syria in exchange for supporting the British against the Ottoman Empire.
o It gave way to a legacy of resentment in the region not only among the Arabs but
also among the Kurds who were denied a homeland of their own.
o It is largely believed that the Sykes-Picot agreement ended up creating ‘artificial’ borders
in the Middle-East with little regard for ethnic or sectarian characteristics.
o It created a recipe for endless conflict when hostile groups were put in the same region
together.
o To this day the Sykes-Picot agreement continues to be a sour point following the de-
colonisation of the Middle-East.
 BALFOUR DECLARATION
o The Balfour Declaration (“Balfour’s
promise” in Arabic) was a public
pledge by Britain in 1917 declaring its
aim to establish “a national home
for the Jewish people” in
Palestine.
o The statement came in the form of a
letter from Britain’s then-foreign
secretary, Arthur Balfour, addressed to
Lionel Walter Rothschild, a figurehead
of the British Jewish community.
o It was made during World War I
(1914-1918) and was included in the
terms of the British Mandate for
Palestine after the dissolution of
the Ottoman Empire.
o The so-called mandate system, set
up by the Allied powers, was a thinly
veiled form of colonialism and
occupation.
o The system transferred rule from the
territories that were previously
controlled by the powers defeated in the war – Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman
Empire and Bulgaria – to the victors.
o The declared aim of the mandate system was to allow the winners of the war to
administer the newly emerging states until they could become independent.

o The case of Palestine, however, was unique. Unlike the rest of the post-war mandates,
the main goal of the British Mandate there was to create the conditions for the
establishment of a Jewish “national home” – where Jews constituted less than 10
percent of the population at the time.
o Upon the start of the mandate, the British began to facilitate the immigration of
European Jews to Palestine. Between 1922 and 1935, the Jewish population rose from
nine percent to nearly 27 percent of the total population.
The document was controversial for several reasons

o Firstly, the Balfour Declaration promised Jews a land where the natives made up
more than 90 percent of the population.
o Secondly, the declaration was one of three conflicting wartime promises made by the British.
▪ When it was released, Britain had already promised the Arabs independence from the Ottoman
Empire in the 1915 Hussein-McMahon correspondence.
▪ The British also promised the French, in a separate treaty known as 1916 Sykes-Picot
agreement, that the majority of Palestine would be under international administration, while
the rest of the region would be split between the two colonial powers after the war.
▪ The declaration, however, meant that Palestine would come under British occupation
and that the Palestinian Arabs who lived there would not gain independence.
o Finally, the declaration introduced a notion that was reportedly unprecedented in

international law – that of a “national home”.
o The use of the vague term “national home” for the Jewish people, as opposed to
“state”, left the meaning open to interpretation.
o The declaration had many long-lasting consequences. It greatly increased popular support for
Zionism within Jewish communities worldwide, and became a core component of the British
Mandate for Palestine, the founding document of Mandatory Palestine, which later became
Israel and the Palestinian territories.
Note: The above two form the base of Israel and Palestine conflict
 ISRAEL AND PALESTINE CONFLICT

o Britain took control of the area known as Palestine after the ruler of that part of the Middle
East, the Ottoman Empire, was defeated in WW1.
o The land was inhabited by a Jewish minority and Arab majority.
o Tensions between the two peoples grew when the international community gave Britain
the task of establishing a "national home" in Palestine for Jewish people.
o For Jews, it was their ancestral home, but Palestinian Arabs also claimed the land and opposed
the move.

o Between the 1920s and 40s, the number of Jews arriving there grew, with many fleeing from
persecution in Europe and seeking a homeland after the Holocaust of WWII.
o Violence between Jews and Arabs, and against British rule, also grew.
o In 1947, the UN voted for Palestine to be split into separate Jewish and Arab
states, with Jerusalem becoming an international city.
o That plan was accepted by Jewish leaders but rejected by the Arab side and never implemented.
Creation of Israel
o In 1948, unable to solve the problem,
British rulers left and Jewish leaders
declared the creation of the state of
Israel.
o Many Palestinians objected and a war
followed. Troops from neighbouring
Arab countries invaded.
o Hundreds of thousands of Palestinians
fled or were forced out of their homes in
what they call Al Nakba, or the
"Catastrophe".
o By the time the fighting ended in a
ceasefire the following year, Israel
controlled most of the territory.
o Jordan occupied land which became
known as the West Bank, and Egypt
occupied Gaza.
o Jerusalem was divided between Israeli
forces in the West, and Jordanian forces in the East.
o Because there was never a peace agreement - each side blamed the other - there were more
wars and fighting in the decades which followed.
o In 1967, Six-Day War, Israel occupied East Jerusalem and the West Bank, as well
as most of the Syrian Golan Heights, and Gaza and the Egyptian Sinai peninsula.
Yom Kippur War, 1973

o The Yom Kippur War, also known as the October War or Ramadan War, occurred from
October 6 to 25, 1973, pitting Israel against Egypt and Syria.
o The Yom Kippur War was significant because it revealed Israel’s vulnerability, despite eventual
victory.
o The war prompted negotiations, leading to the 1978 Camp David Accords, with Israel
returning the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt and establishing the first Arab-Israeli peace treaty
in 1979.
o However, Syria gained no benefits and saw Israel expand its occupation of the Golan Heights.
Today
o Israel still occupies the West Bank, and although it pulled out of Gaza the UN still
regards that piece of land as part of occupied territory.

o Israel claims the whole of Jerusalem as its capital, while the Palestinians claim East
Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state. The US is one of only a handful
of countries to recognise Israel's claim to the whole of the city.
o Most Palestinian refugees and their descendants live in Gaza and the West Bank, as well as in
neighbouring Jordan, Syria and Lebanon.
o Neither they nor their descendants have been allowed by Israel to return to their homes - Israel
says this would overwhelm the country and threaten its existence as a Jewish state.
o Tensions are often high between Israel and Palestinians living in East Jerusalem, Gaza and the
West Bank.
o Gaza is ruled by the Palestinian militant group Hamas, which has fought Israel many
times. Israel and Egypt tightly control Gaza's borders to stop weapons getting to Hamas.
o Palestinians in Gaza and the West Bank say they're suffering because of Israeli actions and
restrictions. Israel say it is only acting to protect itself from Palestinian violence.
o Things keep on escalating and the threatened eviction of some Palestinian families in East
Jerusalem has also caused rising anger.
 OSLO PEACE ACCORDS

• Oslo Accords are a series of agreements between Israel and the Palestinians signed in the
1990s.
• In 1993, the representatives of the Israeli government and the PLO arrived in Norway to begin
the negotiations.
• Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin and Palestine Liberation Organisation
(PLO) leader Yassir Arafat led their respective delegations.
• Oslo I (1993) is formally known as the Declaration of Principles (DOP). The pact
established a timetable for the Middle East peace process. It planned for an interim
Palestinian government in Gaza and Jericho in the West Bank.
• Oslo II is officially called the Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement on the West
Bank and Gaza (1995), expanded on Oslo I.
• It included provisions for the complete withdrawal of Israeli troops from six West Bank cities
and about 450 towns.
• Additionally, the pact set a timetable for elections for the Palestinian Legislative Council.
• The interim pact was only supposed to last five years while a permanent agreement was
finalised but it has tacitly been rolled over for more than two decades.
• The question of Jerusalem was left undecided under the Oslo Accords.
 TWO-STATE SOLUTION
Elusive ‘Two- state’ solution
• The Two-State solution is a proposed framework to resolve the Israel-Palestine conflict by
creating two independent states - Israel and Palestine.

• In 1936, the Peel Commission which was set up by the UK government recommended the
partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab states.
• The two-state solution required Israel to abandon its opposition to Palestinian claims of
national sovereignty.
• In 1947, Britain referred the issue to the United Nations, which suggested the
Partition Plan (Resolution 181).
• In the 1991 Madrid Peace conference a two-state solution was agreed to resolve the
Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
• In 2000, UNSC Resolution 1397 became the first UNSC resolution to agree on a two-
state solution, after the U.S.A. extended support.
• Practical solution: It was considered the most workable solution that could fulfil the basic
desires of both the Jews and Arabs by creating separate states in which neither Jews nor Arabs
are in the minority.
• Moral reasoning: The two-state solution will ensure that the aspirations of one community
will not be overridden in pursuit of the other’s aspirations.
Bottlenecks
o There are a number of issues which Israel and the Palestinians cannot agree on.
o These include what should happen to Palestinian refugees, whether Jewish settlements
in the occupied West Bank should stay or be removed, whether the two sides should
share Jerusalem, and - perhaps most tricky of all - whether a Palestinian state should
be created alongside Israel.
o Peace talks have been taking place on and off for more than 30 years, but so far have not solved
the conflict.
 G4 (GROUP OF FOUR)
o The Big Four, also known as G4, refers to France, Germany, Italy and the United
Kingdom.
o France and the United Kingdom are official nuclear-weapon states and are permanent
members of the United Nations Security Council with the power of veto, which enables any one
of them to prevent the adoption of any "substantive" draft Council resolution, regardless of its
level of international support.
o France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom are considered major European economic
powers and they are the Western European countries individually represented as full members
of the G7 and the G20.
o They have been referred to as the "Big Four of Europe" since the interwar period.
o The term G4 was used for the first time when French President Nicolas Sarkozy called
for a meeting in Paris with Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, Prime Minister of the
United Kingdom Gordon Brown and Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel to consider the
response to the financial crisis during the Great Recession.
o The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development describes them as
the "Four Big European Countries"

G4 vs. Coffee Club

o India with the other G4 members such as Germany, Brazil, and Japan has asserted for an
increase in the permanent seat(s) and for which India has positioned itself as an aspirant.
o While, Italy has united with members such as Pakistan, Mexico, and other countries
(Coffee Club), with aims to counter the bids for permanent seats proposed by G4 nations and
is calling for a consensus before any decision is reached on the form and size of the Security
Council.
o Italy has opposed Germany’s bid, and prefers a seat for the European Union.
o Similarly, Italy has not supported India’s bid for a permanent seat in UNSC.
 G7 (GROUP OF SEVEN)
o The G7 (Group of Seven) is an organisation made up of the world's seven largest so-called
advanced economies. They are Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the UK and the
United States.
o Russia joined in 1998, creating the "G8", but was excluded in 2014 for its takeover of Crimea.
o China has never been a member, despite its large economy and having the world's biggest
population. Its relatively low level of wealth per person means it is not seen as an advanced
economy in the way the G7 members are.
o Representatives from the European Union are usually present and India, South Korea and
Australia have been invited this year.
o The concept of a forum for the world's major industrialized countries emerged before
the 1973 oil crisis.
o Since 1975, the group meets annually on summit site to discuss economic policies; since 1987,
the G7 Finance Ministers have met at least semi-annually, up to four times a year at stand-
alone meetings.
 G10 (GROUP OF TEN)

o The Group of Ten (G-10 or G10) refers to the group of countries that agreed to participate in
the General Arrangements to Borrow (GAB).
o It is an agreement to provide the International Monetary Fund (IMF) with additional
funds to increase its lending ability.
o The GAB was established in 1962, when the governments of eight International Monetary
Fund (IMF) members—Belgium, Canada, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, the United
Kingdom, and the United States—and the central banks of two others, Germany and Sweden,
agreed to make resources available to the IMF with an additional $6 billion of their resources.
o The additional money was intended to allow the IMF to have increased lending resources.
o In 1964, the funds were used by the IMF to rescue the pound sterling. The G-10 grew in 1964
by the association of the eleventh member, Switzerland, then not a member of the IMF, but the
name of the group remained the same.
o The GAB enables the IMF to borrow specified amounts of currencies from these eleven
industrial countries (or their central banks), under certain circumstances.

o The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) hosts a publications e-library page for the
G-10.
o The international organizations that are official observers of the activities of the G10 are : the
BIS, European Commission, International Monetary Fund, and Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development.
o Luxembourg is an associate member.
 G12 (GROUP OF TWELVE)

o The Group of Twelve or G12 is a group of industrially advanced countries whose central banks
co-operate to regulate international finance.
o Note that the G-12 consists of thirteen countries. It encompasses the initial ten members
of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which formed the original Group of Ten (G10),
adding Australia and Spain.
o In 1984, when Switzerland joined the G10 and G12, the names of the groups were not changed.
 G20
o The Group of Twenty (G20) is a collection of twenty of the world’s largest economies
formed in 1999. It was conceived as a bloc that would bring together the most important
industrialized and developing economies to discuss international economic and financial
stability.
o The G20 was formed in 1999, in the wake of the Asian financial crisis, to unite finance
ministers and central bankers from twenty of the world’s largest established and emerging
economies. A decade later, at the height of the global economic crisis, the G20 was elevated to
include heads of state and government.
o The G20 comprises nineteen countries with some of the world’s largest economies, as
well as the European Union (EU).
o The countries are Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India,
Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea, Turkey, the
United Kingdom (UK), and the United States. Spain is invited as a permanent guest.
o Every year, the leaders of G20 members meet to discuss mainly economic and financial matters
and coordinate policy on some other matters of mutual interest.
o Together, the nations of the G20 account for around 80 percent of global economic output,
nearly 75 percent of global exports, and about 60 percent of the world’s population.
What’s been on the agenda?

o The G20 initially focused largely on broad macroeconomic policy, but it has expanded its
ambit.
o The 2018 summit in Argentina focused on fair and sustainable development, while
the previous summit in Germany focused on issues including corruption, money
laundering, and international tax havens.

o Some agendas have had even less to do with macroeconomics: the 2016 summit in Hangzhou,
China, was where U.S. President Barack Obama and Chinese President Xi Jinping formally
announced their countries’ accession to the Paris Agreement on climate.
o Economic and financial coordination remains the centrepiece of each summit’s agenda, but
issues such as the future of work, terrorism, and global health are recurring focuses as well.
 G20 SUMMIT, NEW DELHI

The 18th G20 Summit was held in New Delhi. The summit was the first time India hosted the
G20 Leaders' Summit.
The theme of the summit was "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam", which means "The world is one
family".
MAJOR OUTCOMES
Admitting African Union (G20 now G21)
• The G20 leaders agreed to admit the African Union as a permanent member of the G20,
which is a major step towards increasing the representation of developing countries in the
forum.
• The AU's membership in the G20 offers an opportunity to reshape global trade, finance,
and investment and would provide a greater voice to the Global South within the G20.
• It allows African interests and perspectives to be heard and recognized within the G20.
India – Middle East – Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC)

• A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed between the Governments of India, the
US, Saudi Arabia, the European Union, the UAE, France, Germany, and Italy to establish the
IMEC.
• IMEC is part of a broader initiative called the Partnership for Global Infrastructure
Investment (PGII).
• The PGII was initially introduced during the G7 summit in the UK in June 2021.
• PGII aims to finance infrastructure projects in developing countries through a
combination of public and private investments.
• IMEC is a significant infrastructure project connecting India, the Middle East, and
Europe.
• The project aims to establish a network of transport corridors, including railways and sea lanes.
• IMEC is seen as a response to China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), providing an
alternative infrastructure network.
Global Biofuels Alliance (GBA)

• GBA is an India-led initiative that aims to develop an alliance of governments,
international organizations, and industry to promote the adoption of biofuels.
• The initiative seeks to position biofuels as a key component of the energy transition
and contribute to job creation and economic growth.
• The alliance was launched with nine initiating members: India, the US, Brazil, Argentina,
Bangladesh, Italy, Mauritius, South Africa, and the United Arab Emirates.
• GBA Members constitute major producers and consumers of biofuels. USA (52%), Brazil (30%)
and India (3%), contribute about 85% share in production and about 81% in consumption of
ethanol.
• 19 countries and 12 international organizations have already agreed to join.
G20 Global Partnership for Financial Inclusion Document:

• The G20 Global Partnership for Financial Inclusion document prepared by the World Bank has
lauded the transformative impact of India's Digital Public Infrastructure(DPI) over the
past decade under the Central Government.
• The document emphasizes the following initiatives that played a greater role in shaping the
DPI landscape:
o Rapid Financial Inclusion through Jan Dhan-Aadhar-Mobile (JAM) Trinity
o Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojna (PMJDY)
o Government to Person (G2P) Payments
o Unified Payments Interface (UPI) Dominance
o Private Sector Efficiency: DPI streamlined private organizations' operations, reducing
complexity, costs, and time.
o Lower Compliance Costs for KYC
o Cross-Border Payments: UPI-PayNow linkage enables faster and cheaper cross-border
payments with Singapore.

o Account Aggregator Framework: Enabled 1.13 billion accounts for data sharing with
13.46 million consents raised.
o Data Empowerment and Protection Architecture (DEPA): Provides individuals
control over their data, fostering innovation and competition.
Tripling the Global Renewable Energy Capacity By 2030:

• G20 countries promised to work towards tripling the global renewable energy capacity
by 2030.
• Aligns with global efforts to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
• Represents a significant shift away from fossil fuels towards cleaner energy alternatives.
• The declaration acknowledges that current climate action is insufficient and highlights the
need for trillions of dollars in financial resources to achieve the objectives of the Paris
Agreement.
• Expanding renewable energy capacity on this scale could avoid about 7 billion tonnes of CO2
emissions between 2023 and 2030.
Commitment to Global Food Security and Nutrition:

• The G20 declaration highlights the human suffering and impacts of the war in Ukraine on
global food and energy security, supply chains, inflation, and economic stability.
• G20 leaders called for the full, timely implementation of the Black Sea grain initiative.
• The agriculture working group during the G20 Presidency reached a historic consensus
on two aspects: G20 High-level principles on Food Security and Nutrition and the
Millet initiative called MAHARISHI.
• The seven principles under the high-level principles on food security and nutrition include
o humanitarian assistance,
o increasing food production and food security net programs,
o climate-smart approaches,
o inclusivity of agriculture food systems,
o one health approach,
o digitalization of the agriculture sector, and
o scaling responsible public and private investment in agriculture.
• MAHARISHI (Millets And OtHer Ancient Grains International ReSearcH

Initiative) aims at advancing research collaborations and generating awareness about millets
and other ancient grains during International Years of Millets 2023 and after.
• The G20 committed to promoting transparent, fair, and rule-based trade in
agriculture, food, and fertilizer. They pledged not to impose export restrictions, reduce market
distortions, and align with WTO rules.
• The G20 leaders emphasize the importance of strengthening the Agricultural Market
Information System (AMIS) and the Group on Earth Observations Global
Agricultural Monitoring (GEOGLAM) for greater transparency.

• This includes expanding AMIS to include vegetable oils and enhancing collaboration
with early warning systems to avoid food price volatility.
• AMIS is an inter-agency platform to enhance food market transparency

and policy response for food security.
AMIS • It was launched in 2011 by the G20 Ministers of Agriculture following
the global food price hikes in 2007/08 and 2010.
• GEOGLAM enhances market transparency and food security by

providing timely agricultural information worldwide.
GEOGLAM
• The GEOGLAM policy mandate initially came from the Group of Twenty
(G20) Agriculture Ministers during the French G20 Presidency in 2011.
Other commitment at G20
• The 2023 New Delhi Declaration builds upon previous G20 declarations,
Small Arms especially the 2015 Turkiye declaration, which strongly denounced
and Terrorist terrorism.
Safe Havens • The G20 leaders, in the New Delhi Declaration, clearly condemn
terrorism in all its forms and manifestations.
• It commits to strengthening the global health architecture to create more

resilient, equitable, sustainable, and inclusive health systems.
• The World Health Organization (WHO) is at the core of this effort.
Healthcare • The goal is to enhance primary healthcare, the health workforce,
Resilience and and essential health services to levels better than pre-pandemic
Research within the next two to three years.
• There is an emphasis on adopting a one-health approach, which
tracks diseases in animals, plants, and humans within the same
mechanism, with a particular focus on tackling antimicrobial resistance.
• Laid the foundation for a coordinated and comprehensive policy and

regulatory framework for cryptocurrencies.
Finance Track • G-20 leaders have recognized the pressing need for more robust and
Agreements effective Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs) to address the
high developmental demands globally.
• The India Stack model of digital public infrastructure for
financial inclusion is acknowledged as a promising approach.
 BIMSTEC
The BIMSTEC Charter was signed and adopted during the Fifth BIMSTEC Summit
held in virtual format in Colombo, Sri Lanka in March 2022.
About BIMSTEC
o BIMSTEC is an inter-regional grouping that seeks to foster regional and economic cooperation
among nations in the littoral and adjacent areas of the Bay of Bengal — India, Thailand,
Myanmar, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Bhutan.
o It is headquartered in Dhaka.
o The BIMSTEC region is home to roughly 22 per cent of the global population with a
combined GDP of over $4.4 trillion.
o Due to setbacks to the South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC), particularly
when its 2016 summit scheduled to be held in Pakistan was suspended after member countries
declined to participate, BIMSTEC has emerged as the “preferred platform” for regional
cooperation in South Asia.
BIMSTEC formation & relevance in Indo-Pacific region

o BIMSTEC is an economic bloc that came into being in June 1997 through the Bangkok
Declaration.
o It aims to accelerate economic growth and social progress among members across
multiple sectors — trade, technology, energy, transport, tourism and fisheries, agriculture,
public health, poverty alleviation, counter-terrorism, environment, culture, people to people
contact and climate change.
o The grouping holds annual meetings hosted by member states based on alphabetical
rotation.
o Sri Lanka is the host nation this time.
o Initially, the economic bloc was formed with four countries with the acronym ‘BIST-EC’
(Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka and Thailand Economic Cooperation). With the
entrance of Myanmar in 1997, the grouping was renamed ‘BIMST-EC’ (Bangladesh, India,
Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand Economic Cooperation).
o Finally, with the entrance of Nepal and Bhutan at the 6th Ministerial Meeting in 2004, the
grouping was named Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic
Cooperation (BIMSTEC).
o Some key agreements signed by BIMSTEC members include a convention for combating
terrorism, transnational organised crime and illicit drug trafficking. However, this awaits
ratification.
o Another is the BIMSTEC Grid Interconnection, signed during the BIMSTEC Summit in
Kathmandu, Nepal, in 2018, which aims to promote an optimal power transmission in the
BIMSTEC region.
o In the mid-2010s, BIMSTEC gained attention as India-Pakistan tensions began to hamstrung
SAARC.
 THREE SEAS INITIATIVE (3SI)

o The 3SI format was conceived by the President of Croatia and the President of Poland in 2015
during the United Nations General Assembly.
o The idea for the initiative was envisioned by the U.S. think-tank Atlantic Council in a report
titled "Completing Europe", which brought attention to the investment gap in Central and
Eastern Europe.

o The first Three Seas Summit was held in 2016 in Dubrovnik, Croatia. The Summit
initiated annual Three Seas
Summits on a presidential
level.
o The Three Seas Initiative (3SI)
is a regular cooperation format
that brings together 12
European Union member
states between the
Adriatic Sea, the Baltic Sea
and the Black Sea: Austria,
Bulgaria, Estonia, Croatia,
Lithuania, Latvia, Poland,
Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia,
the Czech Republic and
Hungary.
o The partners of the 3SI are the United States, Germany and the European Commission. The
initiative is designed to promote cooperation in order to contribute to economic growth and
energy security, as well as to boost cohesion and unity in Europe.
The Three Seas Initiative was born out of a shared interest in developing the transport,
energy and digital connections on the European Union’s north-south axis to increase
the economic growth and resilience of the region.
o Economic growth: The main aim of the overall initiative is to boost economic growth and
well-being in the region. Increased activity in trade and the provision of services within the
region and with neighbouring countries creates such opportunities and makes Europe, as a
whole, more competitive in global terms.
o Greater interest among investors: In the context of the European Union, the countries in
the Three Seas Initiative have stood out for many years for their above-average rates of
economic growth, and as such, they offer investors potentially higher rates of return. By
working together and pursuing similar policies, these countries will make the region more
attractive on the global financial market.
o Energy security: Energy is not only an economic issue; it has also become a strategic and
security concern. A cohesive, well-functioning energy market and the freedom to choose
between suppliers will increase open competition, ensure an improved supply for the region,
and boost energy security.
o Geopolitics: Strong economic development across the board in Europe, including the Three
Seas region, will help to defend current geopolitical interests more effectively, while making a
stand against interests that do not align with those of the region.
o Smart connectivity: Where new investments are concerned, the aim is to make the most of
the region’s experience and potential for implementing digital solutions. This goes beyond the
development of a separate digital infrastructure, and encompasses the creation of smart,
modern solutions for data exchange and a more efficient use of information.
o Achieving climate goals: A common market based on an effective and sufficient
infrastructure will help the region move towards lower carbon emissions and achieve carbon
neutrality.
o The Three Seas Initiative Investment Fund provides economic support to the political
initiative. The main objective of the Three Seas is to develop the region's infrastructure, which

requires large investments. The Fund was created to support the practical implementation of
ambitious infrastructure projects.
 INDIA AND CENTRAL ASIA

o India has limited economic and other stakes in the region, primarily due to lack of physical
access. And yet, the region appears to have gained a great deal of significance in India’s
strategic thinking over the years, particularly in the recent past.
o India’s mission Central Asia today reflects, and is responsive to, the new geopolitical, if not the
geo-economic, realities in the region.
o Central Asia Region stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to China in the east, and
from Afghanistan in the south to Russia in the north. It includes five countries namely
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan which are
collectively referred to as the Central Asian Republics (CARs).
Evolution of relations
o India has had a long history of cultural and commercial relations with Central Asia, facilitated
by its geographical proximity to India and the passage of the Silk Route through them.
o Buddhism was central to this connection in ancient times. Many rulers of medieval India had
their roots in Central Asia, including the Mughals.
o The present Central Asian Countries came into existence after the disintegration of the USSR
in 1991. India was one of the first countries to establish diplomatic relationships with
the CARs in 1991-92.
Importance of the Central Asian region for India

o Location: Central Asia’s
location at the heart of
Eurasia, its geographical
proximity, and historic
linkages, makes the region
highly relevant to India’s
strategic interests.
o Mineral and Energy
Security: Central Asian is
rich in energy resources,
including, oil, coal, and
natural gas. Kazakhstan is
the largest producer of
uranium. Uzbekistan also
has large uranium
reserves.
India being an import-
dependent nation for its
energy requirements needs
to have a strong
relationship with these countries for strengthening its energy security.

o Security: Terrorism, drug trafficking and radicalization have been a matter of concern for
India and Central Asian countries alike. This has especially become a major concern in the
context of the Taliban taking over control of Afghanistan.
o Geopolitical significance: Unstable Central Asia has the potential to affect Russia and
China, which have border connectivity to these countries. Also, as China is increasing its
influence in India’s neighbourhood, healthy relationship with Central Asian Countries can help
India to counter China’s strategy.
o Trade and Investment: The Central Asian countries provide trade and investment
opportunities in multiple sectors like IT, Pharmaceuticals, Tourism etc.
Initiatives undertaken to boost India-Central Asia relations
Connectivity
o International North South Transport Corridor(INSTC): India, Iran and Russia in
2000 launched INSTC to develop a new trade route that would help in cutting the costs and
time in moving cargo between Russia and India.
It is a 7,200-kilometre multi-modal project with thousands of kilometres of all-weather
highways. Many countries have now come on board which include Afghanistan, Azerbaijan,
Central Asia, and several European countries.
o Chabahar port initiative: In 2003, India and Iran announced the development of the
Chabahar port. This was launched to serve as an alternate route.
But repeated US sanctions on Iran for its suspected nuclear programme meant that Indian
firms were reluctant to participate in the projects, leading to cost and time overruns.
o Ashgabat Agreement: The pact was signed in 2011 by Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan,
Iran, Oman and Qatar and aimed at developing the shortest trade route between the Central
Asian republics and Iranian and Omani ports. India joined the Ashgabat agreement in 2018 to
diversify its connectivity options with Central Asia.
o Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India (TAPI) gas pipeline: It was launched to
transport natural gas from Turkmenistan to India with transit through Afghanistan and
Pakistan. However, it has been stalled since 2006 due to a lack of support from Pakistan.
Technological and Human resources

o Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation(ITEC): India launched ITEC programme to
provide assistance to the CARs countries in the area of IT, Management, journalism,
diplomacy, entrepreneurship, and banking.
o Connect Central Asia policy: It was launched in 2012 and aimed to enhance India’s
political, economic, historical and cultural connections with Central Asia.
Defence
o Strategic Partnership Agreements (SPA): India signed the SPA with three of the five CARs—
Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan—to stimulate defence cooperation and deepen trade
relations.
o Multilateral and bilateral forums/organisations: Initiatives like Shanghai Cooperation

Organisation (SCO) and Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in
India (CICA) have helped India to maintain regular channels of communication with the CARs.

Hindrances
o Landlocked region: CARs are landlocked countries and India lacks direct connectivity with
them which makes the realisation of the true potential of India-Central Asia relations difficult.
The progress on the connectivity initiatives has been quite slow because of geopolitical,
financial, and security constraints.
o Connectivity– Although India has launched projects in the area of Land and Maritime
connectivity, there are fewer initiatives in air and digital connectivity.
o Chinese presence in the region: In the past 20 years, China has made considerable inroads
into the region, boosting trade and investment. The CAR is also an enthusiastic supporter of
China’s Belt and Road Initiative.
o Taliban’s presence in Afghanistan: Taliban’s presence in Afghanistan and its proximity
to Pakistan may become a cause of concern for India’s outreach program in Central Asia. India
has reached out to CARs to secure its interests in Afghanistan.
o India’s Foreign policy: India’s foreign policy has been more focused on the bigger powers
such as Russia and the United States (US) and in dealing with challenges from China and
Pakistan. Thus, CARs got less attention in the past.
But recent development like the shifting of power centre from the West to Asia and turnaround
in Afghanistan has increased CAR‘s significance in India’s foreign policy.
o Trade and commercial bonds: Trade between India and Central Asia is very low (US $2
billion) compared to Chinese trade with the CARs, which amounts to approx. US $100 billion.
Way forward
o Leveraging India’s Soft power: India has a lot of goodwill in the CAR countries, which
could be utilised to expand its influence. Emphasis should be laid on maintaining cultural and
people to people contacts.
The Connect Central Asia Policy must be implemented speedily with high-level visits, strategic
partnerships, comprehensive economic engagement, partnership in the development of energy
and natural resources to ensure India’s strategic interests.
o Countering Chinese Presence: Although China has the largest regional presence in Central
Asia, India’s outreach may provide an alternative to CARs. Also, India’s commitment to
“principles of transparency, local priorities and respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity”
makes it a preferred alternative to China in the long run.
o More cooperation in trade and commerce: India must improve trade in both goods and
services. Cooperation can be enhanced in areas such as FDI, technology, Human resources.
Increased access to India’s huge markets would undoubtedly be highly beneficial for Central
Asian countries that are constantly on the lookout to boost their struggling economies.
While India would get a chance to diversify its import dependency by investing in this energy
and mineral-rich region.
 PANGONG TSO
China is building a bridge across the Pangong Tso within its territory connecting the
North and South Banks which will significantly reduce the time for moving troops and
equipment between the two sides.

