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ARTICLE 1:

Author(s) of Article Haifa Albadry

Year of Article 2015
The effect of iPad assisted language learning on developing
Article Title
EFL students’ autonomous language learning
Signal Processing and Multimedia; Critical CALL – Proceedings
Journal Title of the 2015 EUROCALL Conference, Padova, Italy
Volume and Page Numbers
Conference paper, page 1-8
of Articles
Publisher of Article Research-publishing.net

Albadry (2015) conducted a study about the use of iPad in EFL students to learn to collaborate
and interact using a wide range of activities supported by iPad devices. As the use of Mobile Learning
said to be more flexible, portable and more effective than a computer labs, as defined by Hulme and
Shield, cited from Albadry (2015), they defined Mobile Learning (ML) as “learning mediated via
handheld devices and potentially available anytime, anywhere. Such learning may be formal or
informal”; therefore, the activities that usually occur in the classroom ercan easily be altered i.e.
students could work individually, in pairs, groups or as a class. The other reason for using an iPad is
that because iPad is lightweight compared to laptop or computer, and a feature of App Store which
enables the students to access a wide range of educational applications.
The participants were a group of 21 female students majoring in Computer Sciences at the
College of Community in Qatif, Dammam University, Saudi Arabia. The students were classified by
their teacher as at a beginner level in English. This study used mixed methods: a) SILL (Strategy
Inventory for Language Learning) Questionnaires; b) focus group interviews; c) student’s diaries
which was submitted weekly subject to students’ agreement (Albadry, 2015). The project was using
21 iPads along with preloaded applications, ibooks, iTuneU and the online tracker software.
The use of Mobile Learning (ML) enhanced some forms of learners’ autonomy, such as: 1)
collaborating, by using different applications such as Voice thread and Ask3, the students were able
to participate more in group work activities; 2) motivation, as the learners students reported their
attempts to improve their English skills, were reported to be motivated enough to do extra work on
their own either by seeking opportunities to practice English language, or by interacting with other
language users.
The author suggested that to consider the potential of iPad to facilitate students’ collaboration
as it enabled peer-to-peer interaction, and as a means to increase students’ engagement and
motivation to learn the target language. The author also suggest for further analysis of the data is
expected to offer new insights into the how iPad technology or similar devices can be incorporated
into a course, and to help educational institutions and EFL teachers how such devices can facilitate
students’ collaborative learning and motivation beyond the classroom (Albadry, 2015, p. 7).
 The effect of iPad assisted language
learning on developing EFL students’
autonomous language learning

Haifa Albadry1

Abstract. This paper will present the experience of using iPads with a group of
21 students in a Saudi university over a period of one semester. The purpose of
this ongoing study is to explore how students learn to collaborate and interact in
English by participating in a teacher-designed English as a Foreign Language
(EFL) course. The course aimed at teaching students to work together by using a
wide range of activities supported by the use of iPad devices. Data were gathered
through a questionnaire, focus group interviews and learners’ diaries. The findings
indicate that the use of the iPad when integrated carefully into a language course,
and with the teacher’s instruction, can have positive effects on students’ motivation
and learning. There is evidence that this form of learning provides students with
opportunities to collaborate with their peers, develop relationships and build bonds.
Based on these findings, there seem to be clear benefits of integrating mobile devices
into language courses.

Keywords: iPad, mobile assisted language learning, collaboration, motivation,

learner autonomy.

1. Introduction

The expansion in mobile computing technology has increased its potential benefits
as tools to assist learning, and a new form of learning has consequently developed,
based on the concept of learners’ mobility. Hulme and Shield (2008) defined
Mobile Learning (ML) as “learning mediated via handheld devices and potentially

1. Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK; h.f.albadry@newcastle.ac.uk

How to cite this article: Albadry, H. (2015). The effect of iPad assisted language learning on developing EFL
students’ autonomous language learning. In F. Helm, L. Bradley, M. Guarda, & S. Thouësny (Eds), Critical CALL
– Proceedings of the 2015 EUROCALL Conference, Padova, Italy (pp. 1-8). Dublin: Research-publishing.net. http://
dx.doi.org/10.14705/rpnet.2015.000302

1
Haifa Albadry

available anytime, anywhere. Such learning may be formal or informal” (p. 273).
According to this definition, ML has four essential characteristics, which have to
be considered when implementing it in teaching and learning contexts: Firstly,
learning is ubiquitous; due to the mobility of these handheld devices, learners
have the ability to move physically and virtually between multiple contexts and
content (Kinash & Brand, 2012). Secondly, learning is not restricted to face-
to face-interaction but rather it can also provide learners with opportunities for
asynchronous and synchronous interaction (Hall & Smith, 2011). Thirdly, ML
defies the three principles of conventional instruction, namely the fixed time,
location and pace, as learning can become a continuous and spontaneous process
(Hall & Smith, 2011).

