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The Relationship Among Academic Self-concept, Learning Strategies, and

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Asia-Pacific Edu Res (2015) 24(2):419–431
DOI 10.1007/s40299-014-0194-1
REGULAR ARTICLE
The Relationship Among Academic Self-concept, Learning
Strategies, and Academic Achievement: A Case Study of National
Vocational College Students in Taiwan via SEM
Bryan H. Chen • Wan-Ching Chiu •
Chih-Chuan Wang
Published online: 14 June 2014
Ó De La Salle University 2014
Abstract This study focuses on the effect of academic
self-concept on the use of learning strategies conducive to
academic achievement. Data from 407 national vocational
college students in Taiwan were analyzed by structural
equation modeling through the LISREL 8.80 version. The
results of this study can be summarized as follows:
(a) academic self-concept has a significant positive effect
on deep, surface and strategic approaches, as well as aca-
demic achievement, (b) of all the learning strategies, stra-
tegic approach has a significant positive effect, and surface
approach has a significant negative effect on academic
achievement, and (c) strategic approach mediated a posi-
tive relationship between academic self-concept and aca-
demic achievement. Overall, these findings suggest that
higher level educators may offer positive encouragement to
increase students’ learning motivation, efficiency, and self-
concept and assist in the development of recognition con-
cerning self-learning and meta-cognitive skills. These
findings may help students to select the best learning
approaches and improve their academic performance.
Implications for the design of educational models and
curricula in vocational college education are also
discussed.
B. H. Chen
W.-C. Chiu
Department of Finance, National Changhua University of
Education, Bao-Shan Campus, 2, Shi-Da Road,
Changhua City 500, Taiwan ROC
C.-C. Wang (&)
Office of Physical Education, National Chiao Tung University,
1001 University Road, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan ROC
e-mail: deed515@msn.com
Keywords Academic self-concept
Learning strategies