Importance of the bridge over Pangong Tso to China

o The bridge over Pangong Tso is located around 25 kms ahead of the LAC in Chinese territory
and will significantly reduce the time for movement between People’s Liberation Army (PLA)
garrison at Kurnak fort on the North Bank and the Modlo garrison on the South
Bank, a distance of around 200 kms.
o The initial tensions as the standoff began in May 2020 were on the North Bank of Pangong Tso
with PLA troops moving upto Finger 4 and building permanent structures.
o However, tensions had flared up on the South Bank in August 2020. The Indian Army gained
tactical advantage over the PLA on the south bank in end August by occupying several peaks
lying vacant since 1962 gaining a dominating view of the Spanggur gap and Moldo area.
o During this, the two sides had also deployed tanks at heights of over 15,000 feet and shots were
fired in the air on the LAC for the first time in decades.
o This has prompted China to build deep alternate roads behind the friction points away from
the line of sight, officials said. There has been massive construction of accommodation for
housing of troops closer to the LAC and also road infrastructure for movement of troops and
mechanised forces, officials say.
o Earlier, PLA had to take a round about between the two sides of the Pangong lake which takes
around 12 hours but the new bridge, around 500m long, would cut down the time to 3-4 hours.
Construction has been ongoing for few months now, officials said.
o India holds one third of the 135 km long boomerang shaped lake located at an altitude of over
14,000 feet.
India’s response
o The implications of this new
bridge will have to be
factored in the Indian
Army’s operational
planning for the future.
o On its part, over the last few
years India has been
focusing on infrastructure
development in forward
areas and improving
connectivity to the forward
areas.
o Large scale construction of
roads, bridges and tunnels is underway all along the LAC.
o While the process of disengagement and de-escalation stretches on, the two armies are geared
to remain in the high altitude areas.
 INDIA AND UNCLOS

India is committed to promoting a free, open and rules-based order rooted in international law
and undaunted by pressure. This was declared by the union government while reiterating
support for the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).

o India is committed to safeguarding maritime interests and strengthening security in the

Indian Ocean Region (IOR) to ensure a favourable and positive maritime environment.
o India also supported freedom of navigation and overflight, and unimpeded commerce based
on the principles of international law.
o As a State party to the UNCLOS, India promoted utmost respect for the UNCLOS, which
established the international legal order of the seas and oceans.
o India developed its maritime cooperation with regional partners in consonance with the
Government’s vision of Security and Growth for All in the Region (SAGAR).
o The steps taken include ‘Mission based Deployments’ of naval ships and aircraft to
enhance Maritime Domain Awareness, promote maritime security and address contingencies
that may arise.
UNCLOS
o The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is an international treaty
which was adopted and signed in 1982.
o It replaced the four Geneva Conventions of April, 1958, which respectively concerned
the territorial sea and the contiguous zone, the continental shelf, the high seas, fishing and
conservation of living resources on the high seas.
o The Convention has created three new institutions on the international scene :
▪ the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea,
▪ the International Seabed Authority,
▪ the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf.
IUCN and UNCLOS: The Convention has become the legal framework for marine and maritime
activities and IUCN with its partners are working towards an implementing agreement (UNCLOS
IA) that will close important gaps in governance.

 ARMENIA AND AZERBAIJAN

The bone of contention is
the Nagorno-Karabakh
region.
o South Caucasus or
Transcaucasia is a region
on the southern Caucasus
Mountains on the border of
Eastern Europe and Western
Asia. It roughly comprises of
the modern countries of
Azerbaijan, Armenia and
Georgia.
o Nagorno-Karabakh
region is a mountainous
land-locked region in the
South Caucasus. It is a
forested region and geographically lies within the boundary of Azerbaijan.
o The region is also called Artsakh (chiefly by Armenians).
o Nagorno-Karabakh lies in the mountainous range of Karabakh.
o Nagorno-Karabakh is internationally recognised as a part of Azerbaijan, although it is
ruled by the Republic of Artsakh (formerly known as the Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh).
o The Republic of Artsakh is autonomous but controlled by Armenia.
o The major ethnic group of the region is Armenian.
Strategic Significance
o The energy-rich Azerbaijan has built several gas and oil pipelines across the Caucasus (the
region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea) to Turkey and Europe.
o Some of these pipelines pass close to the conflict zone (within 16 km of the border).
o In an open war between the two countries, the pipelines could be targeted, which would impact
energy supplies and may even lead to higher oil prices globally.
Background of the Conflict

o The conflict can be traced back to the pre-Soviet era when the region was at the meeting point
of Ottoman, Russian and the Persian empires.
o Once Azerbaijan and Armenia became Soviet Republics in 1921, Russia (erstwhile
Soviet Union) gave Nagorno-Karabakh to Azerbaijan but offered autonomy to the contested
region.
o In the 1980s, when the Soviet power was receding, separatist currents picked up in Nagorno-
Karabakh.
o In 1988, the national assembly voted to dissolve the region’s autonomous status and join
Armenia.
o However, Azerbaijan suppressed such calls, which led to a military conflict.

o The self-declaration of independence by Nagorno-Karabakh in September 1991 in

the backdrop of an imminent collapse of the USSR resulted in a war between Azerbaijan and
Nagorno-Karabakh — supported by Armenia.
o This clash lasted till a ceasefire agreement was reached in 1994, mediated largely by Russia.
Since then, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)
Minsk Group co-chaired by the USA, Russia and France have engaged Azerbaijan and
Armenia extensively to resolve the conflict.
o By that time, Armenia had taken control of Nagorno-Karabakh and handed it to Armenian
rebels.
Minsk Group
o The Minsk Group or the OSCE Minsk Group was established in 1992 by the Conference on
Security and Cooperation (CSCE, now Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
(OSCE)) to envisage a peaceful, negotiated resolution to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict
between Azerbaijan and Armenia.
o It is co-chaired by France, Russia and the USA.
o Permanent members of the group: Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Germany, Italy,
Sweden, Finland, Turkey
o One of the criticisms of the group is that although it is supposed to be neutral, it is co-chaired
by the US, Russia and France – all countries with huge Armenian diasporas. Because of
this reason, the group is said to be soft on Armenia.
o Despite the UN’s calls for Armenian forces to withdraw, the Minsk Group does not actively
endorse an Armenian withdrawal from the region.
o It is also said that apart from mere lip-service in the form of calls for a ceasefire and the
condemnation of the clashes between both sides, the group does nothing substantial to find a
lasting solution to the crisis.
Reasons for regular conflicts

First, the issue of o Following the 2020 agreement, a substantial amount of territory was
delineating the handed over from Armenian Karabakh to Azerbaijan making the once
shared soft border between Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh, a hard
international international border.
border.
o However, Armenia and Azerbaijan have never agreed upon a
boundary between them in the past and the 2020 ceasefire statement
did not make it clear on how exactly the border should be drawn out.
Second, the o The overland route that goes from Stepanakert (a city within the
dispute over Nagorno-Karabakh region) to Armenia has become an issue
transport routes. between the two countries.
o The 2020 agreement states that the parties should build an alternative
road within three years.
o Presently, there is only one road which is the Lachin corridor, which
runs past the outposts through Azerbaijan’s mountainous Lachin
region to Shusha, which Azerbaijani forces retook in the 2020 war.
o The construction of the road would allow Azerbaijan to take back
control of Lachin city and surrounding areas. However, Azerbaijan

has accused Armenia of stalling operations of laying its several-

kilometre section of the new road.
Third, the o The ethnically Armenian enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh, which is also
difference over the known as the Republic of Artsakh, has expressed frustration over
status of Nagorno- Armenia’s willingness to make concessions to Azerbaijan as part of a
Karabakh. larger prospective peace settlement.
o While Armenia supports the aspirations for independence of
Nagorno-Karabakh, Azerbaijan seeks to preserve its national and
territorial integrity.
Fourth, the o The two sides were to exchange prisoners of war, hostages and other
dispute over the detained persons, and dead bodies.
exchange of
o While there has been a series of prisoner exchanges in the last two
prisoners.
years, the Azerbaijan side still has many captives while Armenia has
just a few.
 KYRGYZSTAN AND TAJIKISTAN
Origins of the conflict

o The conflicts replay previous pre- and post-Soviet legacies.

o Under the direction of Joseph Stalin, the boundaries of the two republics were established.
o In the past, the populations of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan shared rights to natural
resources.
o Large-scale livestock transfers to collective and state farms occurred during the Soviet
Union’s establishment, upsetting the status quo.
o There was, regrettably, only so much acreage to go around.
o As the number of animals in the Tajik territory of Batken increased and grazing area
became more scarce, agreements were made between the two populations on the use of Kyrgyz
territory by the Tajiks’ livestock.
o The border delineation debate is a holdover from the Soviet era.
o The map that should be used for demarcation purposes remains one of the key sources of
contention, despite attempts to resolve the matter through regular negotiations.
o Nearly half of its roughly 1000 kilometre border is up for debate.
Current flare-up
o The ideological basis of the current set of clashes is reinforced by developmental issues, thus
providing a fertile ground for the entire geopolitical space to become a hotbed of multiple
minor conflicts and clashes.
o The environmental trajectory of the conflict can be further highlighted by incidents which saw
groups from either side planting trees in disputed areas and engaging in a physical
confrontation using agricultural equipment as weapons.
o Ferghana valley continues to be a site of struggle and frequent violent outbursts, with
the location consisting primarily of Tajiks, Kyrgyz, and Uzbeks, who have historically shared
common sociological specificities, economic activities, and religious practices.
o The collapse of the Soviet Union and the subsequent dissolution of the then-
existing water and land agreements saw the creation of multiple smaller independent
farms, which led to a marked increase in water consumption patterns among the farmers.
o Both countries share multiple water channels with undulating trajectories and flow, which
upset equitable access to water on both sides.
o As a result, small-scale conflicts occur practically every year during the crucial irrigation
period.
Significance of this region for India

o India has a very wide array of interests in Central Asia covering security, energy, economic
opportunities etc., therefore security, stability and prosperity of Central Asia is imperative for
peace and economic development of India.
o Central Asia serves as a land bridge between Asia and Europe, making it geopolitically
axial for India.
o The region is rich in natural resources such as petroleum, natural gas, antimony,
aluminium, gold, silver, coal and uranium which can be best utilized by Indian energy
requirements.
o Central Asia has huge cultivable areas lying barren and without being put to any
productive use, offering enormous opportunity for cultivation of pulses.
o India intends expansion of International North South Transport Corridor (INSTC) to
Afghanistan and Uzbekistan. This will act as a vital gateway to access Eurasian markets and

optimally operationalize its use, requiring a Central Asian state joining the project as a direct
stakeholder.
o India has proposed setting up of ‘India-Central Asia Development Group’ to take
forward development partnership between India & Central Asian countries. This group will
help India to expand its footprints in the resource-rich region amid China’s massive inroads
and to fight terror effectively, including in Afghanistan.
o Both India and Central Asian Republics (CARs) share many commonalities and perceptions on
various regional and world issues and can play a crucial role in providing regional stability.
 JCPOA
o The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) is a detailed agreement with five annexes
reached by Iran and the P5+1 (China France, Germany, Russia, the United Kingdom, and
the United States) on July 14, 2015.
o The nuclear deal was endorsed by UN Security Council Resolution 2231, adopted on July
20, 2015.
o Iran’s compliance with the nuclear-related provisions of the JCPOA is verified by the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) according to certain requirements set forth in the
agreement.
Timeline for Implementation

o July 14, 2015, Finalization Day: conclusion of the agreement. Finalization day triggers
Iran and the United States to begin domestic review processes of the JCPOA. Iran also begins
providing the IAEA with information necessary for the agency to complete its investigation into
past activities related to nuclear weapons development.
o October 18, 2015, Adoption Day: 90 days after the passage of the UN Security Council
Resolution endorsing the deal (July 20, 2015). Adoption day triggers Iran and the P5+1 to take
steps to meet the commitments to fully implement the JCPOA.
o January 16, 2016, Implementation Day: the IAEA certifies that Iran has taken the key
steps to restrict its nuclear program and has put in place increased monitoring. The IAEA's
report on implementation day triggers U.S., EU, and UN sanctions relief.
o October 2023, Transition Day: Eight years after adoption day (or the IAEA reaching its
broader conclusion on Iran's nuclear program, whichever is sooner). Transition day triggers
the UN to lift missile restrictions, Iran to seek ratification of its additional protocol, the EU to
terminate all remaining nuclear sanctions, United States to remove certain entities from the
sanctioned list, and the United States to seek legislative termination of certain sanctions.
o October 2025, Termination Day: Ten years after adoption day. Termination day
terminates Resolution 2231 and the Security Council closes Iran's nuclear file.
What did Iran agree to?

o Nuclear restrictions: Iran agreed not to produce either the highly enriched uranium or the
plutonium that could be used in a nuclear weapon. It also took steps to ensure that its Fordow,
Natanz, and Arak facilities pursued only civilian work, including medical and industrial
research.
The accord limits the numbers and types of centrifuges Iran can operate, the level of its
enrichment, as well as the size of its stockpile of enriched uranium.

(Note: Mined uranium has less than 1 percent of the uranium-235 isotope used in fission
reactions, and centrifuges increase that isotope’s concentration. Uranium enriched to 5
percent is used in nuclear power plants, and at 20 percent it can be used in research reactors
or for medical purposes. High-enriched uranium, at some 90 percent, is used in nuclear
weapons.)
o Monitoring and verification: Iran agreed to eventually implement a protocol that would
allow inspectors from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the United Nations’
nuclear watchdog, access to its nuclear facilities and potentially to undeclared sites.
Inspections are intended to guard against the possibility that Iran could develop nuclear arms
in secret, as it has allegedly attempted before.
The IAEA has issued quarterly reports to its board of governors and the UN Security Council
on Iran’s implementation of its nuclear commitments.
A body known as the Joint Commission, which includes representatives of all the
negotiating parties, monitors implementation of the agreement and resolves disputes that may
arise.
What did the other signatories agree to?

o Sanctions relief: The EU, United Nations, and United States all committed to lifting their
nuclear-related sanctions on Iran. However, many other U.S. sanctions on Iran, some dating
back to the 1979 hostage crisis, remained in effect. They cover matters such as Iran’s ballistic
missile program, support for terrorist groups, and human rights abuses. Though the United
States committed to lifting its sanctions on oil exports, it kept restrictions on financial
transactions, which have deterred international trade with Iran.
o Weapons embargo: The parties agreed to lift an existing UN ban on Iran’s transfer of
conventional weapons and ballistic missiles after five years if the IAEA certifies that Iran is
only engaged in civilian nuclear activity.
How is the Iran deal enforced?

o If any signatory suspects Iran is violating the deal, the UN Security Council may vote on
whether to continue sanctions relief. This “snapback” mechanism remains in effect for ten
years, after which the UN sanctions are set to be permanently removed.
o In April 2020, the United States announced its intention to snap back sanctions. The other P5
members objected to the move, saying the United States could not unilaterally implement the
mechanism because it left the nuclear deal in 2018.
o Recently under US President, Joe Biden, the US has again shown the desire to return to JCPOA.
 ASEAN
o The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is a regional grouping that promotes
economic, political, and security cooperation among its ten members: Brunei, Cambodia,
Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and
Vietnam.
o ASEAN countries have a total population of 650 million people and a combined gross domestic
product (GDP) of $3.1 trillion.

o The group has played a central role in Asian economic integration, spearheading negotiations
among Asia-Pacific nations to form one of the world’s largest free trade blocs and signing six
free trade agreements with other regional economies.
o The bloc’s biggest challenge is developing a unified approach to China, particularly in response
to Beijing’s claims in the South China Sea, which overlap with claims of several ASEAN
members.
o ASEAN is headed by a chair—a position that rotates annually among member states—and is
assisted by a secretariat based in Jakarta, Indonesia.
The Bloc’s History

o It was formed in 1967. ASEAN united Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and
Thailand, which sought to create a common front against the spread of communism and
promote political, economic, and social stability amid rising tensions in the Asia-Pacific.
o In 1976, the members signed the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia,
which emphasizes mutual respect and noninterference in other countries’ affairs.
o Membership doubled by the end of the 1990s.
Membership: 10 States ― Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia,
Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. 1 Observer – Papua New Guinea.
ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) Membership

o 27 States – Australia, Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Canada, China, European
Union, India, Indonesia, Japan, Democratic Peoples’ Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea,
Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Mongolia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines,
Russian Federation, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Timor Leste, United States, and Vietnam.
Fundamental Principles
o The Treaty of Amity and Cooperation (TAC) in Southeast Asia, signed at the First ASEAN
Summit on 24 February 1976, declared that in their relations with one another, the High
Contracting Parties should be guided by the following fundamental principles:
▪ Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity, and national
identity of all nations;
▪ The right of every State to lead its national existence free from external interference,
subversion, or coercion;
▪ Non-interference in the internal affairs of one another;
▪ Settlement of differences or disputes by peaceful manner;
▪ Renunciation of the threat or use of force; and
▪ Effective cooperation among themselves.

 EUROPEAN UNION
History
o In 1950, the concept of a European trade area was first established. The European Coal and
Steel Community had six founding members: Belgium, France, Germany, Italy,
Luxembourg, and the Netherlands.
o In 1957, the Treaty of Rome established a common market. It eliminated customs duties in
1968. It put in place standard policies, particularly in trade and agriculture. In 1973, the ECSC
added Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom. It created its first Parliament in 1979.
Greece joined in 1981, followed by Spain and Portugal in 1986.
o In 1993, the Treaty of Maastricht established the European Union common market. Two
years later, the EU added Austria, Sweden, and Finland. In 2004, twelve more countries joined:
Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and
Slovenia. Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007.
o In 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon increased the powers of the European Parliament. It gave the
EU the legal authority to negotiate and sign international treaties. It increased EU powers,
border control, immigration, judicial cooperation in civil and criminal matters, and police
cooperation. It abandoned the idea of a European Constitution. European law is still
established by international treaties.
o The European Union is a unified trade and monetary body of 27 member countries. It
eliminates all border controls between members. The open border allows the free flow of goods
and people. There may be police checks, based on police information and experience, that are
not equivalent to border checks.
o Any product manufactured in one EU country can be sold to any other member without tariffs
or duties. Practitioners of most services, such as law, medicine, tourism, banking, and
insurance, can operate a business in all member countries.
Purpose
o The EU's purpose is to be more competitive in the global marketplace. At the same time, it
must balance the needs of its independent fiscal and political members.
o Its 27 member countries are Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic,
Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia,
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia,
Spain, and Sweden.
How is it Governed?
o Three bodies run the EU. The EU Council represents national governments.
o The Parliament is elected by the people. The European Commission is the EU staff. They make
sure all members act consistently in regional, agricultural, and social policies. Contributions of
120 billion euros a year from member states fund the EU.
o Here's how the three bodies uphold the laws governing the EU. These are spelled out in a series
of treaties and supporting regulations:
▪ The European Commission proposes new legislation. The commissioners serve a five-year
term.

▪ The European Parliament gets the first read of all laws the Commission proposes. Its members
are elected every five years.
▪ The European Council gets the second read on all laws and can accept the Parliament’s
position, thus adopting the law. The council is made up of the Union’s 27 heads of state, plus a
president.
Currency
o The Euro is the common currency for the EU area. It is the second most commonly held
currency in the world, after the U.S. dollar. It replaced the Italian lira, the French franc, and
the German Deutschmark, among others.
o The value of the euro is free-floating instead of a fixed exchange rate. As a result, foreign
exchange traders determine its value each day.
The Difference Between the Eurozone and the EU

o The Eurozone consists of all countries that use the euro. All EU members pledge to convert
to the euro, but only 19 have so far. They are Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland,
France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands,
Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain.
o The European Central Bank is the EU's central bank. It sets monetary policy and manages
bank lending rates and foreign exchange reserves. Its target inflation rate is less than 2%.
The Schengen Area

o The Schengen Area guarantees free movement to those legally residing within its boundaries.
Residents and visitors can cross borders without getting visas or showing their passports.2
o In total, there are 26 members of the Schengen Area. They are Austria, Belgium, Czech
Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy,
Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal,
Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland.
o One EU country, Ireland has declined the Schengen benefits. Four non-EU countries, Iceland,
Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland have adopted the Schengen Agreement. Three
territories are special members of the EU and part of the Schengen Area: the Azores, Madeira,
and the Canary Islands. Three countries have open borders with the Schengen Area: Monaco,
San Marino, and Vatican City.
 TRILATERAL HIGHWAY
o The India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway starts from India and goes to Thailand
via Myanmar. It is at the centre of transport diplomacy among ASEAN countries. Recently,
Bangladesh has shown its willingness to join the tripartite highway.
o Bangladesh is interested in joining the IMT Trilateral Highway to enhance the connectivity
with South East Asia. It wants to open new chapters in trans-border corridors in the Indo
Pacific Region.

About the IMT Trilateral Highway:

o The highway's Imphal-Moreh portion on the Indian side, however, is expected to be completed
only by 2023.
o It will be linking Moreh (India) -Bagan (Myanmar) -Mae Sot (Thailand).
o This highway is expected to help greatly in the transport connectivity which is almost 3660 km
long cross border highway network and is currently under construction, expected to be
completed by 2021.
o The transnational highway connectivity was envisaged to enable trade from India to the other
ASEAN nations.
o It was decided to extend the Trilateral Highway to Lao PDR and Cambodia to deepen the India-
ASEAN Relations at the ASEAN-India Commemorative Summit 2012.
Benefits of the project

o The India-Myanmar-Thailand (IMT) highways project is aimed at opening the gate to ASEAN
through the land.
o The project will boost trade and commerce in the ASEAN–India Free Trade Area, as well as
with the rest of Southeast Asia.
o Since India has been working towards increasing its engagements with South East Asia under
its `Act East Policy’ the India-Myanmar-Thailand
Trilateral Highway is one of the biggest
infrastructure projects in the region.
o India’s efforts under the project:
o India has undertaken the construction of two
sections of the Trilateral Highway in Myanmar.
These are the 120.74 km Kalewa-Yagyi road
section and 69 bridges along with the approach road
on the 149.70 km Tamu-Kyigone-Kalewa (TKK)
road section.
o India requested for one Land Port without a negative
list, starting with Agartala-Akhaura and for
transportation of goods from Chattogram port to the
North East of India. India also proposed that its
trucks use the Feni Bridge, once it is complete.
o Recently, India and Bangladesh have expanded their
transport and connectivity routes. Sonamura
Daudkandi Inland Waterway Route, Feni Bridge
from Sabroom to Ramgarh and Haldibari Chilahati
rail route are its examples. Leaving India aside now,
it is upto Thailand and Myanmar to accept Bangladesh to join IMT Highway.
 INSTC
o International North-South Transport Corridor is a corridor to increase trade between India
and Russia. This trade route is 7200 Km long and the transport of freight is through a multi-
mode network of roads, ships, and railways. This route connects India and Russia through Iran
and Azerbaijan.

o The earlier trade route connecting India and Russia was through the Suez Canal. Hence the
major objective of the INSTC corridor was to reduce the time taken, costs incurred, and
increase connectivity between major cities like Mumbai, Moscow, Astrakhan(located in
Russia), Baku (Azerbaijan), Tehran, Bandar Abbas and Bandar Anzail (All located in Iran).
o Russia, India, and Iran are the founding member states of INSTC. The agreement was signed
in 2002.
o There are 13 member states of the INSTC project. India, Iran, Russia, Azerbaijan, Armenia,
Kazakhstan, Belarus, Tajikistan, Kyrgystan, Oman, Turkey, Syria, Ukraine.
o Bulgaria is the Observer State.
o The Baltic countries like Latvia and Estonia have also expressed willingness to join the INSTC.
India and INSTC

o India shows interest in extending INSTC membership to countries like Afghanistan and
Uzbekistan.
o Establishing a land route via Kabul and Tashkent to form the INSTC’s “Eastern corridor” would
maximise the potential of this collaboration.
o Also, India wants to include Chabahar port to be included in the International North-South
Transport Corridor (INSTC).
o The potential export sectors in India that benefit from INSTC include perishable goods (fruits
and vegetables), high-value items like ATMs, industrial printers, 3D printers, robotic assembly
accessories, etc., cross-border e-commerce, and sectors that are likewise.
o Significance of INSTC
o The corridor is aimed at reducing the carriage cost between India and Russia by about 30%
and bringing down the transit time from 40 days by more than half.
o It could be considered as a very important corridor for the development of freight traffic in the
region.
o This corridor is capable of boosting India’s economy. Indian exports are expected to increase
substantially during the next calendar year.
o This corridor is expected to increase market access to the member nations who can also benefit
through various backward and forward linkages.
 ASHGABAT AGREEMENT
o The multimodal transport agreement signed by the governments of Kazakhstan,
Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Iran, Pakistan, India and Oman to create an
international transport and transit corridor facilitating transportation of goods between
Central Asia and the Persian Gulf, is called as Ashgabat Agreement.
o The Ashgabat Agreement aims to develop the shortest trade route between Central Asian
countries and Iranian and Omani ports.
o The Ashgabat multi-modal corridor is intended to be complimentary and to be synchronised
with the International North South Transport Corridor (INSTC) for enhanced connectivity.
o The transit agreement provides for a transit corridor across Central Asia and the Middle East
through the continuous landmass between Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Iran
before reaching the Persian Gulf and into Oman.

o Ashgabat (It used to be called Poltoratsk between 1919 and 1927) is the capital and
the largest city of Turkmenistan in Central Asia, situated between the Karakum Desert and the
Kopet Dag mountain range.
o The entry of Kazakhstan has increased the significance of the agreement by extending it further
into Central Asia to the borders of Russia and China.
o The land transport component of the agreement includes rail links running through
Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Iran, of these the Iran-Turkmenistan-
Kazakhstan (ITK) railway line is a major route.
o ITK railway line connects Turkmenistan in the north with Uzen in Kazakhstan and with Gorgan
in Iran to the south.
o ITK railway link which became operational in December 2014 is also a part of the India-
sponsored North-South international transport corridor (NSITC/INSTC).
o Besides the ITK rail link, the other rail project is the Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Tajikistan
(TAT) rail line.
o TAT railroad will link Afghanistan’s Akina-Andkhoy to Turkmenistan’s Atamurat-Ymamnazar
via Pyandzh in Tajikistan.
o Turkmenistan also participates in TRACECA (Transport Corridor Europe-
Caucasus-Asia), an international transport programme which includes the EU and 14
Eastern European, South Caucasus and Central Asian states.
o Some experts opine that India’s strategy should be
▪ To participate in all regional connectivity arrangements that exist outside China’s the One Belt
One Road (OBOR) Initiatives
▪ Involve in connectivity initiatives that supplement and complement the INSTC
▪ To diminish the leverage being exercised by Pakistan in curtailing India’s connectivity to
Central Asian countries.
▪ To optimize India’s trade routes to the EU, both in terms of costs and time.
▪ India – Turkmenistan relation is the key to India’s ‘Connect Central Asia’ initiative.
 BCIM
o The BCIM economic corridor aims to
connect Kolkata with Kunming,
capital of the Yunnan province.
o It envisages formation of a thriving
economic belt, focusing on cross-border
transport, energy and
telecommunication networks.
o Starting from Kunming, the route
passes through nodal points, such as
Spread: Mandalay and Lashio in
Myanmar. It heads towards Kolkata
after passing through Manipur and
Silchar, before crossing Bangladesh via
Sylhet and Dhaka, with branches extending to the ports of Cox Bazar and Chittagong.
o Importance of BCIM:

o India will benefit in terms of the development of the Kolkata port and the opening up of the
economic potential of the northeast states.
o BCIM offers India an opportunity to create its own win-win relationship with China.
o India’s gain from the BCIM includes the ability to connect to the One Belt, One Road project
thus opening up markets to the east.
o It can also use the economic corridor for negotiating downstream industries to be located
within India.
o With natural gas reserves of about 200 trillion cubic feet, the largest in the Asia-Pacific,
Bangladesh could become one of the major energy exporting countries.
o Tourism too will get a boost.
o BCIM can not only be a game-changer for this region in Asia, but is also pivotal for India’s ‘Act
East’ Policy.
o Economic Benefits include access to several booming markets in Southeast Asia, improvement
of transport infrastructure and setting up of industrial zones.
o The regional connectivity would facilitate cross-border movement of people and goods, reduce
overland trade bottlenecks, ensure access and increase volume of trade.
o Substantially reduce transaction costs, enhance trade and investment and poverty alleviation
in the region.
 BBIN
o Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal (BBIN) Motor Vehicles Agreement (MVA) aim to
facilitate the seamless flow of passenger, personal and cargo vehicular traffic between and
among the BBIN countries
o The BBIN connectivity project was conceived after the South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation (Saarc) failed to agree on a regional motor vehicles agreement at a summit in
Nepal in 2014, mainly because of opposition from Pakistan.
o BBIN MVA aims at constructing an economic corridor connecting Bangladesh, Bhutan, India
and Nepal by roads.
o Bhutan is one of the signatories to the BBIN MVA. It has not yet ratified the Agreement for its
entry into force. Bangladesh, India and Nepal, have already ratified it.
o Asian Development Bank has supported the project as part of its South Asian Subregional
Economic Cooperation programme.
o The agreement was created ‘for the Regulation of Passenger, Personal and Cargo Vehicular
Traffic between Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, and Nepal and to boost economic growth in the
region.
o BBIN agreement will promote safe, economically efficient, and environmentally sound road
transport in the sub-region and will further help each country in creating an institutional
mechanism for regional integration.
o BBIN countries will be benefited from mutual cross border movement of passengers and goods
for the overall economic development of the region.
o The people of the four countries will benefit through the seamless movement of goods and
passengers across borders.

