Marketing Intelligence & Planning

Sustainable brand image: an examination of ad–brand incongruence

Paula Arbouw, Paul W. Ballantine, Lucie K. Ozanne,
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Paula Arbouw, Paul W. Ballantine, Lucie K. Ozanne, (2019) "Sustainable brand image: an
examination of ad–brand incongruence", Marketing Intelligence & Planning, https://doi.org/10.1108/
MIP-08-2018-0307
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Sustainable
Sustainable brand image: an brand image
examination of ad–brand
incongruence
Paula Arbouw
Department of Business, Ara Institute of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
Received 6 April 2018
Paul W. Ballantine Revised 6 August 2018
13 November 2018
UC School of Business, University of Canterbury, 16 December 2018
Christchurch, New Zealand, and 19 December 2018
Accepted 20 December 2018
Lucie K. Ozanne
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Department of Management, Marketing and Entrepreneurship,

University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine how consumer attitudes are affected by corporate brands
that have newly adopted a sustainable brand image. Specifically, this paper examines consumer responses to
ad–brand incongruity and tests whether two-sided messages yield greater acceptance of incongruence.
Design/methodology/approach – In total, 528 responses were collected via an online experiment using a
3×2 between-subjects factorial design which manipulated three levels of perceived ad–brand congruence
(congruent, moderately incongruent and extremely incongruent) and two levels of message sidedness
(one- and two-sided).
Findings – Results indicate that brand managers have to be careful not to create ad–brand incongruence
after adopting new brand values and should avoid two-sided messages during this period.
Originality/value – This paper tests the use of two-sided messages as resolution hints for ad–brand
incongruence and furthers the corporate branding literature incorporating sustainability.
Keywords Sustainability, Brand image, Corporate branding, Message sidedness
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
Corporate branding aims to create symbolic meaning for consumers and is increasingly
used as a form of differentiation and relationship building through the use of symbolic
corporate values (De Chernatony, 2002). Business practices, including corporate values,
evolve over time in response to societal values and pressures (Delmas and Toffel, 2004). To
illustrate, Starbucks started to display fair-trade coffee in response to consumer activism,
which subsequently developed into their sustainable brand image (Delmas and Toffel, 2004;
Wagner et al., 2009; Walker and Kent, 2012). Sustainability, a recent pressure stakeholders
have imposed on companies, has resulted in most large companies reporting on their
sustainability or corporate social responsibility efforts, creating a sustainable brand image,
or completely adopting a sustainable corporate brand identity (Stuart, 2011). For example,
McDonald’s has been adopting a more sustainable image over the last decade and has set
the long-term goal of a 30 per cent reduction in their greenhouse gas emissions by 2030
(Sturcken, 2018).
When initially adopting sustainable values, corporate communication might not match
consumer’s existing notion of the corporate brand and could be perceived as incongruent.
Incongruence can occur between many elements; for example, when there is incongruence
between the corporate brand promise and corporate behaviours (Morsing and Kristensen, Marketing Intelligence & Planning
2002). To illustrate this point, McDonald’s caused incongruence in the minds of their © Emerald Publishing Limited
0263-4503
consumers when they tried to associate their brand with healthy food and sustainability DOI 10.1108/MIP-08-2018-0307
 MIP (Associated Press, 2014), because the newly adopted values did not match the consumers’
existing brand schema.
An incoherent corporate brand image can occur if communication is incongruent
between the brand associations and the consumer’s knowledge (Sjödin and Törn, 2006). The
effects of brand image incongruity in communication, “a discrepancy between a particular
piece of communication about a brand and the brand image already established with
consumers” (Sjödin and Törn, 2006, p. 32), have been explored in several different research
settings, including advertising incongruity (e.g. Dahlén et al., 2005). Most literature refers to
information congruity, where information in a message is incongruent with the consumer’s
brand schema (e.g. Dahlén et al., 2008).
Studies show that incongruent ads can create positive consumer responses (e.g. Dahlén
et al., 2008); however, others show incongruence results in negative attitudes (e.g. Sjödin and
Törn, 2003). This research aims to answer the question of whether the negative effect of
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incongruence, caused by integrating sustainable brand values, can be mitigated by