Academic achievement
Vocational college

Structural equation modeling
Introduction
Access to higher education is currently spread widely
throughout Taiwan; the system no longer aims to train the
highest ranking students. According to the statistical data
obtained in 2012 from the Ministry of Education (MOE) in
Taiwan, the growth rate of undergraduates has increased
14 %, with nearly 90 % of potential students enrolled in a
college between 2001 and 2011. Higher education faces a
crisis, in which schools may be unable to recruit sufficient
students because of the declining birthrate.
A primary purpose of higher education is to provide
highly effective training for students, and student academic
achievement is a crucial factor in their early career (Jenkins
1998). Therefore, improving educational quality, enhanc-
ing student academic achievement and competitiveness,
and meeting employer needs are among the fundamental
purposes of higher education. Referring to higher education
programs, Chonko and Caballero (1991) reported that
students should focus on practical applications, curriculum
management, and knowledge use and that student academic
achievement partially influences their ability to integrate
knowledge. Bodovski and Farkas (2007) noted that learn-
ing strategies play a crucial role in affecting student aca-
demic achievement. Insubstantial academic achievement
may cause frustration and weaken student motivation to
learn; therefore, the academic achievement of Taiwanese
students exhibits the Matthew Effect phenomenon (Stano-
vich 1986; Walberg and Tsai 1983). Numerous previous
studies have explored the relationships between academic
123
420
self-concept and academic achievement (Guay et al. 2003;
Marsh and Craven 2006; Ozgen 2013) and have demon-
strated that academic self-concept is a crucial aspect that
affects academic achievement and other educational out-
comes (Hansford and Hattie 1982; Pajares and Schunk
2001). For example, Waugh (2002) reported that academic
self-concept develops the rethinking attitude and self-
understanding of students, and Rodriguez (2009) noted that
students increase their academic achievements by under-
standing academic self-concept and learning strategies.
Learning involves a series of dynamic experiences, and
each learning step forms the basis for the next step.
Learning strategies are key factors influencing academic
achievement (Marsh and Craven 2006; Trautwein et al.
2006; Rodriguez 2009). Numerous studies have been
conducted to investigate the relations among academic
self-concept, learning strategies, and academic achieve-
ment. Although most studies have focused exclusively on
elementary or high school students (Chiou 2003; Green
et al. 2006; Liu and Hsueh 2013; Michie et al. 2001),
related studies focused on college students are limited. A
primary difference between high schools and colleges in
Taiwan is that higher education places greater emphasis on
college students’ self-governing ability and provides a free-
learning environment, which provides a unique opportunity
and experience for students. Because of the growing
number of vocational colleges and the rising rate of
unemployment, vocational colleges, which emphasize
training for practical skills, have become the first choice of
numerous senior high school students. However, the
learning process and achievement of vocational college
students have rarely been formally investigated, and few
studies have focused on mediators, such as academic self-
concept and academic achievement. Motivated by these
facts, we first investigated the relationships among aca-
demic self-concept, learning strategies, and academic
achievement. Second, we examined how learning strategies
mediate the relationship between academic self-concept
and academic achievement based on business majors at
vocational colleges.
Literature Review and Hypotheses
Academic Self-Concept
James (1890) indicated that self-concept is the nucleus of
personality and a core factor affecting individual behav-
ior; in addition, self-concept gradually develops from the
infant stage and could evolve substantially as people
grow in considerably diverse environments, such as the
environment in which they interact with various people,
or receive a specific type of education (i.e., various
123
B. H. Chen et al.
environments make people diverse). Shavelson et al.
(1976) developed a multidimensional-multifaceted theory
of self-concept; numerous researchers have supported the
theory, which has been considered to address both aca-
demic and nonacademic self-concept (Hattie 1992; House
1994; Marsh and Craven 2006). Academic self-concept
indicates students’ perceptions and self-evaluations of
their overall abilities, compared with the abilities of
others in achievement situations (Marsh 1990; Waugh
2002).
The relationships between academic self-concept and
academic achievement are organized as follows: (a) the
skill development model considers self-concept as the skill
level that students possess at school, and academic self-
concept may be a predictor of student academic achieve-
ment (Marsh and Craven 2006; Skaalvik and Skaalvik
2009); (b) the self-enhancement model considers self-
concept as intrinsic motivation, and academic self-concept
is linked to student academic achievement (Henk and
Melnick 1992; Michie et al. 2001); and (c) the reciprocal
causality model considers that an interrelationship exists
between academic self-concept and academic achievement
according to longitudinal studies (Marsh and Koller 2003).
The overall outcomes of the three models differ because of
various factors, such as research methods, instruments,
participants, cultures, and environment. However, none of
these models is superior to the others (Skaalvik and