 CARICOM
o The Caribbean Community was formed in 1973.

o CARICOM has 15 members – Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica,
Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St. Vincent and the
Grenadines, Suriname, and Trinidad & Tobago.
o The Chairmanship of the Community is rotated every six months among the member countries.
o The CARICOM Single Market and Economy are intended to benefit the people of the region by
providing more and better opportunities to produce and sell goods and services and to attract
investment.
o The Government of India funded the US$ 1.166 million information technology and
communication infrastructure, computer software and community studio at the CARICOM
Secretariat in 2005-2006.
 INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT

o The International Criminal Court (ICC) is an intergovernmental organisation and
international tribunal headquartered in The Hague.
o It investigates and tries people charged with serious and grave crimes such as genocide, crimes
against humanity, war crimes and the crime of aggression. It is the first permanent
international criminal court in the world.
ICC Functions
o The ICC aims to end impunity and hold those individuals responsible for heinous crimes
against humanity to face justice.
o It also aims to prevent crimes from happening through the proper dispensation of justice.
o The ICC intends to complement national courts and not replace them.

o It is governed by an international statute known as the Rome Statute. The Statute entered into
force in July 2002.
o The Court has about 900 staff members from about one hundred nations.
o It has two working languages namely English and French. There are 6 official languages
namely, English, French, Arabic, Chinese, Spanish and Russian.
o The ICC has heard 28 cases until now.
o India is not a member of the ICC.
o Each member party has one vote and voting is resorted to only when decisions cannot be taken
by consensus.
 INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE (ICJ)

o The ICJ is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations. Its seat is at the Peace Palace
in The Hague (Netherlands). Notably, it is the only UN principal organ not situated in New
York.
o The chief judicial organ of the UN, it is also sometimes known as the World Court.
o Established by the UN Charter in 1945, it began work in 1946 when it replaced the Permanent
Court of International Justice which had functioned in the Peace Palace since 1922.
o All the 193 member states of the UN are automatically parties to the Court. Those nations that
are not members of the UN may become parties to the Court’s statute with the help of the
Article 93 procedure.
o The chief function of the ICJ is to settle disputes submitted by parties according to
international law.
o The Court is composed of 15 judges. It has a dual role:
o Settling legal disputes between States submitted to it by them;
o Providing advisory opinions on legal matters referred to it by United Nations organs and
specialized agencies.
o The Court also gives advisory opinions on legal matters submitted by any of the UN bodies or
specialised agencies.
o The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) can enforce ICJ judgements as per the UN
Charter. However, the permanent members of the UNSC can veto against any such ruling.
o The official languages of the ICJ are English and French.
ICC, ICJ & Permanent Court of Arbitration

Difference between ICC, ICJ & PCA
Feature International International Permanent Court of
Court of Justice Criminal Court Arbitration
Establishment ICJ was established The ICC was established The PCA was established
in June, 1945 by the in July, 2002 as per the by the Convention for the
Charter of the United provisions of the Rome Pacific Settlement of
Nations Statute of the International Disputes,
during the first Hague

International Criminal Peace Conference in

Court. 1899.
Members Countries that are Countries that have Parties to the Convention
UN members are de- ratified the Rome on the Pacific Settlement
facto members of the Statute are members of of disputes of 1899 and
ICJ. the ICC. 1907 are automatically
parties to the PCA.
Jurisdiction Jurisdiction in Individuals accused of It has a permanent

contentious dispute crimes of genocide, framework for arbitral
of legal nature crimes against tribunals constituted to
among its Member humanity, war crimes resolve specific disputes.
States. This can be and the crime of
extended to a non- aggression in member-
member State on States or those referred It resolves dispute
recommendation of by the UNSC. involving various among
UNSC and UNGA. states, state entities,
Advisory jurisdiction international
in dispute involving organizations and
an UN Organ & private parties.
Specialised Agencies.
 ARCTIC COUNCIL
o The Arctic Council is the leading intergovernmental forum promoting cooperation,
coordination and interaction among the Arctic States, Arctic Indigenous peoples and
other Arctic inhabitants on common Arctic issues, in particular on issues of sustainable
development and environmental protection in the Arctic.
o It was formally established in 1996.
o The Ottawa Declaration defines these states as Members of the Arctic Council: Canada,
Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States.
o Permanent participants are organizations representing Arctic Indigenous
peoples in the Council. They are supported by the Indigenous Peoples Secretariat.
o Seven of the eight-member states have sizeable indigenous communities living in their Arctic
areas (only Iceland does not have an indigenous community).
o Organizations of Arctic Indigenous Peoples can obtain the status of Permanent Participant to
the Arctic Council, but only if they represent either one indigenous group residing in more than
one Arctic State, or two or more Arctic indigenous peoples groups in a single Arctic state.
o Observer status in the Arctic Council is open to non-Arctic states, along with
inter-governmental, inter-parliamentary, global, regional and non-
governmental organizations that the Council determines can contribute to its
work.
o India has been an observer since 2013 onwards.
What are some Arctic Council accomplishments?

o The Arctic Council regularly produces comprehensive, cutting-edge environmental, ecological
and social assessments through its Working Groups.

o The Council has also provided a forum for the negotiation of three important legally binding
agreements among the eight Arctic States:
1. Agreement on Cooperation on Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the
Arctic (2011)
2. Agreement on Cooperation on Marine Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response in the
Arctic (2013)
3. Agreement on Enhancing International Arctic Scientific Cooperation (2017)
Who chairs the Arctic Council?

o The Chairmanship of the Arctic Council rotates every two years among the Arctic States. The
first country to chair the Arctic Council was Canada (1996-1998), followed by the United
States, Finland, Iceland, the Russian Federation, Norway, the Kingdom of Denmark, and
Sweden. The second cycle of Chairmanships began in 2013.
o The Russian Federation chairs from 2021 to 2023.
What doesn’t it do?

o The Arctic Council is a forum; it has no programming budget. All projects or initiatives
are sponsored by one or more Arctic States. Some projects also receive support from other
entities.
o The Arctic Council does not and cannot implement or enforce its guidelines,
assessments or recommendations. That responsibility belongs to individual Arctic States
or international bodies.
o The Arctic Council’s mandate, as articulated in the Ottawa Declaration, explicitly excludes
military securit
 NEW QUAD
o India, Israel, the United Arab Emirates, and the United States began a new
quadrilateral economic forum focused on trade, climate change, energy, and maritime
security—all issues emphasized by the more established Quadrilateral Security Dialogue
among Australia, India, Japan, and the United States.
o The two Quads are quite different in other ways. The so-called new Quad is not as focused on
countering China’s rise as the original one, and because it lacks a strong, shared purpose, its
future trajectory is more uncertain.
New Quad and potential benefits to India

o It could serve Indian foreign-policy goals: The arrangement enables India to expand its role
on the world stage, to engage more deeply in the Middle East, and to strengthen
cooperation with the United States.
o The new Quad appears to stem from rapidly growing cooperation among its member countries.
Last year, a normalization agreement between Israel and the UAE resulted in a flurry of new
accords focused on investment, energy, and health care.

o Meanwhile, India has strengthened ties with Israel. In 2017, Narendra Modi became the first
Indian prime minister to visit the country—a significant step given New Delhi’s long
association with the Palestinian cause. Finally, U.S.-India relations have continued to deepen.
o India’s joining the new Quad first reflects a desire to play a greater role on the world stage and
to respond to criticism from observers—including its own national security advisor—that it
punches below its weight.
o The forum provides India with an opportunity to move closer to key partners without
compromising its policy of strategic autonomy: As with the other Quad, this arrangement is a
loose grouping, not an alliance.
o India also sees the Middle East as strategically significant. It depends heavily on its
energy imports, and nearly 9 million Indian workers live in the Persian Gulf. India has ramped
up diplomacy with many regional players, including Saudi Arabia, but Israel and the UAE have
long been key targets. A 2019 survey of Indian foreign-policy and security professionals found
that the two countries were regarded as India’s two most important partners in the Middle
East.
o Israel and the UAE each boast advantages that can benefit India. Already a major arms supplier
to India, Israel also has cutting-edge agricultural technologies that could help enhance water
management.
o Meanwhile, the UAE can provide India with much-needed infrastructure financing. In 2015,
the two countries announced a $75 billion infrastructure fund, but only $3 billion has been
used so far. India can leverage the new Quad to make more progress operationalizing the
fund—a goal the UAE says it supports.
o Furthermore, the new Quad delivers a boost to India’s relations with United States.
It expands the geographic scope of the two countries’ cooperation beyond Asia, adding to their
pool of multilateral partners.
o The new arrangement does not represent any type of competition to the original Quad: The
two groups are distinct entities with different geographical remits, although their areas of
cooperation may overlap.
Other perspectives
o Unlike the original Quad, the new economic forum is not fueled by a collective desire to counter
China.
o In recent months, Israel and the UAE have strengthened their commercial cooperation with
China, especially in the shipping sector.
o Instead, the country that comes closest to bringing the four new Quad members together is
Iran—a bitter rival of Israel and the United States.
o But both the UAE and India are still keen to find ways to engage with the Iranians, despite
territorial disputes and reduced energy ties.
o That doesn’t mean China is a nonfactor in the arrangement.
o The United States likely sees the new Quad as an opportunity to convince Israel and the UAE
to wean themselves off Chinese investment.
o That goal dovetails with India’s interests, as it would welcome a reduced Chinese footprint in a
region where it’s keen to expand its presence.
o The new Quad will occupy midlevel importance for Washington as it balances multilateral
arrangements.
o Its lack of a unifying cause means it will likely struggle to achieve the success of the original
Quad. But its members’ commitment to deep levels of cooperation should enable it to outlast

the arrangement among Afghanistan, Pakistan, the United States, and Uzbekistan launched
just a month before the Taliban takeover.
Way ahead:
o The new Quad’s trajectory is uncertain, but it has considerable potential because of the warm
relations among the parties. It will face two initial tests: sustainability and substance.
o Is the group prepared to hold regular, high-level meetings, as the original Quad does? And can
the new Quad take steps—forming working groups, identifying negotiators—to produce new
initiatives? If not, it risks becoming a flash in the pan.
 KALAPANI REGION
o The Kalapani dispute between Nepal and India was aroused when India published a revised
political map in 2019 that shows the newly created Union Territories of Jammu & Kashmir and
Ladakh. Both the countries laid claim to Kalapani. The map showed Kalapani as part of
Pithoragarh. As a result, Nepal protested immediately and drew attention to the issue.
Location of Kalapani
o Kalapani is located in the easternmost corner of Uttarakhand's Pithoragarh district. It shared
a border on the north with the Tibet Autonomous Region of China and Nepal in the east and
south. The region is placed in between Limpiyadhura, Lipulekh, and Kalapani
trijunction between Nepal-India and China (Tibet). At an altitude of 3600m, it is
located on the banks of the river Kali. The territories of Kalapani lies at the eastern border of
Uttarakhand in India and Nepal’s Sudurpashchim Pradesh in the West.
o It is under the control of India but Nepal claims the region due to historical and cartographic
reasons.
What is the reason behind the dispute?

o Kalapani region derives its name from the Kali river. Nepal claims the region as the river
became the marker of the boundary of the kingdom Nepal following the Treaty of Sugauli.
The treaty of Sugauli was signed between the Gurkha rulers of Kathmandu and the East India
Company after the Gurkha War/Anglo-Nepal War during 1814-16. In 1816, the treaty was
ratified.
o As per the treaty, the regions of Kumaon-Garhwal in the west and Sikkim in the east
were lost by Nepal.
o As per Article 5, the King of Nepal gave up his claims over the region west of the river Kali
which originated in the High Himalayas and flows into the great plains of the Indian
subcontinent.
o Also according to the treaty, the rulers of the British recognised the right of Nepal's to the
region that fell to the east of the Kali river.
History of the origin of the dispute

o As per the experts of Nepal, the east of the Kali river should begin at the source of the river.
And the source according to them is the mountains near Limpiyadhura. It is higher in altitude
than the rest of the river's flow.

o And Nepal claims that the

landmass that is in the high
mountains falls to the east
of the entire stretch starting
from Limpiyadhura
downwards in theirs.
o According to India, the
border starts at Kalapani
and India says that is where
the river begins. As per the
Indian government, the
ridgeline located towards
the east of Kalapani
territory is a part of the
Indian Union. The Sugauli
treaty mentions nothing about this ridgeline.
o The main reason behind the dispute is the varying interpretation of the origin of the river and
its different tributaries that slice via mountains.
o Nepal claims the territory east of the Kali that is based on the Limpiyadhura origin and India
says that the river actually takes the name Kali near Kalapani.
o The Kalapani area is controlled by the Indo-Tibetan Police and nearby areas since the Indo-
China war of 1962.
Claims of Nepal for Lipulekh pass

o In the 1952 war, the importance of Himalayan passes with the Tibetan plateau was highlighted.
During the war, the forces of the Chinese used the pass Se La in Twang and reached the
plains of the Brahmaputra in the east. The military defeat in the east said that weakly guarded
passes were a major vulnerability of Indian military preparedness against China. Lipulekh was
vulnerable in comparison to Se La that was somewhat fortified. Further, according to the
Nepali analysts, the King of Nepal Mahendra signed an agreement with Delhi and handed the
region for security purposes to India. Under bilateral negotiations in 1969, all the posts were
removed barring Kalapani.
o According to the former Indian Ambassador to Nepal Jayant Prasad, "the region was always a
part of India and India's claims to the areas based on British Indian maps dating back to the
19th century." He further told that when the pilgrimage to Kailash Mansarovar paused with
the takeover of Tibet by Chinese forces within the mid-1950s, India deployed troops at the
Lipulekh pass in 1959, who was a part of the Eminent Persons Group established in February
2016 to make sure frank conversation between India and Nepal on controversial issues.
Importance of Lipulekh pass

o The region is in the Himalayas and is connected to the other side of the mountain range via
Lipulek Pass which has been used for centuries by Hindu and Buddhist pilgrims and tourists
to Kailash Mansarovar. By various mountain communities, the region of the market has been
used. As we know that the Himalayas have various passes that connect the Gangetic region
with the Tibetan plateau but the Lipulekh pass is strategically located as it is the nearest to the
heart of the Indian state or National Capital Region.
o India and China Lipulekh agreement of 2015 renewed India's Mansarovar pilgrimage
connection. Further, India and China were in clear violation of the Nepalese concerns during

the 2015 agreement. Also, neither of the countries consulted Nepal or took its opinion before
that agreement that enhances the pilgrimage and trade to Tibet.
o The current position: A revised official map is published by Nepal incorporating the
territory from the Limpiyadhura source of the Kali to Kalapani and Lipulekh pass in the
northeast of the triangular region as its territory. The Cabinet led by Prime Minister K.P.
Sharma Oli registered a constitution amendment motion to grant constitutional status to the
map. As per India, this move will not make any solution for the future on the Kalapni issue and
is nearly impossible as a constitutional guarantee will make Kathmandu's position inflexible.
 SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANISATION

(SCO)
o The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) is an intergovernmental organization founded
in Shanghai in 2001.
o The SCO currently comprises eight Member States (China, India, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Pakistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan), four Observer States interested
in acceding to full membership (Afghanistan, Belarus, Iran, and Mongolia) and six “Dialogue
Partners” (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cambodia, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Turkey).
o Since its inception in 2001, the SCO has mainly focused on regional security issues, its
fight against regional terrorism, ethnic separatism and religious extremism. To
date, the SCO’s priorities also include regional development.
o The SCO has been an observer in the UN General Assembly since 2005.
o In 2010, the UN and SCO Secretariats signed a Joint Declaration on Cooperation.
o SCO Secretariat has also established partnerships with the UN Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), and the
International Organization for Migration (IOM), in addition to its ongoing cooperation with
the UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), United Nations Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) and the UN Office on Counter-Terrorism
(UNCT).
o The Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs (DPPA), as well as UNRCCA (United
Nations Centre for Preventive Diplomacy for Central Asia) maintain regular contacts with the
SCO officials. The cooperation activities focus on security developments in the region and key
issues related to counterterrorism and prevention of violent extremism.
o The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) was established as a multilateral

association to ensure security and maintain stability across the vast Eurasian
region, join forces to counteract emerging challenges and threats, and enhance trade, as well
as cultural and humanitarian cooperation.
o By reinforcing mutually beneficial cooperation, preventing confrontation and conflict, and
maintaining equal and indivisible security, SCO aims to build a just polycentric world
order, in full conformity with the norms of international law and principles of mutual respect,
which meets the interests of each and every State, taking into account their mutual needs and
aspirations. As a multinational and multicultural organization, SCO strives to stave off the
clash of civilizations across its respective regions.
o Adhering to the principles of openness, SCO does not intend to form any alliances or direct
its actions against any sovereign entity. It actively and consistently pursues dialogue,
exchanges and cooperation, and stands for strict observance of the purposes and principles
inscribed in the Charter of the United Nations, such as equality and sovereignty of States,
inadmissibility of intervention in their domestic affairs, respect for territorial integrity,
inviolability of borders, non-aggression, peaceful settlement of disputes, non-use of force or
threat of force, as well as other universally recognized norms of international law, aimed at
maintaining peace and security, establishing partnerships between States, protecting national
sovereignty and respecting the right to determine one’s own destiny and path forward for
political, socioeconomic and cultural development.
o The entire structure of the organization is designed to generate multilateral
partnerships to assist sovereign members in coordinating strategies and approaches to
solving pressing international issues and meeting regional needs. It also provides an
opportunity for member States to concentrate their efforts on common goals in accordance
with the principles of voluntary cooperation and equitable distribution of responsibilities.
Approaches and Practical Steps towards Security and Stability

o Adhering to the strict observance of universally recognized norms of international law, as well
as to the relentless pursuit of the purposes and principles of the United Nations Charter, SCO
is unshaken in its belief that as a means of conflict resolution diplomacy is unmatched.
o In this regard, SCO continues its support for an even more prominent coordinating role for the
United Nations in international relations, with an emphasis upon the further development of
close cooperation with the world Organization.
o SCO will continue to make coordinated efforts to combat common challenges and threats to
security, broaden dialogue and reinforce collaboration in ensuring comprehensive security by
countering terrorism, cyberterrorism, separatism, extremism, transnational organized crime,
and illicit drug trafficking, as well as reinforcing international information security and
emergency response.
o In this regard, SCO intends to further develop its core permanent body—the Regional Anti-
Terrorist Structure (RATS).
o The SCO common response to the steadily growing threat of extremism is the SCO
Convention on Countering Extremism, adopted at the summit in Astana. This
document will strengthen the international legal framework for countering emerging
challenges and threats along with the Shanghai Convention on Combating Terrorism,
Separatism and Extremism, the Convention of the Shanghai Cooperation
Organization against Terrorism, and the 2016-2018 SCO Member States
Programme on Cooperation in Combating Terrorism, Separatism and
Extremism, as well as core United Nations instruments, such as the United Nations Global
Counter-Terrorism Strategy and relevant United Nations Security Council resolutions.
o The SCO Convention on Countering Extremism is aimed at advancing security, increasing
effective cooperation between authorities and improving the legal framework in this sphere.
o The spread of extremist ideology and propaganda, including the public justification of
terrorism as a means of incitement to committing terrorist acts, has been particularly
dangerous under the circumstances. In this regard, SCO will enhance joint efforts to counteract
societal radicalization, which results in the manifestation of the worst forms of extremism,
including terrorism, especially among young people. We are also taking steps to prevent
religious, ethnic, ideological and political extremism, ethnic and racial intolerance, and
xenophobia
o Adhering to the provisions of the 2006 Agreement on Cooperation in Identifying and
Blocking the Channels of Penetration on the Territory of SCO Member States of Individuals
Involved in Terrorist, Separatist and Extremist Activities, as well as the 2015 Agreement on
Cooperation and Interaction of the SCO Member States on Border Issues, member States will
continue their collaboration in preventing malicious activities and movement of foreign

terrorists, militants and terrorist groups by means of effective border control, an exchange of
data regarding persons involved in terrorist activities, identifying forged or stolen
identification documents, as well as conducting joint investigations of transnational terrorist
crimes.
o Although SCO is not a military alliance, our front-line struggle against terrorist threats
demands that we further develop and enhance mechanisms aimed at complete eradication of
terrorist activities. In this regard, SCO will continue its scheduled anti-terrorist training
manoeuvres, including the SCO Peace Mission exercise.
 ORGANISATION OF ISLAMIC COOPERATION

(OIC)
o The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) has membership of 57 states spread over
four continents. The Organization is the collective voice of the Muslim world. It endeavors
to safeguard and protect the interests of the Muslim world in the spirit of promoting
international peace and harmony among various people of the world.
o The Organization was established upon a decision of the historical summit which took place in
Rabat, Kingdom of Morocco on 25th September 1969 following the criminal arson of Al-
Aqsa Mosque in occupied Jerusalem.
o The membership includes Afghanistan, Algeria, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Benin, Brunei, Burkina
Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Gabon, The Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-
Bissau, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malaysia, Maldives, Mali,
Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Oman, Pakistan, the Palestinian Authority (PA), Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Syria (suspended), Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda,
United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.
o In 1970, the first ever meeting of Islamic Conference of Foreign Minister (ICFM) was held in
Jeddah which decided to establish a permanent secretariat in Jeddah headed by the
organization’s secretary general. Dr. Yousef Ahmed Al-Othaimeen is the 11th Secretary
General who assumed the office in November 2016.
o The first OIC Charter was adopted by the 3rd ICFM Session held in 1972. The Charter laid
down the objectives and principles of the organization and fundamental purposes to
strengthen the solidarity and cooperation among the Member States. Over the last 40 years,
the membership has grown from its founding members of 30 to 57 states.
o The Charter was amended to keep pace with the developments that have unraveled across the
world. The present Charter of the OIC was adopted by the Eleventh Islamic Summit held in
Dakar in 2008 to become the pillar of the OIC future Islamic action in line with the
requirements of the 21st century.
o The Organization has the singular honor to galvanize the Ummah into a unified body and have
actively represented the Muslims by espousing all causes close to the hearts of over 1.5 billion
Muslims of the world. The Organization has consultative and cooperative relations with the
UN and other inter-governmental organizations to protect the vital interests of the Muslims
and to work for the settlement of conflicts and disputes involving Member States. In
safeguarding the true values of Islam and the Muslims, the organization has taken various steps
to remove misperceptions and has strongly advocated elimination of discrimination against
Muslims in all forms and manifestations.
o The Member States of the OIC face many challenges in the 21st century and to address those
challenges, the Third Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit held in Makkah in
December 2005, laid down the blue print called the Ten-Year Program of Action. It

successfully concluded with the close of 2015. A successor programme for the next decade
(2016-2025) has since then been adopted.
o The new programme OIC-2025 is anchored in the provisions of the OIC Charter and
focuses on 18 priority areas with 107 goals. The priority areas include issues of Peace and
Security, Palestine and Al-Quds, Poverty Alleviation, Counter-terrorism, Investment and
Finance, Food Security, Science and Technology, Climate Change and Sustainability,
Moderation, Culture and Interfaith Harmony, Empowerment of Women, Joint Islamic
Humanitarian Action, Human Rights and Good Governance, among others.
o Among the OIC’s key bodies: the Islamic Summit, the Council of Foreign Ministers (CFM),
the General Secretariat, in addition to the Al-Quds Committee and three permanent
committees concerned with science and technology, economy and trade, and information and
culture. There are also specialized organs under the banner of the OIC including the Islamic
Development Bank and the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, as well
as subsidiary and affiliate organs that play a vital role in boosting cooperation in various fields
among the OIC member states.
 BRICS
o BRICS is an acronym for Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa.
o Goldman Sachs economist Jim
O'Neill coined the term BRIC
(without South Africa) in 2001,
claiming that by 2050 the four BRIC
economies would come to dominate
the global economy by 2050. South
Africa was added to the list in 2010.
o Brazil, Russia, India, China, and
South Africa ranked among the
world's fastest-growing emerging
market economies for years, thanks
to low labour costs, favourable
demographics and abundant natural
resources at a time of a global
commodities boom.
o It's important to note that the
Goldman Sachs thesis wasn't that
these countries would become a
political alliance (like the EU) or even
a formal trading association. Instead,
Goldman said they have the potential
to form a powerful economic bloc, even acknowledging that its forecasts were optimistic and
dependent on significant policy assumptions.
o The leaders of BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) countries met for the first time in St.
Petersburg, Russia, on the margins of G8 Outreach Summit in 2006.
o Shortly afterwards, in September 2006, the group was formalised as BRIC during the 1st BRIC
Foreign Ministers’ Meeting, which met on the sidelines of the General Debate of the UN
Assembly in New York City.

o After a series of high level meetings, the 1st BRIC summit was held in Yekaterinburg,
Russia in 2009.
o BRIC group was renamed as BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) after South
Africa was accepted as a full member at the BRIC Foreign Ministers’ meeting in New York in
2010. Accordingly, South Africa attended the 3rd BRICS Summit in Sanya, China in2011.
o BRICS is an important grouping bringing together the major emerging economies from the
world, comprising 41% of the world population, having 24% of the world GDP and over 16%
share in the world trade. BRICS countries have been the main engines of global economic
growth over the years.
o Over a period of time, BRICS countries have come together to deliberate on important issues
under the three pillars of political and security, economic and financial and cultural and people
to people exchanges.
 BRICS SUMMIT
The 15th BRICS summit, a meeting of the leaders of Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South
Africa, took place in Johannesburg, South Africa.
• The theme of the summit was “BRICS and Africa: Partnership for Mutually Accelerated
Growth, Sustainable Development, and Inclusive Multilateralism”.
Outcome of the summit
• The BRICS leaders issued a joint declaration that reaffirmed their

commitment to multilateralism, international law, and
Reaffirming sustainable development.
Multilateralism
and Reform • They also expressed their support for the reform of the United
Nations and other global institutions to make them more
representative and responsive to the needs of developing countries.
• The BRICS leaders endorsed the expansion of the membership of

the grouping by inviting 15 countries from Africa and the
Global South to participate in a Friends of BRICS meeting.
• The first phase of expansion: The countries including
Argentina, Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE
have received invitations to join BRICS.
Expanding • This new membership is set to take effect from 1st January 2024.
Membership • There are over 40 countries that have expressed interest in joining
and Influence BRICS.
• Reasons for the BRICS expansion:
o Strategic move for global influence.
o Wider engagement among like-minded nations for a common cause.
o Limited options in other groups.
o Anti-western sentiment and Global South unity.

• The BRICS leaders agreed to explore the possibility of creating a

common currency for trade and investment among the BRICS
Common countries.
Currency • They tasked their finance ministers and central bank governors to study
the feasibility and benefits of such a currency, which could reduce their
dependence on the US dollar and other major currencies.
Regional and • The BRICS leaders discussed various issues of regional and global
Global Issues importance, such as the Covid-19 pandemic, climate change, terrorism,
cyber security, energy security, trade, and investment.
• They called for equitable access to vaccines and medical
supplies for all countries and pledged to enhance their cooperation in
health research and innovation.
Note
• The principles set forth in the BRICS Sanya Declaration of 2011 are aimed at increasing
engagement and cooperation with non-BRICS countries, in particular developing countries,
and to enhance the voice of the global south in international affairs.
• The Beijing Declaration adopted at the 14th BRICS Summit in 2022 paved the way
for membership expansion.
 NORTHERN SEA ROUTE

Murmansk, popularly called the capital of the Arctic Region and the beginning point of the
Northern Sea Route (NSR), is witnessing the rising trend of Indian involvement in Cargo
traffic.
In the first seven months of 2023, India got a share of 35% of eight million tonnes of cargo
handled by the Murmansk port, which is about 2,000 km northwest of Moscow, Russia.
North Sea Route (NSR)

• The NSR, the shortest shipping route for freight transportation between Europe and
countries of the Asia-Pacific region, straddles the Four Seas (Barents, Kara, Laptev
and East Siberian Sea) of the Arctic Ocean.
• Running to 5,600 km, the Route begins at the boundary between the Barents and the
Kara seas (Kara Strait) and ends in the Bering Strait (Provideniya Bay).
• It offers potential distance savings of up to 50% compared to traditional routes through the
Suez or Panama Canals.
• The 2021 Suez Canal Blockage heightened interest in the NSR as an alternative trade route.
Russia's Role in NSR Development

• The Arctic's icebound nature necessitates icebreaking assistance for safe
navigation along the NSR.

• Russia boasts the world's only nuclear-

powered icebreaker fleet, ensuring year-
round operation.
• Rosatom, the NSR infrastructure
operator, oversees this fleet.
• With Russia's ambitious plans to enhance the
NSR's cargo traffic, its nuclear icebreaker
fleet remains central to the project.
Driving Factors for India's NSR

Engagement
• The increasing cargo traffic along the NSR,
with a growth rate of approximately 73%
during 2018-2022, aligns with India's
expanding imports of Russian Crude Oil and
coal.
• The NSR's potential as a transit route also
suits India's trade-heavy economy.
• The Chennai-Vladivostok Maritime Corridor (CVMC) project offers a shorter and
efficient trade route, further boosting India's interest in the NSR.
• Additionally, India seeks to balance China and Russia's potential collective influence over the
NSR.
Future Developments and Collaborations

• Russia's NSR development plan aims for significant cargo traffic growth by 2035.
• The CVMC project, designed to link India and Russia via the NSR, holds promise for reducing
transport times and enhancing trade efficiency.
• Forthcoming engagements between the two countries are expected to provide a platform
for advancing the CVMC project.
 INDIA AND IRAN

India and Iran dropped the foreign arbitration clause in the Chabahar port issue.
Hence, India and Iran have agreed to pursue arbitration under rules framed by the UN
Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) and will not go for commercial
arbitration in foreign courts.
UN Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL)

• It is a subsidiary body of the UN General Assembly, established in 1966.
• Mandate: To further the progressive harmonisation and unification of the law of international
trade.
Membership

• The Commission is composed of 60 member States elected by the General Assembly.

• The 60 member States include 14 African States, 14 Asian States, 8 Eastern European States,
10 Latin American and Caribbean States and 14 Western European and other States.
• The General Assembly elects members for terms of six years; every three years, the terms of
half of the members
expire.
• India is a founding
member of this
organisation.
Chabahar Port
• It is a seaport in the
Sistan-Balochistan
province of Iran, on the
Gulf of Oman, at the
mouth of the Strait of
Hormuz.
• It is a deep-water port with direct access to the Indian Ocean that is outside the
Hormuz Strait.
• Its geographic proximity to countries such as Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India, as well as its
status as a key transit centre on the burgeoning International North-South Transport Corridor.
 SOUTH CHINA SEA DISPUTE

The Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia protested against China’s map which claims
for itself entire South China Sea.
About the dispute

• The South China Sea disputes are maritime, and
island claims between different sovereign states
in the region.
• China claims about 90% of the South China
Sea, including the archipelago of islands, reefs,
and atolls (Nine-Dash Line)
• Parties to these disputes are China, Brunei,
Taiwan, the Philippines, Vietnam, and
Malaysia and are geopolitically located in the
Indo-Pacific region.
• The regions of contention are the Spratly
Island, the Paracel Island, maritime
boundaries in the Gulf of Tonkin and other
places.
• Waters near the Indonesian Natuna Islands are also disputed.

• Reasons: The interest to the concerned nations is the acquisition of fishing areas around
the two archipelagos; suspected crude oil and natural gas in different parts of the South
China Sea; and the control of strategically important shipping lanes.
China, Vietnam, Malaysia, Philippines, Brunei

• Vietnam has the second most expansive claim. It asserts sovereignty
over the entirety of the Paracel and Spratly Islands, the most
SPRATLY significant land features in the South China Sea.
ISLANDS • Malaysia claims sovereignty over a cluster of features in the Spratlys
close to its coast, and Brunei claims two Spratly features.
• The Philippines claim the western section of the Spratlys (the
Kalayaan Island Group).
China and Vietnam

• The Paracel Islands lie about 250 miles (400 km) east of central
Vietnam and about 220 miles (350 km) southeast of Hainan
PARACEL Island, China.
ISLANDS • Woody Island in Paracel was occupied by China since 1956, is
undergoing a major expansion of its runway and airport facilities.
• Duncan Island (seized by China from Vietnam in 1974) satellite
images show landfill that has increased the size of the island.
China and Philippines

• The Philippines claim that the Scarborough Shoal lies within its
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)* as calculated under
UNCLOS**.
SCARBOROUGH
REEF/SHOAL • In 2013, the Philippine Government turned to the Permanent Court
of Arbitration (PCA) in The Hague, seeking to declare Chinese
territorial claims in its EEZ invalid.
• China refuses to recognise the authority of the Permanent Court of
Arbitration (PCA)***.
China and Indonesia

• Although the Natuna Islands are outside of China’s self-designated
NATUNA
“Nine-Dash-Line” still China claims it.
ISLANDS
• It claims that Natuna’s 200-miles exclusive economic zone (EEZ)
protrudes into the area defined by the Nine-Dash-Line.
 PERMANENT COURT OF ARBITRATION

• The Permanent Court of Arbitration is the oldest international dispute-resolution
institution in the world.

• It was established by the first International Peace Conference held at the Hague, the
Netherlands, in 1899.
• It is an intergovernmental organisation that offers the worldwide community a variety of
conflict resolution services.
• Parties may choose non-binding methods such as mediation and conciliation, but if they
choose arbitration for conflict resolution, the judgement of the arbitral tribunal
is binding on them under the Permanent Court of Arbitration.
The permanent court of arbitration offers six key services:

o Arbitration
o Mediation/Conciliation
o Guest tribunals
o Appointing authorities
o Fact-finding/Commissions of Inquiry
o Hearing Facilities
• There are no permanent judges, therefore it is not a court.