acknowledging the incongruence using two-sided message framing. Specifically, this study
investigates consumer responses to sustainable brand communication that is incongruent
with existing brand image and consumer brand schema by examining consumer attitude
change in response to advertising where incongruity is present in the form of ad–brand
incongruence. Furthermore, this research tests whether acknowledging ad–brand
incongruence using a two-sided message yields greater acceptance of incongruent
messages. Message sidedness (MS) involves using two-sided message framing to enhance
consumer attitudes by portraying both positive and negative aspects about the advertised
subject (Rucker et al., 2008).
This study’s theoretical contribution is twofold: first, it contributes to the rebranding
literature by testing how corporate brands switching to a sustainable image are impacted,
and second, it tests Lee and Schumann’s (2004) theory that resolution hints can be used to
reduce the effect of incongruence in advertising through the use of two-sided messages.
For brand managers, implications include increased insight into adopting sustainable
values as part of a corporate brand image.

2. Literature review and hypotheses

2.1 Consumer responses to incongruence in corporate branding
Incongruence in advertising and other corporate communication has been referred to in the
literature as information incongruence, which refers to information that is not consistent
with expectations of the brand schema (e.g. Braun-LaTour et al., 2007). Many of the studies
that examine advertising congruence incorporate Mandler’s (1982) schema incongruity
theory, which states that moderately incongruent advertising can be more persuasive as it
enhances information processing (Srivastava and Sharma, 2012). Consequently, the
advertising literature shows that incongruity can be used in ads to cut through the clutter
and still create favourable attitudes in certain conditions (e.g. Dahlén et al., 2008; Lalwani
et al., 2009). For example, high brand familiarity facilitates positive attitudes with
incongruent advertisements (Dahlén and Lange, 2004; Dahlén et al., 2008; Lange and Dahlén,
2003). Furthermore, information incongruence can yield positive evaluations towards the ad
if the unexpected information is relevant; although, if the unexpected information is
irrelevant, incongruence causes negative attitudes (Lee and Mason, 1999).
However, moderately incongruent advertisements do not always have a positive effect.
Research shows that advertisements which are moderately incongruent with the
consumer’s brand schema negatively affect attitude towards the ad (AAD) (Dahlén and
Lange, 2004; Dahlén et al., 2005; Sjödin and Törn, 2003; Halkias and Kokkinaki, 2013).
Furthermore, the positive effects of moderately incongruent messages do not last with
repeated exposure (Dahlén et al., 2005; Halkias and Kokkinaki, 2013; Lange and Dahlén, 2003).
 Incongruence between an advertisement and the consumer’s brand schema is likely to have a Sustainable
negative impact on attitudes because of a failure to assimilate or be accommodated by the brand image
existing schema (Mandler, 1982).
Information congruence leading to positive consumer responses can be based on Fiske’s
(1982) theory of schema triggered affect, which states that affective responses are generated
from a schematic match. This is supported by Gasiorowska and Grochowska (2012), who
found that congruent advertisements activate an existing brand schema assisting message
processing resulting in positive emotions and brand evaluations. Mandler (1982) also
acknowledged that it is natural for people to favourably react to information that matches their
expectations or activated schemas. Additionally, consistency between the brand name and logo
increased brand attitudes for consumers with a high need for consistency and self-brand
connection (Kocher et al., 2006). This research is the first to look at the incongruence caused by
incorporating sustainable brand values into the brand image; however, other research contexts
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show that congruity, rather than incongruence in advertising, leads to positive evaluations of
the advertisement and brand. Consequently, it is hypothesised that:
H1. Ad–brand congruence (ABCON) has a positive relationship with AAD, where greater
levels of ABCON will lead to more positive AAD.
H2. ABCON has a positive relationship with Attitude towards the Corporate Brand (ACB);
where greater levels of ABCON will lead to more positive ACB.

2.2 Message sidedness and persuasion

MS, or the use of two-sided ( favourable and unfavourable) as opposed to one-sided
( favourable) messages, is a persuasion technique dating back to Hovland et al. (1949).
The premise behind a two-sided advertising appeal is that it provides consumers with a
two-sided argument, which should give it more credibility, increase source credibility and be
viewed more favourably – making the message more resistant to counter persuasion
(Eisend, 2006).
The literature suggests that two-sided messages can positively affect AAD, attitudes
towards message content and message acceptance (Hunt and Kernan, 1984; Kamins et al.,
1989; Kamins and Marks, 1987). Furthermore, it is theorised that two-sided messages
increase positive affect based on their perceived novelty and, consequently, brand attitudes
(Crowley and Hoyer, 1994).
Overall, research indicates that two-sided messages can lead to more favourable brand
attitudes (e.g. Kamins et al., 1989) and increase message acceptance (Hunt and Kernan,
1984). Though the effect of two-sided messages has not been investigated in relation to
corporate brand attitudes, it is expected to be similar to the effect on brand attitudes.
Consequently, it is hypothesised that:
H3. MS has a positive relationship with AAD, where two-sided messages will lead to
more positive AAD.
H4. MS has a positive relationship with ACB, where two-sided messages will lead to more
positive ACB.