Skaalvik 2009). We relied on the self-enhancement model
to conduct a cross-sectional study by using a questionnaire
survey. We assumed that academic self-concept includes
motivation, which inspires students to solve problems;
therefore, students with a higher academic self-concept
have increased motivation to learn (Michie et al. 2001).
Thus, a review of the literature suggests the following
hypothesis:
H1: Academic self-concept is positively related to aca-
demic achievement.
Learning strategy
Social learning theory suggests that learning relies on
learner self-cognition and suggests that the learner’s
learning behaviors may be changed because of learner self-
cognition (Bandura 1977). Chamot et al. (1999) indicated
that learning development is closely associated with indi-
viduals, behaviors, and the environment, using suitable
learning strategies that assist students in acquiring suc-
cessful learning experiences. Sternberg (2002) and Lenz
(2006) specified that learning strategies are a crucial aspect
of learning and assist students in obtaining knowledge,
retaining memories, thinking critically, and generating
learning behaviors. Three learning strategies have been
A Case Study of National Vocational College Students in Taiwan via SEM
defined such as the deep approach, the surface approach,
and the strategic approach (Entwistle 1998; Tait and Ent-
wistle 1996). The deep approach involves learning content,
meanings, theory, and experience (Duff 2003; Rodriguez
2009). Relevant research studies have demonstrated that
students using the deep approach exhibit higher forms of
thinking, such as comprehension, critical thinking, and
understanding (Peltier et al. 2006), as well as self-regulated
capabilities in deep learning (Biggs 1985; Evans et al.
2003). Thus, a review of the literature suggests the fol-
lowing hypothesis:
H2: Academic self-concept is positively related to
selecting the deep approach.
The surface approach means that students learn by
‘‘scratching the surface’’ of subjects by primarily using rote
memorization (Biggs 1993; Rodriguez 2009). Burnet and
Proctor (2002) observed academic self-concept to be neg-
atively related to the surface approach. They further sug-
gested that students demonstrated reduced self-belief and
perseverance. Students learn fragmented knowledge by
using the surface approach, which minimizes learning
success. Thus, a review of the literature suggests the fol-
lowing hypothesis:
H3: Academic self-concept is negatively related to
selecting the surface approach.
The strategic approach is an effective learning method
for students to obtain the highest grades by using particular
methods, such as studying notes (without referring to
textbooks) and former exam problem sets (Biggs 1985;
Entwistle and Waterston 1988; Duff 1997). Biggs (1993)
assumed that people who use the strategic approach in
learning exhibit higher ego enhancement. Students who
have higher self-enhancement use various learning meth-
ods to systematically improve their achievement and
achieve a comprehensive understanding of the material.
Thus, a review of the literature suggests the following
hypothesis:
H4: Academic self-concept is positively related to
selecting the strategic approach.
Academic Achievement
Academic achievement refers to learning outcomes
resulting from continual learning behavior, which is a
critical index for students in higher education, or people in
the workplace (Rodriguez 2009). Entwistle and Waterston
(1988) stated that students adopt learning strategies after
setting a performance goal, and proper learning strategies
generate successful academic achievement (Duff et al.
2004; Rodriguez 2009). A significant correlation was
421
observed between learning strategies and academic
achievement (Pintrich and Garcia 1991). Kirk (1995) and
Pintrich (1989) proposed that learning strategy is a pre-
dictor of academic achievement and that students using
effective learning strategies demonstrate considerable
academic achievement. The deep approach is an efficient
method because students spend considerable time learning
by understanding, realizing, and thinking about the content
and thus obtain complete knowledge and achieve retention
(Duff 2003). The surface approach is a passive method
whereby students learn through rote memorization (Biggs
1993). The strategic approach is an attributive method for
students to learn and analyze content by using former
topics, notes, and optimal time management to achieve
optimal performance in effective learning (Biggs 1985).
Intrinsic motivations, critical thinking, and skill learning
are crucial aspects in subject-oriented training courses
provided for business majors. Based on the aforementioned
studies, the deep and strategic approaches may cultivate
student capacity for independent thinking and understand-
ing and enhance their academic achievement (Chonko
1993; Jaramillo and Spector 2004; Rodriguez 2009).
Therefore, we propose Hypotheses 5, 6, and 7:
H5: The deep approach is positively related to academic
achievement.
H6: The surface approach is negatively related to aca-
demic achievement.
H7: The strategic approach is positively related to aca-
demic achievement.
The content of self-concept literature suggests that
academic self-concept is a predictor of learning strategy
and academic achievement. Students who possess a posi-
tive self-concept may evaluate their behaviors and values
(Michie et al. 2001; Murphy and Roopchand 2003; Marsh
and Craven 2006; Trautwein et al. 2006; Rodriguez 2009).
Hence, academic self-concept may be a factor that influ-
ences students when they are selecting learning strategies
Deep
Approach H5
H2
Academic
H3 Surface H6 academic
Self-concept Approach achievement
H4
H7
Strategic
Approach
H1
Fig. 1 Proposed theoretical model
123
422 B. H. Chen et al.

