Journal of Consumer Marketing

Conceptualization of a holistic brand image measure for fashion-related brands

Eunjoo Cho Ann Marie Fiore
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Eunjoo Cho Ann Marie Fiore , (2015),"Conceptualization of a holistic brand image measure for fashion-related brands",
Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 32 Iss 4 pp. -
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 Conceptualization of a holistic brand image measure for fashion-related brands

Introduction

In an era of omnipresent marketing messages for a bewildering number of competing

options, a brand must find a way to create a connection with the consumer that leads to loyalty.

One way that successful brands build and maintain a positive relationship with consumers is

through establishing a favorable brand image (Keller, 1993). Brand image is defined as

perceptions that consumers associate with a particular brand (Keller, 1993). The brand image of
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a fashion product is particularly important to consumers, because they use its rich symbolic

meaning to express self-identity (Bearden and Etzel, 1982; Escalas and Bettman, 2005).

Consumers are likely to purchase fashion brands that assist them in creating the image they

desire (Escalas and Bettman, 2005). Fashion entails the adoption of a new style by consumers

(Solomon, 2012), and fashion-related brands depend heavily on the distinctive yet continually

evolving elements of style, such as printed patterns on fabric or shades of color in cosmetics, to

drive consumer demand. Thus, fashion-related brands include not only apparel and footwear

products, but also products such as cosmetics and jewelry. For instance, standalone cosmetic

brands, such as Bobbi Brown or Clinique, can be considered fashion-related brands because the

distinctiveness and evolving nature of their style/design elements (e.g., color, fragrance blends)

are used to entice customers back each season.

Research has supported that a positive brand image elevates brand loyalty, positive word

of mouth, purchase intentions, and consumers’ willingness to pay a premium price (Esch et al.,

2006; Ismail and Spinelli, 2012; Keller, 1993; Kim et al., 2009), which contribute to building

brand equity. Consumer-based brand equity is the overall strength of a brand, which can be

established by consumers’ favorable, strong, and unique associations with a brand and their

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 positive responses to the brand (Keller, 1993, 2001). Fourteen fashion-related brands (i.e.,

appearance-related products that depend heavily on style trends) including luxury, cosmetics,

and sportswear brands (e.g., Gap, Gucci, H&M, L'Oreal, Louis Vuitton, Nike, Ralph Lauren,

Zara) were listed among the global top 100 based on their level of brand equity (Interbrand.com,

2014). This illustrates that building a favorable brand image is important for the success of

fashion-related firms and that understanding the dimensions of brand image is paramount.

Although brand image has been a major focus of academic research since the 1950s, lack
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of agreement and comprehensiveness exist in the conceptualization and measurement of brand

image (Dobni and Zinkhan, 1990; Hsieh and Li, 2008; Keller, 1993; Park and Rabolt, 2009).

Furthermore, academic research has a tendency to ignore contributions of industry professionals

to the discussion. These shortcomings limit comparison of results across studies and a complete

understanding of the impact of brand image on consumers. Moreover, existing brand image

scales (e.g., Chang and Chieng, 2006; Esch et al., 2006; Low and Lamb, 2000) have not

considered their relevance to fashion-related brands. Important elements of brand image may

vary by product category. Hence, it is important to conceptualize a holistic view of brand image

for fashion-related products and develop a new scale to measure this conceptualization.

To conceptualize a holistic brand image measure, the present researchers incorporated

relevant academic research (e.g., Keller, 1993) with industry-based literature proposed by Kevin

Roberts (2005), who has devised successful marketing campaigns for fashion-related brands

(Sheehan, 2013). Roberts (2005) proposed that a brand must create associations for consumers

that capture the dimensions of mystery, intimacy, and sensuality, which leads to a combination

of brand love and respect (i.e., a lovemark) that ensures brand loyalty. Yet, Roberts has not

provided a scale to capture the three dimensions of mystery, intimacy, and sensuality.

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 The present researchers propose that a holistic conceptualization of brand image should

include a consumer’s cognitive, emotional, and sensory associations, which aligns with Roberts’

mystery, intimacy, and sensuality dimensions, respectively. All three dimensions should be

captured in a brand image scale for fashion-related goods, but most existing brand image scales

overlook or cursorily address the sensory or sensuality dimension. Sensory marketing research

has emphasized the significance of tactile (Peck and Childers, 2003), visual and olfactory

(Hultén, 2012), auditory and olfactory (Biswas et al., 2014a), and oral and haptic sensations
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(Biswas et al., 2014b) in shaping consumer responses, including brand image (Hultén et al.,

2009; Hultén, 2011). Research (Carpenter et al., 2005; Clarke et al., 2012; Manlow and Nobbs,

2013; Mower et al., 2012; Pomodoro, 2013) supports that sensory features are central to shaping

feelings and thoughts about fashion-related products or services, which may contribute to brand

image.

Therefore, the purpose of the present study is to expand the conceptualization of brand

image for fashion-related products and to complete the initial (content validity) stage of scale

development for a holistic brand image measure that encompasses all three dimensions of

mystery, intimacy, and sensuality. Consequently, the present study will contribute to

establishing a more comprehensive and integrated brand image scale for fashion-related products

than exists to date, including one that will capture the underrepresented, yet essential, sensory

dimension. The following sections will include (a) a review of literature regarding brand image

dimensions and existing brand image scales, (b) the method used to ensure content validity, (c) a

summary of interview results, (d) an overview of the initial scale items generated and the test of

their face validity, and (e) the discussion and implications.