2.3 Interaction effects between ad–brand congruence and message sidedness

This research is the first to propose that two-sided messages could aid as an explanation
for ad–brand incongruence by acknowledging the incongruence in the “negative
arguments”, and thus providing the resolution hint that is needed to assimilate the
incongruent information (Lee and Schumann, 2004). Previous research shows that
consumers react better to moderately incongruent messages than extremely incongruent
 MIP messages because they are able to resolve the incongruence and assimilate it with their own
brand schema (e.g. Halkias and Kokkinaki, 2013). If this assimilation is not possible,
consumers’ initial affective reaction is likely to be negative (Mandler, 1982).
The favourable arguments, providing the benefits of the adopted brand values alongside
the acknowledgement of the incongruence, can provide consumers with the required
knowledge to resolve and accommodate the incongruent information in their brand schemas
(Lee and Schumann, 2004), ultimately leading to higher ad and brand attitudes, consistent
with schema incongruity theory (Mandler, 1982).
Although ads can be incongruent and not expected based on the corporate brand image,
the incongruent information in an ad is relevant to the consumer by acknowledging the
incongruence. Previous research shows that information incongruence can yield positive
evaluations towards the ad if the unexpected information is relevant; however, if the
unexpected information is irrelevant, incongruence causes negative attitudes (Lee and
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Mason, 1999). Furthermore, MS is especially effective when the audience initially opposes
the advertiser’s argument (e.g. Kao, 2012). As incongruence is predicted to be unexpected
and initially opposed by consumers, two-sided messages will be more effective at explaining
the incongruence and allowing consumers to assimilate the information in their schema.
Consequently, it is hypothesised that:
H5. There is an interaction effect between ad–brand incongruence and MS on AAD.
Specifically, two-sided messages reduce the negative effect of ad–brand
incongruence on AAD, while two-sided messages increase the positive effect of
ABCON on AAD.
H6. There is an interaction effect between ad–brand incongruence and MS on ACB.
Specifically, two-sided messages reduce the negative effect of ad–brand
incongruence on ACB, while two-sided messages increase the positive effect of
ABCON on ACB.

2.4 Covariates
In addition to the hypothesised relationships, the effects of several covariate variables were
considered. These included involvement with supermarkets (Zaichkowsky, 1985), as high
product involvement results in more favourable responses to incongruence (Lalwani et al.,
2009); need for cognition (NFC), as this has been found to moderate the effectiveness of
two-sided messages and responses to incongruent information (e.g. Kao, 2011; Srivastava
and Sharma, 2012); need for change, as this affects the way people interpret incongruent
information, where high need for change leads to favourable evaluations of moderately
incongruent brand extensions (e.g. Srivastava and Sharma, 2012); prior brand attitude
(PBA), as two-sided messages have been found to be more effective when changing neutral
or negative prior attitudes to positive attitudes (e.g. Eisend, 2007); and brand familiarity, as
incongruence leads to positive brand evaluations for high brand familiarity, while this is not
the case for low brand familiarity (e.g. Dahlén and Lange, 2004).