and also facilitates the realization of academic achieve- the present study similarly included a 9-point Likert scale
ment. We examined the role of learning strategies as (1 = ‘‘strongly disagree,’’ 9 = ‘‘strongly agree’’). The
moderating variables to investigate the relationship ASCQ included the second-order CFA model for examin-
between self-concept and academic achievement. A review ing the CR and convergent validity by using three sub-
of the literature suggests the following hypothesis: scales: (a) math self-concept (n = 4 items, CR = .92,
AVE = .75), (b) language self-concept (n = 4 items,
H8: Learning strategies mediate the relationship between
CR = .82, AVE = .53), (c) specialized subject self-con-
academic self-concept and academic achievement. All of
cept (n = 4 items, CR = .84, AVE = .57), and second-
the proposed relationships are depicted in Fig. 1.
order academic self-concept (CR = .85, AVE = .65). The
model fit with a v2 = 215.18, with degrees of freedom
equal to 51, a goodness-of-fit index (GFI) equal to .92, a
Method
comparative fit index (CFI) equal to .97, a standardized
root mean square residual (SRMR) equal to .04, and a root
Participants
mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) equal to .08.
All factor loadings were significant at p \ .01, and item
Data samples were collected using cluster sampling as
variances were expressed in the range from .58 to .94
follows. We referred to the records supplied by a popula-
(Appendix 2, Fig. 3 and Table 5).
tion of business majors from national vocational colleges in
Taiwan (MOE 2012). The pool of students was divided into
Learning Strategy Questionnaire (Detailed in Appendix 1)
three groups, namely, north, middle, and south, according
to the geographical locations of the colleges. A total of 600
The Learning Strategy Questionnaire (LSQ) was developed
questionnaires were distributed, which was proportional to
from the Revised Approaches to Studying Inventory
the population size, to each of the three student groups. In
(RASI), proposed by Duff (1997, 2003), based on a 5-point
total, seven schools were involved and participation was
Likert scale (1 = ‘‘strongly disagree,’’ 5 = ‘‘strongly
voluntary. Among the 407 usable returned responses (a
agree’’). We included the following three learning
return rate of approximately 68 %), 123 were from the
approaches in the LSQ: (a) deep approach (n = 6 items,
north, 95 were from Central Taiwan, and 189 were from
CR = .78, AVE = .48), (b) surface approach (n = 4
the south. The average age of the 407 participants (among
items, CR = .79, AVE = .51), and (c) strategic approach
which 131 (32 %) were men, and 276 (68 %) were women)
(n = 5 items, CR = .82, AVE = .49). The model fit with a
was 19.75 (SD = 1.63) years. The students who partici-
v2 = 230.42, degrees of freedom = 87, a GFI = .93, a
pated majored in accounting, finance, management, eco-
CFI = .94, an SRMR = .05, and an RMSEA = .06. All
nomics, or marketing.
factor loadings were significant at p \ .01, and item vari-
ances were expressed in the range from .61 to .78, with
Instruments
three latent variable correlation coefficients from -47 to
.51 below .85 (Joreskog and Sorbom 1993), further con-
Three measures that have been suggested and validated in
firming the discriminant validity of the constructs
previous relevant studies (Marsh and Koller 2003; Duff
(Appendix 2, Fig. 4 and Table 5).
2003; Rodriguez 2009) were modified for this study. The
reliability and validity of the adopted research instruments
Academic Achievement Questionnaire (Detailed
were gauged using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA),
in Appendix 1)
which was conducted using LISREL 8.80 statistical soft-
ware. Fornell and Larcker (1981) suggested that construc-
The Academic Achievement Questionnaire (AAQ) was
tion reliability (CR) should exceed a threshold equal to .6,
primarily based on the findings of Rodriguez (2009), which
and the average variance extracted (AVE) of the constructs
indicated that academic achievement is the result of
should exceed the benchmark value of .5.
aligning student intellectual effort (i.e., critical thinking).
Using the ranking criterion, Rodriguez modified the ques-
Academic Self-Concept Questionnaire (Detailed tionnaire described in Ramsden (1991) to develop the
in Appendix 1) Course Experience Questionnaire, in which the evaluation
criteria were based on problem-solving skills, self-confi-
The academic self-concept questionnaire (ASCQ) was dence, and grade point average (GPA). The AAQ includes
developed based on the Self-Description Questionnaire III five items and adopts a 5-point Likert scale (with a CR
(SDQIII) created by Marsh (1992) and the Chinese version equal to .89, and an AVE equal to .63). The model fit with
of the SDQIII created by Chen (1998); the ASCQ used in a v2 = 69.69, degrees of freedom = 25, a GFI = .94, a