A Conceptual Framework for Brand Image

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 The concept of brand image has evolved over time. Early marketing scholars (Dichter,

1985; Durgee and Stuart, 1987) mainly emphasized cognition-focused dimension of brand image.

These scholars described brand image as the totality of the impressions of attributes, functions,

and meanings that consumers associate with a brand. More recently, marketing scholars (e.g.,

Chang and Chieng, 2006; Low and Lamb, 2000) have recognized that emotional and sensory

associations are also important in building a positive brand image. Each of these three

dimensions is a distinct yet interrelated construct according to Keller (1993).

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Three dimensions of brand image

Cognitive associations: Mystery. Cognitive associations reflect a consumer’s personal

beliefs, thoughts, and evaluations of a brand related to its product attributes (e.g., style), service

attributes, performance, and meaning of a brand (Keller, 2001). Cognitive associations are

shaped by direct and indirect interactions with the brand that reveal non-product-related

attributes (e.g., price, user or usage imagery), functional benefits (e.g., problem solving and

safety benefits), and symbolic benefits (e.g., prestige and social approval). For instance, as part

of an indirect interaction with a brand through an advertisement, consumers may form beliefs

and thoughts about a brand by acknowledging its non-product-related attributes of price level,

occasions where people wear the brand (i.e., usage imagery), and the symbolic benefit of social

approval based on its popularity within a subculture.

According to Roberts’ (2005) mystery dimension, a favorable brand image results when

great stories about the brand are expressed by the firm or generated by consumers, and embodied

by the global icons (e.g., Nike’s swoosh and Burberry’s plaid). For instance, a consumer’s

cognitive associations with Adidas include its iconic European sensibilities. A

consumer/reviewer of Adidas wrote (www.lovemarks.com, 2010):

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 It [Adidas] conveys a very European image which I really like, much more truly and
deeply passionate about soccer than Nike. Adidas has a story, a real and strong
personality and a great respect of its tradition in spite of its innovation. My Adidas is a
part of me.

These great stories are shaped by a consumer’s memorable past and delightful present

experiences with the brand. Furthermore, Roberts noted that mystery captures not only past and

present direct interactions with a brand but also personal dreams and aspirations to attain a

certain lifestyle in the future. Moreover, cognitive associations include an inspirational spirit

fostered by the story, such as the motivation to be more socially responsible when thinking of the
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TOMS shoe brand (see Table 1 for subcomponents and examples of Roberts’ three dimensions).

Emotional associations: Intimacy. Emotional associations involve subjective feelings,

such as excitement, happiness, and joy (Keller, 2001). Emotional associations, which contribute

to experiential benefits, are shaped by product-related and non-product-related attributes

perceived through direct and indirect interactions with the brand. For instance, a consumer may

feel invigorated from direct interaction with a product’s scent or feel an emotional connection by

partaking in a non-product-related birthday promotion or customer rewards program. In support,

an empirical study has shown that a brand’s continuous support of its consumers increases

positive feelings towards the brand (Albert et al., 2008). Moreover, consumers may feel comfort

or connectedness through a long-term relationship established with the brand (Fournier, 1998;

Shimp and Madden, 1988).

Roberts’ (2005) intimacy dimension captures the pleasant emotional associations with a

brand shaped by affective and connective experiences between consumers and the brand.

According to Roberts (2005), these experiences include a firm’s understanding of the opinions

and preferences of its consumers, long-term consumer commitment to a brand, and consumer

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 enjoyment from interacting with a brand. For example, consumers/reviewers wrote

(www.lovemarks.com, 2010):

American Apparel is intimate towards their clients. They use beautiful photography and
friendly language to flatter those they love. They have a sharp wit, and a sense of humor.

I collect Puma shoes and some of them are my most prized treasures. When in the office,
I rarely wear dress shoes. Instead, I wear my Pumas.

Sensory associations: Sensuality. Sensory associations reflect engagement of the

consumer’s physical senses (i.e., vision, smell, sound, touch, and taste) (Hultén, 2011; Schmitt,
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2011). According to Keller (1993), and supported by empirical studies (e.g., Biswas et al., 2014a,

2014b; Peck and Childers, 2003), sensory associations are largely produced by direct experiences

with product-related and retail environment-related attributes, which contribute to experiential

benefits (e.g., sensory enjoyment). These attributes include product appearance and texture (Peck

and Childers, 2003); texture and color of packaging elements (Hultén et al., 2009); and color,

scent, lighting (Hultén, 2012), and music (Jain and Bagdare, 2011) of retail environment

elements. Furthermore, indirect experiences such as advertisements (Lindstrom, 2005) contribute

to sensory associations that reinforce brand image (Hultén, 2011).

Roberts’ (2005) sensuality dimension relates to the pleasant sensory associations obtained

from branding elements. According to Roberts (2005), these elements mainly consist of a color

scheme or design style, product displays, the smell of the store’s environment, music in the store

or on a website, variety in textures, and taste of food (e.g., sweet and bitter). For example, natural

skincare brand, Origins, creates retail environments with neat displays, packaging, and a

pleasurable scent, which may shape its brand image. A consumer/reviewer of Origins wrote

(www.lovemarks.com, 2010):

I'm totally seduced by the store, the packaging, the smell, the feel of the product.
Whenever I pass, I walk inside the store, whether I need something or not.