3. Methodology
To examine the hypothesised relationships, an online experiment using a 3×2 between-subjects
factorial design where three levels of ABCON (congruent, moderately incongruent and extremely
incongruent) and two levels of MS (one- and two-sided) were manipulated as independent
variables to create six experimental conditions. A leading supermarket from the grocery sector
was the focus of this study. A retail brand was chosen for the corporate brand due to its
accessibility and relevance to consumers, which is reflected by the previous usage of retail
brands in the corporate branding literature (e.g. Papasolomou and Vrontis, 2006). The retailer in
 question had a clear brand image as an everyday low price (EDLP) retailer, which was Sustainable
confirmed by measuring brand associations in a pre-study. This was important because this brand image
study tested how consumers would react to the supermarket adopting sustainability values in
their branding and communication (thereby creating incongruence between an advertisement
and the respondent’s brand schema). While the focal supermarket had not previously associated
itself with sustainable values or practices in the market, sustainability values or practices have
increasingly been adopted by many supermarkets (e.g. Jones et al., 2007).
Print advertisements were used in this study because they are reader-paced, and therefore,
well-suited for research concerning information incongruity (Lee, 2000). Additionally,
supermarkets regularly use print advertisements, mainly in newspaper and billboard formats,
often using a two by three aspect ratio. This format was also suited to an online study where
respondents would be viewing the experimental manipulations on a computer screen.
ABCON was manipulated using Heckler and Childers’ (1992) dimensions of incongruence:
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expectancy and relevancy. The congruent advertisements were adapted from existing
advertisements in terms of slogan, logo, colours and imagery. For the arguments to be
relevant and expected, they were taken from existing advertisements or facts from the
website. For the moderately incongruent condition, the advertisements were developed
based upon a sustainability orientation, while still acknowledging some existing brand
values by including a focus on consumer value. Visually, the moderately incongruent
advertisements looked similar to existing ones, providing high levels of expectancy. In
terms of wording, the advertisements included some expected and currently relevant
statements; however, most statements were not relevant to the store’s current brand image
and would have been perceived as unexpected. For the extremely incongruent condition, the
advertisements were developed using a pure sustainability focus, where no information was
provided about the existing EDLP strategy of the retailer. The extremely incongruent
condition used an unexpected background image of a fruit and vegetable display (not the
usual solid yellow background associated with the brand) to distinguish the manipulation
from the moderately congruent one, as was determined by the first pre-test. The retailer’s
logo was kept consistent across all six experimental conditions.
A message is perceived as two-sided if at least one of the arguments/attributes in the
advertisement is unfavourable (Eisend, 2007). For the purpose of this research, a one to two
ratio (negative: positive) was used for the two-sided manipulations, keeping the percentage of
negative information within the recommended 40 per cent to maintain advertiser credibility
(Crowley and Hoyer, 1994). The one-sided messages only contained positive content.

3.1 Measurement
The scale items used to measure the independent, dependent and covariate variables are
displayed in Table I. A three-item seven-point semantic differential scale adapted from Rifon
et al. (2004) was used to measure ABCON. MS was measured using a four-item seven-point
Likert scale adapted from Hastak and Park (1990), Kao (2012), and Winter and Krämer
(2012). AAD was measured using a three-item seven-point semantic differential scale adapted
from Aaker and Williams (1998). ACB was measured using a four-item seven-point semantic
differential scale adapted from Wagner et al. (2009).
With regard to the covariates, NFC was measured using a three-item seven-point Likert
scale adapted from Ailawadi et al. (2001). Need for change was measured using a three-item
seven-point Likert scale adapted from Wood and Swait (2002). Brand familiarity was
measured using a four-item seven-point Likert scale adapted from Lange and Dahlén (2003),
Dahlén and Lange (2004), Martin and Stewart (2001) and Halkias and Kokkinaki (2013). PBA
was measured using the same scale as for ACB. Finally, enduring involvement was
measured using a four-item seven-point semantic differential scale adapted from Mathwick
and Rigdon (2004).
 MIP Cronbach’s
Construct/item wording Mean SD α AVE Pc

Ad–brand congruence 4.13 1.86 0.97 0.87 0.95

Not compatible–Compatible
Not a good fit–Good fit
Not congruent–Congruent
Message sidedness 4.28 1.75 0.96 0.87 0.96
The [focal brand] advertisement contained negative as well as
positive information regarding [the focal brand]
The [focal brand] advertisement contained positive information, but
also included some negative information regarding [the focal brand]
In the [focal brand] advertisement, not all the information regarding
[the focal brand] was positive
The [focal brand] advertisement contained only positive information
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about [the focal brand](r)