123
A Case Study of National Vocational College Students in Taiwan via SEM 423

Table 1 Descriptive statistics of variables

Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5

1. Academic self-concept 5.26 .98 1.00

Math 5.18 1.88 .70**
Language 5.04 1.38 .40**
Specialized subject 5.57 1.37 .77**
2. Deep approach 2.79 .65 .42** 1.00
3. Surface approach 3.19 .65 .40** -.46** 1.00
4. Strategic approach 3.42 .68 .27** .42** -.20** 1.00
5.Academic achievement 4.02 .58 .26** .17** .13** .30** 1.00
* p \ .05, ** p \ .05, n = 407

CFI = .96, an SRMR = .05, and an RMSEA = .09. All
factor loadings were significant at p \ .01, and item vari-
ances were expressed in the range from .57 to .95 (Fig. 5
and Table 5 in Appendix 2). To ensure the reliability of the
AAQ, we asked teachers who were involved in our sample
survey process to verify every marked answer in the
questionnaire based on their own set of actual grade
records and subsequently confirm whether our surveyed
data were highly positively correlated with the actual
record. By using this verification process, the mentioned
risk possibly caused by the self-reported characteristic was
minimized and the correlation index was as high as .94.
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics concerning student academic self-con-
cept, learning strategies, and academic achievement are pre-
sented in Table 1. As shown, the mean value for academic
self-concept was 5.26 (SD = .98); that for the deep approach
was 2.79 (SD = .65); that for the surface approach was 3.19
(SD = .65); that for the strategic approach was 3.42
(SD = .68); and the value for academic achievement was
4.02 (SD = .58).
Deep
-.38
Approach
.78**
Academic
.86** Surface -.81*
Self-concept Approach
.55**
.20*
Strategic
Approach
.42**
Note: *p <.05, **p <.01, --- no significant
Full Model Analysis
Full model analysis was performed using the maximum
likelihood test and structural relationships. Parameter esti-
mates were obtained using LISREL 8.80 (Joreskog and Sor-
bom 1993), and the Cronbach’s coefficient was set at a = .05.
Offending Estimates
Offending estimates were used to examine whether (a) the
estimated coefficients were larger or close to one (typically
with a threshold of .95) or (b) the standard error (SE) was
overly large or assumed a negative value (Huang 2004).
Inspections of academic self-concept, learning strategies,
and academic achievement were undertaken by testing
using structural equation modeling (SEM). The offending
variance estimates were between -.81 and .86 (Fig. 2) and
the SE coefficients were between .12 and .55. No offending
estimates existed in the model of this study, and the SEM
had a good fit. Thus, the fit of the indicator to each con-
struction could be further examined.
Testing the Goodness-of-fit of the Overall Model
The index fit of the model is shown in Table 2. All fit indices
were within a satisfactory range. The fit indices were
(a) absolute fit measures of the SRMR (\.08), RMSEA
(\.08), (b) relative fit measures of the non-normed fit index
(NNFI [ .90), the CFI ([.90), and (c) parsimonious fit mea-
academic sures of the parsimony normed fit index (PNFI [ .50), the
achievement parsimony GFI (PGFI [ .50), and v2/df (\3.0). Hence, these
indices suggest a good model fit in this study.
Results of Hypothesis Tests
Direct Effect

Fig. 2 Structural equation modeling of proposed theoretical mode The hypotheses of this study were tested using SEM esti-
Note: *p \ .05, **p \ .01, dotted lines no significant mation. Table 3 summarizes the direct effect analysis used

123
424 B. H. Chen et al.

Table 2 Index of the fit of the model Table 4 Results of hypotheses test (indirect effect and total effect)
Index Accept Value Value Results Independent variable Dependent variable

Chi square (v2) 941.11 Deep Surface Strategic Academic

approach approach approach achievement
Degrees of freedom – 366
Absolute fit measures Academic self-concept
SRMR \.08 .078 Accepted Direct effect .78** .86** .55** .42**
RMSEA \.08 .065 Accepted Indirect effect – -.66* .11*
Relative fit measures Total effect .78** .20* .66**
NNFI [.9 .92 Accepted
* p \ .05, ** p \ .01
CFI [.9 .92 Accepted
Parsimonious fit measures
PNFI [.5 .80 Accepted
the strategic approach positively affected academic
PGFI [.5 .72 Accepted
achievement (b = .20, p \ .05), thereby supporting H7.
v2/df \3.0 2.57 Accepted