• The Permanent Court of Arbitration meets in secret and maintains absolute confidentiality.
• Conflicts between international organisations, as well as between nations and international
organisations, are also resolved by the Court.
• The PCA is organised into three parts:
o Administrative Council- to oversee its policies and budgets,
o Members of the Court- a panel of independent potential arbitrators,
o International Bureau- its Secretariat, headed by the Secretary-General.
• India is a PCA member. In 1950, India ratified the treaty of 1899.
 SHERPAS
• A Sherpa is a personal representative of the leader of a member country at an
international Summit meeting such as the G8, G20, the Nuclear Security Summit etc.
• Task: The Sherpa engages in planning, negotiation, and implementation tasks through
the Summit. They coordinate the agenda, seek consensus at the highest political levels, and
participate in a series of pre-Summit consultations to help negotiate their leaders’ positions.
• Sherpas are career diplomats or senior government officials appointed by the leaders
of their countries.
• Etymology: The term is derived from the Nepalese Sherpa people, who serve as guides
for mountaineers in the Himalayas.
• Amitabh Kant is India’s G20 Sherpa.

 ACT EAST POLICY

• India's Act East Policy is a foreign policy initiative. It aims to strengthen India's economic
and strategic ties with countries in Southeast Asia and East Asia.
• The policy launched in 2014 focuses on building partnerships with other countries. The
countries include Japan, South Korea, and members of the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN).
• It aims to enhance connectivity between Northeastern states, and neighbouring
nations.
• It was initially an economic policy but has evolved to include cultural, political, and strategic
components.
• Institutional mechanisms for dialogue and cooperation were established under this policy.
• The policy focuses on India-ASEAN cooperation in domestic initiatives. This includes
infrastructure, manufacturing, trade, and smart cities.
• Major projects under the policy include:
o the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway Project,
o Kaladan Multi-modal Transit Transport Project,
o Rhi-Tiddim Road Project, and
o Border Haats.
Progress made under Act East Policy:
• ASEAN-India engagement has become deeper and has scaled new

heights.
• India is now the 4th largest trading partner of ASEAN.
Engagement
with ASEAN • Southeast Asian countries favour India’s increased involvement to
counter China’s expansionist policies in the region.
• India has allocated $1 billion for promoting connectivity at the India-
ASEAN Summit.
• India has not only developed strong bilateral relations with countries
Strong such as Bangladesh, Mauritius, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Singapore,
relations with Vietnam, etc. but also steering a number of sub-regional programmes
neighbours and projects such as the BBIN, Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral
Highway etc. and is actively contributing to the success of several
regional initiatives.
• The Act East Policy focuses mainly on the Northeast region.

• Recently, Japan has shown interest in investing in the North-East. The
North-East Government of Japan has decided to invest around Rs 13,000 Crore in
investment several ongoing as well as new projects in different states of India’s
North- Eastern region.

• Defence cooperation has increased with East Asian countries.

• In 2014, India and Vietnam signed a Memorandum of
Understanding (MOU) that opened up a line of credit for Vietnam to
Security purchase defense equipment from India.
Engagement
• Since 2015, India has carried out joint maritime-law
enforcement patrols and military exercises with ASEAN
countries.
• India has reached out to Far East economies especially Russia.

Far East • India has announced to extend a $1 billion line of credit towards the
involvement development of the Russian Far East. This is important as it is an
energy rich region and would help India’s economic growth.
 WORLD FOOD PRIZE

• Dr. Norman E. Borlaug, winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970 for his work in global
agriculture, conceived the Prize.
• He is also known as the Father of the Green Revolution.
• The World Food Prize was created in 1986 with sponsorship by General Foods
Corporation.
• It is also known as the "Nobel Prize for Food and Agriculture".
• Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, the father of India’s green revolution, was the first recipient of this
award in 1987.
• The World Food Prize is the foremost international honour recognizing the achievements of
individuals who have advanced human development by improving the quality, quantity
or availability of food in the world.
• It is an annual award that recognizes contributions in any field involved in the world
food supply including plant, animal and soil science; food science and technology; nutrition,
rural development, etc.
• It is open to any individual without regard to race, religion, nationality or political beliefs.
• In addition to the cash award of USD 2,50,000, the laureate receives a sculpture designed by
the noted artist and designer, Saul Bass.
• The Prize is presented each October on or around UN World Food Day (16th
October).
• It is presented by the World Food Prize Foundation which has over 80 companies,
individuals, etc. as donors.
• The World Food Prize Foundation is located in Des Moines, USA.

 ASIA-PACIFIC INSTITUTE FOR

BROADCASTING DEVELOPMENT
India has been elected president of the Asia-Pacific Institute for Broadcasting Development
(AIBD) General Conference (GC) for the third successive term.
AIBD
• The Asia-Pacific Institute for Broadcasting Development (AIBD) was established in 1977
under the aegis of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO).
• It is a unique regional intergovernmental organization servicing countries of the
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN-
ESCAP) in the field of electronic media development.
• Its secretariat is situated in Kuala Lumpur and is hosted by the Government of Malaysia.
• The AIBD is mandated to achieve a vibrant and cohesive electronic media
environment in the Asia-Pacific region through policy and resource development.
• India is one of the founding members of AIBD. Prasar Bharati, India’s public service
broadcaster, is the representative body of the Ministry of Information & Broadcasting,
Government of India, at AIBD.
Founding Members
• The International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP), and the UNESCO and the Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union (ABU) are
founding organizations of the Institute and they are non-voting members of the General
Conference.
Members
• The AIBD currently has 92 member organizations from across 44 countries, including 26
government members (countries) represented by 48 broadcasting authorities and
broadcasters, and 44 affiliates (organizations) represented by 28 countries and regions in Asia,
Pacific, Europe, Africa, Arab States and North America.
Asia Media Summit

• Asia Media Summit is the annual conference organized by (AIBD) in collaboration with its
partners and international organizations.
• The Conference is attended by Decision makers, media professionals, scholars, and
stakeholders of news and programming from Asia, Pacific, Africa, Europe, Middle East, and
North America.

 INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC COMMITTEE

The 141st session of the IOC session was held in Mumbai. In this, India has shown its aspiration
to host the 2036 Summer Olympics.
IOC
• The International Olympic Committee is the guardian of the Olympic Games and the leader of
the Olympic Movement.
• The vision of IOC is to ‘Build a Better World through Sport’.
As an organisation
• In 1892, Pierre de Coubertin of France declared his intention to spearhead a movement
to revive the ancient Greek Olympics.
• His efforts led to the establishment of IOC in June 1894 as a not-for-profit independent
international organisation.
• It is based in Lausanne, Switzerland, the Olympic Capital.
• IOC is the authority responsible for organising the modern (Summer, Winter, and Youth)
Olympic Games.
• It is the governing body of the National Olympic Committees (NOCs).
IOC session
• An IOC session is the annual meeting of the members of the IOC. It comprises 101 voting
members and 45 honorary members.
• It decides on the key activities of the global Olympics movement.
The powers of the Session are:

 To adopt or amend the Olympic Charter.
 To elect the members of the IOC, the Honorary President and the honorary members.
 To elect the President, the vice-presidents and all other members of the IOC Executive Board.
 To elect the host city of the Olympic Games.
 An Olympic Session is the general meeting of the members of the IOC and its supreme organ.
 All IOC Session decisions are final.
Process of selection of host country

• Informal Dialogue: As per the selection policy, the IOC first gets into an informal dialogue
with interested host countries.
• Targeted dialogue: If the world body is satisfied with the planning and capability of the
candidate, then it enters a targeted dialogue when the IOC’s Executive Board invites the
“preferred host” to refine and present their proposal.

• No fixed timeframe for electing the hosts.

• What IOC looks at? The IOC looks at multiple factors:
• candidate city’s funding strategy, the ability to deliver the Games, transport infrastructure,
accommodation capacity, alignment of venues with local development plans, socio-economic,
geo-political factors, and public support.
Olympic Charter
• The International Olympic Committee (IOC) has made amendments to the Olympic Charter to
strengthen its human rights commitments These changes include additional wording in
the Fundamental Principles of Olympism.
• They aim to promote and respect human rights across their three spheres of
activity: as an organization, as the owner of the Olympic Games, and as the leader of the
Olympic Movement.
• Additionally, the IOC’s Framework on Fairness, Inclusion, and Non-Discrimination aims to
ensure inclusion in elite sports without discrimination based on gender identity or sex
variations while preserving fair competition.
 ARAB LEAGUE
• Arab League, also called League of Arab States (LAS), is an intergovernmental pan-
Arab organisation of all Arab states in the Middle East and North Africa.
• It was formed in Cairo, Egypt in 1945, following the adoption of the Alexandria Protocol
in 1944.
Members
• Currently, there are 22 Arab
countries: Algeria, Bahrain,
Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq,
Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya,
Mauritania, Morocco, Oman,
Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,
Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia,
the United Arab Emirates, and
Yemen.
Objective
• It aims to strengthen and
coordinate the political, cultural, economic, and social programs of its members and to mediate
disputes among them or between them and third parties.
• The signing on 13th April 1950, of an agreement on joint defence and economic
cooperation also committed the signatories to coordination of military defence measures.

Council
• The highest body of the league is the Council, composed of representatives of member
states, usually foreign ministers, their representatives or permanent delegates.
• The League makes decisions on a majority basis, but there is no mechanism to compel
members to comply with resolutions.
• Each member has one vote on the Council, decisions being binding only on those states
that have voted for them.
Concerns
• The Arab League has been criticized for its inability to effectively address the issues it was
created to handle. Many question the relevance of the institution, with its slogan of “one Arab
nation with an eternal mission” being seen as outdated.
• The League has also been criticized for its lack of effectiveness in enforcing decisions
and resolving conflicts among its members.
• It has been accused of disunity, poor governance, and being more representative of autocratic
regimes than of the Arab people.
 MIDDLE EAST/NORTH AFRICA (MENA)

Significance of the Middle East/North Africa (MENA) for India
Middle East
• India has enjoyed centuries of good relations with countries like Iran, while smaller gas-rich
nation Qatar is one of India’s closest allies in the region.
• India shares good relations with most of the countries in the Gulf.
• The two most important reasons for the relationship are Oil and gas, and trade.
• Two additional reasons are the huge number of Indians who work in the Gulf
countries, and the Remittance they send back home.
North Africa
• North African nations like Morocco and Algeria are important as they serve as gateways
to other parts of Africa, which is relevant for India, given its desire to penetrate
Francophone Africa (French Speaking African Nations).
• North Africa is significant for India because of its potential as a source of clean energy.
The region has abundant solar and wind resources, which can be harnessed to generate
electricity.
• India has set ambitious renewable energy targets, and North Africa could provide an
opportunity for India to meet its renewable energy goals.
• North Africa is also strategically located, making it an important region for trade and
commerce.

• The Suez Canal puts North Africa at the crossroads of global trade. The canal is one of the
world's most important maritime routes beneficial for India.
 INTERNATIONAL LAW ON WAR/

INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW
Just War Theory
• Also known as the “Just War Doctrine”, is a set of ethical and philosophical principles that
provide criteria for assessing the morality of armed conflicts.
• As per theory, taking human life is wrong but states have a duty to defend citizens
and justice, which may require willingness to use violence.
• It offers a framework for determining when and how war can be morally justified
and how it should be conducted.
• The main components of Just War Theory include:
• Jus ad bellum: These are the criteria that pertain to the justification of going to war. It finds
its source in UN’s Charter of 1945. The criteria are:
 Just Cause: The war must have a morally legitimate reason, such as self defence,
defence of others, or protection against a grave injustice.
 Right Authority: Only legitimate governmental authorities have the right to declare war.
 Right Intention: The primary aim of going to war should be to establish peace, justice,
and the common good, rather than pursuing selfish or unjust ends.
 Last Resort: All peaceful means of resolving the conflict, such as diplomacy and negotiations,
must be exhausted before going to war.
 Proportionality: The harm caused by the war must be proportional to the good it seeks to
achieve, and excessive harm to civilians should be avoided.
 Reasonable Chance of Success: There should be a reasonable expectation that military
action will achieve the intended goals.
Jus in bello
• It is also known as international humanitarian law and provides rules to be followed
during armed conflict.
• It has its sources in Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907) and 1949 Geneva
Conventions and their Additional Protocols (1977). The criteria include:
 Discrimination: Combatants should distinguish between civilians and military

personnel and take precautions to minimize harm to non-combatants.
 Proportionality: The use of force during the conflict should be proportionate to the military
objectives and should not cause excessive harm.

 Fair Treatment to Prisoners of War: Captured enemy combatants should be treated

humanely in accordance with international law.
Jus post bellum

• These principles address the period after the conflict has ended and include elements like:
 Just Settlement: The terms of the peace agreement should be fair and just, addressing the
root causes of the conflict and promoting lasting peace.
 Reconciliation: Efforts should be made to promote healing and reconciliation among the
former enemies.
 Punishment of War Criminals: Individuals who committed war crimes should be held
accountable and brought to justice.
 APEC SUMMIT 2023

The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Leaders' Summit 2023 took place in San
Francisco, United States.
Key Highlights
• The APEC 2023 summit's theme is "Creating a Resilient and Sustainable Future for
All".
• APEC reaffirmed their commitment to free, fair, and open trade and investment, and to
advancing inclusive and sustainable growth in the region.
• The summit concluded with the adoption of the Golden Gate Declaration.
• The declaration underscores the commitment to creating a resilient and sustainable
future for all member economies.
• The APEC leaders endorsed the APEC Action Agenda on Climate Change and Energy
Security, which outlined a set of concrete actions and targets to enhance cooperation and
coordination on addressing the climate crisis and ensuring energy security.
About Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

• The APEC is a regional economic forum established in 1989 to leverage the growing
interdependence of the Asia-Pacific.
• APEC aims to create greater prosperity for the people of the region by promoting balanced,
inclusive, sustainable, innovative, and secure growth and by accelerating regional
economic integration.
• The APEC process is supported by a permanent secretariat based in Singapore.
• Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia,
Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Chinese
Taipei, Thailand, Vietnam, and the United States.
• India currently has the 'observer' status.

Significance
• APEC accounts for approximately 62% of world GDP and 48% of world trade in 2021.
• It is one of the oldest and most influential multilateral platforms in the Asia-Pacific
region.
• APEC operates based on no binding commitments or treaty obligations. Commitments
are undertaken voluntarily, and capacity-building projects help members implement
APEC initiatives.
• APEC’s main goals are to support economic growth and prosperity, enhance regional
economic integration, strengthen human security, and address common challenges such as
climate change, health, and food security.
 GLOBAL SOUTH SUMMIT

India concluded its second ‘Voice of the Global South Summit’ (VOGSS)
• The Global South is not a purely geographical concept. It encompasses diverse
countries, drawing upon geopolitical, historical, and developmental factors.
• While it is not solely defined by location, it broadly represents nations facing
developmental challenges.
• For e.g. Many countries included in the Global South are in the northern hemisphere, such as
India, China, and all of those in the northern half of Africa.
• Whereas, Australia and New Zealand, both in the southern hemisphere, are not in the Global
South.
Key Highlights of Second VOGSS

• Themes: The inaugural session centered around ‘Together, for Everyone’s Growth,
with Everyone’s Trust’, while the concluding session emphasized ‘Global South:
Together for One Future.’
• Objectives of the Summit: Disseminating outcomes of the G20 summit hosted by India and
ensuring sustained momentum for effective implementation of G20 decisions, with a specific
focus on the interests of developing countries.
Key Outcomes
• Global South Center of Excellence 'DAKSHIN': India inaugurated this initiative, aimed
at fostering collaboration among developing nations by serving as a knowledge repository
and think tank.
• Thematic Discussions: Ministerial sessions delved into a wide array of topics, including
Sustainable Development Goals, energy transition, climate finance, digital transformation,
women-led development, counter terrorism, and global institution reforms.
• Call for Restraint Amid Israel-Hamas Conflict: India articulated deep concern
regarding the plight of civilians affected by the Israel-Hamas conflict.
• He emphasized the urgent need for all involved parties to exercise restraint, prioritize the
safety of innocent civilians, and work towards de-escalation.

• 5 ‘Cs’ for Global South: India also called for 5 ‘Cs’ for the Global South: consultation,
cooperation, communication, creativity, and capacity building.
 UNCAC
The year 2023 marks the 20th anniversary of the United Nations Convention against Corruption
(UNCAC).
• The UNCAC was signed on December 9, 2003 in Mexico and entered into force on 14th
December 2005.
• The International Anti-Corruption Day was established on 9th December as a result
of proposals by the Brazilian delegation to the Convention.
• It is the only legally binding multilateral international anti-corruption treaty.
• The Convention covers five main areas:
• Preventive Measures, Criminalization and Law Enforcement, International

Cooperation, Asset Recovery, and Technical Assistance and Information
Exchange.
• The Convention covers many different forms of corruption, such as bribery, trading in
influence, abuse of functions, and various acts of corruption in the private sector.
 VENEZUELA AND GUYANA DISPUTE

Guyana and Venezuela are in conflict over the resource-rich Essequibo region, historically
claimed by both nations.
• The dispute intensified after Exxon Mobil’s 2015 oil discovery, leading to a Venezuelan
referendum in December 2023, supporting Essequibo as a new province.
• Despite International Court of Justice (ICJ) warnings, Venezuela proceeded.
• Guyana responded by raising its flag, alerting defence forces, and seeking international
support.
• India, with diasporic ties, supports Guyana; the US backs Guyana’s sovereignty.
History
• The land boundary between Guyana and Venezuela has been disputed since its colonial
inception between British and Spanish powers in South America.
• In the 1840s, the British government had the border unilaterally surveyed, but the proposed
line encroached on Venezuelan territorial claims.
• Guyana’s claim has been internationally accepted since the 1899 Paris Arbitral Award.

• While the British line, accepted by Guyana, is the current de facto boundary, Venezuela
maintains a historic claim to all territory currently administered by Guyana west of the
Essequibo River.
• Venezuelan contents that the Arbitral
Award of 1899 about the frontier
between British Guiana and Venezuela
is null and void.
Disputed Area
• Venezuela’s claim along the
Essequibo River extends for
1,034 kilometers before reaching
Brazilian territory.
• At stake is approximately 142,795
square kilometers that is currently
administered by Guyana.
• Offshore the disputed land territory is maritime space that was recently discovered to be rich
in hydrocarbon resources, upping the stakes of the land boundary dispute.
Current Status
• Guyana submitted the dispute to the International Court of Justice in 2018.
• Despite Venezuela’s withdrawal from the case, proceedings are currently ongoing.
 INDIA AND ARGENTINA

The Ministry of Mines, Government of India through the state-owned Khanij Bidesh India Ltd
(KABIL), has entered into a draft exploration and development agreement with Argentinan
miner CAMYEN for possible acquisition and development of five-odd lithium blocks.
The company has also entered into a non-disclosure agreement with Chilean miner ENAMI for
“possible exploration, extraction, processing and commercialisation” of the mineral.
• Lithium triangle made up of Argentina, Chile, and Bolivia contain roughly half the
world's known lithium.
Lithium
• Lithium is an alkali mineral, also called ‘white gold’. It is soft, silvery-white metal, the
lightest metal of the periodic table.
• Major Properties: High Reactivity, Low Density, Excellent Electrochemical Properties

Occurrence and Top Producers

• Lithium is found naturally in various minerals,
including spodumene, petalite, and lepidolite.
• It is extracted from these minerals and refined into
lithium metal or its compounds.
• The top producers of lithium are Australia,
Chile, China, and Argentina.
• In 2022, Australia was the world leader in

terms of lithium mine production. Chile and
China ranked second and third.
• Recently, a massive lithium deposit beneath

California’s Salton Sea (US), holding an
estimated 18 million tons of lithium, was
discovered.
Applications
• Batteries: Lithium is a crucial component of
rechargeable batteries used in smartphones,
laptops, electric vehicles, and other electronics.
• Glass and Ceramics: Lithium compounds are used to strengthen glass and ceramics,
making them more durable and heat-resistant.
• Medicine: Lithium is used as a mood stabilizer in the treatment of bipolar disorder.
• Lubricants: Lithium greases are used in high-pressure and high-temperature applications.
Lithium in India
• Reserves unearthed in Salal-Haimna areas of Reasi district of Jammu and Kashmir
(estimated 5.9 million tonnes).
• Additional reserves identified in Koderma and Giridih regions of Jharkhand.
 PAKISTAN AND IRAN

The relationship between Iran and Pakistan has taken serious hits over Iranian missiles and
drones that struck two alleged bases of the Jaish al-Adl (JAA), an anti-Iran Baloch militant
group, in Pakistan’s Balochistan province.
About Jaish al-Adl

• Jaish al-Adl, or the Army of Justice, is a Militant group that emerged in 2012.
• It is primarily composed of members from the ethnic Baluch community, residing on

both sides of the Iran-Pakistan border.

• Jaish al-Adl's main objectives include seeking independence for Iran's eastern
Sistan province and Pakistan's southwestern Baluchistan province.
• These goals, advocating for the rights of the Baluch people, make the group a common
target for both the Iranian and Pakistani governments.
• The ethnic Baluch community faces discrimination in both Iran and Pakistan, with concerns
about a lack of fair distribution of resources and wealth in their respective provinces.
• Baluch separatists and nationalists demand a more equitable share and often resort to
insurgency as a means of expressing their grievances.
• The group's presence in Balochistan, particularly in the border regions, has been a source of
tension between Iran and Pakistan.
• Both countries have a history of suspicion and accusations regarding each other's involvement
in supporting militant activities.
Balochistan Dynamics between Iran and Pakistan
Geographical and Demographic Context:

• The Iran-Pakistan border, known as the Goldsmith Line, spans approximately 909
kilometres from a tripoint with Afghanistan to the northern Arabian Sea.
• Ethnic Baloch people inhabit both sides of the border, residing in the Pakistani province of
Balochistan, the Iranian province of Sistan and Baluchestan, and neighbouring areas of
Afghanistan.
Shared Baloch Identity

• Baloch people share a
common cultural, ethnic,
linguistic, and religious
identity that transcends the
modern borders imposed on the
region.
• Despite living in different
countries, the Balochs maintain
strong ties based on historical
and cultural connections.
Marginalisation and
Grievances
• The Baloch in both Iran and Pakistan have experienced marginalization, feeling
politically and economically distant from the dominant regimes in each country.
• In Pakistan, the Baloch face challenges as an ethnic minority within a Punjabi-
dominated political structure.
• In Iran, they are not only an ethnic minority but also a religious minority, with the
majority being Sunni in a predominantly Shia country.

Economic Disparities
• The Baloch homeland is rich in natural resources, but economic disparities persist. In
Iran, a significant portion of the Baloch population lives under the poverty line.
• In Pakistan, despite massive investments in projects like China's Belt and Road Initiative,
improvements in their lives have been limited.
Nationalist Movements
• Baloch nationalism has historical roots dating back to the early 20th century when new
international borders were drawn in the region.
• The marginalisation of the Baloch people in both Iran and Pakistan has fueled separatist
movements seeking a "Greater Balochistan" nation-state.
Insurgency and Cross-Border Movements

• Baloch insurgents operate on both sides of the Iran-Pakistan border, attacking military and
occasionally civilian targets.
• Insurgents, affiliated with groups like the Baloch Liberation Army (BLA) and the Baloch
Liberation Front (BLF), have been involved in armed struggles against the respective
states.
 19th NAM SUMMIT

Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni, who hosted the 19th Summit of the Non-Aligned
Movement in Kampala, expressed his regret over the expulsion of Indians by Idi Amin in the
1970s.
He praised the achievements of the Indian
diaspora in Uganda and lauded India’s role
in the global south.
Key Highlights of the 19th Summit

• The 19th Summit of the NAM was held in
Kampala, Uganda, with the theme of
"Deepening Cooperation for Shared
Global Affluence".
• Uganda has taken over as chair from
Azerbaijan, to run until 2027.
• The summit adopted the Kampala
Declaration, slamming Israeli
military aggression and calling for the
implementation of the UN Security
Council resolution to allow
humanitarian aid into the besieged Gaza
Strip.
• The External Affairs Minister (EAM) of India led the Indian delegation at the 19th NAM
Summit, calling for a sustainable solution to the Gaza crisis.

• He emphasised the need for immediate relief in the humanitarian crisis and urged the
prevention of the conflict's spread in the West Asian region.
• The NAM was established in 1961 in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, through the initiative of five
leaders of newly independent countries: Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, Gamal Abdel Nasser of
Egypt, Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Sukarno of Indonesia, and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana.
• It was formed during the Cold War as an organisation of States that did not seek to formally
align themselves with either the United States or the Soviet Union but sought to remain
independent or neutral.
• At present, the Movement has 120 Member States, 17 Observer Countries and 10 Observer
organizations.
• NAM does not have a permanent secretariat or a formal founding charter, act, or treaty.
• The summit usually takes place every three years.
 ASIAN BUDDHIST CONFERENCE FOR PEACE

The Asian Buddhist Conference for Peace (ABCP), a voluntary mass movement of Buddhists in
Asia convened its 12th General Assembly in New Delhi.
Theme: ABCP - The Buddhist Voice of Global South, reflects India's commitment, as
demonstrated through its G20 presidency and the Voice of Global South Summit.
ABCP
• ABCP was founded in 1970 at Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia as a voluntary movement of
followers of Buddhism with both monastic (monks) and lay members.
• ABCP then emerged as a collaborative effort of Buddhist dignitaries from India,
Mongolia, Japan, Malaysia, Nepal, the then USSR, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, South and North Korea.
• Headquarters: Gandanthegchenling Monastery in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.
• The Supreme Head of Mongolian Buddhists is the current ABCP President.
Aims of ABCP
• Bring together efforts of Buddhists in support of consolidating universal peace,
harmony, and cooperation among peoples of Asia.
• Furthering their economic and social advancement and promoting respect for justice and
human dignity.
• Disseminating the Buddhist culture, tradition, and heritage.
 THIRD SOUTH SUMMIT

The 3rd South Summit was held in Kampala, Uganda, bringing together the members of the
Group of 77 (G77) and China.

• The Third South Summit brought together the 134 members of the Group of 77 and
China to boost South-South cooperation on trade, investment, sustainable development,
climate change, poverty eradication, and digital economy, among other areas.
• The theme of the summit was “Leaving No One Behind.”
G77
• The Group of 77 (G-77) was established on 15th June 1964 by signatories of the “Joint
Declaration of the Seventy-Seven Developing Countries” issued at the end of the first
session of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in Geneva.
• The G77 group has 134 members excluding China because the Chinese government does
not consider itself a member, but rather a partner that provides political and financial
support to the group.
• Although the group (G 77) mentions China as its member.
Aims
• The Group of 77 is the largest intergovernmental organization of developing
countries in the United Nations.
• It provides the means for the countries of the South to articulate and promote their
collective economic interests and enhance their joint negotiating capacity on all major
international economic issues within the United Nations system.
Structure
• A Chairman, who acts as its spokesman, coordinates the Group’s action in each Chapter.
• The Chairmanship, which is the highest political body within the organizational structure of
the Group of 77, rotates on a regional basis (between Africa, Asia-Pacific, Latin America
and the Caribbean) and is held for one year in all the Chapters.
• Chapters refer to the regional divisions, currently, Uganda is the chairman, acts as the
spokesperson and coordinates the actions of the G-77 on behalf of the member countries
within the African Chapter.
• Chapters in G77 are the offices of the group in different locations where they
coordinate their activities and represent their interests in various UN agencies and
international forums.
• The chapters of the G77 are in Geneva (UN), Rome (FAO), Vienna (UNIDO), Paris (UNESCO),
Nairobi (UNEP) and the Group of 24 in Washington, D.C. (IMF and World Bank).
• For the year 2024, the Republic of Uganda holds the Chairmanship of the G-77.
• The South Summit is the supreme decision-making body of the Group of 77.
• The First and the Second South Summits were held in Havana, Cuba, in 2000 and in
Doha, Qatar, in 2005, respectively.

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MONTHLY CURRENT AFFAIRS ANALYSIS

MARCH 2024
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LOCATION IN NEWS
 SOMALIA
• Somalia is bounded by the Gulf of Aden to the
north, by the Indian Ocean to the east, by Kenya
and Ethiopia to the west, and by Djibouti to the
northwest.
IN NEWS:
• Somalia's government and federal member states
stated that direct universal suffrage would be
introduced with local elections set for June 2024.
• Rebuilding of Somalia: It is struggling to emerge
from decades of conflict and chaos while battling a
bloody Islamist insurgency and natural disasters
including a punishing drought that has left millions
facing hunger.
• Rivalries between the clans have resulted in decades
of strife and political wrangling, which in recent years
have been exploited by the Al-Shabaab militants
aligned with Al-Qaeda.
• Puntland: officially the Puntland State of Somalia, is a Federal Member State in northeastern
Somalia. The capital city is the city of Garoowe in the Nugal region, and its leaders declared the
territory an autonomous state in 1998.
• Somaliland: officially the Republic of Somaliland, is an unrecognised de-facto sovereign state
in the Horn of Africa, on the southern coast of the Gulf of Aden.
 UGANDA
Uganda's President Yoweri Museveni signed one of the world's toughest anti-LGBTQ laws,
including the death penalty for "aggravated homosexuality", drawing condemnation and
risking sanctions from aid donors.
It stipulates capital punishment for "serial offenders" against the law and transmission of a
terminal illness like HIV/AIDS through gay sex.
It also decrees a 20-year sentence for "promoting" homosexuality.
• Same-sex relations were already illegal in Uganda.
• Uganda, officially the Republic of Uganda, is a landlocked country in East Africa.

• The country is bordered to the

east by Kenya, to the north by
South Sudan, to the west by
the Democratic Republic of
the Congo, to the south-west
by Rwanda, and to the south
by Tanzania.
• The southern part of the
country includes a substantial
portion of Lake Victoria,
shared with Kenya and
Tanzania.
• Mount Elgon is an extinct
shield volcano on the border of
Uganda and Kenya.
• Lake Kyoga is a large shallow
lake in Uganda. The Victoria
Nile (White Nile) flows
through the lake on its way from Lake Victoria to Lake Albert.
• While Lake Kyoga is part of the African Great Lakes system, it is not itself considered a great
lake.
 THE GREAT LAKES OF AFRICA

(# Geography)
• The African Great Lakes are a series
of lakes constituting the part of the
Rift Valley lakes in and around the
East African Rift.
• They include Lake Victoria, the
second-largest fresh water lake
in the world by area, Lake
Tanganyika, the world's second-
largest freshwater lake by
volume and depth, and Lake
Malawi, the world's eighth-
largest fresh water lake by area.
• Collectively, they contain water,
which is more than either Lake
Baikal or the North American
Great Lakes.
• This total constitutes about 25% of
the planet's unfrozen surface fresh
water.
• The Swahili language is the most
spoken language in the African Great Lakes region.

