É CO LE SUPÉ RI E UR E AFRI CAI NE D ES TI C

MULTIPLE ACCESS
TECHNIQUES

A LI O U BA MB A , PHD
PLAN

•INTRODUCTION
•RANDOM ACCESS
•CONTROLLED ACCESS
•CHANNELIZATION
•CONCLUSION
PLAN

•INTRODUCTION
•RANDOM ACCESS
•CONTROLLED ACCESS
•CHANNELIZATION
•CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION

Data link layer (functionality)

Data link control

Multiple-access resolution
INTRODUCTION
• Taxonomy of multiple

Multiple-access protocols

Random access Controlled access

Channelization protocols
protocols protocols

ALOHA Reservation FDMA

Polling TDMA
CSMA
Token passing CDMA
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CA
PLAN

•INTRODUCTION
•RANDOM ACCESS
•CONTROLLED ACCESS
•CHANNELIZATION
•CONCLUSION
RANDOM ACCESS
➢In random access or contention methods,
• No station is superior to another station and none is assigned the control over another.
• No station permits, or does not permit, another station to send.
• At each instance, a station that has data to send uses a procedure to make a decision on whether or not to send.
• The decision depends on the state of the medium.

➢The followed procedure answers to the following questions:

• When can the station access the medium?
• What can the station do if the medium is busy?
• How can the station determine the success (failure) of the transmission?
• What can the station do if there is an access conflict?
RANDOM ACCESS
➢ALOHA
• Earliest random access method (developed in earlier 1970 at the University of Hawaii)
• Designed for a radio LAN, but can be used on any shared medium
• The medium is shared between the stations

▪ Pure ALOHA
• Original ALOHA, simple and elegant
• Each station sends a frame whenever it has a frame to send
• Since the channel is shared, there is the possibility of collision between frames from different station
• Need of retransmission in case of collision (when ACK is not received within the time-out)
• If several stations resend their frames after the time-out, this results again in collision. Therefore, a station waits
a random time TB (back-off time) after the time-out to resend his frame.
• To prevent againt congestions, a station must give up (and try later) after a maximum number of attempts Kmax.
RANDOM ACCESS
▪ Pure ALOHA
• Collision and frames in pure ALOHA

Frame 1,1 Frame 1,2 time

Station 1

Frame 2,1 Frame 2,2 time

Station 2

Frame 3,1 Frame 3,2 time

Station 3

Frame 4,1 Frame 4,2 time

Station 4

Collision duration
RANDOM ACCESS
➢ALOHA
Station has a frame to
Start
▪ Pure ALOHA (procedure) send

K: number of attempts K=0

Tp: max. propagation time
TB: Back-off time
0<R<2K-1 Wait TB time

Send the frame

Choose a random
number R Wait time-out time
(2*Tp)

Kmax is normally ACK

set to 15 K>Kmax K=K+1
received?

Abort Success
RANDOM ACCESS
➢ALOHA
▪ Pure ALOHA (example 1)
The stations on a wireless ALOHA network are a maximum of 600 km apart. If we assume that signals propagate at 3*108 m/s, We find Tp
= (600*105 ) / (3*108 ) = 2 ms.
Now it is straightforward to find the value of TB for different values of K, depending on the outcome of the random number.
RANDOM ACCESS
▪ Pure ALOHA
• Vulnerable time: the length of time in which there is a possibility of collision

B‘s end collides with A‘s A‘s end collides with C‘s
beginning beginning

B
Begin

End
A

End
Begin
C

End
Begin
t t+tfr time

Vulnerable time=2*tfr
RANDOM ACCESS
➢ALOHA
▪ Pure ALOHA (Vulnerable time)
Example: A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200 kbps. What is the
requirement to make this frame collision-free?
Average frame transmission time tfr is 200 bits/200 kbps or 1 ms. The vulnerable time is therefore 2*1 ms = 2 ms.
RANDOM ACCESS
➢ALOHA
▪ Pure ALOHA (Throughput)
The number of successful transmissions in pure ALOHA is given by:

𝑆 = 𝐺 ∗ 𝑒 −2𝐺 ,
where
S: ratio of successful transmission
G: the average number of frames generated by the system during one frame transmission time.