Indirect Effect

Our results indicated that learning strategies partially

Table 3 Results of hypothesis tests (direct effect)
mediated the effect of academic self-concept on aca-
Hypothesis paths Standardized path t value Results demic achievement. The surface approach (the level of
coefficients
indirect effect = -.66, with p \ .05) negatively medi-
H1: Academic self- .42 2.60** Supported ated the relationship. The strategic approach (the level of
concept ? Academic
achievement
indirect effect = .11, with p \ .05) mediated a positive
H2: Academic self-concept ? .78 6.25** Supported
relationship. The deep approach did not appear to exert
Deep approach mediation effects. Table 4 shows the indirect effect and
H3: Academic self-concept ? .86 8.80** Rejected total effect.
Surface approach
H4: Academic self-concept ? .55 7.94** Supported
Strategic approach
H5: Deep approach ? Academic -.38 -1.71 Rejected
Discussion and Conclusion
achievement
H6: Surface approach ? -.81 -2.17* Supported We proposed a model of academic self-concept, learning
Academic achievement
strategies, and academic achievement derived from previ-
H7: Strategic approach ? .20 2.08* Supported
Academic achievement
ous studies. The hypotheses were tested using SEM and the
goodness-of-fit of the overall model. All the models
* p \ .05, ** p \ .01
exhibited adequate fit in this study. Based on path analysis,
academic self-concept positively affected academic
achievement, which suggests that it is a predictor of aca-
to test the hypotheses of the study. Our study demonstrated demic achievement. In addition, students who exhibited a
that the effect of academic self-concept on academic high level of self-concept demonstrated their internal
achievement was significant and direct (r = .42, p \ .01), motivation to participate in learning (Henk and Melnick
which supports H1. The effect of academic self-concept on 1992; Michie et al. 2001). Our study findings are discussed
selecting deep and strategic approaches was statistically as follows.
significant (r = .78, p \ .01; r = .55, p \ .01), thus vali-
dating H2 and H4. The effect of academic self-concept on
selecting the surface approach was also significant The Relationships Among Academic Self-Concept,
(r = .86, p \ .01), and thus, H3 is rejected. The effect of Deep Approach, and Academic Achievement
the deep approach on academic achievement was insig-
nificant (b = -.38, p [ .05), and thus, H5 is rejected. The Research conducted on the relationship between aca-
surface approach negatively affected academic achieve- demic self-concept and learning strategies is scant;
ment (b = -.81, p \ .05) and thus supports H6. Finally, however, the effect of academic self-concept on learning