Attitude towards the ad 3.99 1.57 0.94 0.68 0.87
Bad–Good
Unfavourable–Favourable
Unlikeable–Likeable
Attitude towards the corporate brand 4.54 1.33 0.98 0.72 0.91
Bad–Good
Unfavourable–Favourable
Unpleasant–Pleasant
Negative–Positive
Need for cognition 2.85 1.26 0.74 0.64 0.84
Thinking is not my idea of fun
I only think as hard as I have to
I like tasks that require little thought once I have learned them
Need for change 4.47 1.25 0.79 0.68 0.87
When I see a new or different brand on the shelf, I often pick it up
just to see what it is like
I like introducing new brands and products to my friends
I enjoy taking chances in buying unfamiliar brands just to get some
variety in my purchases
Brand familiarity 5.00 1.54 0.94 0.77 0.93
I have a lot of experience shopping at [focal brand]
I am very familiar with [focal brand]
I am very familiar with [focal brand’s] product selection
I have a very high level of knowledge regarding [focal brand]
Prior brand attitude 4.76 1.37 0.97 0.74 0.92
Bad–Good
Unfavourable–Favourable
Unpleasant–Pleasant
Negative–Positive
Involvement 3.66 1.28 0.92 0.78 0.94
Table I. Boring–Interesting
Means, standard Unexciting–Exciting
deviations and Mundane–Fascinating
reliability of measures Uninvolving–Involving

To help categorise respondents, five socio-demographic questions were also asked,

including: gender, age, occupation, income level and highest qualification.
Principal component analysis with varimax rotation was used to test the underlying
dimensionality of the scales. It was found that all constructs had a minimum factor loading
score of 0.8 for each factor item. Furthermore, no items were cross-loaded with a loading
score of W0.5 on multiple factors, confirming the discriminant validity of the constructs.
 Following this, Cronbach’s α procedure was used to test the internal consistency (reliability) Sustainable
of the scales, and as shown in Table I, revealed all scales had an acceptable level of brand image
reliability (αW0.7). The average variance extracted and composite reliability for the
constructs can be viewed Table I, which illustrates that the Pc (W0.8) and AVE (W0.6)
scores were high, confirming the reliability and validity of the constructs.

3.2 Recruitment of participants

Participants needed to be aware of the focal brand, have moderate involvement with
supermarkets and be at least 18 years of age. An online sample was drawn from the general
New Zealand population. As incentives, participants were offered entry into a prize draw for one
of six $100 vouchers. A pulsing strategy was used to recruit participants, where recruitment
messages were posted on several public online forums. Throughout the recruitment period,
online presence by a researcher ensured that the recruitment posts remained active and were
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“bumped” up to the top of each forum. A total of 604 participants were recruited for this study.

3.3 Online experiment

The online experiment consisted of eight stages. Stage 1 provided an information sheet and
consent form. Stage 2 thanked participants for taking part and assured them that there were
no right or wrong answers. Stage 3 included the first set of questions that included all
covariates, while Stage 4 told participants that they were about to view an advertisement
that was the focus for the remainder of the questions. Stage 5 showed respondents one of the
six experimental manipulations, which were randomly assigned via Qualtrics. Stage 6
provided the manipulation checks for both ABCON and MS, while Stage 7 asked respondents
to answer the questions related to the dependent variables. The final stage measured the
socio-demographic variables.
Prior to the main data collection, two pre-tests, with 253 and 296 responses respectively,
were conducted to check the experimental manipulations, to assess the reliability and
validity of the scales used, and to ensure that the experimental procedure was understood
by participants. As the result of Pre-test 1, a different background for the extremely
incongruent conditions was created to ensure greater incongruence, and the wording for one
item measuring MS was also changed. Pre-test 2 confirmed the effectiveness of the
manipulations, and the robustness of the scales and experimental procedure.

4. Analysis and results

Of the 604 completed responses, 15 needed to be deleted due to the lack of awareness of the
focal brand. A further 61 responses were randomly deleted to allow for equal cell sizes (88)
for each of the manipulations to satisfy the assumptions of statistical techniques such as
ANCOVA (Hair et al., 2010). Out of the 528 responses, 47.9 per cent were male, while
52.1 per cent were female. The majority of the sample (76.9 per cent) was aged between
18 and 44 years, which is likely because this age group has a higher online presence (Office
for National Statistics, 2017). SPSS was used to analyse the results. The scale items, means,
standard deviations and reliability scores are provided in Table I.