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 Insert Table 1 about here

Existing Measures of Brand Image

Although existing brand image measures have mainly captured cognitive dimension of a

brand image, a few recent measures of brand image have included both cognitive and emotional

dimensions (Dobni and Zinkhan, 1990; Esch et al., 2006; Keller, 2001; Low and Lamb, 2000).

For example, Esch et al.’s (2006) scale captured cognitive aspects (e.g., “The perceived quality

of the brand”) and emotional aspects of brand image (e.g., “The brand’s overall affect”). In
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support of the inclusion of an emotional dimension, deep emotional associations have been found

to be important to successful branding (e.g., Albert et al., 2008; Carroll and Ahuvia, 2006).

In addition, more recent marketing literature has incorporated a sensory dimension with

cognitive and emotional dimensions when describing brand image (Chang and Chieng, 2006;

Faircloth et al., 2001; Hsieh and Li, 2008; Korchia, 1999). However, the sensory dimension has

been captured by a single item or by a few items when measuring brand image. Korchia (1999)

used one item to measure textural softness (e.g., “It feels fine to wear these clothes, soft”).

Softness is only one dimension of tactile texture, and tactile texture is only one source of sensory

pleasure. Faircloth et al.’s (2001) scale measured response towards color (i.e., “colorless-

colorful”). Two scales measured sensory pleasure more generally: “This store meets my sensory

enjoyment” (Chang and Chieng, 2006) and “a pleasant experience from the product” (Hsieh and

Li, 2008).

Low and Lamb’s (2000) brand image scale included multiple semantic differential

sensory items. However, their sensory scale items were developed for food and shampoo

products (e.g., fresh/stale, moist/dry), limiting the scale’s use with other product categories.

Moreover, their scale did not capture the effect from other branding elements that affect image

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 (e.g., store design, advertising). Fashion studies have revealed that sensory associations are

essential when consumers shop for fashion products (e.g., Doucé and Janssens, 2013; Manlow

and Nobbs, 2013). Pleasant sensory associations, linked to beautiful product styles, merchandise

displays, store architecture, and artistic exterior designs, evoke positive consumer responses

toward fashion brands (Manlow and Nobbs, 2013). Thus, existing brand image scales have not

adequately captured a sensory dimension.

This supports the need for a holistic brand image measure that fully reflects all three
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dimensions of brand image, with relevance to an array of fashion-related brands and brand image

contributors. In response, based on a comprehensive literature review, the present researchers

conceptualized brand image as an encapsulation of a consumer’s cognitive, emotional, and

sensory associations related to tangible and intangible attributes and benefits resulting from

direct or indirect (e.g., through advertising messages) experiences with a brand.

Method

The present study focused on ensuring content validity for a brand image scale relevant to

fashion-related brands. Content validity entails initial testing of scale items to confirm that they

capture the content of a construct (Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994). Specifically, the present study

carried out the four steps of the content validity process proposed by Churchill (1979) and

DeVellis (1991): (1) specifying concepts through a literature review, (2) identifying critical

facets of the concepts through qualitative interviews, (3) generating initial scale items that

capture the critical facets as specified, and (4) testing face validity of initial scale items.

The first step was covered in the literature review above. The remaining three steps will

be discussed hereafter. A qualitative method was employed to build a solid conceptualization of

the three dimensions of brand image with a focus on fashion-related brands. Qualitative data will

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 provide a deeper understanding of cognitive (mystery), emotional (intimacy), and sensory

(sensuality) dimensions from the consumer’s perspective.

Sample and data collection procedure

Initially, three graduate students were recruited for the interviews from within the

researchers’ academic program in a major university in the Midwestern U.S. These interviewees

reported having a positive, long-term relationship with a fashion-related brand. Using a snowball

sampling technique, these first three interviewees provided information that led to the remaining
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interview participants. Snowball sampling takes advantage of the social networks of respondents

(Esterberg, 2002). The interviewees were required to be over 18 years of age and have favorite

fashion brands. Participation was completely voluntary and no incentive was given to the

interviewees.

Drawing on Roberts’ (2005) three dimensions and marketing literature on brand image,

17 questions were developed for use in the in-depth interviews (see Appendix A). Respondents

were given a few minutes to think about their favorite fashion-related brands; they then

responded to open-ended questions, which captured respondents’ cognitive, emotional, and

sensory associations with these brands. Demographic information such as gender, age, and

ethnicity was also gathered.

Participant characteristics

The 11 interviewees, who reported having a favorite fashion brand, were graduate

students from diverse majors (e.g., Engineering, Human Development and Family Studies,

Psychology). The mean age for the eight females and three males was 33; they ranged from 21 to

54 years of age. The majority (82%) was Caucasian American. Redundancy of information

suggested this sample size was sufficient to capture the range of responses (Baker and Edwards,

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 2012). All interviewees reported that they really liked or loved a fashion brand. The loved brands

included active sportswear apparel (Adidas, Champion, and Nike), cosmetics (Bobbi Brown and

Kiehl’s), and fashion apparel (Anthropologie, Chanel, J.Crew, Kenneth Cole, and St. John).

Data analysis procedures

To identify critical facets of the concepts, individual interviews regarding associations

with favorite fashion brands were recorded and transcribed by the first author. The second author

and a professional editor checked the accuracy of the transcriptions. The transcribed data were
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interpreted using the qualitative techniques suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994). This data

analysis involved three steps: data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing/verification.