123
A Case Study of National Vocational College Students in Taiwan via SEM
strategies must be thoroughly investigated for people to
improve their academic achievement. The results of our
study indicate that academic self-concept positively
affects the selection of the deep approach to learning.
This is consistent with earlier works by Michie et al.
(2001) and Evans et al. (2003). Engaging in cognitive
efforts and self-reflection to develop an enhanced self-
concept, learning abilities, and academic achievement is
essential for students. Huang (2007) investigated the
relationship between self-concept and academic
achievement and considered that self-regulation learning
and metacognition are key factors related to academic
achievement (i.e., the deep approach, including under-
standing, reflection, and self-reflection, is crucial for
improving academic achievement). Therefore, numerous
researchers have considered that the deep approach
positively affects academic achievement (Chonko 1993;
Jaramillo and Spector 2004). However, our study
revealed that the deep approach seemingly does not have
a significantly positive effect on academic achievement.
This may be because of the inconsistent results observed
by Tait and Entwistle (1996). Students who use the deep
approach typically spend a substantial amount of time
exploring and delving into the fundamental aspects of
subjects to build a solid academic background. There-
fore, they are typically not adept at technical aspects that
are conducive to obtaining high exam scores. This
reflects that their lack of academic achievements is based
on the use of exam scores as the primary performance
evaluation criterion.
The Relationships Among Academic Self-Concept,
Surface Approach, and Academic Achievement
The results indicate that academic self-concept positively
affects the selection of the surface approach to learning.
The results differ from the findings of a previous study by
Burnett and Proctor (2002), which can be largely attrib-
uted to the teaching methods and evaluation systems
adopted in higher education in Taiwan. Most teachers in
Taiwan colleges instruct only by lecturing and regularly
administer quizzes or tests to students, typically on a
weekly basis, to evaluate students’ short-term learning
performance. Using such an assessment system, obtaining
high exam scores is relatively easy for students; thus, they
develop an enhanced academic self-concept, even when
the surface approach is used. Because students in our
population pool are from vocational colleges and many of
them engage in part-time employment after school, they
must seek the most efficient arrangement of available
time to balance duties performed in and after school.
425
Based on this consideration, students with an enhanced
academic self-concept may often choose the surface
approach, which enables them to achieve favorable aca-
demic performance and engage in part-time employment.
These may be the reasons for the positive effects of
academic self-concept and the surface approach.
The outcome variable in this study was academic
achievement. Students obtain greater academic achieve-
ment by using long-term memorization and knowledge
integration. In this study, the surface approach nega-
tively affected academic achievement and negatively
mediated the relationship between academic self-concept
and academic achievement. This finding is closely
associated with that of Biggs (1993), who considered
that what students learn is fragmented knowledge
obtained through rote memorization, using the surface
approach; in addition, students may not combine
knowledge integration and memorization when using the
surface approach.
The Relationships Among Academic Self-Concept,
Strategic Approach, and Academic Achievement
The results of our study indicate that academic self-con-
cept positively affects the strategic approach and aca-
demic achievement. The result is consistent with the
findings of earlier studies by Biggs (1993) and Rodriguez
(2009), who considered that business majors must use a
strategic approach to improve their learning. Academic
self-concept was a predictor of academic achievement in
this study and influenced academic achievement (.66)
through the use of the strategic approach (.11). The
strategic approach focuses on strategies for achieving
optimal academic performance effectively (Duff 1997,
2003); thus, learners may set learning plans, review les-
sons, and manage time effectively according to various
subjects and evaluation forms in order to optimize their
performance. Our study was based on the performance
and grade rank achieved over an entire semester (but not
focused on a specific subject). This may be why the
strategic approach alone directly and indirectly affects
academic achievement. Business majors may increase
their academic achievements and obtain optimal perfor-
mance by both developing academic self-concept and
using the strategic approach.
Implications and Suggestions
Psychologist Brunner (1986) emphasized self-concept in
his cognitive developmental theory as a crucial foundation
123
426
for assisting students in obtaining recent knowledge. Stu-
dents who have a high academic self-concept exhibit
stronger intrinsic motivation to participate in higher edu-
cation and possess strong self-belief regarding their ability
to successfully manage frustrations and challenges (Michie
et al. 2001). Therefore, to improve students’ academic self-
concept, first- and second-year students should focus on
integrating knowledge and learning efficiency before they
develop professional skills in their third and fourth years.
Educators of higher learning should offer care and positive
encouragement to increase student learning motivation,
efficiency, and self-concept (Chung 2013; Ozgen 2013).
The student selection of learning strategies may be
influenced by their self-concept level (Waugh 2002). Stu-
dents may achieve enhanced academic performance by
understanding their self-learning level. The findings of this
study closely agree with the results of Coles (1990), which
indicated that knowledge acquisition involves applying
knowledge rather than simply obtaining high exam scores.
Duff (1997) concluded that the deep approach integrates
former and new knowledge and improves learning behav-
iors and memorization. We suggest that business majors
would benefit from combining deep and strategic approa-
ches. Students may use the deep approach to obtain new
knowledge and build long-term memory and adopt the
strategic approach to review all lessons and obtain optimal
exam grades.
We used the self-enhancement model to conduct a cross-
sectional study and investigated the relationship of aca-
demic concept and academic achievement. Future studies
can incorporate experiments or a longitudinal study to
123
B. H. Chen et al.
validate our findings. Regarding mediation, relevant stud-
ies have demonstrated that various teaching methods and
evaluation policies may potentially influence how students
select learning approaches (Struyven et al. 2003). There-
fore, future studies should focus on investigating teaching
methods and evaluation policies to deeply explore the
relationship between learning strategies and academic
achievement.
Appendix 1: Status of Higher Education in Taiwan
Higher education in Taiwan is primarily divided into two
types of systems, general universities (academic oriented)
and vocational colleges (practical oriented). The pools of
students enrolled in these two educational systems are
markedly different. Senior high school students, who are
primarily concerned with general fundamental subjects,
attend general universities, whereas senior (industrial)
vocational high school students who are focused on prac-
tical training and pursuing a career are primarily enrolled
in vocational colleges. However, the exam-oriented edu-
cation system in Taiwan has driven most students to choose
universities over vocational colleges. Furthermore, attend-
ing general universities is commonly considered a higher
education opportunity (Lin and Wang 2011).
Vocational college has thus become a secondary choice
for students. The support provided by the government to
general universities doubles that given to vocational col-
leges. Therefore, a gap exists between these two types of
higher education avenues
A Case Study of National Vocational College Students in Taiwan via SEM 427

Instruments
Academic Self-Concept strongly strongly
disagree agree
Math self-concept 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 I am enthusiastic with math.
2 I can do math smoothly.
3 I am confident with math.
4 My math skill is superior to other students.
Language self-concept
5 I am able to express myself via words.
6 I am satisfied with my reading skills.
7 I am not afraid of taking language-related-tests.
8 My language skill is superior to other students.
Specialized subject self-concept
9 I think I am suitable for this department.
10 I am free to exercise my special faculty to the utmost in
my professional field.
11 It is easy for me to get a grasp of my studies.
12 My specialized subject skill is superior to other
students.