4.1 Manipulation checks

To examine the effectiveness of the experimental conditions, a one-way ANOVA and
independent sample t-tests were conducted. For the ABCON manipulation, the one-way
ANOVA revealed that there were significant differences (F ¼ 110.64, p o0.01) between the
congruent (mean ¼ 5.33), moderately incongruent (mean ¼ 4.20) and extremely incongruent
(mean ¼ 2.85) conditions. The Tukey HSD post hoc test, chosen because of its ability to
control for Type 1 error (Field, 2009), revealed significant differences between all levels of
 MIP ABCON. For the MS manipulation, the mean for the one-sided condition was 3.05, while the
two-sided condition was 5.51. The t-test revealed that the difference between these means
was significant (t ¼ −22.81, p o0.01).
Two two-way ANCOVAs were conducted where level of ABCON and MS were entered as
independent variables, with AAD or ACB as the dependent variables.

4.2 Effects of ad–brand congruence

The results showed that the main effect of ABCON on AAD was significant (F (2, 517) ¼ 5.55,
p o0.01). Specifically, AAD decreases with incongruence, with means of 4.30 (congruent),
3.87 (moderately incongruent) and 3.81 (extremely incongruent). Both incongruent
conditions scored significantly lower for AAD and the Tukey HSD post hoc test revealed
that there was no difference in AAD between extremely and moderately incongruent
conditions ( p W0.05). Overall, the results support H1.
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The main effect of ABCON on ACB was significant (F (2, 511) ¼ 4.48, po 0.05). However,
this was only significant between the congruent and extremely incongruent manipulations,
as a Tukey HSD post hoc test revealed that there was no significant difference in ACB for the
congruent and moderately incongruent manipulations ( p W0.05) with means of 4.74 and
4.48, respectively. This was also the case between the extremely and moderately
incongruent manipulations ( pW0.05) with means of 4.40 and 4.48, respectively. Overall, the
results provide support for H2.

4.3 Effects of message sidedness

The results showed that the main effect of MS on AAD was significant (F (1, 517) ¼ 19.54,
p o0.01). Furthermore, the ANCOVA revealed that two-sided messages (mean ¼ 3.69) led to
less favourable ad attitudes than one-sided messages (mean ¼ 4.30). Consequently, MS has a
negative effect on AAD, which does not support H3.
The main effect of MS on ACB was also significant (F (1, 511) ¼ 25.78, p o0.01).
The results showed that two-sided messages negatively affected ACB (with a mean of
4.27 compared to 4.81 for one-sided messages). As it was hypothesised that it would have a
positive effect, the results do not support H4.

4.4 Interaction effects between ad–brand congruence and message sidedness

The analysis revealed a significant interaction effect between ABCON and MS on AAD
(F (2, 517) ¼ 5.35, p o0.01), which suggests that one-sided messages were more favourable
for both incongruent conditions, while there was no difference for the congruent condition.
The Tukey HSD post hoc test revealed that that was no difference in AAD between the
extremely and moderately incongruent conditions ( p W 0.05), as both incongruent
conditions resulted in significantly lower AAD scores for two-sided messages. Two-sided
messages were perceived similarly to one-sided messages when the ad was congruent with
the brand image (see Figure 1). Consequently, the results show there is a significant
interaction effect between ABCON and MS. However, the direction of this interaction effect
contradicts H5. It was predicted that incongruence would be perceived more favourably
with the explanation provided by the two-sided message acknowledging this incongruence,
while the results show that two-sided messages do not improve the negative impact of
incongruence, but enhance it. Furthermore, two-sided messages did not enhance the positive
effect of congruence on AAD; thus only providing partial support for H5.
The ANCOVA analysis also revealed a significant interaction effect between ABCON and
MS on ACB (F (2, 511) ¼ 5.99, p o0.01), indicating that for different levels of ABCON, ACB
varied depending on level of MS. However, this result was only significant between the
congruent and extremely incongruent conditions, as a Tukey HSD post hoc test revealed
 One sided Two sided Sustainable
4.50 brand image
4.40 4.43
4.30 4.30
4.29
4.20
4.10 4.18

4.00
3.90
AAD

3.80
3.70
3.60
3.50 3.45 Figure 1.
Means plot for
3.40
attitude towards the
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3.30
3.30 ad for different levels
3.20 of ad–brand
CONGRUENT MODERATELY EXTREMELY congruence and
INCONGRUENT INCONGRUENT message sidedness
LEVEL OF AD-BRAND CONGRUENCE

that there was no significant difference in ACB for the congruent and moderately
incongruent manipulation ( p W0.05), as well as the extreme and moderately incongruent
manipulations ( p W0.05). Furthermore, Figure 2 shows that the direction of the interaction
effect was the opposite of that hypothesised. Two-sided messages did not explain
incongruence, and instead, two-sided messages resulted in lower, as opposed to higher ACB
for incongruent advertisements. Furthermore, two-sided messages did not enhance the
positive effect of congruence on ACB; thus showing partial support for H6.