For instance, Smax=0,184 for G=0,5. This is, if one-half a frame is generated during one frame transmission time, then 18,4 % of these
frames reach their destinations successfully.
RANDOM ACCESS
➢ALOHA
• Earliest random access method (developed in earlier 1970 at the University of Hawaii)
• Designed for a radio LAN, but can be used on any shared medium
• The medium is shared between the stations

▪ Slotted ALOHA
• Low efficiency of pure ALOHA due to its (large) vulnerable time. Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve this.
• Time is divided into slots of tfr and the stations are forced to send only at the beginning of the time slot.
• Of course, two stations may send at the beginning of the same frame, this results in collision
RANDOM ACCESS
▪ Slotted ALOHA
• Collision and frames in slotted ALOHA

Frame 1,1 Frame 1,2 time

Station 1

Frame 2,1 Frame 2,2 time

Station 2

Frame 3,1 Frame 3,2 time

Station 3

Frame 4,1 Frame 4,2 time

Station 4
Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 6
RANDOM ACCESS
▪ Slotted ALOHA
• Vulnerable time: the length of time in which there is a possibility of collision

A collides with C
B
Begin

End
A

End
Begin
C

End
Begin

t t+tfr time

Vulnerable time=tfr
RANDOM ACCESS
➢ALOHA
• Earliest random access method (developed in earlier 1970 at the University of Hawaii)
• Designed for a radio LAN, but can be used on any shared medium
• The medium is shared between the stations

▪ Slotted ALOHA
• Vulnerable time is reduced to tfr

• Throughput
𝑆 = 𝐺 ∗ 𝑒 −𝐺

• For instance, Smax=0,368 when G=1

RANDOM ACCESS
➢Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
• Developed to minimize the chance of collision and therefore increase the performance
• Based on the following principle: -sense before transmit- or -listen before talk-
• CSMA reduce the possibility of collision, but it can not eliminate it.
RANDOM ACCESS
➢Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
B starts at time C starts at time
t1 t2

A B C D

t1
t2
Area where B‘s
signal exists

Area where both

signals exist

Area where C‘s signal

exists
time time
RANDOM ACCESS
➢Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
• The vulnerable time is the max. propagation time tp.

A B C D

t1 Vulnerable time =
propagation time =
tp= t2-t1

B senses here
t2
C senses here
D senses here

time time
RANDOM ACCESS
➢Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
▪ Persistence methods
• What should a station do if the channel is busy (or idle)?
• Three persistence methods answer these questions.
1. I-persistent
✓ Simple and straightforward
✓ If a station finds the line idle, it sends its frame immediately
✓ Highest chance of collision

2. Non-persistent
✓ A station that wants to send a frame senses the line. If idle, it sends it immediately, if not it waits a random amount of time before
sensing the line again.
✓ Reduce the efficiency of the network

3. P-persistent
✓ After the station finds the line idle:
o The station sends the frame with probability p
o With probability q=1-p, the station waits for the beginning of the next time slot and senses the line again. If the line is idle, it
applies the previous point, if not, it acts as a collision has occurred and uses the back off procedure.
RANDOM ACCESS
➢Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
▪ Persistence methods (behavior)
1. I-persistent Sense and
Continuously sense transmit

time
busy

2. Non-persistent Sense and

transmit

Sense Sense Sense

wait wait
wait
time
busy

Probability outcome does not allow

3. P-persistent transmission Transmit
Continuously sense
Time slot Time slot Time slot
 RANDOM ACCESS
➢Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
▪ Persistence methods Non-persistent
1-persistent

Channel? Channel? Wait randomly

Busy Busy
Idle Idle
p-persistent
Station can Station can
transmit transmit

Channel?
Busy
Idle
Idle

Probability
Channel? Wait a slot
outcome

Busy >p ≤p
Use back-off process
Station can transmit
RANDOM ACCESS
➢Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
▪ CSMA does not specify the procedure following a collision
▪ CSMA/CD enhances the algorithm to handle the collision
▪ A station monitors the medium after it sends a frame to ensure the transmission was successful (or
not).
▪ If the transmission is successful, the station is ok? Otherwise, there is a collision and the frame is
sent again
RANDOM ACCESS
➢Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA/CD)
• Collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD

A B C D

t1

t2 Transmission time
Transmission time
t3

t4
A‘s collision, detection and C‘s collision, detection and
abortion Collision occurs abortion

time time
RANDOM ACCESS
➢Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA/CD)
• Collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD

A B C D

temps temps temps

RANDOM ACCESS
➢Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
▪ Minimum frame size for CSMA/CD to work
▪ The sender must detect a collision before sending the last bit of the frame, and if any, abort the
transmission.
▪ The frame transmission time tfr must be at least two times the maximum propagation time tp.
▪ Collision and abortion in CSMA/CD

A B C D
Collision occurs
t1
Transmission time
t2 Transmission time
t3
t4
A detects collison and
aborts C detects collison and
aborts
time time
 RANDOM ACCESS Start Station has a frame to

➢CSMA/CD (procedure) send

K=0

Apply one persistent

method (1-, Non-, or p-)

Wait tb K: number of attemps

(tb=R*tp or tb=R*tfr)
Tp: max. propagation time Transmission done Yes
or collision
Tfr: average transmission time for a detected
frame
No
Choose a random number
R Transmit and
0<R<2K-1 receive

No

Kmax is normally set to 15 Yes collision

K>Kmax? K=K+1 Send a jamming signal
detected?

Yes No
Abort Success
RANDOM ACCESS
➢CSMA/CD
▪ Energy level
Collision
Frame transmission Frame transmission
Energy

▪ Throughput
• Greater than that of pure or slotted ALOHA
• Maximum value depends on G, and the persistence method
RANDOM ACCESS
➢Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
▪ Review of basic idea of CSMA/CD, i.e., ability to detect collision while transmitting
▪ CSMA/CD suits for wired networks
▪ Need of avoiding collision, especially in wireless networks, i.e., CSMA/CA
▪ CSMA/CA avoids collisions through the use of three strategies

Size: Binary
Found idle
exponentiel
Continuously sense
IFS

Busy Contention Send Time-out

window frame
RANDOM ACCESS
➢Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
▪ InterFrame Space
✓ Deferring transmission even though the channel is found idle.
✓ The IFS time allows the front of the transmitted signal (by a distant one) to reach the current station.
✓ If the channel is still idle after the IFS time, the station can send but should wait again for a certain time
✓ The IFS time can be used to prioritize stations or frame types.
RANDOM ACCESS
➢Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
▪ Contention window
✓ Contention window is an amount of time divided into slots
✓ After the channel is found idle, the station chooses a random number of slots according to the BEB strategy
✓ Procedure similar to the p-persistent method
✓ The station senses the channel after each time slot in the window

▪ Acknowledgment
✓ Despite the previous precautions, there may still be a collision resulting in destroyed data.
✓ Positive acknowledgment and time-out timer can help guarantee that the receiver has received the frame
RANDOM ACCESS
➢Different networks architecture (IEEE 802,11)
▪ Basic service set (BSS)
✓ Made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and an optional central base station
✓ A BSS with (resp. without) access point (AP) is referred to as an infrastructure (resp. ad hoc) network.
RANDOM ACCESS
➢Different networks architecture (IEEE 802,11)
▪ Basic service set (BSS)
✓ Made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and an optional central base station
✓ A BSS with (resp. without) access point (AP) is referred to as an infrastructure (resp. ad hoc) network.