First, the data reduction entailed selecting and organizing the relevant data. The first author

content-analyzed the transcriptions line-by-line to identify emergent themes and sub-themes

related to mystery, intimacy, and sensuality. Second, the first author grouped the identified

themes around the three concepts (i.e., mystery, intimacy, sensuality) based on the

communalities of the content. Interview quotes were clustered into overarching themes and sub-

themes using a part-to-whole method of interpretation (Spiggle, 1994). Third, the second author

confirmed the appropriateness of content coded under the emergent themes and sub-themes. Any

discrepancies in coding the data were negotiated between the two authors for the verification of

conclusions. The inter-coder reliability was about 85%.

Consumers’ opinions about brands from the www.lovemarks.com site were also analyzed

to confirm and identify any critical facets associated with the three dimensions. On the website,

consumers post their personal opinions about the brands they love. The first author selected the

comments related to fashion brands and mapped them according to the identified themes and

sub-themes of mystery, intimacy, and sensuality. For example, one comment was “Adidas brings

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 many memories to my mind! My father had the three lines on his shoes and I loved it”. Both

authors interpreted that this comment reflects one of the mystery sub-themes: positive memories

from past experiences.

Results: Interview Findings

Findings showed that most but not all of the major themes were consistent with the

mystery, sensuality, and intimacy subcomponents proposed by Roberts (2005). Table 2

summarizes interview-generated themes and sub-themes. Interview quotations are presented in

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the text below to exemplify sub-themes of the three concepts.

Insert Table 2 about here

Cognitive associations: Mystery

For the interviewees’ cognitive associations, four primary themes emerged: 1) positive

present experiences, 2) positive memories from past experiences, 3) future aspirations, and 4)

self-congruity. “Positive present experiences” was the most frequently mentioned theme among

the four. The three themes (i.e., positive present experiences, positive memories from past

experiences, and future aspirations) are consistent with mystery subcomponents proposed by

Roberts, but a new sub-theme (self-congruity) also emerged.

Positive present experiences. Positive present experiences reflected personal stories

related to experiences with and attributes of a product/brand. A majority of interviewees shared

personal stories of experiences with their favorite fashion brand. For instance, one participant

had a long-term positive relationship with St. John, because of the product attributes such as the

appropriate size and fit, consistent color, and a wrinkle-free finish:

St. John fits me well, whether I gain more or lose the weight. I like its consistent color. The
color hue provided by St. John this year would be exactly the same even a few years later.
For example, black color hue from other brands is different year by year, but St. John always
provides the same color hue. Also, I am taking great advantage of this brand by wearing

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 wrinkle free pants. I do not need to iron my pants when I travel. Because I am frequently
traveling, this is very important benefit for me.

Other interviewees also commented on the “appropriate size”, “comfortable fit”, and “durability

of the garment” (e.g., lasts through washings) as reasons for their positive perception of a brand.

Positive memories from past experiences. Positive memories reflected either personal or

family members’ past experiences. Most of interviewees expressed having positive memories

associated with a fashion brand. For instance, one participant summarized his childhood

experiences with Adidas:

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I really liked Adidas. It was my first shoe choice when I was in 7th grade. I liked Adidas
because Adidas had cartoon characters on the shoes, which I wanted to have. I like to have
this childhood memory so it has some sentimental value [to me]. I still love the memory and
still like Adidas. I remember the feelings that I had when I was young.

He also stated that the Adidas logo (three parallel bars) became a memorable icon connoting

“success”, shaped by the brand’s associations with a former world champion tennis player, Rod

Laver:

The Adidas logo is iconic. I was extremely good at tennis and had scholarship offers to play
when I was in high school. My parents gave me a Rod Laver poster when we went to the U.S.
Open. It was of him hitting an overhead shot, wearing Adidas shoes. I think it is our human
nature to emulate success. So, I would wear wristbands and shoes that matched Rod Laver. I
have made this connection with the Adidas logo.

Future aspirations. Future aspirations represent the desire to one day own a brand,

because of its ideal brand image. Aspirations of owning the brand were reported by some of the

interviewees. A few interviewees loved a fashion brand because it reflected their desired ideal

self-image and desires for the future, and they believed that their personality, character, and/or

social status were closely connected to the brand image. One participant stated that owning

Chanel products is her future aspiration, which fostered positive connections with Chanel:

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 Chanel is a part of my future style, which is my dream and my goal I hope to achieve. I
definitely have a close relationship over 7 years with Chanel. Unless this brand makes drastic
design or quality change, I would remain as a loyal customer.

In addition, two interviewees reported that they work hard to earn more money so that they can

buy their favorite brands. The symbolic meaning of a brand (i.e., social status) contributed to

strong aspirations to own the brand. One participant stated:

My favorite brands are my dreams, my goals, and social class that I hope to reach sometime.
I know that I should work hard to own them. I want to afford those brands not only for
myself but also for my family and friends.
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Self-congruity. Self-congruity referred to the brand’s ability to reflect one’s self-image.

Congruent self-image, the new subcomponent, fostered a favorable image toward a brand.

Interviewees had positive perceptions of fashion brands because they reflected the individual’s

characteristics or current self-image.

St. John reflects a prestigious image and I like that people recognize this brand as me. If this
brand did not exist, it would be hard to present myself. I have been wearing this brand for 15
years. I will remain loyal to this brand.