4.5 Effects of covariate variables

The ANCOVAs revealed that Involvement had a small positive effect (F (1, 511) 4.63, po0.05,
ηp2 ¼ 0.01) on ACB, and that NFC had a small positive effect (F (1, 511) ¼ 4.18, po0.05,
ηp2 ¼ 0.01) on ACB. PBA had medium to large positive effects on AAD and ACB
(F (1, 517) ¼ 32.96, po0.01, ηp2 ¼ 0.06 and F (1, 511) ¼ 159.17, po0.01, ηp2 ¼ 0.24, respectively).

One sided Two sided

5.00

4.90
4.92
4.80 4.77 4.82
4.70
4.70
4.60

4.50
ACB

4.40

4.30

4.20
Figure 2.
4.10 4.04 Means plot for
3.99 attitude towards the
4.00
corporate brand for
3.90 different levels of ad–
CONGRUENT MODERATELY EXTREMELY brand congruence and
INCONGRUENT INCONGRUENT
message sidedness
LEVEL OF AD-BRAND CONGRUENCE
 MIP 5. Discussion
When businesses incorporate new brand values, such as sustainability, these might be
incongruent with the consumer’s brand schema. Marketers need to understand how
consumers react to this incongruence and how they can best yield positive responses while
incorporating new brand values. This study supports the hypothesised relationship
between ABCON and AAD and ACB. This finding aligns with congruency theory (Osgood and
Tannenbaum, 1955) and schema triggered affect (Fiske, 1982), as congruent advertisements
were perceived more favourably and led to increased brand attitudes. Furthermore, the
results support the idea that it is natural for people to react favourably to something that
matches their schemas or expectations (Mandler, 1982). Consequently, the results align with
the literature that has found that incongruence in advertisements leads to less favourable
brand evaluations (e.g. Kocher et al., 2006). This is specifically dependent on whether the
incongruity can be resolved or not – unresolved incongruity is likely to lead to less
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favourable brand attitudes (Sjödin and Törn, 2006). Overall, it is safer if incongruity can be
avoided when adopting new brand values.
This study partially supports the hypothesised interaction effects between ABCON and
MS on AAD and ACB. However, it found that two-sided messages did not lead to positive
attitudes in incongruent conditions. The findings suggest that two-sided messages do not
resolve incongruence, as they increased the negative impact of incongruence rather than
providing resolution hints. The ANCOVAs revealed a similar interaction effect between
ABCON and MS on both AAD and ACB. Results show that two-sided messages cause lower
brand and ad attitudes for incongruent conditions (both moderately and extremely), while
there was a little difference for the congruent condition. This indicates that the resolution
hints to explain incongruity, based on Lee and Schumann’s (2004) theory, containing
negative content did not provide the required information to resolve the incongruity and
assimilate this information into the brand schema. Rather than resolving the incongruity,
the two-sided messages may have emphasised the incongruity and do not appear to be a
good persuasion technique when adopting new brand values.
Furthermore, this study does not support the hypothesised relationships between MS
and AAD and ACB. It was predicted that two-sided messages would be perceived as honest
and genuine, and result in positive brand attitudes, as the previous literature indicates that
two-sided messages can lead to positive brand attitudes in the right conditions (Crowley and
Hoyer, 1994). However, two-sided messages negatively affected AAD and ACB. Eisend (2006)
emphasised this relationship is complex as it is affected by other message variables
including the placement of the negative information, importance of the negative
information, attribute quality, the amount of negative information, the negative–positive
attribute correlation, and whether the information is disclosed voluntarily. Some of these
variables might not have been optimum in the experimental design for two-sided messages
to have a positive effect, emphasising the caution marketers need to take when using
two-sided messages. In particular, as the existing brand image of the EDLP retailer was
linked to price, the incongruity and lack of focus on lower prices could have been perceived
as too important, especially in relation to sustainability, as it is suggested that negative
arguments should be of low to moderate importance (Eisend, 2007).
The sustainability literature has thus far not addressed the potential of using two-sided
messages for communicating sustainability. Though it was hypothesised that two-sided
messages can be used to favourably communicate a sustainable brand image, the results
from this study were unexpected and found two-sided messages not to be effective. This
may be related to the high value attached to the EDLP image of the focal brand or the
relative lack of importance of sustainability as a brand value. Further research should
investigate the importance of sustainability in relation to other brand values and
associations such as low prices, quality of offerings or high levels of customer service.
 5.1 Managerial implications Sustainable
This study aimed to provide insight into how consumers deal with incongruence caused by brand image
incorporating new brand values in advertisements. Brand managers need to be aware that
incongruence in advertising is not favourable and is likely to negatively affect consumer
attitudes. This reinforces the idea that consumers respond favourably to information that
matches their brand schema (Fiske, 1982; Mandler, 1982). However, the results indicate that
moderate incongruity does not always lead to negative brand attitudes. Consequently, when
adopting new brand values, it is suggested to incrementally incorporate these to ensure the
consumer can assimilate small amounts of incongruent information into their brand schema
and leverage off the positive brand equity to ensure positive brand evaluations. Creating a
sustainable corporate brand can be seen as a repositioning process that goes beyond
external communication (Merilees and Miller, 2008; Stuart, 2011), and hence, the
repositioning literature should be considered in the implementation process. Key
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principles of corporate rebranding should be followed. These include maintaining the