An ad hoc architecture (no AP) An infrastructure architecture (AP)

RANDOM ACCESS
➢Different networks architecture (IEEE 802,11)
▪ Extended service set (ESS)
✓ Made of two or more BSS
✓ The BSSs are connected through a distribution system, e.g., a wired LAN
✓ Communication between two stations in two BSSs occurs via two APs
✓ A mobile station can belong to more than one BSS at the same time
✓ IEEE 802,11 defines three types of stations: no transition, BSS transition, and ESS-transition mobility
RANDOM ACCESS
➢Different networks architecture (IEEE 802,11)
▪ Extended service set (ESS)
✓ Made of two or more BSS
✓ The BSSs are connected through a distribution system, e.g., a wired LAN
✓ Communication between two stations in two BSSs occurs via two APs
✓ A mobile station can belong to more than one BSS at the same time
✓ IEEE 802,11 defines three types of stations: no transition, BSS transition, and ESS-transition mobility

AP AP AP

BSS BSS BSS

RANDOM ACCESS
➢MAC Sublayer
▪ IEEE 802,11 defines two MAC sublayers

LLC
sublayer IEEE 802,11
Data link layer
Contention-free
service
Contention
Point coordination function (PCF) service
MAC
sublayer
Distributed coordination function (DCF)
Physical

802,11 802,11 802,11 802,11a 802,11a 802,11g

layer

FHSS DSSS Infrared DSSS OFDM DSSS

MAC layers in IEEE 802,11 standard

RANDOM ACCESS
➢MAC Sublayer
▪ Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)
✓ DCF uses CSMA/CA as the access method, and cannot implement CSMA/CD due to
1. Costly stations and increased bandwidth
2. Hidden station problem
3. Signals fading due to greater Tx-Rx distance
RANDOM ACCESS Start

➢Flow diagram for CSMA/CA Set back-off to

zero

Persistence
strategy

Wait DIFS Send RTS Set a timer

No CTS received
Wait back-off time
before time-out

Yes

Wait SIFS Send the frame Set a timer

No

Back-off No ACK received

limit?
Increment back-off before time-out

Yes
Yes
Abort Success
 RANDOM ACCESS
➢Hidden station problem

• Station B sends data to station A

• Station C sends also data to A
This results in collision at station A. Stations B
and C are hidden from each other with respect
B A C to A. This can reduce the capacity of the
network.
Range
Range
of B
of C
• Hidden station problem can be avoided by
the use of the handshake frame
 RANDOM ACCESS
➢Exposed station problem
Range of C • Station A is transimitting to station B
Range of B
• Station C wants to send to station D
• Station C is exposed to transmission
B A C D from A
• Station C is too conservative and
Range of A refrains to send data, hence it wastes
the capacity of the channel
• The handshake frames cannot help in
this case
PLAN

•INTRODUCTION
•RANDOM ACCESS
•CONTROLLED ACCESS
•CHANNELIZATION
•CONCLUSION
CONTROLLED ACCESS
▪ Stations consult each other to find which station has the right to send
▪ A station cannot send unless it has been authorized by other stations
▪ There are three popular controlled-access methods
CONTROLLED ACCESS
➢Reservation
▪ A station needs to make a reservation before sending data
▪ Time is divided into intervals. In each interval, a reservation frame precedes the data to be sent in
that interval
▪ For N stations in the system, there are exactly N reservations minislots in the reservation frame.
▪ Reservation access method

1 23 4 5

0 0 0 0 0 Data station 1 1 0 0 0 0 Data station 4 Data station 3 Data station 1 1 0 1 1 0

Reservation frame
CONTROLLED ACCESS
➢Polling
▪ Works with topologies in which one device is designated as primary whereas the other are secondary
stations
▪ The primary device controls the link while the secondary devices follow its instructions.
▪ It is up to the primary station to determine which station is allowed to used the channel at a given
time.
▪ Select mode (the primary device has something to send)
▪ The primary must alert the secondary to the upcoming transmission and wait for an ACK of the secondary‘s
ready status.
▪ Before sending the data, the primary creates a SEL frame
▪ Poll mode
▪ Use by the primary to solicit transmissions from the secondary devices
▪ When ready to receive data, it polls each device if it has something to send
▪ If no data to send, the secondary sends a NAK frame, otherwise it send the data frame. The primary reads the
frame and ACK the reception.
CONTROLLED ACCESS
➢Polling
▪ Select and poll functions
Primary Secondary Secondary Primary Secondary Secondary