Learning strategies
Strongly neither agree Strongly
disagree agree
disagree nor disagree agree
Deep approach 1 2 3 4 5
13 What I learned in class is practical and
life-oriented.
14 This course is meaningful to me.
15 I selected this course because I was interested in it.
16 I often ponder over the messages that the textbooks
are trying to convey.
17 I would try to relate chapter's content.
18 I am used to practice what I learned in class into
my life.
Surface approach
19 I am used to prepare my tests by memorizing.
20 I spend a lot of time memorizing certain subject
matter.
21 The knowledge I receive from class has no relation
to my life and is also not practical.
22 I fear I might fall behind class.
Strategic approach
23 I take notes in class.
24 I spend time sorting my notes.
25 I focus on my studies before exams.
26 In order to get good grades, I devote myself
preparing for tests.
27 The knowledge given in class was plentiful, thus I
only study what was lectured in class.

123
428 B. H. Chen et al.

Academic achievement
Strongly neither agree Strongly
disagree agree
disagree nor disagree agree
1 2 3 4 5
28 I think my academic achievement was good.
I think subject-oriented training courses have
29
helped me develop my working ability.
I think subject-oriented training courses have
30
helped me develop problem-solving skills.
31 This semester, my academic achievement performance score is?
(1)under 20 points (2)21-39 points (3)40-59points (4) 60-79points (5)over80 points
32 This semester, my academic achievement performance in class percentage is?
(1) under 20% (2) 21-39% (3) 40-59% (4) 60-79% (5) over 80%

Appendix 2

.
See Figs. 3, 4, 5 and Table 5.

Fig. 3 Measurement model of

ASCQ (Standardized 0.16* X1 0.33*
coefficient),*p\.05 0.92*
0.11* X2
0.94* math
0.28* X3 0.85* self-concept

0.44* 0.75*
X4
0.57*
0.82*
0.42* X5
0.76*
0.67* X6 0.58* language 0.65* academic
0.81* self-concept self-concept
0.34* X7 0.74*

0.45* X8
0.11*
0.93*
0.44* X9
0.75*
0.57* X10 0.65* specialized subject
0.82* self-concept
0.33* X11 0.80*

0.36* X12

*p <.05

123
A Case Study of National Vocational College Students in Taiwan via SEM 429

Fig. 4 Measurement model of

LSQ (Standardized coefficient), 0.52* X13
*p\.05 0.74*
0.60* X14 0.65*
0.61* Deep
0.63* X15 Approach
0.78*
0.47* X16 0.69*
0.68*
0.56* X17

0.57* X18 -0.46

0.55* X19
0.70*
0.65* 0.42
0.60* X20 Surface
0.76* Approach
0.49* X21
0.74*
0.51* X22

0.56* X23 -0.20

0.69*
0.59* X24 0.66*
0.73* Strategic
0.52* X25
0.73* Approach
0.52* X26 0.70*
0.55* X27

*p <.05

0.38* X28 Table 5 Index of the fit

0.79*
0.66* Index Accept value ASCQ LSQ AAQ
0.56* X29 academic
0.57* achievement chi-square (v2) – 215.18 230.42 69.69
0.67* X30 0.93* Degrees of Freedom – 51 87 25
SRMR \0.08 0.04 0.05 0.05
0.13* X31
0.95* RMSEA \0.08 0.08 0.06 0.09
0.10* X32 GFI [0.9 0.92 0.93 0.94
CFI [0.9 0.97 0.94 0.96
*p <.05 NNFI [0.9 0.97 0.93 0.91
PNFI [0.5 0.75 0.78 0.58
Fig. 5 Measurement model of AAQ (Standardized coefficient), PGFI [0.5 0.60 0.64 0.51
*p\.05

123
430
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