brand’s core ideology, retaining some existing brand concepts, meeting the needs of new
and existing segments, getting internal buy-in, integration of the marketing mix and
informing stakeholders (Merilees and Miller, 2008).
The findings suggest the use of one-sided messages rather than two-sided messages for
incongruence, as two-sided messages were not found to be an effective resolution tool for
incongruence. Using two-sided messages and explaining the incongruence might emphasise
its presence and distract from the positive arguments in the advertisement. Consequently, if
brand managers create brand image incongruity they are best to focus on the positive
aspects of the brand image rather than acknowledging that the new image is different from
what the consumer is used to.

5.2 Theoretical implications

This research provides support that schema-congruent information for branding activities
creates favourable consumer responses (e.g. Fiske, 1982), thus reinforcing the extant
literature which suggests that marketers should strive for congruence in the corporate
branding process (e.g. Morsing and Kristensen, 2002). However, the findings contrast with
other research that indicates that moderate incongruity can elicit positive responses through
increased processing (e.g. Halkias and Kokkinaki, 2013). Instead, this study suggests that
even though the manipulations between the moderately and extremely incongruent
conditions were effective, the effects on ad and brand evaluations were not affected by
this difference.
The theory that moderate incongruity leads to positive responses is dependent on
whether the incongruity can be resolved and assimilated into the consumer’s brand schema
(Lee and Schumann, 2004). Resolution hints have been suggested as a mechanism to
increase the ability and motivation to process the message in order to solve the incongruity
(Lee and Schumann, 2004). This research proposed that using two-sided messages could
provide sufficient information for respondents to resolve the incongruence. The research
showed that the interaction effects between ABCON and MS are significant, but that
one-sided messages are more effective for incongruent messages opposing predictions.
Consequently, it can be concluded that two-sided messages cannot resolve brand image
incongruity The overall negative effects of two-sided messages emphasise the previous
mixed findings on the effectiveness of MS as a persuasion technique.

5.3 Limitations and future research directions

Limitations that need to be considered when interpreting the findings include that the
unnatural environment in which the advertisements were viewed did not replicate the
normal cluttered environment. Additionally, the ads were announced, when normally they
 MIP have an unannounced presence, likely resulting in higher attention levels by respondents.
Second, respondents were recruited using internet forums, suggesting a potential for self-
selection bias by respondents who actively participate in such forums.
From this study, directions for future research can be identified. Further research should
investigate how best to communicate sustainability, specifically, the importance of
sustainability in relation to other brand values and associations. Second, future research
should focus on how businesses can successfully adopt a sustainable brand image, without
creating incongruence in consumers’ minds. Third, the large positive effect of PBA on ACB
needs to be further explored to ascertain whether PBA can mitigate the negative effects of
advertising incongruence. Furthermore, future research should investigate the usage of two-
sided messages in the corporate branding process and for communicating sustainability
without the presence of incongruity.
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Corresponding author
Paula Arbouw can be contacted at: Paula.Arbouw@ara.ac.nz

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