Poll
SEL

NACK
ACK

Poll
DATA

Data
ACK

ACK
CONTROLLED ACCESS
➢Token passing
▪ Stations in the networks are organized in a logical ring
▪ The right to send data is obtained from a predecessor and passed to the successor
▪ A special packet called token gives the right to access the channel
▪ Stations must be limited in the time they possess the token. Token management is hence required.
▪ Another type of token is to assign priorities to the stations and to the types of data being transmitted
CONTROLLED ACCESS
➢Token passing
▪ Logical ring
▪ Stations do have to necessarily be physically connected in a ring
▪ Several physical topologies to create a logical ring

a, Physical ring b, Dual ring

1 2 1 2

4 3 4 3

c, Bus ring d, Star ring

1 2 1 2

Hub

4 3 4 3
PLAN

•INTRODUCTION
•RANDOM ACCESS
•CONTROLLED ACCESS
•CHANNELIZATION
•CONCLUSION
CHANNELIZATION
▪ Multiple access method wherein the available bandwidth of a link is shared in time, frequency, or
through code between different stations
▪ Three channelization protocols are discussed : FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA
CHANNELIZATION
➢Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
▪ The available bandwidth is divided into frequency bands
▪ Each band is allocated all the time to a specific station
▪ Each station uses a bandpass filter to confine the transmitter frequencies
▪ To prevent station interferences, the allocated bands may be separated from one another by small
guard bands
CHANNELIZATION
➢Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
▪ The data link layer in each station tells its PHY to make a bandpass signal from the data

Data f Data f

1 2

t t
f

Common
channel

f f

3 4

Data Data
CHANNELIZATION
➢Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
▪ The available bandwidth is allocated to all the stations
▪ Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can send data
▪ Synchronization problems occur in TDMA
▪ Knowing the beginning and exact location of the slots may be difficult due to extra delays introduced
in the system
▪ To compensate this, guard times can be inserted
▪ Synchronization is normally achieved by having some synchronization bits, i.e., preamble bits
CHANNELIZATION
➢Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
▪ The data link layer in each station tells its PHY to use the allocated time slot

Data f Data f

1 2

t t
f

Common
channel

f f

3 4

Data Data
CHANNELIZATION
➢Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
▪ CDMA means communications with different codes
▪ Each station is assigned a code that multiplies the data prior to be send on the common channel
▪ At the reception, a station multiplies the common data with its code to recover (or not) the
transmitted
▪ CDMA is based on coding theory, and is based on chips (sequence of numbers)
▪ Codes in CDMA
✓ CDMA is based on coding theory, and is based on chips (sequence of numbers)
✓ Each station is assigned a code
CHANNELIZATION
➢Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
▪ Chips sequence
✓ CDMA is based on coding theory, and is based on chips (sequence of numbers)
✓ Each station is assigned a code
▪ Each sequence is made of N elements or chips, where N is the number of stations
▪ The codes are orthogonal, i.e., orthogonal sequences
▪ When a sequence is multiplied by a number, every element is multiplied by that element, i.e.,
multiplication of a sequence by a scalar
▪ Adding two sequences gives rises to another sequence
CHANNELIZATION
➢Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
▪ Example: Assume four stations connected to the same channel with data (resp. codes) d1, d2, d3, d4
(resp. c1, c2, c3, c4)
✓ C1=+1 +1 +1 +1
✓ C2=+1 -1 +1 -1
✓ C3=+1 +1 -1 -1
✓ C4=+1 -1 -1 +1

✓ 2.C1=+2 +2 +2 +2
✓ C3,C3=4
✓ C3,C1=0
✓ C3+C3=+2 +2 0 0
▪ Data representation in CDMA
✓ If station needs to send a 0 (resp. 1) bit, it is encoded as a -1 (resp. +1)
✓ When a station is idle, it sends no signal, interpreted as a 0
CHANNELIZATION
➢Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