In summary, the cognitive associations included positive present personal experiences

with a product/brand (e.g., appropriate size and comfortable fit), memories about personal or

family members’ experiences, and future aspirations about owning a brand. In addition, the

cognitive associations included the brand’s ability to reflect one’s self-image.

Emotional associations: Intimacy

Three primary emotional association themes emerged from the interview data: 1) the

firm’s empathy, 2) consumer commitment, and 3) consumer enjoyment. These three themes were

proposed by Roberts (2005) to constitute the intimacy concept.

The firm’s empathy. The firm’s empathy reflected its understanding of consumer

preferences (e.g., design, color, and package) and remembering personal events (e.g., a

13
 customer’s birthday). A majority of interviewees responded that they felt emotionally tied to the

brand when it showed an understanding of their preferences. For example, when the brand

provided their preferred product design, color, shopping environment, and/or services, this

created emotional pleasure for consumers. For instance, one participant was emotionally

connected to Chanel because it offered her favorite makeup colors and constant communication.

She stated:

Chanel is the only brand that provides the beautiful cosmetic colors I love. Chanel always
sends me some coupons or new product promotions through the mail. Chanel shows me
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constant communication efforts. Chanel makes an effort to build a good relationship with me.
I have a long-term relationship with Chanel for over 20 years.

Consumer commitment. Similar to a long-term friendship, consumer commitment

triggered emotionally charged experiences. A majority of interviewees reported that they are

committed to their favorite brand. In addition, female interviewees described that their

relationship with their favorite brand is similar to a friendship. For instance, an interviewee felt a

sense of intimacy from the long-term commitment to Nike and Adidas:

I have a long-term commitment to Nike and Adidas because their shoes are comfortable,
stylish, and last long. I have been loyal to those brands since high school. I would say the
relationships are like a friendship. I am loyal to them because I can rely or depend on them.

Consumer enjoyment. Consumer enjoyment refers to pleasure from owning a brand and

from interacting with the brand. Interviewees received enjoyment when interacting with the

brand. A majority of interviewees reported that they felt happiness and joy when they owned the

brand they really liked. Strong positive emotional associations (i.e., happiness) with a brand were

triggered:

My Kenneth Cole bag is designed exactly as I wanted. I feel happy with this brand. I always
find good design from this brand. I like to carry my Kenneth Cole bag anywhere. I have been
with this brand for 10 years.

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 In summary, the emotional associations contained the firm’s understanding of consumer

preferences (e.g., design, color, and package) and attention to personal events (e.g., a customer’s

birthday). These associations also included the consumer’s commitment to maintaining the

relationship and enjoyment from interacting with the brand.

Sensory associations: Sensuality

A majority of interviewees responded that sensory experiences influenced their

perceptions of a fashion brand. Four major themes emerged from the interview data: 1) visual, 2)
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olfactory, 3) auditory, and 4) tactile sensations. “Visual sensation” was the most frequently

mentioned theme among the four. These four sensations were proposed by Roberts (2005) to

contribute to the sensuality concept.

Visual sensations. Favorite brands were strongly associated with pleasurable vision cues

from branding elements, such as the store environment, website design, product color, packaging,

and advertisements. Visual sensations were the most frequently mentioned source of sensory

associations. Interviewees noted the impact of visual cues from the store environment, product

color, and branding elements including packaging, website design, and visual merchandising.

For instance, one participant stated that Kiehl’s (premium cosmetics) store environment,

including displays and packaging, visually appealed to her:

I love Kiehl’s store environment because I love the way the entire [display] looks together. I
also love Kiehl’s packaging, which looks like a white pharmaceutical case. I keep purchasing
a lot of products because I am very happy with their products and packaging.

Olfactory sensations. Olfactory sensations reflected sensual pleasure evoked by the scent

of products and environments. A majority of interviewees mentioned appreciation of the brand’s

pleasantly scented products and environments. Fragrance in retail settings triggered sensual

pleasure, which increased shopping in the environment. One participant stated:

15
 I like Anthropologie’s perfumed smell going through different sections, which have
seasonally different scents. Sometimes, I just go there and do not buy anything. Shopping for
me is a kind of experience.

Auditory sensations. Auditory sensations reflected pleasurable music in a store.

Interviewees mentioned the appeal of the sound offered by the brands they really liked. A

majority of interviewees enjoyed the music in the retail environments, which evoked sensory

pleasure. For instance, one participant stated:

I am very inspired by music. Anthropologie keeps their music almost exactly what I love to
listen to. It is the same with Von Maur [U.S. department store]. I go there to enjoy listening
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to the piano playing. I tend to go to Anthropologie and Von Maur more often just because of
the music they play in the stores.

Tactile sensations. Tactile sensations referred to sensual pleasure evoked by the textural

qualities of the product. A majority of interviewees liked to touch the merchandise before

purchasing. They stated that texture is particularly important to apparel brands and cosmetics.

They liked to feel the products against their skin. Most of them stated that the soft texture evoked

sensual pleasure. For instance, one participant stated:

I really like Champion [because] their T-shirts are soft. What I like about Champion is their
T-shirts do not change to hard after washing many times. I like the soft texture. I feel the soft
texture for a long time.

In summary, sensory associations included sensual pleasure evoked by (a) visual cues

from branding elements, (b) olfactory cues of scented products and environments, (c) auditory

cues from store music, and (d) tactile cues of soft textures. These cognitive, emotional, and

sensory associations were used to develop themes and sub-themes in step three.