ML differs significantly from the typical use of technology provided by occasional

visits to computer labs or the supplement of desktop computers in the classroom, in
its portability, durability, affordability and personalised nature. Compared to fixed
desktops, mobile devices allow for “face-to-face collaboration” which positively
affects students’ interaction (Meurant, 2010). In addition, these handheld tools do
not require fixed arrangement, which computer labs do, in order to incorporate
technology into the classroom. Therefore, the range of activities which usually
occur in the English for Foreign Learners’ (EFL) classroom can easily be altered
i.e. students can work individually, in pairs, groups or as a class (Meurant, 2010).
There is therefore a growing interest in investigating the attitudes of learners and
teachers towards this form of learning, as well as the learning outcomes and the
everyday practicalities of incorporating the use of such technology into a language
course.

Recently, many instructors and researchers have joined the experience of ML (Li
& Li, 2011). Various studies, as a consequence, have been conducted to assess the
effectiveness of ML at enhancing collaboration and interaction (Alvarez, Brown,
& Nussbaum, 2011; Bowman & Benson, 2009); student engagement (Dualde,
Buendia, & Cano, 2010); fostering self-study and self-regulated learning and
improving creativity and critical thinking skills (Cavus & Usunboylu, 2009); and
raising students’ motivation (Rau, Gao, & Wub, 2008). However, other studies have
suggested that the ambitious aims of ML are falling short due to the limitations of
the mobile devices being used, i.e. smart phones, iPods, laptops, netbooks and
PDAs (Wang & Wang, 2009).

This situation has started to change with the emergence of a recent advance in
mobile technology, the iPad, which has the potential to provide easy access to
efficient pedagogy (Manuguerra & Petocz, 2011). The iPad has a large multi-touch

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 The effect of iPad assisted language learning on developing...

display screen (7.7 inch) which resembles the size of a textbook. According to
Henderson and Yeow (2012), such features maximise students’ learning experience
as they feel more involved, motivated and engaged. Other unique characteristics
include its lightweight, long battery life (about ten hours), built-in microphone
and camera, built-in App Store which enables learners to access a wide range
of educational applications and a page layout which can be altered from portrait
to landscape. In addition, the iPad has a streamlined design with no peripheral
attachments, such as cabling, mouse or keyboard; and no distracting buttons having
just a virtual on-screen keyboard and a single control button. In fact, the highly
usable and simple platform of the iPad reduces the learning curve that typically
occurs when using technology (Demski, 2011).The combinations of these features
makes such devices stand out amongst previous generations of mobile technology
due to their unique design which combines laptop functionality with smartphone
portability (Murphy, 2011).

This ongoing study proposes to introduce mobile language learning in a Saudi

context where classrooms are dominated by teacher-centred instruction, which has
deprived students of opportunities to engage in an active learning. Rather, many
learners tend to participate in an educational system that focuses on fulfilling
the requirements of the course in an artificial environment. In such an approach,
learners expect their teacher to impart knowledge to them, which has reduced them
to passive recipients and demotivated learners. Therefore, the rationale of this
project stems from the writer’s assumption that using an iPad device or any similar
technology could enhance EFL learning by offering unlimited opportunities to
facilitate and enrich language learning. It also seeks to shift the current conventional
teacher-centred classroom to a more dynamic one by involving students in an
active and independent approach to learning. However, this is to be achieved not
by leaving students to themselves but by guiding and giving them a reason to work
as an active agent and to take responsibility of their own learning.

The study was guided by the main research question: Can a teacher-guided EFL
course, delivered via the iPad device, enhance learners’ autonomous language
learning?

2. Methods

2.1. Participants

Participants were a group of 21 female students majoring in Computer Sciences

at the College of Community in Qatif, Dammam University, Saudi Arabia. Their

3
Haifa Albadry

ages ranged from 19 to 24 years. Students were classified by the coordinator of the
English department and by their teacher as at a beginner level in English, based on
their first semester exam. Their educational background in learning English varied
from six years to 12 years.

2.2. Data collection

In order to provide a holistic investigation of the issues raised in this study, a

mixed methods case study research design was adopted, in which a combination
of various data collection instruments were used: a) SILL Questionnaires
(Strategy Inventory for Language Learning, adopted from Oxford, 1990)
which was administered to the students at three separate time points (prior to
the study, after 12 weeks, and six months after the end of the study); b) focus
group interviews, twenty-one students were divided into three groups of seven
each (the interviews were audiotaped to ensure accurate transcription and were
performed in Arabic); and c) students’ diaries which were submitted weekly
subject to students’ agreement. By the end of the course, there were 70 entries
ranging from four pages to five lines.

2.3. Data analysis

The data obtained from the questionnaires were analysed statistically through
SPSS software (Statistical Package for Social Sciences). In regards to the data
obtained from learners’ diaries and focus group interviews, an inductive thematic
analysis was carried out based on Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-phase approach.

2.4. Materials

The project was self-funded, thus, 21 iPads along with the preloaded applications,
the ibooks (electronic version of Q Skills for Success Listening and Speaking Book
provided by Oxford University Press), the iTune U course management system that
was used in the project to supplement the course materials, and the online tracker
software were purchased at the researcher’s personal expense.