• It also serves as a national or official language of five nations in the region: Tanzania,
Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
 DONETSK AND LUHANSK

(# locations in Ukraine)
o Donetsk and Luhansk are
two states located in
eastern Ukraine, which
share a border with Russia.
o Within these two states are
two separatist territories
known as the Donetsk
People’s Republic
(DPR) and Luhansk
People’s Republic
(LPR), which are run by
Russian and Russian-
backed separatists.
o This entire region, which
includes Donetsk, Luhansk
and their respective separatist territories, is generally referred to as the ‘Donbas’ region.
o Russia has long asserted that since these are primarily Russian-speaking territories, they need
to be protected from “Ukrainian nationalism”.
 WORLD CUP SQUASH

(# Sports)
Egypt, the top seed, won the SDAT-WSF Squash World Cup held in Chennai with a thumping
4-1 win on points over Malaysia, seeded fourth, in the final. The Squash World Cup is an
International Tournament in which national team squads represented by two men and two
women play ties of four matches against each other.
• Squash is a game of agility, strategy, talent, and physical and mental strength.
• Squash offers numerous health benefits and has been recognized as the healthiest sport by
Forbes Magazine.
• It can be played year-round, in any weather condition, and by players of all skill levels, making
it a sport that anyone can enjoy.
• Squash is typically played by two players for singles matches or four players for
doubles matches.
• The game is played on a four-walled court with a small, hollow rubber ball. The ball should
be hit against the front wall, above the tin (a boundary line near the floor) and below the
outline.

• A match consists of the best of either three or five games. Each game is played with
11 points. The first player to reach 11 points wins the game, unless the score becomes 10-all.
In that case, the game continues until one player leads by two points.
WORLD SQUASH FEDERATION (WSF)

• Formed in 1967, the WSF is the International Federation for squash, also a member of the
General Association of International Sports Federations (GAISF) and of the Association of IOC
Recognised International Sports Federations (ARISF).
• WSF has a membership of 123 National Squash Federations and a close working alliance with
its five Continental Federations.
 MALI
(# country in West Africa)
• The Republic of Mali is located in the
interior of West Africa, north of the
Equator, reaching to the Tropic of
Cancer.
• It is landlocked, sharing borders with
seven other African nations. Mali is
bounded on the north by Algeria, on the
east by Niger and Burkina Faso, on
the south by Côte d'Ivoire and
Guinea, and on the west by Senegal
and Mauritania.
• The majority of its population of 16.3
million live in the country's southern
region. Capital and largest city is
Bamako.
• Spoken languages are French and Bambara (Bamanankan), a Mande language. Mali is a
predominant Islamic country.
• Mali stretches across three different climatic regions.
• To the south is tropical Sudanese savanna, wooded grasslands broken occasionally by cliffs
and rock formations, watered by the Niger and Senegal Rivers and their tributaries.
• In the middle are the semi-arid steppe-lands of the Sahel.
• Dry, sandy plains dotted with sparse trees and bushes and a vast plateau broken by isolated
rocky masses characterize this transitional zone between the savanna and the desert to the
north.
• Mali has two large river systems, Senegal, and the Niger.

 SAHEL
(# semi-arid region in Africa)
o Sahel, Arabic Sāḥil, is semiarid
region of western and north-central
Africa extending from Senegal eastward
to Sudan. It forms a transitional zone
between the arid Sahara (desert)
to the north and the belt of humid
savannas to the south.
o The Sahel stretches from the
Atlantic Ocean eastward through
northern Senegal, southern Mauritania,
the great bend of the Niger River in Mali, Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta), southern Niger,
northeastern Nigeria, south-central Chad, and into Sudan.
 GAZA STRIP, PALESTINE

(# Middle East)
• The Gaza Strip is a territory in the Middle East. It is located on the Mediterranean Sea
between Israel and Egypt.
• The Gaza Strip is part of the region sometimes known as
Palestine.
• In the Six-Day War of June 1967, Israel took control
of the Gaza Strip.
• People from Israel soon began establishing
settlements in the region. They wanted to strengthen
their hold on the territory. Troops were sent to the region
to guard the settlers.
• The settlements angered the Palestinians. They
fought against the troops in Gaza. They also continued to
fight for an independent Arab state. The main
representative of the Palestinians was a group called the
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).
• In 1993, Israel and the PLO signed an agreement.
Israel said that it would hand over control of the Gaza
Strip and other territories to the Palestinians. A new
organization called the Palestinian Authority was set
up to rule the Palestinian territories.
• But two different groups within the PA then began to fight for power. In 2007 one group, called
Hamas, took control of the Gaza Strip. Hamas did not want peace with Israel. Its members
attacked the country from Gaza.
• Israel responded with its own attacks in Gaza. The conflict has been ongoing since then.

 TURKEY AND GREECE

(# Eastern Europe)
Turkey has rescued migrants from three overloaded boats in the Aegean Sea. It accused
Greece of "pushing back" the dinghies from its shores back into Turkish waters.
TURKEY
• The Republic of Turkey is located on the
Anatolian peninsula in western Asia
and a small enclave in Thrace in the
Balkan region of Southeast Europe.
• Turkey has a coastline on the
Mediterranean Sea in the south
and east and on the Black Sea in the
north.
• It borders Armenia, Iran, and
Azerbaijan in the east, Georgia in the
northeast, Bulgaria and Greece in
the northwest, and Iraq and Syria in the southeast.
• Of a total boundary length of some, about three-fourths is maritime, including coastlines along
the Black Sea, the Aegean, and the Mediterranean, as well as the narrows that link the
Black and Aegean seas.
• These narrows—which include the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, and the
Dardanelles—are known collectively as the Turkish straits.
GREECE
• The Hellenic Republic (the official
name) is composed of two main
peninsulas and some thousand
islands in the Aegean (east) and the
Ionian seas (west of the
mainland).
• The country is bordered by Albania,
Bulgaria, Turkey, and North
Macedonia.
• Greece shares maritime borders
with Cyprus, Egypt, Italy, and
Libya.
• Greece is a country that is at once
European, Balkan,
Mediterranean, and Near
Eastern.
• It lies at the juncture of Europe, Asia,
and Africa and is heir to the heritages of Classical Greece, the Byzantine Empire, and nearly
four centuries of Ottoman Turkish rule.

 JENIN REFUGEE CAMP

(# West Bank)
• It was established in
1953 as a result of
displacement of
Palestinian refugees
during the 1948
Arab- Israeli war.
• It is one of the refugee
camps in West bank.
• It was in news due to
military operation
aimed at destroying
militant groups.
 CHECHNYA
(# a disputed region in Russia)
Chechnya has been granted a degree of autonomy within the Russian Federation, but its
political status remains a subject of contention.
The Chechen government has significant control over internal affairs, but the central Russian
government maintains control over defense,
security, and foreign policy.
• Chechnya dispute refers to the long-
standing conflict and tensions between
Russian federation and the Chechen
Republic.
• The roots can be traced back to 19th
century when Chechnya, a
predominantly Muslim dominated region
in the North Caucasus was
incorporated into the Russian
empire.
• Over the years, Chechens sought
independence or greater autonomy
leading to sporadic resistance and clashes.
There have been two Chechen wars as well (1994 and 1999).

 SIACHEN GLACIER
(# Leh district)
• It is located in the eastern Karakoram range in the Himalaya Mountains, just northeast
of the point NJ9842 where the Line of
Control between India and Pakistan
ends.
o It forms part of the Leh district of the
Ladakh division.
History of Siachen
• In 1984, India launched Operation
Meghdoot to capture the 76.4 km-long
glacier on the Saltoro ridge.
• The operation continues till date, making it
the longest continuing one of its kind in the
world.
• But there has been no shooting following the 2003 ceasefire along the Line of Control (LoC)
and the Actual Ground Position Line (AGPL) across the Siachen.
• Siachen is a legacy of Partition.
• While the LoC was delineated and accepted by India and Pakistan up to point NJ9842, the
glacier was left unmarked.
• India claims the area based on the Jammu and Kashmir Instrument of Accession (1947) and
the Karachi Agreement of 1949, which define the ceasefire line beyond NJ9842 as
“running Northwards to the glaciers”.
 UZBEKISTAN
(# Central Asia)
Uzbekistan’s President Shavkat
Mirziyoyev was re-elected with 87.1% of
the vote.
Mirziyoyev, who has led Central Asia’s
most populous nation since 2016, called a
snap election after changing the
constitution through a referendum which
reset his term count and extended the
presidential term from five to seven years.
• Uzbekistan, a landlocked country in
Central Asia south and southeast of
the Aral Sea.

• It is bordered by Kazakhstan in west and north-east, by Turkmenistan in south-west,

it has a short border with Afghanistan in south (145 km), Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan in
east.
• The landscape of Uzbekistan is dry with mostly flat-to-rolling sandy desert, inclusive sand
dunes. Only about 10% of the country's area is intensively cultivated with irrigated land in river
valleys and oases.
• The country came under Russian control in the 19th Century, and emerged as an
independent state when Soviet rule ended in 1991.
• Under authoritarian President Islam Karimov, who ruled from 1989 until his death in 2016,
Uzbekistan was reliant on exports of cotton, gas, and gold to maintain its rigid, state-
controlled economy.
• His successor, Shavkat Mirziyoyev, has made efforts to break Uzbekistan out of its
international isolation and economic stagnation, but has yet to initiate any serious political
liberalisation.
 AMAZON FOREST
(# South America)
After four years of rising destruction in Brazil’s Amazon, deforestation dropped by 33.6 per cent
during the first six months of President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva’s term.
Former right-wing President Jair Bolsonaro weakened environmental authorities while
his insistence on development of the Amazon region resonated with landgrabbers and farmers
who had long felt maligned by environmental laws. They were emboldened, and Amazon
deforestation surged to a 15-year high.
• The Amazon is a vast biome

that spans eight rapidly
developing countries—
Brazil, Bolivia, Peru,
Ecuador, Colombia,
Venezuela, Guyana, and
Suriname—and French
Guiana, an overseas territory
of France.
• The landscape contains:-
o about one in 10 known
species on Earth
o 1.6 billion acres of dense
forests, around half of the
planet's remaining
tropical forests
o 20% of the world's liquid
freshwater
o 2.7 million square miles in the Amazon basin, about 40% of South America

• Planet Earth: There is a clear link between the health of the Amazon and the health
of the planet. The rain forests, which contain an estimated 150-200 billion tons of carbon,
help stabilize the local and global climate. Deforestation releases significant amounts of this
carbon, which is having negative consequences around the world.
 TOUR DE FRANCE 2023

(#Sport #Cycling)
The 2023 Tour de France was the 110th edition of the Tour de France. It started in Bilbao, Spain,
on 1 July and ended with the final stage at Champs-Élysées, Paris, on 23 July.
Defending champion Jonas Vingegaard (Team Jumbo–Visma) won the general
classification for the second year in a row. Jonas is from Denmark.
CLASSIFICATIONS
• The general classification of the Tour de France is the most important

General classification of the race and determines the winner of the race.
classification • Since 1919, the leader of the general classification wears the yellow
jersey
• The points classification is a secondary competition in the Tour de

France, which started in 1953.
Points • Points are given for high finishes in a stage and for winning
classification intermediate sprints, and these are recorded in a points classification.
• It is considered a sprinters' competition.
• The leader is indicated by a green jersey.
• The team classification is a prize given in the Tour de France to the best
team in the race.
Team
• It has been awarded since 1930, and the calculation has changed
classification throughout the years.
• There is no colored jersey for this.
• The mountains classification is a secondary competition in the Tour de

France, that started in 1933.
Mountain • It is given to the rider that gains the most points for reaching mountain
classification summits first.
• The leader of the classification is named the King of the Mountains,
and since 1975 wears the polka dot jersey.
• The young rider classification is a secondary competition in the Tour de

Young rider France, that started in 1975.
classification
• The leader of the young rider classification wears a white jersey.

• The combativity award is a prize given in the Tour de France for the
most combative rider overall during the race.
Combativity
award • Historically, it favoured constant attackers as it was based on the
distance spent in a breakaway, included winning checkpoints and
outright stage wins.
 WIMBLEDON 2023
(#Sport #Cycling)
The 2023 Wimbledon Championships was a Grand Slam tennis tournament that took place at
the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club in Wimbledon, London, United Kingdom.
The tournament was played on grass courts.
WINNER-WOMEN’S SINGLES
• Markéta Vondroušová (Czech Republic) defeated Ons Jabeur in the final, to win the ladies'
singles tennis title at the 2023 Wimbledon Championships.
• It was her first major singles title and her first title overall in six years. Vondroušová became
the first unseeded female player to win the Wimbledon title
WINNER-MEN’S SINGLES
• Carlos Alcaraz (Spain) defeated the four-time defending champion Novak Djokovic in the
final, to win the gentlemen's singles tennis title at the 2023 Wimbledon Championships.
• It was his first Wimbledon title and second major singles title overall
 CANARY ISLANDS
(# Island chain of Spain)
The Spanish coast guard rescued 86 people from a migrant
boat off the coast of the Canary Islands.
• The Canary Islands also known informally as the Canaries,
are a Spanish autonomous community and archipelago in
Macaronesia in the Atlantic Ocean.
• At their closest point to the African mainland, they are 100
kilometres west of Morocco.
• They are the southernmost of the autonomous communities
of Spain.
• The Canary Islands, especially Tenerife, Gran Canaria,
Fuerteventura, and Lanzarote, are a major tourist
destination.

 COCOS ISLANDS
(# territory of Australia)
For expanding the strategic reach of the Indian military and improving interoperability with
Australia, an Indian Navy Dornier
maritime patrol aircraft and an Indian
Air Force (IAF) C-130 transport
aircraft visited Australia’s Cocos
(Keeling) Islands (CKI) in the Southern
Indian Ocean.
• The Cocos (Keeling) Islands are
an Australian external territory
in the Indian Ocean, comprising a
small archipelago approximately
midway between Australia and Sri
Lanka and relatively close to the
Indonesian island of Sumatra.
• The isolated territory is made up of
two coral atolls, the southern
comprising 26 islets and the
northern containing only North
Keeling Island.
• The vegetation consists chiefly of
coconut palms, which were
formerly cultivated for copra on plantations.
 NIGER
(# Country in Africa)
Coup: Niger was one of the few democracies left
in the Sahel belt which stretches across the
continent. But now that the army has seized
power, there are concerns over what this
means for the troubled region.
From Mali in the west to Sudan in the east, a
whole swathe of Africa is now run by the
military.
• Niger is a vast, arid state on the edge of the
Sahara desert, Niger has seen a series of
coups and political instability in the decades
following independence from France in 1960.
• Today the country struggles with frequent droughts and poverty. Niger is betting on increased
oil exploration and gold mining to help modernise its economy.
• It is landlocked country bounded on the northwest by Algeria, on the northeast by Libya, on
the east by Chad, on the south by Nigeria and Benin, and on the west by Burkina Faso
and Mali. The capital is Niamey.

• The country takes its name from the Niger River, which flows through the southwestern part
of its territory.
• The name Niger derives in turn from the phrase gher n-gheren, meaning “river among rivers,”
in the Tamashek language.
 POLAND AND LITHUANIA

(# Central Europe # Eastern Europe)
Both Poland and Lithuania are NATO member countries. Polish and Lithuanian leaders held an
urgent meeting in a strategically sensitive area where their NATO nations border Belarus and
the Russian territory of Kaliningrad, as they are bracing for provocations from Russia and
Belarys in the area.
 POLAND
• Poland is located at the heart of the
European continent.
• Poland's borders have changed many
times over the centuries. Its present
borders were set after World War II ended
in 1945.
• Poland has seven neighbors: Germany,
Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Lithuania,
Belarus, Ukraine, and Russian
Kaliningrad.
• Poland has a variety of striking landscapes, from the sandy beaches of the Baltic Sea coast
in the north and the rolling central lowlands to the snowcapped peaks of the Carpathian and
Sudeten Mountains in the south.
• Rivers: Vistula River, is the largest river of Poland. The Neisse (Nysa Łużycka) and Oder
(Odra) rivers define the border with Germany.
• Wildlife: Poland's forests are the ideal habitat for many of Europe's endangered species,
including brown bears, wild horses, chamois goats, Eurasian lynxes, and the continent's largest
population of gray wolves.
 LITHUANIA
• Lithuania, an Eastern European country with a coastline at the Baltic Sea in west.
• It is the largest and most populous of the three Baltic states.
• The country is bordered by Belarus, Latvia, Poland, and Russia (Kaliningrad) and it shares a
maritime border with Sweden
• Background: Independent between the two World Wars, Lithuania was annexed by the
USSR in 1940. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became the first of the Soviet republics to declare

its independence, but this proclamation

was not generally recognized until
September of 1991 (following the abortive
coup in Moscow). The last Russian troops
withdrew in 1993.
• Lithuania subsequently has restructured
its economy for eventual integration into
Western European institutions.
• Rivers: Lithuanian rivers drain to the Baltic and generally have the slow, meandering
characteristics of lowland rivers. The Neman River (Nemunas), cutting north and then west
through the heart of the country, is the largest.
• The official language of Lithuania is Lithuanian. Russian, Polish, Belarusian, Ukrainian, and
other languages are spoken in the larger cities. Yiddish is commonly spoken by members of the
tiny remaining Jewish community in Lithuania.
 ARASH-DORRA GAS FIELD DISPUTE

(# Middle East)
Saudi Arabia and Kuwait have asserted their sole ownership of the disputed Arash-Dorra
gas field, a resource-rich offshore area also claimed by Iran.
• It is known as Arash in Iran

and Dorra in Kuwait and
Saudi Arabia, the Arash-Dorra
gas field has been a focal point of
contention between the three
nations.
• The field holds significant
natural gas reserves, making
it a highly valuable resource for
all involved parties.
Origin of the dispute

• The row over the field stretches
back to the 1960s, when Iran
and Kuwait each awarded an
offshore concession, one to the
Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, the forerunner to BP, and one to Royal Dutch Shell.
• The two concessions overlapped in the northern part of the field, whose recoverable reserves
are estimated at some 220 billion cubic metres (nearly eight trillion cubic feet).
• Last year, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia signed an agreement to jointly develop the
field, despite objections from Iran which branded the deal as “illegal”.
• It is noteworthy that the borders between Saudi Arabia and Iran have been delineated, while
the borders between Iran and Kuwait remain a subject of bilateral dispute.

 LAMPUDESA
(# Italy)
Considered a frequent migration point for the people of Africa trying to enter Europe.
• It is the largest island of the Italian
Pelagie Islands in the Mediterranean
Sea.
• Lampedusa lies between Malta and
Tunisia.
• Lampedusa is arid and gets its only fresh
water from rainfall.
• Since the early 2000s, the island has
become a primary European entry
point for migrants, mainly coming from
Libya.
 RED SEA
(# Middle East # Trade route)
Physical Geography
• It is an inlet of the Indian Ocean between
Africa and Asia. One of the most saline
bodies of water in the world.
• Bordering Countries: Egypt, Saudi Arabia,
Yemen, Sudan, Eritrea, and Djibouti.
• Connected to the Indian ocean in south through
the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of
Aden.
• In the north are the Sinai Peninsula, the
Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez (leading
to the Suez Canal).
• Occupies a part of Great Rift Valley (Afro-
Arabian Rift Valley).
Why Red?
• A popular hypotheses about the origins of the
Red Sea's name is that it contains a
cyanobacteria called Trichodesmium
erythraeum (a red-colored algae), which
turns the normally blue-green water a reddish-
brown.

• If you’re diving in the Red Sea during a seasonal algal bloom, you may see a red tinge in the
water.
Biodiversity
• The unique habitats of the Red sea support a wide range of marine life, including sea turtles,
dugongs, dolphins and many endemic fish species.
• Coral reefs mainly extend along the northern and central coasts, and decrease in abundance
towards the southern region, as coastal waters become more turbid.
Economic aspects
• Resources - Five major types of mineral resources are found in the Red Sea region:
petroleum deposits, evaporite deposits (sediments laid down as a result of evaporation, such
as halite, sylvite, gypsum, and dolomite), sulfur, phosphates, and the heavy-metal deposits
• Navigation: Red Sea is a part of an important trade route connecting Europe to Asia (Through
Suez canal)
 BEKI RIVER
(# Bhutan # Assam)
The water level of the Beki River is flowing above the danger level mark at several places
across Assam.
About Beki River
• The Beki river originates in Bhutan, and it is one of the right bank tributaries of the
Brahmaputra river.
• This river is also known as the Kurisu River in Bhutan.
• A large portion of the Beki river flows in the state of Assam and ultimately mix with Bay of
Bengal.
• It flows through the Manas National Park.
• In Assam state, it passes through the village of Barpeta and Chairang.
• The river and its drainage channels flow through the plains of Assam for about 85 km and drain
an area of 26,243 sq. km. approximately.
• Beki river is rich in bio-diversities. It is the home of a variety of food fishes’ species, ornamental
fishes’ species, amphibians, reptiles, birds, insects etc.
• Discharging a huge amount of water every year, the river turns dangerous during monsoon
season.

 HAWAII
(# United States)
A devastating wildfire swept through Maui, Hawaii, leading to destruction, fatalities, and
evacuations.
The town of Lahaina has suffered near-total damage.
• Hawaii is a state located in the Pacific Ocean, comprising an archipelago of islands.
• It is situated in the central Pacific region, southwest of the continental United States.
• The state is known for its isolated and
unique geographical position.
Islands and Geography

• Hawaii consists of eight main
islands: Hawaii (also known as the
Big Island), Maui, Oahu, Kauai,
Molokai, Lanai, Niihau, and
Kahoolawe.
• Each island has its distinct geography,
landscapes, and natural features.
• The Hawaiian islands are of volcanic
origin, with active and dormant
volcanoes shaping the landscapes.
• Kilauea and Mauna Loa on the Big Island are among the world's most active
volcanoes, contributing to the islands' dynamic geology.
Cultural and Historical Significance

• The islands were originally settled by Polynesians, and their cultural heritage is deeply rooted
in the native Hawaiian traditions.
• The arrival of Western explorers, missionaries, and eventual colonization significantly
impacted Hawaiian society and culture.
• Hawaii's historical significance includes being the royal capital of the Kingdom of Hawaii
before it became a U.S. territory.
Statehood and Government

• Hawaii became the 50th state of the United States on August 21, 1959.
• It operates under a state government structure, with an elected governor and state legislature.
• The state capital is Honolulu, located on the island of Oahu.
Economy and Industries

• Hawaii has a diverse economy that includes tourism, agriculture, defense, and technology
sectors.

• Agriculture, including the cultivation of crops like sugarcane, pineapples (historically), and
coffee, has played a significant role.
 MURMANSK PORT
(# Russia # Arctic)
India’s engagement with Russia’s Arctic region has been strengthening with India-bound
goods constituting the maximum share of cargo handled this year by Murmansk
Port.
Murmansk Port
• Murmask Port is a major seaport
located in northwestern Russia.
• The port was established in 1916
as a supply point for the Russian
military during World War I.
• It is situated in the city of
Murmansk, which is the largest
city north of the Arctic Circle in
Russia.
• It is located on the Kola Peninsula
on the shores of the Barents Sea.
• The port serves as a crucial gateway to
the Arctic region.
• The port is an important node along
the Northern Sea Route, a shipping
route that connects Europe and Asia via the Arctic Ocean.
• Its ice-free waters enable year-round maritime activities, making it an important hub
for shipping and trade in the Arctic.
Significance of the Port

• Murmansk Port is strategically located near rich natural resources, including minerals, oil,
and gas in the Arctic region.
• It plays a role in facilitating the export of these resources.
• The port is well-connected to various transportation networks, including railroads,
pipelines, and roads.
• It serves as a hub for moving goods to and from the Arctic and the rest of Russia.
Kola Peninsula
• It is situated in northwest Russia which is one of the most important economic regions in
the circumpolar North.
• The region contains valuable natural resources, including a wide variety of mineral and fish
resources, and is proximate to the large gas fields of the Barents Sea.

• A large population, industrial complexes, and military infrastructure are also characteristic of
the region.
 LAKE TITICACA
(# South America)
Like many places suffering deadly consequences of climate change, the Lake Titicaca nestled in
the Andes mountains on Bolivia's border with Peru now features a water level
approaching an all-time low.
• Lake Titicaca is the largest

freshwater lake in South America
and the highest of the world's large
lakes.
• Titicaca is one of less than twenty
ancient lakes on earth, and is thought to
be there million years old.
• Lake Titicaca sits 3 810 m above sea
level and is situated between Peru to the
west and Bolivia to the east.
• Peruvian part is located in Puno
department, in Puno and Huancane
provinces.
• More that 25 rivers empty their waters into Titicaca; the largest, the Ramis, draining about
two-fifths of the entire Titicaca Basin.
• The Aymara people living in the Titicaca Basin still practice their ancient methods of
agriculture on stepped terraces that predate Inca times.
 LACHIN CORRIDOR
(# Armenia and Azerbaijan)
• It is a road that links Armenia and the enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh.
• It has been blocked by Azerbaijani protesters related to the issue of illegal mining of natural
resources in Nagorno-Karabakh.
• It supports movement of people and essential goods like- food, fuel, and medical
supplies in or out of the enclave.
Nagorno-Karabakh conflict
• It is a disputed territory, internationally recognized as part of Azerbaijan, although most of its
territory was governed by ethnic Armenians under the breakaway Republic of
Artsakh—also known as the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic (NKR).

• The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict is an

ethnic and territorial dispute between
Armenia and Azerbaijan.
• It centres on the Nagorno-Karabakh region,
predominantly Armenian-populated but
within Azerbaijan’s borders.
• A ceasefire mediated by Russia in 1994
left the region under Armenian control,
though it’s still recognized as part of
Azerbaijan. The area is now governed by
separatist Armenians and called the
“Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast.”
 VANUATU
(# South Pacific)
• It is an island country in Melanesia, located in the South
Pacific Ocean, located west of Fiji and east of Australia.
• It is a part of Pacific Island Countries (PICs).
• (PICs) consists of the 3 major groups of islands: Melanesia,
Micronesia, and Polynesia, and commonly refers to the
14 countries scattered in the South-West Pacific Ocean.
• These are the Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands,
Micronesia, Nauru, Niue, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Palau,
Papua New Guinea, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.
• The region comprises strategically located (at the crossroads of significant maritime trade
routes) small island nations, with small populations and resource-rich Exclusive Economic
Zones (EEZs).
 BAHRAIN
(# Persian Gulf)
• It is an island country in the Persian Gulf. It is situated
east of Saudi Arabia and north of Qatar.
• The kingdom shares maritime borders with Iran, Qatar,
and Saudi Arabia.
• The country is in the petroleum and aluminum business
and practices Islamic banking.
• It is member of Gulf Cooperation Council.
• There are six 6 countries that together form the Gulf Cooperation Council. These 6 GGC
countries are Qatar, Oman, UAE, Bahrain, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia.

 BAIRABI-SAIRANG RAILWAY PROJECT

(# Mizoram)
• A steel girder for an under-construction railway bridge in Mizoram collapsed.
• The bridge — being constructed over an undulating hilly forested terrain and a river — is part
of a long-in-the-works project to take railway connectivity to Aizawl, the state capital.
• The site of collapse was in Sairang, around 19 km from Aizawl, and the bridge is on the
approach to Sairang station, the last point of this broad gauge railway project.
• The bridge is one of 185 bridges part of the 51.38 km long Bairabi-Sairang railway
project.
 LAKE GARDA
(# Italy)
• Lake Garda is also known as Benaco. It is the largest lake in Italy.
• The water level of Lake Garda is only half of what it normally has.
• The lake’s devastatingly low water levels have exposed sand banks and stones that forms a path
from the shore to the outcrop, which is also known as San Biagio Island.
• The parched condition of the Po, Italy’s longest river, caused billions of euros in losses to
farmers who normally rely on it to irrigate fields and rice paddies.
• To compensate for the loss, authorities allowed more water from Lake Garda to flow out
to local rivers.
• With huge amounts of water being diverted to rivers, Lake Garda recorded its lowest level.
 LEBANON
(# Middle East)
• Lebanon, country located on the eastern
shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It
consists of a narrow strip of territory and is
one of the world’s smaller sovereign states.
The capital is Beirut.
• Lebanon is bounded to the north and east
by Syria, to the south by Israel, and to the
west by the Mediterranean Sea.
• Al-Biqāʿ valley lies between the Lebanon
Mountains in the west and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains in the east.

 MOROCCO
(# North Africa)
A devastating earthquake struck Morocco, killing thousands and leaving more injured or
unaccounted for.
The quake is the strongest to hit the nation’s center in more than a century, and its epicenter
was not far from popular tourist and economic hub Marrakech.
• Morocco is located in the northwest corner

of Africa and is bordered by the North
Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean
Sea.
• Algeria and Western Sahara are the
land borders to the south and east.
• The high Atlas Mountains separate the
mild coastline from the harsh Sahara.
• Important cities are Fez, Casablanca, and
Marrakech, on the coastal plain.
• Morocco is one of only three kingdoms left on the continent of Africa—the others,
Lesotho and Swaziland, are small, southern African countries.
• Its culture is a blend of Arab, Berber, European and African influences.
• In 1975, Morocco annexed the former Spanish colony of Western Sahara. Since then
it has been the subject of a long-running territorial dispute between Morocco and its
indigenous Sahrawi people, led by the Polisario Front.
 LIBYA
(# North Africa)
Storm Daniel struck eastern Libya and left widespread flooding and destruction. Torrential
rainfall and the collapse of two dams flooded the coastal
city, sweeping entire neighborhoods into the
Mediterranean Sea.
• Libya is fourth largest country in Africa.
• The country borders the Mediterranean Sea to the
north, Tunisia and Algeria to the west, Niger and
Chad to the south, and Sudan and Egypt to the east.
• Libya is almost entirely covered by the Libyan Desert, a
flat plateau that’s part of the Sahara, the world's largest
hot desert.
• Libya is so dry that no permanent rivers flow through
its boundaries.

• To access the water below the desert, Libya built the Great Man-Made River, a network of
underground pipelines that deliver fresh water to the cities.
• The capital of Tripoli and Benghazi, the second-largest city, are both located near the coast.
 BLACK SEA PORTS

(# Eastern Europe)
• Black sea enjoys a favourable geographical location, surrounded by nations of Romania,
Bulgaria, Georgia, Moldova, Turkey, Russia, and Ukraine.
• It is an important maritime gateway connecting the regions in the Mediterranean Sea and
Eastern European nations with Asia and the rest of the world.
Port of • Constanta is the largest black seaport and also the biggest port of
Constanta Romania.
Port of • The Oil and Gas terminal of this port is the biggest in Ukraine.
Odessa
Port of • Port Novorossiysk is not only an eminent black seaport but also the main
Novorossiysk port of Russia.
• Sevastopol sometimes written Sebastopol, is the largest city in Crimea

Port of and a major port on the Black Sea.
Sevastopol • The port infrastructure is fully integrated with the city of Sevastopol and
naval bases of the Russian Navy and the Black Sea Fleet.

Port of • Situated on the western coast of the Black Sea near Varna Bay, port Varna
Varna is an important black seaport and the biggest seaport of Bulgaria.
Port of • Theodosia mainly handles oil and petroleum goods and derivatives and is
Theodosia an important port for Ukraine.
Port of Hopa • The port of Hopa is the easternmost Black seaport. It contributes
significantly to the Turkish economy.
Samsun Port • This is the biggest Turkish seaport situated in the Black sea.
Batumi port • Port Batumi is situated on the southeastern coast of the Black Sea and is
an important port of Georgia.
 IDUKKI DAM
(# Kerala)
A significant security breach has been reported at the Idukki Dam
• Idukki Dam, a double curvature arch dam spanning the Periyar River in Kerala, India. The
dam, situated between the Kuravan and Kurathi granite hills, is among Asia’s tallest arch dams.
Periyar River
• The Periyar River is the longest river in the state of Kerala with a length of 244 km.
• It is also known as ‘Lifeline of Kerala’ as it is one of the few perennial rivers in the state.
• A perennial river is a channel that has continuous flow in parts of its stream bed all year round.
• Periyar River originates from Sivagiri hills of Western Ghats and flows through the
Periyar National Park.
• The main tributaries of Periyar are Muthirapuzha, Mullayar, Cheruthoni, Perinjankutti.
 BRAHMANI RIVER
(# Odisha)
• The Brahmani is a major seasonal river in the Odisha.
• The Brahmani is formed by the confluence of the Sankh and South Koel rivers near the
major industrial town of Rourkela.
• Together with the river Baitarani, it forms a large delta before emptying into the Bay of
Bengal at Dhamra.
• Bhitarkanika Mangroves — a notified Ramsar wetland- is a mangrove wetland, covering
an area of 650 km (400 mi) in the Brahmani River and Baitarani River deltas.
• Proportionate fresh water flow from the Brahmani river basin and the Kharasrota river keep
the salinity level of the water along the shore down.