Generating Initial Scale Items and Testing Content Validity

Generating initial scale items

Based on findings from the aforementioned interviews and consumer comments, 11

themes and 21 sub-themes were identified for the three dimensions (i.e., mystery, intimacy, and

16
 sensuality), as shown in Table 2. Following DeVellis’ (1991) scale development procedure, the

first author generated an initial set of 90 items and the second author contributed 55 more items

to develop multi-item measures for each sub-theme. Through this process, five redundant items

were removed resulting in 80 mystery items, 35 intimacy items, and 25 sensuality items. The

items were then written as statements to be rated using Likert-type scales for the construct

validity testing. Appendix B contains a sample of the initial set of items.

Testing content validity

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Content validity of the three brand image dimensions was determined through a test of

face validity. Face validity entails a subjective judgment of an assessment instrument’s semantic

content to determine if it captures the concepts to be measured. In other words, it is a subjective

determination if the scale items appear to measure what they set out to measure (Burns, 1996).

In the present study, a small panel of knowledgeable respondents assessed face validity.

Two experienced researchers and two graduate students from the researchers’ academic program,

who were knowledgeable about branding concepts, were asked to determine if each item was

representative of the appropriate construct (i.e., mystery, intimacy, or sensuality) rather than their

themes or sub-themes. This was done because the next phase of scale development involved

statistical determination of construct validity of the three dimensions rather than the themes or

sub-themes. The definitions of mystery, intimacy, and sensuality were given to the four judges,

and they were asked to indicate items that were not worded clearly or did not represent the

respective brand image dimension well. They noted that three mystery items were not good

representations of the construct. Consequently, these three mystery items were removed from the

140 items. The remaining 137 were deemed ready for use in the second stage of the scale

validation process.

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 Discussion and Implications

The present study is likely the first to provide a comprehensive conceptualization of

brand image for fashion-related products, drawing on both scholarly and industry literature and

qualitative data. This integration of literature and data has provided the conceptual framework

for a holistic brand image scale with mystery (cognitive), intimacy (emotional), and sensuality

(sensory) dimensions. The present study completed the first stage (content validity) in the

empirical development of a holistic brand image scale: the main concepts of the three dimensions
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of brand image were identified, initial scale items were generated reflecting the major concepts,

and face validity of the initial scale items was tested.

The results confirmed the importance of including cognitive and emotional dimensions

when measuring brand image, but also supported the addition of a sensory dimension, which had

not been sufficiently captured in existing brand image scales. Interview findings showed that

most of the major themes were consistent with the mystery, intimacy, and sensuality concepts

proposed by Roberts (2005). One additional cognitive association theme was uncovered, self-

congruity, thus augmenting the researchers’ understanding of three dimensions of brand image

for fashion-related products.

In terms of the mystery concept, cognitive associations reflected functional benefits,

product-related and non-product related attributes, and symbolic benefits of the brand. Based on

the qualitative data, “positive present experiences” were the most frequently noted cognitive

associations. This mystery theme captured personal stories related to functional benefits (e.g.,

appropriate size and comfortable fit) and product-related attributes. The themes, “positive

memories from past experiences” and “self-congruity” captured non-product-related attributes of

user or usage imagery. “Self-congruity” illustrated congruency between an individual’s

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 perceived personal characteristics and the non-product-related attributes of user imagery. “Future

aspirations” represented dreams about owning a brand and symbolic benefits of prestige and

social approval.

Regarding the intimacy concept, results revealed that emotional associations reflected

experiential benefits and product-related attributes. The three themes were similar in frequency.

“The firm’s empathy” captured the brand’s understanding of consumer preferences of product-

related attributes and remembering personal events. “Consumer commitment” to a brand

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illustrated a long-term friendship between the consumer and the brand. “Consumer enjoyment”

denoted experiential benefits or pleasure from owning or interacting with a brand. Consistent

with previous studies (Esch et al., 2006; Low and Lamb, 2000), the findings indicated that both

cognitive and emotional associations are important in measuring brand image.

In terms of the sensuality concept, experiential benefits derived from sensory (visual,

olfactory, auditory, and tactile) associations were reflected. “Visual sensations” were the most

common and related to the physical store environment, website design, product design and color,

and packaging. The pleasantness of an ambient scent and pleasingly scented product were

captured in “olfactory sensations.” In-store music was captured in “auditory sensations.” “Tactile

sensations” denoted pleasure from product texture. In line with sensory marketing research

(Hultén et al., 2009), the present findings indicate the importance of sensory associations, under-

represented or missing in past brand image scales, in measuring brand image.

Theoretical implications

The present study builds on prior branding research by combining three constructs,

previously studied independently for the most part, into one model. Qualitative interview

findings revealed that fashion-related brand image consists of three distinct types of associations

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 that parallel Roberts’ (2005) three concepts of mystery, intimacy, and sensuality. This study also

extends the existing brand image concept by identifying that the multi-dimensional nature of

brand image includes multi-sensory associations beyond the meager representation found in past

conceptualizations and measures.