d1
d2

1 2 Common
d1,c1 d2,c2 channel

Data = 𝑑1 𝑐1 + 𝑑2 𝑐2 + 𝑑3 𝑐3 + 𝑑4 𝑐4

d3,c3 d4,c4
3 4

d3 d4
 d1
d2

1 2
Canal
d1.c1 d2.c2 commun

Data = 𝑑1 𝑐1 + 𝑑2 𝑐2 + 𝑑3 𝑐3 + 𝑑4 𝑐4

d3.c3 d4.c4
3 4

d3 d4
CHANNELIZATION
➢Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
▪ Data encoding and decoding (example)
✓ Consider the previous figure, where station 1 and 2 send a 0 bit, station 3 is silent, and station 4 sends a 1 bit.
✓ Therefore, the transmitted data is respectively -1 -1 0 +1
✓ We assume that all stations are synchronized
✓ The sequence of the channel is the sum of all four sequences as defined before
 CHANNELIZATION
➢Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
bit 0 bit 0
d1=-1 d2=-1

1 2 Common
d1,c1=-1 -1 -1 -1 d2,c2=-1 +1 -1 +1 channel

Data = -1 -1 -3 +1

d3,c3=0 0 0 0 d4,c4=+1 -1 -1 +1
3 4

d3=0 d3=+1

silent bit 1
 Canal
commun

bit 0 bit 0
d1=-1 d2=-1

1 2
d1.c1=-1 -1 -1 -1 d2.c2=-1 +1 -1 +1

Data = -1 -1 -3 +1

d3.c3=0 0 0 0 d4.c4=+1 -1 -1 +1
3 4

d3=0 d3=+1

silent bit 1
CHANNELIZATION
➢Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
▪ Sequence generation
✓ We use a Walsh table, which is a two dimensional table with an equal number of rows and columns.
✓ Each row is a sequence of chips
✓ According to Walsh, if we know the table for N sequences, we can create the table for 2N sequences as
follow:

𝑊𝑁 𝑊𝑁
𝑊1 = +1 𝑊2𝑁 =
𝑊𝑁 𝑊𝑁

✓ Therefore, the transmitted data is respectively -1 -1 0 +1

✓ We assume that all stations are synchronized
✓ The sequence of the channel is the sum of all four sequences as defined before
PLAN

•INTRODUCTION
•RANDOM ACCESS
•CONTROLLED ACCESS
•CHANNELIZATION
•CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION (1/4)
▪ There are several protocols to handle access to a shared medium. We categorize them into three
groups of protocols: random access, controlled access, and channelization
▪ In random access or contention methods, no station is superior to another, and none is assigned the
control over another
▪ ALOHA is a simple multiple access wherein there are potential collisions, resulting in poor
performances
▪ CSMA was developed to minimize the collision risks and therefore increase the throughput. The is
performed by sensing the medium prior to send data
▪ To avoid collision on wireless networks, CSMA/CA is introduced. Collision are avoided by the use of the
IFS, contention window and ACK
CONCLUSION (2/4)
▪ In controlled access, the stations consult one another to find which stations has to right to send.
▪ In the reservation access method, a station needs to make a reservation before sending the data. Time
is divided into intervals.
▪ In polling method, all data exchanges must be made through the primary device, which controls the
link. The secondary devices follow its instructions
▪ In the token-passing method, the stations in a network are organized in a logical ring. A special packet
called token circulates through the ring
CONCLUSION (3/4)
▪ Channelization is a multiple access method in which the available bandwidth is shared in time,
frequency, or through code, between the different stations
▪ In FDMA, the available bandwidth is divided into frequency bands. Each station is allocated a band for
its transmissions, for all the time
▪ In TDMA, the stations share the bandwidth of the channel in time. Each station is allocated a time slot
wherein it can use all the bandwidth to send (or receive) data
▪ In CDMA, the stations use different codes to achieve multiple access. CDMA uses sequences of
numbers called chips. The sequence are orthogonal and generated using i.e., the Walsh table.
CONCLUSION (4/4)
▪ The IEEE 802,11 standard defines two services: BSS and ESS
▪ Three types of stations mobility in a wireless LAN architecture
▪ The MAC sublayer is comprised of two functions: PCF and DCF
▪ Wireless LAN uses management and control frames to avoid collision
▪ The management of collisions give rise to hidden and exposed stations problems