 EAST AFRICAN CRUDE OIL PIPELINE

PROJECT (EACOP)
(# Eastern-Central Africa)
• The East Africa Crude Oil Pipeline (EACOP) project, connecting the Tilenga and Kingfisher
oilfields in western Uganda with the port of Tanga in eastern Tanzania.
• It allows Uganda to unlock value from its own natural resources, and represents a significant
inward investment of some $4 billion across both Uganda and Tanzania, thus value creation is
also extended to Tanzania.
• It has raised concerns over its impact on ecosystems and exacerbating the global climate
crisis. The pipeline’s construction will disrupt sensitive ecosystems, including Uganda’s
Murchison Falls National Park and the Murchison Falls-Albert Delta Ramsar site.
 COLUMBIA
(# South America)
The Colombian government and the left-wing rebel group; EMC-Farc have agreed to resume
peace talks and implement a 10-month ceasefire.
The EMC-Farc is an off-shoot of the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia
(Farc), a group formed in the 1960's as the armed wing of the Communist Party.

It is made up of left-wing rebels who refused to lay down their arms when the Farc
leadership signed a peace deal in 2016.
• It is the only country in South

America with coastlines (and
islands) along both the Atlantic
and Pacific oceans.
• Colombia is nicknamed the
"gateway to South America"
because it sits in the northwestern
part of the continent where South
America connects with Central
and North America.
• Colombia is bordered by Brazil,
Ecuador, Panama, Peru, and
Venezuela.
• Physiography: Through its
center run the towering, snow-
covered volcanoes, and
mountains of the Andes.
Tropical beaches line the north
and west. And there are deserts in the north and vast grasslands, called Los Llanos, in the
east.
• Dense forests fill Colombia's Amazon Basin, which takes up nearly the country's entire
southern half. In northwest Colombia, a warm, wet, jungle-filled area called the Chocó
reaches across the Panama border.
 BURKINA FASO
(# West Africa)
Burkina Faso's security and intelligence services foiled a coup attempt, according to the
country's military government.
• Burkina Faso is a landlocked country
in western Africa.
• The country occupies an extensive
plateau, and its geography is
characterized by a savanna that is
grassy in the north and gradually
gives way to sparse forests in the
south.
• A former French colony, it gained
independence as Upper Volta in 1960.
• The name Burkina Faso, which means “Land of Incorruptible People,” was adopted in 1984.
• The capital, Ouagadougou, is in the centre of the country and lies about 500 miles (800 km)
from the Atlantic Ocean.

• Burkina Faso is bounded by Mali to the north and west, Niger to the northeast, Benin to the
southeast, and Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, and Togo to the south.
• Three principal rivers—the Black Volta, the Red Volta and the White Volta all of which
converge in Ghana to the south to form the Volta River.
• The harmattan—a hot, dry, dust-laden wind blowing off the Sahara desert—is prevalent.
 TULKARM CAMP
(# West Bank)
• Tulkarm camp, established in 1950, is located in Tulkarm
City in the north-west of the West Bank.
• It is one of the most densely populated refugee camps in the
West Bank.
• It is situated along the 1949 Armistice Line that delineates
the West Bank from Israel.
 KAOBAL GALI-MUSHKOH VALLEY

(# Kashmir)
Recently, the valley has been opened for the visit of tourists.
• The Kaobal Gali-Mushkoh Valley, which was once a battlefield during the Kargil War, has now
opened up for tourists.
• It is located in Kargil’s Drass Sector and was a battlefield during the 1999 Kargil war between
India and Pakistan.
• The region includes the Gurez Valley in north Kashmir, which was previously inaccessible
to civilians due to shelling from Pakistan but now connects with the Mushkoh Valley in Kargil’s
Drass Sector.
• Kaobal Gali, the highest pass at a height of 4,167 meters in Gurez, connects Gurez to
Mushkoh Valley.

 SLOVAKIA
(# Central Europe)
An early parliamentary election was held in Slovakia to elect members of the National Council.
About Slovakia
• Slovakia is a parliamentary
democratic republic with a
head of government - the prime
minister - who holds the most
executive power and a head of
state - the president - who is the
formal head of the executive, but
with very limited powers.
• The country is subdivided into
8 regions, each named after its
principal city.
• It is landlocked country of
central Europe.
• Neighbours: Slovakia is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary
to the south, and Austria to the southwest. Its former federal partner, the Czech Republic,
lies to the west.
• Topography: The Western Carpathian Mountains dominate the topography of Slovakia.
Tatra Mountains, highest range of the Central Carpathians. The mountains rise steeply from
a high plateau and extend for approximately 40 miles (64 km) along the Slovakian-Polish
frontier.
• Drainage: Slovakia drains predominantly southward into the Danube (Dunaj) River
system.
 ABKHAZIA
(# Georgia # South Caucasia)
• Location: Georgia is the south Caucasian country bordering the Black Sea in west. The
country is located at the crossroads between Western Asia and Eastern Europe.
• Neighbours: It shares borders with Armenia, Azerbaijan, Russia, and Turkey.
• Topography: To the north lies the wall of the Greater Caucasus range, consisting of a
series of parallel and transverse mountain belts.
About Abhkazia
Location: Georgia

• It is situated in the north-

western corner of Georgia
with the Black Sea to the south-
west and the Caucasus
mountains and Russia to the
north-east, Abkhazia was once
known as a prime holiday
destination for the Soviet elite.
• The region fought and won a
war of secession with
Georgia in 1992-93, and
formally declared independence
in 1999. Its independence has
gained little international recognition, most countries regard it as a part of Georgia.
• After the Georgian-Russian war in 2008, Moscow recognized the region as an
independent state. Georgia responded by declaring Abkhazia "occupied" by Russia.
• Abkhazia's economy depends overwhelmingly on tourism from Russia and in recent years it
has drifted closer to Russia.
 SINGARENI COLLERIES
(# Telangana)
The Union Ministry of Home Affairs has ruled that the Singareni Collieries Company
Limited (SCCL) belongs to Telangana.
This ends the stalemate prevailing over the division of assets pertaining to the public sector
mining company between Telangana and Andhra Pradesh as part of the AP Reorganisation
Act.
• The Singareni Collieries Company Limited (SCCL) is a Government coal mining
company jointly owned by the Government of Telangana and Government of India on a 51:49
equity basis.
• The Singareni coal reserves stretch across 350 Km of the Pranahita – Godavari Valley of
Telangana with a proven geological reserve aggregating to whopping 8791 million tonnes.
• SCCL is currently operating 18 opencast and 24 underground mines in 4 districts of Telangana.
 KAZAKHSTAN
(# Central Asia)
Russian President Vladimir Putin visits Kazakhstan, part of his efforts to cement ties with ex-
Soviet neighbours
• Kazakhstan is the largest landlocked country in the world.
• It is bounded on the northwest and north by Russia, on the east by China, and on the south
by Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, the Aral Sea, and Turkmenistan; the Caspian Sea bounds
Kazakhstan to the southwest.

• Drainage: Kazakhstan’s east and southeast possess extensive watercourses: most of the
country’s streams form
part of the inland
drainage systems of the
Aral and Caspian seas
and Lakes Balkhash
and Tengiz.
• The great Irtysh, Ishim
(Esil), and Tobol
rivers, which run
northwest from the
highlands in the
southeast and, crossing
Russia, ultimately drain
into Arctic waters.
• In the west the major
stream, the Ural River,
flows into the Caspian
Sea.
• In the south the waters of the once-mighty Syr Darya have, since the late 1970s, scarcely
reached the Aral Sea at all.
• Since independence following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, major investment in
the oil sector has brought rapid economic growth, and eased some of the stark
disparities in wealth of the 1990s.
 SOUTH AFRICA
• South Africa, the southernmost country on
the African continent is renowned for its
varied topography, great natural beauty,
and cultural diversity.
• Neighbours: The Rainbow Nation
borders Botswana, Mozambique,
Namibia, Swaziland and Zimbabwe.
The small Kingdom of Lesotho is
enclosed as an enclave.
• Three Capitals: South Africa has three
cities that serve as capitals: Pretoria
(executive), Cape Town (legislative),
and Bloemfontein (judicial).
• Johannesburg is the largest urban area in
the country and a centre of commerce.
• Topography: The Great Escarpment
(Drakensberg), forms the longest
continuous topographic feature in South
Africa.

• Drainage: Rising in the Lesotho Highlands, the Orange River and its tributaries—chiefly
the Caledon and the Vaal—drain the greater part of the country to the Atlantic Ocean.
• North of the Witwatersrand (Rand) ridge, the plateau is drained to the Indian Ocean by the
Limpopo system.
• South Africa is the largest producer of platinum.
 RAFAH CROSSING
(# Gaza)
• The Rafah border crossing in southern Gaza
has gained global attention as Palestinians are
attempting to leave Gaza due to Israeli attack
as part of the ongoing Israeli-Palestinian
conflict.
• The Rafah crossing is the southernmost
exit point from the Gaza Strip, and it shares
a border with Egypt's Sinai Peninsula.
• The crossing is controlled by Egypt.
• It is the only exit that does not lead to
Israeli territory.
• There are only two other border crossings in
and out of Gaza:
• Erez is located in the north and is used by
people in Israel.
• Kerem Shalom, in the south, which is
exclusively for commercial goods.
• Both Erez and Kerem Shalom controlled by Israel are currently closed.
 SINAI PENINSULA
(# Egypt)
• The Sinai Peninsula is a triangle-shaped peninsula in
Egypt. It's located in the northeastern part of the country.
• The peninsula is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the
north, the Red Sea to the south, and the Gulf of Aqaba to
the east.
• The peninsula includes the Suez Canal, which is a man-made
waterway that connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea.

 AKHAURA- AGARTALA RAIL LINK

(# India and Bangladesh)
The railway link connects Agartala in Tripura with Akhaura in Bangladesh and aims to foster
connectivity and commerce in India’s northeast and Bangladesh.
Timeline
• A connection between
Akhaura and India was
proposed in the 19th
century to connect
Assam’s tea industry to the
Chittagong port.
• According to a 2015
report by the Observer
Research Foundation, a
rail link was suggested as a
means of connectivity
between India and Bangladesh in 1974 with the signing of a protocol for cross-traffic
movement.
• The MoU for the Agartala-Akhaura rail link was signed by the two countries in 2010.
• The project was sanctioned in 2012-13.
• The project was inaugurated on November 1st, 2023, following trial runs.
Implementing agencies
• The Indian side of the construction was done by the PSU Indian Railways Construction
International Ltd and on the Bangladesh side by Texmaco Rail and Engineering.
• Nischintapur in West Tripura has been designated as an international immigration
station to provide immigration-related facilities for passengers.
• It has also been declared as a Land Customs Station (LCS) by the Central Board of Indirect
Taxes and Customs.
 SPAIN
(# Southwestern Europe)
• Spain occupies most of the Iberian Peninsula, stretching south from the Pyrenees
Mountains to the Strait of Gibraltar, which separates Spain from Africa.
• To the east lies the Mediterranean Sea, including Spain's Balearic Islands.
• Spain also rule the Canary Islands in the Atlantic.

• The interior of Spain is a high, dry plateau surrounded and crisscrossed by mountain ranges.
Rivers run to the coasts, creating good farmland.
• Still, the interior of the country
gets very hot in summer and very
cold and dry in the winter.
Droughts are common.
• Plants and trees grow so well on
the northwestern coast, in
Galicia and along the Bay of
Biscay, that the area is called
Green Spain. Rain, trapped by
the mountains farther inland, is
frequent. Beech and oak trees
flourish here. Numerous coves
and inlets break up the coastline.
• The country borders Andorra
(a micro state in the Pyrenees),
France, the tiny British
Overseas Territory of Gibraltar
(UK), Portugal, and Morocco
(at the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta
and Melilla on the North African coast).
• Spain shares maritime borders with Algeria and Italy.
 KLYUCHEVSKOY VOLCANO
(# Russia)
Huge ash columns erupted from Eurasia’s tallest active volcano, forcing authorities to close
schools in two towns on Russia’s sparsely populated Kamchatka Peninsula.
About Kamchatka Peninsula

• Kamchatka Peninsula is in far eastern Russia.
• It lies between the Sea of Okhotsk on the
west and the Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea
on the east.
• Two mountain ranges, the Central and the
Eastern, extend along the peninsula and rise to
4,750 metres) in Klyuchevskaya Volcano.
• Of the 127 volcanoes on the peninsula, 22 are
still active, as are a number of geysers and hot
springs.
• Most of the active volcanoes lie along a fault line on the eastern flank of the Vostochny
Range.
• Most of Kamchatka is tundra supporting mosses and lichens, with thickets of Kamchatka
alder.

 JORDAN
(# Middle East)
Jordan has said that it won’t sign a deal to provide energy to Israel in exchange for water
– an agreement that was planned to be ratified last month. This stand has been taken due to
Israel’s ear on Gaza.
• Jordan and Israel have
held a fragile peace
agreement since 1994,
which returned some
380km (236 miles) of
Jordan’s occupied land
from Israeli control and
resolved long-standing
water disputes.
• Jordan, the Hashemite
Kingdom in the Middle
East, situated east of
Israel and the Jordan
river.
• It is a country at the
crossroads of the
continents of Asia,
Africa and Europe.
• Countries with
international borders to
Jordan are Iraq, Israel,
Saudi Arabia, Syria,
and a portion of the
Palestinian territories
(West Bank), and it
shares maritime
borders with Egypt.
• The almost landlocked country is bordering the Gulf of Aqaba (Red Sea) in a small outlet
in south.
• The country has a lakeshore at the Dead Sea, Earth's lowest elevation on land at 430.5 m
below sea level.
• Much of Jordan is covered by the Arabian Desert.

 DOKLAM and CHUMBI VALLEY

(# India, China and Bhutan border)
 GULF OF GUINEA
(# West Africa)
The Indian Navy recently completed its second anti-piracy patrol in the Gulf of Guinea (GoG)
in the Atlantic Ocean
Gulf of Guinea (GoG)

• The GoG is an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean on the western African coast, extending
westward from Cape Lopez in Gabon to Cape Palmas in Liberia.
• A gulf is defined as a portion of the ocean that penetrates the land.
• They are formed as a result of plate tectonics and are often connected to the ocean by narrow
water passages known as straits.
• It is found at the junction of the Prime Meridian and the Equator at 0°0’N and 0°0’E.
• Major rivers that drain into the Gulf of Guinea include the Volta and Niger rivers.
• The GoG is one of the world’s most dangerous gulfs because of the widespread piracy that
has severely affected many countries in West Africa along with other international countries.
• The GoG region accounts for more than 35% of the world’s total petroleum reserves.
• Several minerals including diamonds, uranium, copper, etc., are found here.
• The principal economic activities of the Gulf of Guinea region are petroleum exploration,
mining and gas flaring, port operations, and fishing.
• The 16 coastal countries that are situated along the Gulf of Guinea are Angola, Benin,
Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, Guinea,
Equatorial Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Gabon, Nigeria, Ghana, São Tomé and Principe, Togo and
Sierra Leone.
 CAMBODIA
(# Southeast Asia)
• Cambodia, country on the Indochinese

mainland of Southeast Asia.
• Its capital is Phnom Penh.
• It is bordered to the west and northwest by
Thailand, to the northeast by Laos, to the
east and southeast by Vietnam and to the
southwest by the Gulf of Thailand.
• The two dominant hydrological features of

Cambodia are the Mekong River and the
Tonle Sap (Great Lake).
• Topography: The Elephant Mountains
and Cardamom Mountain of the southwest
and western regions; the Dangrek
Mountains of the North adjoining of the
Korat Plateau of Thailand and Rattanakiri
Plateau and Chhlong highlands on the east merging with the Central Highlands of Viet Nam.
• Conservation and restoration of the ancient temples of Angkor Wat, Ta Prohm and Preah Vihar
are being carried out under India’s funding.

 TONLE SAP LAKE

(# Cambodia)
• Tonle Sap Lake is the largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia. Also called Boeung Tonle
Sap.
• Belonging to the Mekong River system, Tonlé is the largest freshwater lake in Southeast
Asia and one of the most diverse and productive ecosystems in the world.
• There are different species of wildlife in and around the lake, which helped to sustain and grow
the ancient Khmer civilisation.
• It's also famous for its fascinating local communities and their floating villages.
Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve

• It is located in Cambodia surrounding the great lake of Cambodia Tonle Sap.
• It is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.
• This biosphere reserve houses Siamese crocodiles and saltwater crocodiles.
• It is also a Ramsar Wetland. Illegal fishing and poaching are the major threats of this
reserve.
 SIERRA LEONE
(# West Africa)
An unsuccessful coup attempt in Sierra Leone has led to political turmoil and economic
crisis.
• Sierra Leone is located between
Liberia and Guinea, bordering the
North Atlantic Ocean. The country is
situated on the southwest coast of West
Africa.
• Capital: Freetown.
• Languages: English, Krio.

• Mount Bintumani (also known as
Loma Mansa) is the highest peak in
Sierra Leone.
• A tropical climate is found in Sierra
Leone.
• Sierra Leone’s terrain is characterized
by mountains in the eastern region, an
upland plateau, a wooded hill country, and a coastal belt of mangrove swamps.

• Sierra Leone is one of the members of the International Solar Alliance.

• India was among the first countries to contribute to the UN Mission in Sierra Leone
(UNAMSIL) with the deployment of 4000 strong Indian Military contingent.
 GULF OF ADEN
(# Middle East)
• The Gulf of Aden, an arm of the Indian
Ocean is situated between Yemen on the
south coast of the Arabian Peninsula
and Somalia in Africa.
• It is bounded to the south by Somalia and

the Socotra Islands, north by Yemen,
east by the Arabian Sea, and west by
Djibouti.
• The gulf – roughly 900 kilometers long and

500 kilometers wide is an important
waterway for transporting Persian
Gulf oil.
• The gulf connects the Red Sea to the

Arabian Sea via the Strait of Bab el
Mandeb. It forms an essential oil
transport route between Europe and the
Far East.
• Its marine life is rich in quantity and variety. Its coastline lacks large-scale fishing facilities but
supports many fishing towns, as well as the major ports Aden and Djibouti.
• In recent years, the gulf has received a lot of attention due to piracy, terrorism, and
refugee smuggling.
 ICELAND
(# North Atlantic)
The Government of Iceland has confirmed that the Fagradalsfjall volcanic eruption near
the capital Reykjanes poses no threat to human life.
The eruption began between Sýlingarfell and Hagafell, just north of the fishing town of
Grindavik which is located on the Reykjanes Peninsula.
Iceland (Land of Fire and Ice)

• Iceland is located on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, technically the longest mountain range in the
world, but on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean.

• The ridge separates the Eurasian and North American tectonic plates making it a
hotbed of seismic activity. It is mostly a
submarine, running along the length of the
Atlantic from north to south.
• However, in the North Atlantic, it rises over
the ocean surface in the form of the island
of Iceland. This feature of its geology has
given rise to Iceland’s unique
landscape made up of geysers (hot
springs), glaciers, mountains,
volcanoes, and lava fields.
• Iceland is home to 33 active volcanoes, the
highest in Europe. This unique landscape
has given Iceland the epithet, ‘Land of
Fire and Ice’.
• Eyjafjallajökull, one of Iceland's most
famous volcanoes, erupted in 2010,
causing a widespread ash cloud.
• Other notable volcanoes include Hekla,

Grímsvötn, Hóluhraun, and Litli-Hrútur,
part of the Fagradalsfjall system.
 MARAPI VOLCANO
(# Indonesia)
The Marapi volcano in West Sumatra, Indonesia, erupted, ejecting ash up to 3,000 meters
(9,840 feet) into the air and causing casualties.
• Mount Marapi, which means “Mountain of Fire”, is the most active volcano on Sumatra
island and its most deadly eruption was in April 1979.
• Indonesia sits on the Pacific's "Ring of Fire" and has 127 active volcanoes.
• Despite being one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world, Mount Merapi is a famous
tourist destination.
• Mount Merapi, along with other volcanoes like Mount Semeru and Mount Bromo,
continues to be a popular adventure destination in Indonesia.
 EGYPT
(# North Africa)
President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi wins Egypt election with 89.6% of vote after facing no serious
challengers. He wins third term as President.

• Gift of Nile: Without the Nile

River, all of Egypt would be
desert. Only about an inch (2.5
centimeters) of rain falls
throughout Egypt each year.
• But each summer, the river
rises because of rains at its
source far to the south in
Ethiopia. Floods cover the
river's valleys, leaving sediments
needed for trees, plants, and
crops to grow.
• Relief: Southern Egypt's
landscape contains low mountains and desert. Northern Egypt has wide valleys near the Nile
and desert to the east and west. North of Cairo, the capital, is the sprawling, triangular Nile
River Delta. This fertile land is completely covered with farms.
• Bordering areas: The country borders the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Gulf
of Suez and the Red Sea to the east.
• It is bordered by Libya in the west, the Palestinian territory (Gaza Strip) and Israel
in the northeast, and Sudan in the south.
• Egypt shares maritime borders with Cyprus, Turkey, and Greece in the Mediterranean
Sea, and with Jordan and Saudi Arabia in the Red Sea.
• Along with oil and gas exports, Egypt's tourism industry remains a key part of its economy.
Visitors flock to the country to see ancient monuments like the Great Pyramids and the Sphinx.
And to learn about Ancient Egyptian rulers like King Tutankhamun.
 YEMEN
(# Arabian Peninsula)
Yemen's Houthi rebels fired their largest-ever barrage of drones and missiles targeting
shipping in the Red Sea
• Yemen is located on the southwestern tip of the Arabian Peninsula, an area of land in
Southwest Asia.
• It shares the peninsula with the countries of Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia,
Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Oman.
• Yemen is bordered by the Red Sea to the west and the Gulf of Aden to the south.
• The interior of the country gives way to rugged mountains, including the Sarawat
Mountains, a mountain range that runs through much of the western part of the Arabian
Peninsula.
• Eastern Yemen is home to part of the fifth-largest desert in the world, the Rub‘ al-Khali.

• Nicknamed “the Empty Quarter,” the desert has the longest stretch of continuous sand in
the world, covering much of the Arabian Peninsula.
• Yemen is so dry that it doesn’t have any permanently flowing rivers—only dry river valleys
known as wadis.
Houthis
• The Houthi movement originated in the early
1990s in Yemen as a Zaydi revivalist group (a
sect of Shia).
• Initially focused on religious and social networks, it

evolved into a powerful force, leading insurgency
against perceived corruption and external
interventions.
• The Houthi-Saleh alliance captured Sana’a in

2015, triggering a civil war in Yemen.
• This alarmed Saudi Arabia, which feared that the

Houthis would become allies to their rival, Iran.
• Saudi Arabia then led a coalition that included other

Arab countries and sent troops to Yemen in 2015.
However, they were unable to drive out Houthis from Sana’a as well as from the north of the
country.
 VIETNAM
(# South-East Asia)
Chinese President Xi Jinping paid a visit to Vietnam three months after Biden's visit, when the
US-Vietnam elevated ties to the Comprehensive
Strategic Partnership and a month after the Japan-
Vietnam raised their relationship to the same level.
• Vietnam is a long, narrow nation shaped like the
letter ‘S’.
• It is in Southeast Asia on the eastern edge of the
peninsula known as Indochina.
• Its neighbors include China to the north and Laos
and Cambodia to the west.
• The South China Sea lies to the east and south.
• The mountains of the Annam Cordillera rise over

most of the western side of Vietnam, while a thousand-
mile (1,600-kilometer) coastline dominates the east.
• Two of Vietnam's largest rivers, the Mekong in the south and the Red in the north, end
at the South China Sea in huge swampy plains called deltas.

• As a communist country, Vietnam has no official religion. But people are free to worship if
they want to, and many follow what's called the "Three Teachings" of Confucianism, Taoism,
and Buddhism.
• Vietnam's main exports include crude oil, seafood, rice, shoes, wooden products, machinery,
electronics, coffee, and clothing.
• The country’s top business is manufacturing, particularly in the wood, metals, and
electronics industries.
 GELEPHU SMART CITY PROJECT

(# Bhutan)
Bhutan’s King has announced plans to build a massive “international city” in an area of over
1,000 sq. km. on its border with Assam. This project is known as the Gelephu Project.
• The project is expected to be an
“economic corridor connecting
South Asia with Southeast Asia via
India’s northeastern States”.
• The city is expected to follow
environmental standards and
sustainability as a goal, and will aim to
attract “quality investment” from
“specially screened” international
companies.
• The project is expected to include “zero
emission” industries, a “mindfulness
city” that plays to Bhutan’s strength in
tourism and wellness, as well as
infrastructure companies.
• The project is expected to be a “Special
Administrative Region” that would be run under different laws to facilitate more
international investment.
• The project is expected to be a “point of inflection” and “transformation” for Bhutan
and South Asia.
• The Government of India agrees to construct the first India-Bhutan railway line to
Gelephu.
• The railway will also connect with roadways and border trading points into Assam and West
Bengal, eventually providing Bhutan access to Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and
Singapore.

 PANAMA CANAL
(#Central America)
• Issue: Due to drought conditions, shipping through the Panama Canal has decreased by over
50%.
• A naturally occurring El Nino climate pattern associated with warmer-than-usual water in the
central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean is contributing to Panama's drought.
• Impact: This shortage of water is compelling vessels traveling from Asia to the US to opt for
the Suez Canal, adding six extra days compared to the Panama Canal route.
• While the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait that leads to the Suez Canal in the Red Sea region connects
Asia to Europe, the 100-year-old Panama Canal connects the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans.
• Both these routes are among the busiest in the world.
More about Panama Canal

• It is a constructed waterway that connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans across the
Isthmus of Panama.
• It is approximately 80 kilometers long.

• The canal was built by the United States between 1904 and 1914, and it was officially
opened on August 15, 1914.
• It is owned and administered by the Republic of Panama since the oversight of the
Canal was transferred from the United States to Panama in 1999.
• The Panama Canal consists of a series of locks that raise and lower the water level to facilitate
the passage of ships through the continental divide.

 LAKE VICTORIA
(#Africa)
India-based think tank Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) and National
Environment Management Council (NEMC), Tanzania conducted a multinational stakeholder
consultation in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania recently to decide on strategies to restore the lake.
• Lake Victoria is the
world's largest
tropical lake and the
largest lake in the African
Great Lakes region. The
lake supports the largest
freshwater fishery in the
world.
• It is the second largest

freshwater lake.
• Kenya, Tanzania, and
Uganda share Lake
Victoria.
• Though the Kagera

River is its largest tributary, the most important source of water for the lake is rainfall. Its only
outlet is the Victoria Nile.
• Its waters fill a shallow depression in the centre of the great plateau that stretches between the
Western and Eastern Rift Valleys.
• The major threats to the lake are deforestation, land use change, wetland degradation and
discharge from urban areas, industries, and farmlands.
 SOMALILAND
(#Somalia #disputed region)
• Somaliland declared independence
from Somalia in 1991, but no country
has recognized its sovereignty in the decades
since.
• Somaliland is considered a part of
Somalia and the larger Horn of Africa
region. It has hundreds of miles of
coastline along the Gulf of Aden to the
north, and it borders Ethiopia to the
south and west and Djibouti to the
northwest.
• Puntland, a semiautonomous state of

Somalia that lies due east, disputes some
of Somaliland’s territorial claims.

• Despite its lack of international legitimacy, the coastal territory has a relatively stable
democracy and is attracting major foreign investors.
• Tensions between Somaliland and Somalia have grown in recent years as the
breakaway region pursues its own investment deals and asserts its sovereignty claims.
Somaliland’s case for independence?

• The Somaliland government asserts that it meets most of the requirements of a sovereign
democratic state: it holds free and fair elections, has its own currency and security
forces, and issues its own passports.
• It also says that its independence claim is consistent with a longstanding norm of the African
Union and its predecessor that colonial-era borders should be maintained.
• Some analysts also note that Somalilanders are predominantly from the Isaaq clan, and thus
ethnically distinctive from other Somalis.
 ISHIKAWA PREFECTURE
(#Japan)
A 7.5-magnitude earthquake hit Ishikawa
prefecture in Japan, triggering tsunami waves
over a meter high.
• Japan’s geographical vulnerability,
particularly concerning plate tectonics, is
a critical aspect of its environmental and
disaster management challenges.
• The country’s location at the convergence
of several major tectonic plates makes it
highly susceptible to seismic activities.
 ROMANIA
(#South-eastern Europe)
• Romania lies in the northern hemisphere, in the south-eastern Central Europe at the
junction with Eastern Europe and the Balkan Peninsula and at the crossroad of
important routes.
• Romania borders the Republic of Moldova in the north-east, Ukraine in the north,
Hungary in the north-west, Serbia in the south-west and Bulgaria in the south.

• Country’s natural landscape

consists of mountains, hills, and
plains to the highest
mountain in the
Carpathians, Moldoveanu
Peak.
• The montane area, the
Carpathian Mountains,
represents 31% of the country’s
territory.
• Romania’s position on the Globe,
half-distance between the
Equator and the North Pole,
endows it with a temperate-continental climate with oceanic influences in the western
and central regions, Mediterranean in the south-west, excessive-continental in the east,
Scandinavian-Baltic in the north-east and Black Sea influences in the south-east.
 BULGARIA
(#South-eastern Europe)
• Bulgaria is a unitary state
on the Balkan Peninsula in
southeastern Europe
bordering the Black Sea
in east.
• The country shares
international borders with
Greece, the Republic of
Macedonia, Romania,
Serbia, and Turkey.
• Three basic structural and
physiographic divisions
run east-west, splitting the
country into the traditional
regions of North
Bulgaria, including the
Danubian Plain and the
Balkan Mountains;
South Bulgaria,
including the Rila-
Rhodope Massif; and a transitional area between them.
• All but a short section of the northern frontier of Bulgaria is marked by the lower Danube
River.
• The major rivers are the Maritsa (Marica), Struma, Arda, Tundzha, and Yantra.