The fashion-related brand image scale conceptualized here contributes to fashion

marketing literature by providing the foundation for a more comprehensive scale than that

proposed by Ismail and Spinelli (2012). Their scale contained four cognitive attribute items to
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measure fashion brand image (i.e., fashionable/trendy, reputation for quality, elegant, and

sophisticated). The present study confirms that consumers form an image of a fashion-related

brand based not only on cognitive associations, but on emotional and sensory associations as

well. Having all three dimensions in a brand image measure, particularly for fashion-related

brands, may increase explanatory power in empirical models that include consumer behaviors

(e.g., loyalty, purchase intention, and word-of-mouth) Keller (1993) said contribute to consumer-

based brand equity. Moreover, the general nature of the brand experiences represented by the

initial items for a new scale may make it applicable to an array of fashion-related brands (e.g.,

cosmetics, luxury, sportswear brands); thus, increasing its usability beyond scales for very

specific product types, such as the Athlete Brand Image Scale (Arai et al., 2013).

Managerial implications

To our knowledge, the present study is the first attempt at conceptualizing a holistic

brand image measure by paralleling scholarly and industry literature. The findings from this

study have managerial implications for fashion brand managers and retailers. The interview

findings suggest that brand managers and retailers should pay attention to developing and

promoting all three dimensions (cognitive, emotional, and sensory) of a fashion-related brand.

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 Managers and retailers should emphasize the positive cognitive associations from product

attributes and performance, memorable product-use associations, aspirations, and self-

congruency with the brand to create a favorable fashion brand image. The findings also

underscore the need for managers and retailers to emphasize positive emotional associations

from using or owning a brand and from customer relationship management strategies. To

enhance positive cognitive and emotional associations with a brand, it could use big data to

identity important life events, such as birth of a child or college graduation, for members of its
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loyalty programs to send personalized greetings, relevant gifts and offers, and social media

activities. For instance, a brand could include a “cool babies” wall on its Facebook site where

customers could submit images of their infants wearing the product at a brand-sponsored

lifestyle event.

Sensory associations including distinctive website features, store atmosphere, and

pleasing textural qualities of the product should be highlighted for fashion-related brand. This

suggests that it may be a good return on investment to update the multi-sensory elements of a

website or store design, but managers and retailers must consider the appropriate amount of

sensory stimulation for the target customer. For instance, developing a signature design, sounds,

and fragrance may distinguish one fashion brand from competitors, but sensory overload should

be considered (Spence et al., 2014). As an example, Abercrombie & Fitch’s (A&F) multi-

sensory experience (e.g., photography with semi-nude males and females for store displays and

promotions, strongly fragranced store, high-volume signature music, and low in-store lighting) is

popular among teens and young adults. However, parents who may accompany these younger

consumers on a shopping trip may find the store provides a negative experience from sensory

overload (Spence et al., 2014). The findings may help fashion-related brand managers devise

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 competitive marketing strategies by considering various techniques that reflect the three

dimensions of brand image.

Limitations and Future Research Directions

The convenience sample of U.S. college students, although spread across a wide age

range (21-54), were 82% Caucasian. This may have limited the conceptualization of the brand

image dimensions. In particular, the findings reflect a more Western, or at least developed nation,

perspective on consumers’ cognitive, emotional, and sensory associations for favorite fashion
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brands. Thus, it is cautioned against using the generalization of the findings to non-Western

consumers, particularly those of developing nations. Further research could examine cognitive,

emotional, and sensory associations from consumers of other countries to validate Roberts’

conceptualization and consequent brand image dimensions.

The present study completed the first stage (i.e., content validity) of the brand image

scale development. The next phase entails gathering quantitative survey data, including data on

the 137 proposed scale items, and statistically analyzing the data to assess validity and reliability.

It will include construct, convergent, and discriminant validity assessments using a large,

national sample of respondents. The final phase of the scale validation process, determining

nomological validity, will consist of empirically testing whether the scale performs well in a

conceptual model that predicts brand loyalty and brand equity.

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 Table 1. Roberts’ (2005) conceptualization of mystery, intimacy, and sensuality
Concepts Subcomponents Concept descriptions and examples
Mystery (1) Positive present • A firm disseminates a great story about the brand.
experiences • Consumers generate great stories about the brand.
• The brand reflects memorable stories that resonate
globally; icons are instilled with meaning.
(2) Positive • Meaning is shaped by past experiences.
memories from • The past shapes the present, leading to the future.
past experiences
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(3) Future • The brand is associated with aspirations, a strong desire

aspirations or ambition.
• Consumers are motivated or inspired (e.g., TOMS brand
motivates consumers to be socially responsible).
Intimacy (1) The firm’s • The firm’s understanding of, and solid support for,
empathy consumers by listening to their opinions.
• Understanding of a consumer’s aesthetic preferences.
• Connection with consumers, remembering personal
events (e.g., birthday).
(2) Consumer • Consumer commitment to the preferential attitudes
commitment towards the brand.
• A consumer’s long-term commitment to maintaining a
relationship.
(3) Consumer • Enjoyment from interactions with consumers leading to
enjoyment strong positive feelings.
• Enjoyment from interactions can transform the most
insignificant product into a must-have item.
• Enjoyment from interactions that keep the relationship
going longer.
Sensuality (1) Visual sensations • Visual product presentations, logos, packages, and color
schemes create pleasure.
(2) Olfactory • Attractive olfactory stimulation from products and store
sensations environments increases pleasure.
(3) Auditory • A quiet retail environment or certain musical
sensations tunes/tones/rhythms/melodies/volume in a store lead to
pleasure.
(4) Tactile • Smooth, rough, hard, soft, wet, dry, hot, and cold
sensations textures stimulate pleasure.