 CHADAR TREK
(#Ladakh)
The Chief of the Naval Staff inaugurated the Indian Navy’s Chadar Trek expedition. It takes
place on the frozen Zanskar River in Ladakh.
• The Chadar Trek or the Zanskar
Gorge trek is a winter trail over
the frozen Zanskar River, which lies
in the Indian union territory of
Ladakh.
• It is traditionally the only means of
travel in the area during the harsh
winter months.
• The trail has become popular with
foreign adventure tourists.
Zanskar River
• The Zanskar River is the first major tributary of the Indus River, which flows entirely
within Ladakh, India.
• It originates northeast of the Great Himalayan range and drains both the
Himalayas and the Zanskar Range within the region of Zanskar.
• It flows northeast to join the Indus River near Nimo.
• The Doda and TsrapLingti Chu( Lungnak river) are the two significant tributaries that
join together at Padam village in the upper valley, forming the Zanskar River.
SECURITY ISSUES
 OPCW
o Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), international organization
established by the Chemical Weapons Convention (adopted 1992, entered into
force 1997) to implement and enforce the terms of the international treaty, which prohibits
the use, stockpiling, or transfer of chemical weapons by signatory states.
o The OPCW was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2013.
o When the convention entered into force in 1997, the OPCW was formally established as an
autonomous and independent organization working toward a world free of chemical weapons.
According to the OPCW website, the Chemical Weapons Convention prohibits the
“development, production, acquisition, stockpiling, retention, transfer, or use of chemical
weapons” and has four key provisions:
▪ Destroying all existing chemical weapons under international verification by the OPCW;

▪ Monitoring the chemical industry to prevent new weapons from re-emerging;

▪ Providing assistance and protection to members of the convention against chemical threats;
and
▪ Fostering international cooperation to strengthen implementation of the convention and
promote the peaceful use of chemistry.
o Based in The Hague, Netherlands, 192 Members States have joined the OPCW, representing
about 98% of the world’s population, as well as 98% of the global chemical industry.
o The OPCW has an official working relationship with the United Nations to foster cooperation
on matters of mutual concern.
o The OPCW’s work involves a number of activities, including supporting and verifying the
destruction of chemical weapons, inspecting facilities that formerly produced chemical
weapons, and investigating allegations of the use of chemical weapons.
o The OPCW also plays an important role in strengthening international security by creating
tools and methods for defining and detecting chemical weapon agents, as well as monitoring
emerging technologies of potential concern.
o Since the creation of the OPCW more than two decades ago, approximately 96% of state-
declared chemical weapon stockpiles around the world have been destroyed.
 PHOSPHORUS MUNITIONS
Global human rights organizations, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have
accused the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) of using white phosphorus munitions in Gaza and
Lebanon, in violation of International Humanitarian Law (IHL).
White Phosphorus
• White phosphorus is a pyrophoric that ignites when exposed to oxygen, producing
thick, light smoke as well as intense 815-degree Celsius heat.
• Pyrophoric substances are those which ignite spontaneously or very quickly (under five
minutes) when in contact with air.
Global Status
• Under the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals, the
internationally agreed-upon system to standardize chemical hazard classification and
communication, white phosphorus falls under “Pyrophoric solids, category 1”, which
includes chemicals that catch fire “spontaneously” when exposed to air.
• It is among the most unstable of pyrophoric substances.
Legal Status
• White phosphorus munitions are not under a blanket ban, though their use is regulated
under the IHL.
• It is not considered a chemical weapon because its operational utility is primarily due to
heat and smoke, rather than toxicity. Thus, its use is governed by the Convention on

Conventional Weapons (CCW), specifically Protocol III, which deals with incendiary
weapons.
 First, it restricts some but not all use of ground-launched incendiary weapons where there are
concentrations of civilians.
 Second, the protocol’s definition of incendiary weapons covers weapons that are “primarily
designed” to set fire to and burn people, and thus arguably excludes multipurpose munitions
such as those containing white phosphorus, which are considered to primarily be “smoking”
agents.
Military Uses
• White phosphorus is dispersed in artillery shells, bombs, and rockets. It can also be
delivered via felt (textile) wedges soaked in the chemical.
• Its primary military use is as a smokescreen — used to hide troop movement on the
ground. The smoke acts as a visual obscurant. White phosphorus is also known to mess with
infrared optics and weapons tracking systems.
• White phosphorus can also be used as an incendiary weapon.
Harmfulness
• Causes Severe Burns often down to the bone upon exposure
• Respiratory Problems
• Can damage Infrastructures, crops and kill livestock, with raging fires, especially in windy
conditions.
 COMPREHENSIVE NUCLEAR TEST BAN

TREATY (CTBT)
Genesis of the CTBT
• The CTBT is a multilateral treaty aimed at banning all nuclear explosions, whether for
military or peaceful purposes.
• The roots of the CTBT can be traced back to the Cold War era when the United States and the
Soviet Union were engaged in a nuclear arms race, conducting numerous nuclear tests.
• Between 1945 and 1996, over 2,000 nuclear tests took place globally, with the U.S. conducting
1,032 tests and the Soviet Union conducting 715 tests, among others.
• In response to concerns about the environmental and health impacts of nuclear tests, the
international community made efforts to limit testing.
• The Limited Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (LTBT) of 1963 prohibited nuclear testing in the
atmosphere, outer space, and underwater but allowed underground tests.
• The Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT) of 1974 prohibits underground nuclear weapons
tests and establishes a nuclear "threshold," yet it falls short of providing a comprehensive ban
on all nuclear testing.

LTBT/PTBT 1963
• In 1954, India made the first proposal calling for an agreement to ban nuclear weapons
tests.
• In 1958, the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom began a
Conference on the Discontinuance of Nuclear Tests in Geneva, aimed at reaching agreement
on an effectively controlled test ban.
• On 5 August 1963, the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) — also known as the Limited
Test Ban Treaty (LTBT) — was signed in Moscow by the United States, the Soviet Union,
and the United Kingdom.
• The Treaty requires Parties to prohibit, prevent, and abstain from carrying out nuclear
weapons tests or any other nuclear explosions in the atmosphere, in outer space, under
water, or in any other environment if such explosions cause radioactive debris to
be present outside the territorial limits of the State.
• The PTBT does not provide for international verification; however, it is understood
that each party may do so by its own national technical means.
• With the signing of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) in September 1996,
the PTBT became redundant. However, should a PTBT party withdraw from the CTBT, or not
sign the CTBT, it would still be bound by the provisions of the PTBT.
Breakthrough with the CTBT

• The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union created a conducive
environment for comprehensive arms control measures.
• The CTBT was negotiated at the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva in 1994.
• In 1996, the United Nations adopted the CTBT, which imposed a complete ban on
nuclear weapons testing, closing the gaps left by previous treaties.
• The CTBT became available for signature in September 1996, signifying a major advancement
in the global endeavour to halt nuclear testing across the world.
• The CTBT will enter into force 180 days after it has been ratified by all 44 states
listed in Annex 2 to the treaty, which are states that possessed nuclear reactors or research
reactors at the time of its adoption.
Current Position
• It has been signed by 187 nations and ratified by 178.
• However, the treaty cannot formally enter into force until it is ratified by 44 specific
nations.
• Eight of these nations have yet to ratify the treaty: China, India, Pakistan, North Korea,
Israel, Iran, Egypt, United States.

 SIR CREEK DISPUTE

o Sir Creek is a 96-km strip of water disputed between India and Pakistan in the Rann
of Kutch marshlands. Originally named Ban Ganga, Sir Creek is named after a British
representative.
o The Creek opens up in the Arabian Sea and roughly divides the Kutch region of Gujarat from
the Sindh Province of Pakistan.
What’s the dispute?
o The dispute lies in the interpretation of the maritime boundary line between Kutch and Sindh.
Before India’s independence, the provincial region was a part of the Bombay Presidency of
British India.
o But after India’s independence in 1947, Sindh became a part of Pakistan while Kutch remained
a part of India.
o Pakistan claims the entire creek as per the Bombay Government Resolution of 1914 signed
between then the Government of Sindh and Rao Maharaj of Kutch.
o The resolution, which demarcated the boundaries between the two territories, included the
creek as part of Sindh, thus setting the boundary as the eastern flank of the creek popularly
known as Green Line.
o But India claims that the boundary lies mid-channel as depicted in another map drawn in
1925, and implemented by the installation of mid-channel pillars back in 1924.

The Genesis
o The marshland
of Sir Creek
first became
disputed in the
early 20th
century when
the Rao of
Kutch and the
Chief
Commissioner
of Sindh
Province of
British India,
due to different
perceptions of
the boundaries,
laid claims over
the creek.
o The case was taken up by then Government of Bombay, which conducted a survey and
mandated its verdict in 1914.
o This verdict has two contradictory paragraphs, which make the India and Pakistan contenders
on the same issue.
o Paragraph 9 of this verdict states that the boundary between Kutch and Sindh lies ‘to the east
of the Creek,’ (Green Line) which effectively implied that the creek belonged to Sindh and,
therefore, to Pakistan.
o On the other hand, Paragraph 10 states that since Sir Creek is navigable most of the year.
o According to international law and the Thalweg principle, a boundary can only be fixed
in the middle of the navigable channel, which meant that it has be divided between Sindh and
Kutch, and thereby India and Pakistan.
o India has used this para to consistently argue that the boundary needs to be fixed in the middle
of the creek.
o Pakistan, however, claims that Sir Creek isn’t navigable but India claims that since it’s
navigable in high tide, the boundary should be drawn from the mid channel.
What’s the importance of Sir Creek?

o Apart from the strategic location, Sir Creek’s core importance is fishing resources. Sir Creek is
considered to be among the largest fishing grounds in Asia.
o Another vital reason for two countries locking horns over this creek is the possible presence of
great oil and gas concentration under the sea, which are currently unexploited thanks to the
impending deadlock on the issue.
UNCLOS supports India’s stand

o If Thalweg principle is to be upheld, Pakistan would lose a considerable portion of the territory
that was historically part of the province of Sindh.
o Acceding to India’s stance would mean shifting of the land/sea terminus point several
kilometres to the detriment of Pakistan, leading in turn to a loss of several thousand square

kilometres of its Exclusive Economic Zone under the United Nations Convention on Law of the
Sea (UNCLOS).
War in 1965 and tribunal

o After the 1965 war, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson successfully persuaded both
countries to end hostilities and set up a tribunal to resolve the dispute.
o The verdict of the tribunal came in 1968 which saw Pakistan getting 10% of its claim of 9,000
km (3,500 sq. miles).
o Since 1969, 12 rounds of talks have been held over the issue of Sir Creek, but both sides have
denied reaching any solution.
o The region fell amid tensions in 1999 after the Pakistan Navy shot down a MiG-21 fighter
plane, but the last rounds of talks were held in 2012. Since then it’s been status quo.
 INTERPOL
o International Criminal Police Organization is an inter-governmental organization. It has 194
member countries, and it help polices in all of them to work together to make the world a safer
place.
o To do this, it enables them to share and access data on crimes and criminals, and offers a range
of technical and operational support.
o The General Secretariat coordinates day-to-day activities to fight a range of crimes. Run by the
Secretary General, it is staffed by both police and civilians and comprises a headquarters in
Lyon, a global complex for innovation in Singapore and several satellite offices in different
regions.
o In each country, an INTERPOL National Central Bureau (NCB) provides the central point of
contact for the General Secretariat and other NCBs. An NCB is run by national police officials
and usually sits in the government ministry responsible for policing. In India, the NCB is CBI.
o The General Assembly is the governing body and it brings all countries together once a year to
take decisions.
o Headquarters: Lyon, France
 AUSTRALIA GROUP
o The Australia Group is an informal arrangement which aims to allow exporting countries to
minimise the risk of assisting in chemical and biological weapon (CBW) proliferation.
o The annual meetings of AG are held in Paris, France.
o The principal objective of Australia Group participants’ is to use licensing measures to
ensure that exports of certain chemicals, biological agents, and dual-use chemical and
biological manufacturing facilities and equipment, do not contribute to the spread of CBW.
o Participants also observe strict adherence to the 1925 Geneva Protocol, the 1972 Biological
and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC) and the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC).
o Thus all states participating in the Australia Group are parties to the Chemical Weapons
Convention (CWC) and the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)

o A revitalised Indian maritime grand strategy will certainly provide New Delhi a lot more space
for manoeuvre in the region and message Beijing that its Himalayan adventure could become
costly for it.
o India became member in 2018.
 WASSENAAR ARRANGEMENT
o The agreement to establish the Wassenaar Arrangement was reached in 1995, and the
Wassenaar Arrangement became operational after the adoption of the Initial Elements in
1996.
o The Initial Elements establish the foundations of the 1995 Wassenaar Arrangement agreement
and states its purpose, scope and modalities.
o It also constitutes the basic mechanism of information exchange on transfers of conventional
weapons and dual-use goods and technologies.
o The Wassenaar Arrangement has been established in order to contribute to regional and
international security and stability by promoting transparency and greater responsibility in
transfers of conventional arms and dual-use goods and technologies.
o It intends to complement and reinforce the other export control regimes for weapons of mass
destruction and their delivery systems and uses export controls as a means to combat
terrorism.
o India became member in 2017.
 MISSILE TECHNOLOGY CONTROL REGIME

• MTCR is an informal political understanding among states that seek to limit the
proliferation of missiles and missile technology.
• The regime was formed in 1987 by the G-7 industrialized countries (Canada, France,
Germany, Italy, Japan, the UK, and the United States). It has 35 members.
• India was admitted in June 2016.
• MTCR’s initial aim of controlling proliferation of nuclear missiles was expanded in

1992 to include delivery systems for chemical and biological weapons as well.
• It encourages members not to export missiles delivering any weapon of mass
destruction, with special focus on missiles capable of carrying a 500-kg payload over at least
300 km, and on equipment, software, technology for such systems.
• According to Arms Control Association, a US based group, MTCR members are supposed “to
establish national export control policies” for ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, unmanned
aerial vehicles, space launch vehicles, drones, remotely piloted vehicles, sounding rockets, their
components and technologies.

How does the MTCR achieve its objectives?

• Export Controls: The Regime rests on adherence to common export policy (the Guidelines)
applied to an integral common list of items (the MTCR Equipment, Software, and Technology
Annex.)
• Meetings: MTCR Partners regularly exchange information about relevant missile non-
proliferation issues in the context of the Regime’s overall aims.
• Dialogue and Outreach: The MTCR Chair and MTCR Partners undertake outreach
activities to non-Partners in order to keep them informed about the group’s activities and to
provide practical assistance regarding efforts to prevent the proliferation of WMD delivery
systems.
 FIVE EYES ALLIANCE

The Canadian Prime Minister alleged that the Indian Government may have “potential links” to
the killing of a Sikh separatist leader in Canada, the ties between the two countries are under
strain; where his allegations are backed by reports of Five Eyes Alliance.
• The Five Eyes is an intelligence alliance comprising nations including Australia,

Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the US.
• These countries are parties to the multilateral UK-USA Agreement, a treaty for joint
cooperation in signals intelligence.
Features
• These partner nations exchange a wide spectrum of intelligence within one of the
world's most tightly-knit multilateral agreements as part of the collaboration.
• Following its origin, the agency later enlarged its core group to ‘Nine Eyes’ and 14 Eyes
alliances as well, encompassing more countries as security partners.
• The ‘Nine Eyes’ group expands to cover the Netherlands, Denmark, France and Norway,
whereas the 14 Eyes bloc further includes Belgium, Italy, Germany, Spain and Sweden.
Formation
• The alliance’s origins can be traced back to the Second World War. The UK and the US
decided to share intelligence after successfully breaking German and Japanese codes,
respectively.
• In 1943, the Britain-USA (BRUSA) agreement laid the foundations for what would
become the UK-USA (UKUSA) agreement.
• BRUSA was signed to share intelligence information between the two countries to support US
forces in Europe
• Following this, the UKUSA (UK-USA) was signed in 1946. Canada joined it in 1949, and
New Zealand and Australia did so in 1956, forming the alliance.
• The Agreement was not officially acknowledged though its existence was known about from
the 1980s. But in 2010, the UKUSA agreement files were released.

Working
• Countries often engage with each other on matters of intelligence gathering and security.
• In recent years, common interests, such as balancing the rise of China, have led to a closer
alignment among the Five Eyes countries.
• Their closeness has also been attributed to a common language and mutual trust built
over decades of association.
• In 2016, the Five Eyes Intelligence Oversight and Review Council came into being.
• It includes the non-political intelligence oversight, review, and security entities of the Five Eyes
countries.
 CFE TREATY
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) has announced the formal suspension of
the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE), a key Cold War-
Era Security Treaty in response to Russia's pull out from the deal.
About CFE Treaty

• The CFE Treaty, signed in 1990 and fully ratified in 1992, aimed to prevent massing of
conventional armed forces by NATO and Warsaw Pact countries near mutual borders
during the Cold War.
• It placed limits on the deployment of conventional military forces in Europe and played
a significant role in reducing tensions and arms build-up in the region.
• This treaty was one of several Cold War-era agreements involving Russia and the United States.
Russia's Withdrawal
• Russia had suspended its participation in the CFE Treaty in 2007 and formally announced its
intention to withdraw in 2015.
• Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, which led to a significant military presence in
Ukraine, influenced its decision to withdraw from the treaty.
• The conflict has direct implications for NATO member states that share borders with
Ukraine, such as Poland, Slovakia, Romania, and Hungary.
• The recent move to finalise the withdrawal came after the Russian President signed a bill
denouncing the treaty in May 2023.
• Russia has blamed the US and its allies for the withdrawal, citing their "destructive position"
on the treaty.
Related information: Warsaw Pact (1955)

• The Warsaw Pact, formally known as the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and
Mutual Assistance, was signed on 14th May, 1955.
• It was a response to NATO and established a similar mutual defence alliance among the
Eastern Bloc countries, led by the Soviet Union.
• The Warsaw Pact included the Soviet Union, East Germany, Poland, Hungary,
Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania, among others.
 ADMM PLUS
(# International Relations # Defence)
The Defence Minister of India has participated in the 10th Association of South-East Asian
Nations (ASEAN) Defence Ministers’ Meeting-Plus (ADMM-Plus) in Jakarta, Indonesia.
ADMM-Plus
• The ADMM-Plus is a platform for ASEAN (Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia,
Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam) and its eight Dialogue
Partners Australia, China, India, Japan, New Zealand, Republic of Korea, Russia, and the
United States (collectively referred to as the “Plus Countries”), to strengthen security and
defence cooperation for peace, stability, and development in the region.
• The ADMM is the highest defence consultative and cooperative mechanism in
ASEAN.
• The Inaugural ADMM-Plus was convened in Ha Noi, Viet Nam, in 2010.
• Since 2017, the ADMM-Plus meets annually, to allow enhanced dialogue and cooperation
among ASEAN and the Plus Countries in the midst of an increasingly challenging regional
security environment.
Objectives
• To benefit ASEAN Member States in building capacity to address shared security
challenges, while cognisant of the differing capacities of various ASEAN Member States.
• To promote mutual trust and confidence between defence establishments through greater
dialogue and transparency;
• To enhance regional peace and stability through cooperation in defence and security, in
view of the transnational security challenges the region faces;
• To facilitate the implementation of the Vientiane Action Programme, which calls for
ASEAN to build a peaceful, secure, and prosperous ASEAN, and to adopt greater outward-
looking external relation strategies with our friends and Dialogue Partners.
Achievements
• The ADMM-Plus has become an effective platform for practical cooperation among the
participating countries’ defence establishments.
• The ADMM-Plus currently focuses on seven areas of practical cooperation, namely
1. maritime security (MS),
2. counter terrorism (CT),
3. humanitarian assistance and disaster management (HADR),
4. peacekeeping operations (PKO),

5. military medicine (MM),

6. humanitarian mine action (HMA), and
7. cyber security (CS).
• Experts’ Working Groups (EWGs) have been established to facilitate cooperation in these
areas.
• The EWGs are each co-chaired by one ASEAN Member States and one Plus Country,
operating in a three-year cycle.
 CYBER SECURITY
• Cyber security is the practice of defending computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic
systems, networks, and data from malicious attacks. It's also known as information technology
security or electronic information security.
• The term applies in a variety of contexts, from business to mobile computing, and can be
divided into a few common categories.
Categories
• Network security is the practice of securing a computer network from intruders, whether
targeted attackers or opportunistic malware.
• Application security focuses on keeping software and devices free of threats. A
compromised application could provide access to the data its designed to protect. Successful
security begins in the design stage, well before a program or device is deployed.
• Information security protects the integrity and privacy of data, both in storage and in
transit.
• Operational security includes the processes and decisions for handling and protecting data
assets. The permissions users have when accessing a network and the procedures that
determine how and where data may be stored or shared all fall under this umbrella.
• Disaster recovery and business continuity define how an organization responds to a
cyber-security incident or any other event that causes the loss of operations or data. Disaster
recovery policies dictate how the organization restores its operations and information to return
to the same operating capacity as before the event. Business continuity is the plan the
organization falls back on while trying to operate without certain resources.
• End-user education addresses the most unpredictable cyber-security factor: people.
Anyone can accidentally introduce a virus to an otherwise secure system by failing to follow
good security practices. Teaching users to delete suspicious email attachments, not plug in
unidentified USB drives, and various other important lessons is vital for the security of any
organization.
Types of cyber threats: The threats countered by cyber-security are three-fold:

1. Cybercrime includes single actors or groups targeting systems for financial gain or to cause
disruption.
2. Cyber-attack often involves politically motivated information gathering.
3. Cyberterrorism is intended to undermine electronic systems to cause panic or fear.

How do malicious actors gain control of computer systems?

Here are some common methods used to threaten cyber-security:
Malware
• Malware means malicious software. One of the most common cyber threats, malware is
software that a cybercriminal or hacker has created to disrupt or damage a legitimate user’s
computer. Often spread via an unsolicited email attachment or legitimate-looking download,
malware may be used by cybercriminals to make money or in politically motivated cyber-
attacks.
• There are a number of different types of malware, including:
o Virus: A self-replicating program that attaches itself to clean file and spreads throughout a
computer system, infecting files with malicious code.
o Trojans: A type of malware that is disguised as legitimate software. Cybercriminals trick users
into uploading Trojans onto their computer where they cause damage or collect data.
o Spyware: A program that secretly records what a user does, so that cybercriminals can make
use of this information. For example, spyware could capture credit card details.
o Ransomware: Malware which locks down a user’s files and data, with the threat of erasing it
unless a ransom is paid.
o Adware: Advertising software which can be used to spread malware.
o Botnets: Networks of malware infected computers which cybercriminals use to perform tasks
online without the user’s permission.
Other Types
• SQL injection: An SQL (structured language query) injection is a type of cyber-attack used
to take control of and steal data from a database. Cybercriminals exploit vulnerabilities in data-
driven applications to insert malicious code into a databased via a malicious SQL statement.
This gives them access to the sensitive information contained in the database.
• Phishing: Phishing is when cybercriminals target victims with emails that appear to be from
a legitimate company asking for sensitive information. Phishing attacks are often used to dupe
people into handing over credit card data and other personal information.
• Man-in-the-middle attack: A man-in-the-middle attack is a type of cyber threat where a
cybercriminal intercepts communication between two individuals in order to steal data. For
example, on an unsecure WiFi network, an attacker could intercept data being passed from the
victim’s device and the network.
• Denial-of-service attack: A denial-of-service attack is where cybercriminals prevent a
computer system from fulfilling legitimate requests by overwhelming the networks and servers
with traffic. This renders the system unusable, preventing an organization from carrying out
vital functions.
 OCCRP
• The Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project is a global network of
investigative journalists with staff on six continents.

• Founded by Drew Sullivan and Paul Radu in 2006, OCCRP focuses on investigating
organized crime and systemic corruption.
• It publishes its stories through local media and in English and Russian through its website.
• The entity was involved in the coverage of Pegasus spyware as well as Panama Papers leak.
OCCRP’s Impact
• OCCRP’s investigative efforts have led to numerous official investigations, arrests,
resignations, and substantial fines.
• It played a pivotal role in high-profile probes, including investigations on Russia’s
oligarchs and the Panama Papers project.
• The organization has been nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize for its contributions in
unmasking political corruption and organized crime.
 GALWAN VALLEY
o There is a face-off between Indian
and Chinese troops in the no-
patrolling zone at Galwan Valley in
Eastern Ladakh.
o The valley refers to the land that sits
between steep mountains that buffet
the Galwan River.
o The river has its source in Aksai
Chin, on China’s side of the LAC,
and it flows from the east to Ladakh,
where it meets the Shyok river on
India’s side of the LAC.
o The valley is strategically located
between Ladakh in the west and
Aksai Chin in the east, which is
currently controlled by China as
part of its Xinjiang Uyghur
Autonomous Region.
o At its western end are the Shyok river and the Darbuk-Shyok-Daulet Beg Oldie (DSDBO)
road.
o Its eastern mouth lies not far from China’s vital Xinjiang Tibet road, now called the G219
highway.
Where does the Line of Actual Control lie?

o The LAC lies east of the confluence of the Galwan and Shyok rivers in the valley, up
to which both India and China have been patrolling in recent years.
o However, China has claimed the entire valley lies on its side of the LAC.
o China has been objecting to India’s road construction activities at the western end of the valley,
in the area between the Galwan-Shyok confluence and the LAC.

o China is saying the entire valley is on its side of the LAC, which pegs the line further west near
the Shyok river. India has rejected the claim as “exaggerated and untenable”.
 ICAO
o The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) formed in 1947 is a specialized and
funding agency of the United Nations.
o It changes the principles and techniques of international air navigation and fosters the
planning and development of international air transport to ensure safe and orderly growth.
o Its headquarters is located in the Quartier International of Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
o The ICAO Council adopts standards and recommended practices concerning air navigation, its
infrastructure, flight inspection, prevention of unlawful interference, and facilitation of
border-crossing procedures for international civil aviation.
o ICAO defines the protocols for air accident investigation that are followed by transport safety
authorities in countries signatory to the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation.
What does ICAO manage today? There are a variety of different areas that ICAO
regulates, that without them, international travel would be incredibly complicated to do.
o ICAO determines the infrastructure for aviation, from communication rules, navigation,
air traffic management (such as speaking in English), as well as standards for passports.
o They also manage the measure units in aviation, such as units of pressure, temperature,
altitude, and more, so all aircraft and operations are in sync no matter what country you are
in.
o ICAO also chooses how big an airport needs to be to take particular aircraft. There
are six levels of airports. The smallest, A, can only handle small prop-planes, and the biggest,
F, can take 747s and A380s.
o ICAO issues airport codes to new and existing airports. IATA, another organization, also
supplies codes, but this is only for airports that operate airline services. ICAO is for all airstrips,
big or small.
o ICAO issues three-letter airline codes use for radio designations. While these are
sometimes similar to the IATA two-letter codes you see on a flight number (QF001, for
example, for Qantas), they can be very different when it comes to radio transmissions.
o ICAO is also helping the aviation industry face climate change. They are bringing
together members and proposing various solutions such as different fuels to carbon offset
scenes.
 CAATSA
o The Countering America’s Adversaries Through Sanctions Act (CAATSA) is a
United States Federal Law that has imposed sanctions against Iran, Russia and North
Korea. This act prevents trade partners of the United States in entering into bilateral
contracts with these three nations.
o The bill was passed on 27 July 2017.

Background of CAATSA
o The Countering America’s Adversaries Through Sanctions Act came against the
backdrop of three events that would have serious implications regarding geopolitics. They are
as follows:
1. Iran’s Nuclear Missiles Program: The United States Government believed that any
progress in Iran’s nuclear missile program would further destabilize the Middle-East as Iran
has repeatedly made threats against Israel, a key NATO and United States ally. The CAATSA
gives authority to the President of the United States to impose sanctions against any party
involved in the sale and transfer of military technology to Iran.
2. Curbing Russian influence: The Russian annexation of Crimea in 2014 and allegations of
interventions in the US polls of 2016 was the catalyst for the CAATSA against Russia. Under
the act sanctions can be imposed on Russia should the state or private individuals be found
involved in activities such as cybersecurity, crude oil projects, financial institutions,
corruption, human rights abuses etc.
3. North Korea and weapons of mass destruction: North Korea has a nuclear weapons
military program and as of 2020 it’s estimated missile arsenal includes 30-40 warheads with
enough fissile materials to produce 6-7 missiles per year. North Korea has made repeated
threats against its South Korea repeatedly and also against the United States.
o Previous administrations before had put sanctions against the North Korean dictatorship. But
what makes the CAATSA different is that the bill modifies and increases the President’s
authority to impose sanctions on persons in violation of certain United Nations Security
Council resolutions regarding North Korea along with a wide range of other economic
sanctions that can cripple the already fledgling North Korean economy.
 S-400 TRIUMF
The Indian Air Force (IAF) to strengthen its defence
capabilities has deployed three S-400 Triumf air
defence missile squadrons along the borders with
China and Pakistan.
• The S-400 Triumf is a mobile, surface-to-air
missile (SAM) system developed by Russia,
capable of intercepting and destroying
various aerial targets, such as aircraft, drones,
cruise missiles, and ballistic missiles.
• The S-400 has a range of up to 400 km, at an
altitude of up to 30 km and can engage up to 36
targets simultaneously, with four different types
of missiles.
• It is the most dangerous operationally deployed
modern long-range SAMin the world, considered
much ahead of the US-developed Terminal
High Altitude Area Defense system
(THAAD).

Importance for India

• India decided to procure the S-400 missiles to enhance its air defence capabilities and
deterrence posture against China and Pakistan, which have been modernizing and expanding
their air forces and missile arsenals.
• India faces a two-front threat from China and Pakistan, which have been involved in several
border disputes and conflicts with India over the years.
• India’s acquisition is crucial to counter the growing presence and influence of China
in the Indian Ocean Region, where China has been building ports, bases, and infrastructure
projects.
• India also wants to maintain its strategic autonomy and diversify its defence partners, amid
the uncertainty and volatility of the global order.
 PROJECT KUSHA
• Project Kusha led by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) is an
ambitious defence initiative by India aimed at developing its long-range air defence
system by 2028-29.
• Long-range air defence systems will be capable of detecting and destroying enemy projectiles
and armour, including cruise missiles, stealth fighter jets, and drones at long range.
• It will consist of three types of interceptor missiles, with ranges of 150 km, 250 km, and
350 km, and advanced long-range surveillance and fire control radars.
• Project Kusha is expected to rival the effectiveness of the renowned S-400 system of
Russia and the Iron Dome system of Israel.
 KUKI INSURGENCY
o The Kukis are a multi-tribal ethnic group that live in India’s north-eastern regions of
Manipur, Mizoram, and Assam, as well as parts of Bangladesh and Myanmar.
o The different Kuki tribes of Manipur, who live primarily in the hills, currently account for 30%
of the state’s total population of 28.5 lakh people.
o The rest of Manipur’s population is composed primarily of two other ethnic groups: non-tribal
Vaishnavite Hindus who inhabit the state’s valley region, and Naga tribes who live
in the state’s mountainous areas. The latter has historically been at odds with the Kukis.
o Kuki militancy has its roots in ethnic identity struggles. They want Kukiland, which
comprises Kuki inhabited territories in Myanmar, Manipur, Assam, and Mizoram, to
have self-determination primarily for groups belonging to their ethnic fabric.
o The second cause of insurgency in Manipur is intercommunal violence between the
Kukis and the Nagas.
History of Kuki Insurgency

o Manipur, a former princely state, became a full-fledged Indian state in the year 1972. As a
princely state, it included parts of Burma before joining India.

o Various insurgent groups arose as a result of resentment over the “forceful” integration into
India and the delay in giving statehood.
o The problem was exacerbated in the year 1980 when Manipur was designated as a
“disturbed area” under the Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA), which
grants the military broad powers and is said to have led to excesses.
o In the 1980s and after the Kuki-Naga skirmishes of the 1990s, the Kuki insurgency in Manipur
intensified in actual terms. The Kuki National Organisation (KNO) and its military
wing, the Kuki National Army (KNA), were founded at this time. Other Kuki units, such
as the Kuki Commando Force and the Kuki Independent Army, were also founded.
o Since signing an agreement with the Indian Army in the year 2005, the Kuki insurgent forces
have been under Suspension of Operation (SoO).
o In 2008, the organisations reached a tripartite agreement with the State government of
Manipur, and the UPA led Central government, led by former Prime Minister Manmohan
Singh, to temporarily halt their operations and allow political discussion a chance.
Reasons behind Kuki Insurgency

o Kuki militancy has its genesis in
ethnic identity struggles. The
first was the quest for self-
determination purely for
ethnic groups.
o While some insurgent Kuki
groups wanted Kukiland that
included portions that were not
part of India, others demanded
Kukiland that was entirely
within India.
o Presently, there is a demand for
the creation of an
autonomous district
“Kukiland Territorial
Council” within the Indian
constitution, modelled after
the Bodoland Territorial
Council, which was established
under the sixth schedule of the Constitution after militant groups in the state of Assam entered
into an agreement with their state government.
o The Kuki-Naga tussle began over securing identity as well as land, as some Kuki inhabited
regions coincided with areas inhabited by the Naga tribes.
o The two communities frequently engaged in violent showdowns, with villages being burnt,
civilians being slaughtered, and so on, in order to gain control of commerce and cultural
activities in those regions.
o Despite the fact that confrontations between the two ethnic groups have decreased in recent
decades, tensions between them still remain.
o The Naga movement in the neighbouring state of Nagaland spread to Manipur’s hill regions,
with the NSCN-IM commanding the majority while pushing for “Nagalim” (Greater Nagaland),
which is seen as a “threat” to Manipur’s “territorial integrity” in the valley.

o Despite the fact that the hills cover nine-tenths of Manipur’s land area, they are sparsely
populated, with the majority of the state’s people located in the valley.
o The Meitei community dominates the Imphal valley, while Nagas and Kukis live
in the neighbouring hill districts.
o The Assam Rifles as well as the army undertook operation “All Clear” in the hill areas,
neutralising most militant hideouts and forcing many of them to flee to the valley.
Challenges in Restoring Peace in Manipur

o Because Manipur is a border state with a permeable international border as well as a harsh
forest environment, militant organisations that rely on external nations for training and other
logistical support continue to infiltrate the country.
o The state’s troubles are exacerbated by the link between politicians, militants, and criminals.
Extortion, abduction, and contractual assassinations are all common activities for some
groups.
o Miscreants reap the benefits of the disturbance and use it to extort money while posing as
militants. Furthermore, most security issues are politicised by political parties in order to earn
vote bank mileage by escalating conflicts.
o Given the ongoing peace discussions with the insurgent organisations, there has been a
propensity for the factions to continue the armed revolt by creating a new proxy group or
changing its name.
o The central government’s strategy of reaching a negotiated solution with insurgent groups has
backfired. Because many of the outfits’ goals conflict with one another, any conventional
arrangement with one organisation causes agitation among the others.
 ASSAM RIFLES
• Assam Rifles is one of the six Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs) that come under
the MHA’s administrative control.
• The other forces being: the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF), the Border Security Force
(BSF), the Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP), the Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) and
the Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB).
• Besides maintaining law and order in the Northeast (a task it performs together with the
Army), the Assam Rifles also guards the border with Myanmar in the region.
Uniqueness
• It is the only paramilitary force with a dual control structure.
• The administrative control of the force is with the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA).
• Its operational control is with the Indian Army, which is under the Ministry of Defence
(MoD).
• Hence, salaries and infrastructure for this force is provided by the MHA, but the
deployment, posting, transfer and deputation of the personnel is decided by the
Army.

Historical Background
• Its history dating back to 1835 when its precursor, Cachar Levy, was formed in the Northeast
to protect British Tea estates and their settlements against tribal raids.
• Over the period of time, it was expanded and rechristened Assam Military Police
Battalion, with additional battalions.
• It was later renamed as Assam Rifles. This is where the dual structure was perhaps born.
• This is because even as it continued to operate as a police force, the ‘Rifles’ tag indicated it was
on a par with Army units.
Contributions of Assam rifles

• Since its formation in 1835, Assam Rifles has gone on to fight in two World Wars, the
Sino-Indian war of 1962.
• It is used as an anti-insurgency force against militant groups in the North East.
• The Post-Independence role of the Assam Rifles continued to evolve ranging from
o conventional combat role during Sino-India War 1962,
o operating in foreign land as part of the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) to Sri Lanka in
1987 (Op Pawan)
o to peacekeeping role in the North-Eastern areas of India.
• It remains the most awarded paramilitary force in both pre- and post-independent India.
 ASTRA MISSILE
• Astra is a family of all-weather beyond-visual-range air-to-air missile, developed
by the Defence Research and Development Organisation.
• Different missiles of this family are capable of engaging targets at varying distances of 500 m
up to 340 km.
• Astra Mk-1 has been integrated with Indian Air Force's Sukhoi Su-30MKI.
Astra Mark 1
• Limited series production of Astra Mk-1 missiles began in 2017.
• The Astra Mark 1, has a maximum head-on launch range of 100 Kms, a speed of 4.5
Mach, and launch clearance up to 20 Kms in height (66,000 ft).
• The Astra-1 is meant to carry a 15-kilogram pre-fragmented high explosive
warhead that is ignited by a radio proximity fuse.
• The missile’s Electronic Counter-Countermeasure (ECCM) capabilities allow for
unrestricted operation in an Electronic Counter-Countermeasure (ECM) environment.
• Astra MK-1 already in service is better than the Chinese PL-12 used by Pakistan and China.
Astra Mark 2

• Astra MK-2 is the new version of Astra MK-1 with better range and launched from an
ejector.
• The Astra MK-2 has conventional dual-pulse rocket motor with improved grain quality
and with solid fuel.
• It is longer in length as a result of which more quantity of fuel can be loaded resulting in
better range. It has been tested to 180 km.
• Astra MK-2 shares most of the key features of its predecessor Astra MK-1 such as
aerodynamics, design, smokeless propulsion, Ku band AESA seeker, etc. so its development
process has been very fast.
• Astra MK-2 is likely to be inducted into IAF service by end of 2023 or Q1 2024.
• It will also come with improved high-angle off boresight capability, improved ECCM
system.
 FATF
o The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is an inter-governmental body decision-making body.
o It was established in 1989 during the G7 Summit in Paris to develop policies against
money laundering.
o It is a “policy-making body” which works to generate the political will to bring about
national legislative and regulatory reforms in money laundering. It has also started dealing
with virtual currencies.
o The FATF Secretariat is located in Paris.
Objectives
o FATF sets standards and promotes effective implementation of:
a. legal, regulatory and operational measures for combating money laundering.
b. The FATF works to identify national-level vulnerabilities with the aim of protecting the
international financial system from misuse.
o India became an Observer at FATF in 2006. Since then, it had been working towards
full-fledged membership.
o On June 25, 2010 India was taken in as the 34th country member of FATF.
FATF on terror financing

o FATF's role in combating terror financing became prominent after the 9/11 terror attacks in
the US. In 2001 its mandate expanded to include terrorism financing. Financing of terrorism
involves providing money or financial support to terrorists. As of 2019, FATF has blacklisted
North Korea and Iran over terror financing. Twelve countries are in the grey list, namely:
Bahamas, Botswana, Cambodia, Ethiopia, Ghana, Pakistan, Panama, Sri Lanka, Syria,
Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia and Yemen.

'Grey list' and 'Blacklist'

a. Black List: Countries knowns as Non-Cooperative Countries or Territories (NCCTs) are put
in the blacklist. These countries support terror funding and money laundering activities. The
FATF revises the blacklist regularly, adding or deleting entries.
b. Grey List: Countries that are considered safe haven for supporting terror funding and money
laundering are put in the FATF grey list. This inclusion serves as a warning to the country that
it may enter the blacklist.
 RAFALE MARINE JET

The Defence Acquisition Council (DAC) cleared proposals to procure 26 Rafale Marine fighter
jets and three Scorpene submarines for the Indian Navy.
Rafale Marine Fighter Jets

• Naval Variant: Rafale Marine fighters
are the naval version of the Rafale jets,
with the Indian Air Force operating 36 of
them.
• Advanced Multirole Fighters:
Manufactured by Dassault Aviation, the
Rafales are advanced twin-engine,
multirole fighter jets equipped with
modern sensors, radar, and the latest
weapon systems.
• India-Specific Enhancements: The
jets feature India-specific enhancements
and have the capability to carry out
various missions. The naval version of the
Rafale is designed to operate from
aircraft carriers.
• The Rafale M is also slightly heavier
than the Rafale due to the additional
weight of the modifications.
Differences in Marine Version:

• The naval variant has foldable wings, a longer airframe for carrier landings, a tail hook for
arrested landing, and reinforced landing gear suitable for aircraft carriers’ conditions.
• Expanded Weapon Capabilities: Rafale Marine jets can carry a wider range of weapons,
including anti-ship and air-to-surface missiles, and have specialized radar for maritime
operations.
• Different radar system, the Thales RBE2-M, which is optimized for maritime operations.
• Different electronic warfare suite, the Thales SPECTRA, which is also optimized for
maritime operations.

 TEJAS JETS AND PRACHANDA HELICOPTERS

Light Combat Aircraft (LCA)
• The LCA programme was started by the Government of India in 1984 when they
established the Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) to manage the LCA
programme.
Features:
• Designed to carry a range of air-to-air, air-to-surface, precision-guided, weapons.
• Air to air refueling capability.
Variants of Tejas:
• Tejas Trainer: 2-seater operational conversion trainer for training air force pilots.
• LCA Navy: Twin- and single-seat carrier-capable for the Indian Navy.
• LCA Tejas Navy MK2: This is phase 2 of the LCA Navy variant.
• LCA Tejas Mk-1A: This is an improvement over the LCA Tejas Mk1 with a higher thrust
engine.
Light Combat Helicopter

• The LCH is the only attack helicopter in the world which can land and take off at an altitude of
5,000 meters with a considerable load of weapons and fuel.
• The helicopter uses radar-absorbing material to lower radar signature and has a
significantly crash-proof structure and landing gear.
• A pressurised cabin offers protection from Nuclear, Biological and Chemical (NBC)
contingencies.
• The LCH has the capabilities of combat roles such as destruction of enemy air defence, counter
insurgency warfare, combat search and rescue, anti-tank, and counter surface force operations.
• The helicopter is equipped with a countermeasure dispensing system that protects it from
enemy radars or infrared seekers of enemy missiles.
• LCH is powered by two French-origin Shakti engines manufactured by the HAL.
Genesis
• It was during the 1999 Kargil war that the need was first felt for a homegrown lightweight
assault helicopter that could hold precision strikes in all Indian battlefield scenarios.
• This meant a craft that could operate in very hot deserts and also in very cold high altitudes, in
counter-insurgency scenarios to full-scale battle conditions.
• India has been operating sub 3 ton category French-origin legacy helicopters, Chetak and
Cheetah, made in India by the Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).

• These single engine machines were, primarily, utility helicopters. Indian forces also operate
the Lancer, an armed version of Cheetah.
• In addition, the Indian Air Force currently operates the Russian origin Mi-17 and its variants
Mi-17 IV and Mi-17 V5, with maximum take-off weight of 13 tonnes, which are to be phased
out starting 2028.
• The government sanctioned the LCH project in October 2006 and HAL was tasked to
develop it.
 ANTI-SUBMARINES WARFARE SHIPS

Cochin Shipyard Limited has launched three ships in the series of eight Mahe class Anti-
Submarine Warfare Shallow Water Crafts(ASW SWC) for the Indian Navy.
These three ships have been named as INS Mahe, INS Malvan and INS Mangrol.
Mahe Class ships

• These are Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow Watercrafts (ASW SWC).
• Purpose is to undertake anti-submarine operations in coastal waters, Low Intensity
Maritime Operations (LIMO) and Mine Laying Operations.
• These ships are poised to replace the Abhay class ASW corvettes and excel in anti-
submarine operations, coastal defense, mine laying, and sub-surface surveillance.
• They demonstrate a high-speed capability of 25 knots, an endurance of 1,800 nautical
miles, and are designed to undertake coordinated ASW operations with aircraft while being
adept at search and rescue missions.
• They are built Cochin Shipyard Limited
• These are named after ports of strategic importance along the coast of India.
 AGNI 1
• It is a Short-Range Ballistic Missile (SRBM) developed by India as part of its Agni series
of missiles.
• It is the first missile in the Agni series and is designed to be a strategic weapon capable
of carrying a nuclear payload.
• The Agni-1 is primarily intended for use as a deterrent against potential adversaries and is
known for its quick response time.
• It is the first variant of the Agni series missiles under Integrated Guided Missile
Development Program (IGMDP).
Technical Specifications

• The Agni-1 is a single-stage, solid-fueled missile with a range of around 700 to around
1200 kilometers and can carry a payload of 1,000 kg, making it a short-range ballistic missile.
It has the capability to carry both conventional and nuclear warheads.
• The solid-fuel propulsion system enhances its operational flexibility and reduces launch
preparation time.
Development and Testing

• The Agni-1 was developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)
in India. The missile has undergone several successful test launches to validate its performance
and reliability.
• Agni-1 was first tested at the Interim Test Range in Chandipur in 1989.
• The Indian army accepted Agni-1 in service in 2007.
Other Agni Class of Missiles

• Agni II: Range more than 2000 km.
• Agni III: Range of more than 2,500 Km
• Agni IV: Range is more than 3,500 km and can fire from a road-mobile launcher.
• Agni-V: The longest of the Agni series, an Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile (ICBM)
with a range of over 5,000 km.
• Agni Prime: A two-stage canisterised missile (under development) has been successfully
flight tested in June 2023.
• The missile is capable of delivering a number of warheads at separate locations at a distance of
1,000 - 2,000 km.
 VINBAX-2023
The Indian Armed Forces participated in Vietnam in the fourth edition of Joint Military Exercise
VINBAX-2023.
• Exercise VINBAX was instituted in 2018 and the first edition was conducted at Jabalpur,
Madhya Pradesh.
• It is an annual training event conducted alternatively in India and Vietnam.
Aim:
• The exercise is to foster collaborative partnership, promote interoperability and share best
practices between the two sides under Chapter VII of United Nations Charter on Peacekeeping
Operations.
• The exercise will be conducted as a Command Post Exercise cum Field Training Exercise with
focus on deployment and employment of an Engineer Company and a Medical Team.

• Ideas will be exchanged on modern methods to construct roads, culverts, helipads,

ammunition shelter and observation posts in operational areas.
 INS Tarmugli
The Indian Navy recently commissioned INS Tarmugli, a fast attack craft (FAC), showcasing
maritime diplomacy and strength.
• The ship was commissioned in the Indian Navy as INS Tillanchang, a Trinkat Class ship,
was in active service till 2006, and thereafter gifted to the Maldives National Defence Force
(MNDF) government of India in 2006 as part of diplomatic outreach in the Indian Ocean
Region (IOR).
• The ship was returned to the Indian Navy in May 2023, the warship is fitted with MTU
engines, the latest communication equipment, and an advanced Radar system and will be
extensively used for coastal surveillance and protection along the east coast of India.
• The ship is named after Tarmugli Island, a small island in the Andaman group.
 PIRACY IN ARABIAN SEA

The Malta-flagged Vessel MV Ruen fell victim to pirates in the Arabian Sea. Responding swiftly,
the Indian Navy, strategically based in the piracy-prone Gulf of Aden, intercepted the hijacked
vessel, closely monitoring its trajectory toward the Somali coast.
The European Union Naval Force (EUNAVFOR) Operation Atalanta, a maritime security
operation in the western Indian Ocean, joined the anti-piracy effort.
Maritime Piracy
• Article 101 of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS) outlines acts constituting piracy.
• These acts include violence, detention, or depredation committed for private ends on
the high seas or outside the jurisdiction of any state.
• These acts are carried out with the intent of personal gain and may include the seizure
of another ship, its cargo, or the kidnapping of its passengers or crew.
• It is considered a serious maritime crime and is subject to international laws and conventions.
Strongest Zones of Pirate Activity

• Northwest Africa, the Gulf of Guinea, Red Sea, Somalia, Horn of Africa, Gulf of Aden, Indian
Ocean, Indian subcontinent, and Southeast Asia.
Global Initiatives Related to Maritime Piracy:
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS):

• It establishes the legal framework for combating piracy.
• The UN Security Council and General Assembly have consistently emphasized the
importance of international cooperation in addressing piracy and armed robbery at sea,
stressing the applicability of UNCLOS in combating maritime threats.
Operation Prosperity Guardian

• The United States has initiated Operation Prosperity Guardian, a multinational security
initiative to ensure security in the Red Sea.
Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the safety of
Maritime Navigation (1988)
• It is a multilateral treaty. The main purpose of the treaty is to ensure that appropriate
action is taken against people who commit unlawful acts against ships.
• It was adopted in 1988 at the Suppression of Unlawful Acts(SUA) Convention in
Rome.
Combined Maritime Forces (CMF)

• The CMF is a multinational naval partnership with primary focus areas aimed at
defeating terrorism, preventing piracy, fostering regional cooperation, and promoting a secure
maritime environment.
• CMF has 39 member nations including India.
 DESERT CYCLONE 2024

India and UAE held 'Desert Cyclone 2024' joint military exercise in Rajasthan.
• The exercise aimed to enhance interoperability by learning & sharing best practices in
Urban Operations.
• It is also expected to not only strengthen the defense ties between India and the UAE but also
contribute to the broader goal of fostering regional peace and security.
• India has also been a regular participant at the biennial International Defence
Exhibition (IDEX) in Abu Dhabi.
 NUCLEAR INSTALLATIONS LIST

India and Pakistan have exchanged lists of their respective nuclear installations and facilities
through diplomatic channels in New Delhi (India) and Islamabad (Pakistan).
This exchange falls under the Agreement on the Prohibition of Attack against Nuclear
Installations and Facilities between the two countries.
About the agreement

• The Agreement on the Prohibition of Attack against Nuclear Installations and Facilities was
signed on 31st December 1988, by the then Pakistani Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto and
Indian PM Rajiv Gandhi.
• The treaty came into force on 27th January 1991.
• The recent one is the 33rd consecutive exchange of such lists between the two countries,
the first one having taken place on 01st January 1992.
Background
• While other factors might have played a role, the direct trigger for the negotiation and signing
of the agreement was the tension generated by the 1986-87 Brasstacks exercise by the
Indian Army.
• Operation Brasstacks was a military exercise conducted in the Indian state of Rajasthan,
near the Pakistan border.
Mandate:
• The agreement mandates both countries to inform each other about any nuclear
installations and facilities to be covered under the agreement on the 1st of January of every
calendar year, providing a confidence-building security measure environment.
• According to the agreement, the term ‘nuclear installation or facility’ includes
✓ nuclear power and research reactors,
✓ fuel fabrication,
✓ uranium enrichment,
✓ iso-topes separation, and
✓ reprocessing facilities as well as any other installations with fresh or irradiated nuclear fuel and
materials in any form and establishments storing significant quantities of radioactive
materials.
 EX-AYUTTHAYA
• The Indian Navy and Royal Thai Navy (RTN) conducted a maiden bilateral exercise,
named 'Ex-Ayutthaya' and the 36th edition of India-Thailand Coordinated Patrol
(Indo-Thai CORPAT) was also conducted along with the maiden bilateral exercise.
• The 'Ex-Ayutthaya' translates to 'The Invincible One' or 'Undefeatable', and "symbolizes

the significance of two of the oldest cities, Ayodhya in India and Ayutthaya in Thailand,
the historic legacies, rich cultural ties and shared historical narratives dating back to several
centuries.
• Indigenously built Indian Naval ships Kulish and IN LCU 56 participated in the inaugural
edition of the exercise. The RTN side was represented by His Thai Majesty's Ship (HTMS)
Prachuap Khiri Khan.
• Maritime Patrol Aircraft from both navies participated in the Sea Phase of the exercise.

 UGRAM RIFLE
The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has launched an indigenous
assault rifle named 'Ugram', intended to meet the operational requirements of armed forces,
paramilitary, and state police entities.
• It has been developed by the Armament Research
and Development Establishment (ARDE), a
unit of DRDO and Hyderabad-based private firm
Dvipa Armour India Private Limited.
• The Ugram is intended to replace the aging
INSAS rifle currently used by the Indian Armed
Forces.
• It has been developed as per the General Staff
Qualitative Requirements (GSQR) of the army into consideration.
• GQSR is one of the initial processes in capital procurement. It outlines why the
equipment is required, its physical and operational details, as well as the maintainability and
quality requirements.
Features
• The rifle, with a calibre of 7.62 x 51 mm, has been designed, developed, and manufactured in
collaboration with a private industry partner.
• It has an effective range of 500 metres and weighs less than four kilograms.
 VIJAY RAGHAVAN COMMITTEE

The Vijay Raghavan panel, established by the government, has submitted a comprehensive
report addressing concerns about the functioning of the Defence Research and Development
Organisation (DRDO).
Background to the establishment of the Panel

• A Parliamentary Standing Committee (PSC) on Defence's Report expressed concerns about 23
out of 55 mission mode projects of DRDO facing significant delays.
• CAG Report (December 2022) indicated that 67% of the projects examined failed to
adhere to proposed timelines.
Major Recommendations of Vijay Raghavan Committee:

• Refocusing on Research and Development (R&D): Suggested that DRDO should return
to its original goal of focusing on research and development for defense.
• Advised against involving itself in production cycles, and product management, tasks
deemed more suitable for the private sector.

• Narrowing Focus and Expertise: Emphasized that DRDO should identify specific areas of
expertise rather than engaging in diverse technologies.
• Role of Defence Technology Council (DTC): Advocated a pivotal role of the Defence
Technology Council, chaired by the Prime Minister, in identifying suitable players for
specific defense technologies. DTC should be instrumental in steering the direction of defense
technology development.
• Creation of a Dedicated Department: Proposed the establishment of the Department of

Defence Science, Technology, and Innovation under the Ministry of Defence. Recommended
that the proposed department should act as the secretariat for the Defence Technology Council.
 EXERCISE DESERT KNIGHT

The Indian Air Force (IAF) joined forces with the French Air and Space Force (FASF) and United
Arab Emirates (UAE) Air Force in Exercise Desert Knight, showcasing collaborative air
operations and strengthening diplomatic ties.
• Exercise Desert Knight is a joint military exercise between India, France, and the
United Arab Emirates (UAE).
• The exercise took place over the Arabian Sea, with the IAF operating from bases in
India.
• The exercise's main goal was to improve cooperation and interoperability between the
three air forces.
 SADA TANSEEQ
The inaugural edition of the India-Saudi Arabia Joint Military Exercise 'SADA
TANSEEQ' was conducted in Mahajan, Rajasthan. The Royal Saudi Land Forces and the Indian
Army, each with 45 personnel, actively participated.
• The primary objective is to train troops for Joint Operations in Semi-Desert terrain as
outlined in Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter.
• Major activities include Mobile Vehicle Check Posts, Cordon & Search Operations,
House Intervention Drills, Reflex Shooting, Slithering, and Sniper
Firing, offering an opportunity to strengthen bilateral relations and achieve shared security
objectives.

 PARAMILITARY, MILITARY AND CENTRAL

ARMED POLICE FORCE
Paramilitary Military Central Armed Police

Force
Protection of resources from Protecting the external These forces provide security
internal threats like Left- borders of the country from to key economic installations
Wing Extremism, Insurgents terrorism and aggression from any existential threat
etc. from other countries they also function on the
borders to check illegal
border crossings,
encroachments, smuggling
Varied. Dependent upon the Ministry of Defence Ministry of Home Affairs
forces in question. For
example, Assam Rifles
reports to the Ministry of
Home Affairs while the Coast
Guard reports to the
Ministry of Defence
o Assam Rifles o Indian Army o Central Reserve Police

o Indian Coast Guard o Indian Air Force Force
o Special Frontier Force o Indian Navy o Central Industrial
Security Force
o Indo-Tibetan Border
Police Force
3 Star Officer of Equivalent 4 Star Officer of Equivalent As it comes under the Home
Rank of Director General of Rank of General of Army Ministry, it is headed by an
Police IPS (Indian Police Service)
Officer.
A CAPF cadre can officially
reach the post of Assistant
Director-General of Police
but the Director-General
post is reserved for IPS
Some of the paramilitary The Indian Military in its The Central Industrial
wings such as the Assam current form began from the Security Force (CISF) is the
Rifles originated in 1835 native armies of the East largest industrial security
while the Coast Guard India Company, which later force with over 165,000
originated as late as 1978 became the British Indian personnel
Army and later was merged
into the national army upon
independence

 GSOMIA
o General security of Military Information Agreement (GSOMIA) is an agreement
signed to safeguard the information that is shared during a technology transfer.
o India signed this agreement in 2002, this covered only Indian government and PSUs.
o GSOMIA did not cover the exchange of classified information with Indian private
companies.
 LEMOA
o Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA) was signed in 2016 between
India and US.
o LEMOA allows the militaries of the US and India to replenish from each other’s bases,
and access supplies, spare parts and services from each other’s land facilities, air bases, and
ports, which can then be reimbursed.
o LEMOA is extremely useful for India-US Navy-to-Navy cooperation, since the two
countries are cooperating closely in the Indo-Pacific.
o To put the usefulness of this agreement in simple terms, it is like being able to stop at a friend’s
garage or workshop to refuel your car or get it repaired when you are far away from your own
home or workshop.
o The critical element that underpins LEMOA is mutual trust.
o The signing of LEMOA was in itself an affirmation of the mutual trust between the
two militaries, and its application will enhance the trust. It took almost a decade to negotiate
LEMOA, and the exercise in a sense bridged the trust deficit between India and the US, and
paved the way for the other foundational pacts.
o While India had indeed provided ad hoc logistics support to the US in the past — such as
allowing the refueling of American aircraft in Bombay during the first Gulf War in 1991, and
letting US warships visit Indian ports during the war on terror after 9/11— the signing of
LEMOA has institutionalised this process and made it smoother.
 COMCASA
o Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA) was signed in 2018.
o The pact allows the US to provide India with its encrypted communications
equipment and systems so that Indian and US military commanders, and the aircraft and
ships of the two countries, can communicate through secure networks during times of both
peace and war.
o Again, to take a simple example, it’s like being able to exchange messages or communicate with
a friend on WhatsApp, Signal, or Telegram in real time and in a secure manner.
o The signing of COMCASA paved the way for the transfer of communication security
equipment from the US to India to facilitate “interoperability” between their
forces — and potentially with other militaries that use US-origin systems for secure data links.

 BECA
o India and the United States signed the Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA),
the last of four so-called foundational agreements for sharing sensitive information, sales of
advanced military hardware and geospatial cooperation.
What is the Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA)?

o BECA will help India get real-time access to American geospatial intelligence that
will enhance the accuracy of automated systems and weapons like missiles and armed drones.
Through the sharing of information on maps and satellite images, it will help India access
topographical and aeronautical data, and advanced products that will aid in
navigation and targeting.
o This could be key to Air Force-to-Air Force cooperation between India and the US. J
o ust as your radio cab (or the GPS in your smartphone) helps you zero in on the path to your
destination and helps you reach it quickly and efficiently, BECA will provide Indian military
systems with a high-quality GPS to navigate missiles with real-time intelligence to precisely
target the adversary.
o Besides the sailing of ships, flying of aircraft, fighting of wars, and location of targets, geospatial
intelligence is also critical to the response to natural disasters.
 REPORTS
International Organization Name of Reports
World Health Organization (WHO) Global Nutrition Report
IQAir World Air Quality Report
Oxfam International Global Inequality Crisis Report
Inequality Virus Report
UNICEF Levels and Trends in Child Mortality Report
UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on World Investment Report
Trade and Development)
UNEP (United Nations Environment Actions on Air Quality
Programme) Emissions Gap Report
Global Environment Outlook
Transparency International Global Corruption Report (GCR) –
Corruption Perception Index
UNEP and INTERPOL The Rise of Environmental Crime

UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Global Education Monitoring Report
Scientific and Cultural Organization)

UNFPA (United Nations Population Fund) State of World Population

UN-Habitat World Cities Report
UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and World Wildlife Crime Report
Crime) World Drug Report
Global Report on Trafficking in Persons
UNDRR (United Nations Office for Disaster Global Assessment Report
Risk Reduction)
UNIDO(United Nations Industrial Industrial Development Report
Development Organization)
UNICEF (United Nations Children’s The State of the World’s Children reports
Emergency Fund) Report on Regular Resources
UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner The Global Report

for Refugees)
UNICRI (United Nations Interregional Crime Reports on Counterfeiting and Organized
and Justice Research Institute) Crime
WEF (World Economic Forum) Global Competitiveness Report (GCR)
Global Gender Gap Report
Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report
Global Information Technology Report
International Energy Agency World Energy Outlook (WEO)
Southeast Asia Energy Outlook
OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum OPEC Monthly Oil Market Report
Exporting Countries) World Oil Outlook
Sustainable Development Solutions Network World Happiness Report
(SDSN)
IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) Technical Cooperation Report
Nuclear Technology Review
IMF (International Monetary Fund) Global Financial Stability Report
World Economic Outlook
Asian Development Bank – ADB Asian Development Outlook

BIS (Bank for International Settlements) Global Financial System Report
FATF (Financial Action Task Force) Global Money Laundering Report
WWF (World Wildlife Fund) The Energy Report
Living Planet Report

WIPO (World Intellectual Property World Intellectual Property Report (WIPR)

Organization)
IBRD (World Bank) World Development Report
ICAO (International Civil Aviation Safety Reports
Organization)
US-based International Food Policy Research Global Hunger Index report
Institute (IFPRI), Concern Worldwide, and
Welthungerhilfe (WHH)
ILO (International Labour Organization) World Social Protection Report

Global Wage Report
World Employment and Social Outlook
World of Work Report
United Nations Development Programme Human Development Report
(UNDP)
International Fund for Agricultural Rural Development Report
Development (IFAD)
Universal Postal Union (UPU) Postal Development Report
Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) State of the World Reports
World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) State of World Climate

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INTERNATIONAL EUROPEAN UNION 46

RELATIONS TRILATERAL HIGHWAY 47

BELT AND ROAD INITIATIVE 09 CARICOM 52

CHINA IN HORN OF AFRICA 15 INTERNATIONAL COURT OF 53

ISRAEL AND PALESTINE 22 ORGANISATION OF ISLAMIC 61

OSLO PEACE ACCORDS 24 BRICS 62

TWO-STATE SOLUTION 24 BRICS SUMMIT 63

G4 (GROUP OF FOUR) 25 NORTHERN SEA ROUTE 64

G7 (GROUP OF SEVEN) 26 INDIA AND IRAN 65

G10 (GROUP OF TEN) 26 SOUTH CHINA SEA DISPUTE 66

G12 (GROUP OF TWELVE) 27 PERMANENT COURT OF 67

SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK (INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS)

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SHIELD IAS RAPID REVISION BOOK (INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS)

Preamble of founding charter

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Functions and Powers

Current permanent and non-permanent members

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▪ Economic and Social Council

▪ International Court of Justice

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The 1949 Geneva Conventions

Second Geneva Convention

Third Geneva Convention

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Fourth Geneva Convention

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States Party to the Geneva Conventions

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Article 6 of the North Atlantic Treaty

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Aims of the Belt and Road Initiative

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Coordination of the Initiative

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 CHINA IN HORN OF AFRICA