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 (5) Gustatory • Taste (sour, sweet, salty, and bitter) creates pleasure.
sensations

Table 2. Summary of interview-generated themes/sub-themes related to mystery, intimacy, and

sensuality
Concepts Themes Sub-themes
Mystery (1) Positive present ● Personal stories with a product/brand
experiences ● Perceived high quality of a brand

(2) Positive memories ● Positive memories from personal experiences

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from past experiences ● Positive memories from family members’

experiences

(3) Future aspirations ● Reflection of personal aspirations

(4) Self-congruity ● Congruent reflection of self-image

Intimacy (1) The firm’s empathy ● Understanding consumers’ preferences
● Remembering personal events

(2) Consumer commitment ● Commitment from consumers

(3) Consumer enjoyment ● Pleasure from owning a brand

● Pleasure from interacting with a brand
Sensuality (1) Visual sensations ● Pleasant store environments
● Pleasant website design
● Beautiful product colors
● Appealing packaging

(2) Olfactory sensations ● Pleasantly scented environments

(3) Auditory sensations ● Pleasurable music in a store

(4) Tactile sensations ● Pleasurable textural qualities of the product

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 Appendix A. Qualitative interview questionnaire

I am interested in understanding the experiences that consumers have with their favorite

fashion-related brands such as clothing, shoes, and cosmetics brands. I want you to think about

your favorite fashion-related brands for a few minutes. Tell me if you are ready to answer
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questions.

1. What are some of your favorite brand names?

2. Would you say you really like or love the brand?

3. Why do you like or love these brands?

4. Could you tell me what it means to really like or love the brand? (Such as your behaviors,

thoughts, or feelings towards the brand)

5. How would you describe the relationship you have with the brand?

6. Does the brand enhance your life in anyway?

7. Has the brand become an integral part of your life?

8. Would you have a hard time living without or feel your lifestyle would be negatively affected

if you could not buy the brand?

9. Have you had a positive long-term relationship with the brand? If so, tell me about what the

brand has done to help build this relationship.

10. Do you feel that the brand understands you or your lifestyle?

11. How does the brand show it understands you? (e.g., messages in the ads, features of the

product, design of the store, and brand representatives in the store or corporate)

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 12. Please describe your emotional feelings about these brands or how you feel when you think

about or use the brand?

13. How do these brands communicate with you?

14. In which ways do these brands communicate well (e.g., commercials/ads, e-mailing, or a

website)?

15. Sensuality is appealing to your five senses (e.g., sound, sight, smell, touch, and taste). Based

on this definition, please tell me if these brands build good sensual experiences through the
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product, store environment, ads, etc.

16. Have these brands changed with you and your lifestyle? If yes, how does it change?

17. Do you think you will remain loyal to the brand? Why or Why not?

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 Appendix B. Sample of initial scale items for the three brand image dimensions
Topics Themes Scale items
Mystery Positive ●This brand comes to mind immediately when I want to purchase a
present fashion product.
experiences ● This brand adds to the experience of my life.
● This brand captures the times.
● This brand has a strong heritage.
● This brand is consistently high quality.
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Positive ● I have good memories of this brand.

memories ● I have positive memories about experiences with this brand.
from past ● This brand awakens good memories for me.
experiences
● I work more so that I can purchase this brand.
Future ● This brand always shows new designs that I desire.
aspirations ● This brand reflects the social status that I hope to have.
● This brand symbolizes my dreams.

Self- ● I can create my own style with the products of this brand.
congruity ● Wearing this brand helps me create the image I want.
Intimacy The firm’s ● This brand knows what I want to wear.
empathy ● This brand offers deals that I really can relate to.

Consumer ● I am committed to this brand.

commitment ● I have solid support for this brand.
● I can rely on this brand.

Consumer ● I really enjoy wearing this brand.

enjoyment ● I feel happy when I wear this brand.

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 Sensuality Visual ● This brand has incredible displays.
sensations ● The well-ordered store environment appeals to me.
● The Website design for this brand is really well done.
● The design of the brand’s packaging really appeals to me.

Olfactory ● The smell of the store environment of this brand is pleasing.

sensations

Auditory ● I am inspired by the music in the brand’s store environment/ads.

sensations ● I’d like to listen at home to the music in the store
environment/ads.

Tactile ● The texture of this brand is better than other brands.

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sensations ● The texture of this brand is pleasant.

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Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the valuable support and contributions
of the anonymous reviewers of this manuscript.

Biographical Details:
Eunjoo Cho is an Assistant Professor in the School of Human Environmental Sciences at
University of Arkansas. Her current research focuses on strategies to build, measure, and manage
brand image for fashion-related brands and the role of cognitive, emotional and sensory
associations in branding. She has received both B.A. and M.S. degrees from Hanyang University,
Seoul, South Korea, and a Ph.D. degree from Iowa State University, USA.

31
 Ann Marie Fiore is a Full Professor and Director of Graduate Education in the Department of
Apparel, Events, and Hospitality Management at Iowa State University. Her current research
focuses on experiential marketing and the role of aesthetics in branding. Her publications have
appeared in journals including the Journal of Advertising Research, Psychology and Marketing,
Journal of Interactive Marketing, Journal of Fashion Marketing Management, Journal of
Marketing Development and Competitiveness, and International Journal of Retail and
Distribution Management.
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