3. Results and discussion

From the data analysis, the potential of the iPad device and the mobile-assisted
language learning approach appear to have enhanced some forms of learner
autonomy, such as collaborating with others, motivation, and change of attitude as
can be seen in the following sections.

4
 The effect of iPad assisted language learning on developing...

3.1. Collaboration

One of the advantages of the iPad-assisted language learning course was that it
facilitates the collaborative learning. By using the different applications such
as Voice thread and Ask3, students were able to participate more in group work
activities. Such Apps have facilitated ‘anytime’ or ‘non-real-time’ communication
either among students or with the teacher.

“There are some programmes on the iPad which have made it possible to
connect with my classmates outside of class; especially ‘Fuze’ programme
which I began using in class to complete homework tasks and for speaking
practice”.

It seems that the new learning environment allowed students to form emotional
bonds and build bridges with other members of their class, who they previously did
not have the chance to get to know. Such optimal conditions, created by the course
(which was carefully designed by the researcher to blend the different applications
provided via the iPads with the English syllabus) were especially relevant in a
situation where face to face interaction was not typically possible.

“I like the collaborative task of working in a group because it has helped

build my communication with my classmates; some of whom I had
limited communication with in class only. But now I can communicate
with them”.

In addition, some reluctant students reported that seeing others’ posted answers
motivated them to improve their performance and complete the task. The
availability of their peers’ assignments worked as a model, on which slow students
were able to base their own work. Such peer teaching and learning would not
have been possible without the affordances provided by the iPad device and the
new learning approach.

3.2. Motivation: results from questionnaires

In the SILL questionnaire, learners were asked how using their iPads could impact
their engagement with, attitude to, and motivation toward English language
learning inside and outside the classroom. Learners indicated their attitude on a
five-point Likert scale. Frequencies and percentiles were calculated for eight items
specifically designed to elicit learners’ responses in relation to their attitude and
motivation toward learning English. In this study, the Friedman test was used

5
Haifa Albadry

to determine if there were any differences in students’ responses to the SILL

questionnaire relevant to their motivation and attitude toward English learning.

Table 1. Results of Friedman test

The application of the Friedman test indicated that there was a significant change
(p=.001) in the students’ response in terms of their attitude and motivation towards
English language learning over the three time points (Table 1).

The iPad-assisted language course appeared to be highly motivating for students.

Several students reported their attempts to improve their English skills. They were
motivated enough to do extra work on their own either by seeking opportunities
to practise English language, or by interacting with other language users. Most
comments showed that they had found the course to be fun, novel, and challenging.

“This type of programme has made studying more enjoyable and a person
can develop herself just by learning to use it in a way they didn’t know
before”.

The majority of students were fond of the new teaching method to the extent that
they hoped it would be extended for a longer period.

“Overall, the course has been enjoyable and beneficial but it is not enough
and I wish it was longer”.

In addition, evidence from students’ interviews provided additional insights into

their experience and behaviour after the integration of the iPad device into the
course. Indeed, a broadly positive picture emerged in which a remarkable shift
from being passive learners to active learners has been shown. Many students
emphasised that the iPad-assisted language learning course offered them something
different from what they used to have before. For example, one student expressed
her enthusiasm to attend the English class which reflects change in her motivation
and behaviour after the course.

“I started to try more, I love trying to work through with the VoiceThred
app. for example, I loved working on the topic and discussing it with my
friends… because the iPad made it easier for me to communicate. I mean

6
 The effect of iPad assisted language learning on developing...

...mm I felt that studying became exciting and not boring like before, now
I like collaborating and communicating”.

Overall, comments from students indicate that the majority of students experienced
a shift in their behaviour after the intervention. They started to appreciate the new
learning experience, which opens the door for new ways of learning and improving
their English.

4. Conclusions

The preliminary results of the study suggest considerable potential for the iPad
to facilitate students’ collaboration as it enabled peer-to-peer interaction, and
as a means to increase students’ engagement and motivation to learn the target
language. Further analysis of the data is expected to offer new insights into the how
iPad technology or similar devices can be incorporated into a course, and to help
educational institutions and EFL teachers how such devices can facilitate students’
collaborative learning and motivation beyond the classroom. Overall, this study
demonstrates the potential of mobile-devices in enriching the EFL experience
through enabling opportunities that cannot be found in traditional classroom
environments.

References

Alvarez, C., Brown, C., & Nussbaum, M. (2011). Comparative study of netbooks and tablet PCs
for fostering face-to-face collaborative learning. Computers in Human Behaviour, 27(2),
834-844. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.11.008
Bowman, D., & Benson, L. (2009). Effectiveness of shared tablet Pc use on facilitating student
interactions. Proceedings of the 2009 American Society for Engineering Education Annual
Conference & Exposition.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in
Psychology, 3, 77-101.
Cavus, N., & Usunboylu, H. (2009). Improving critical thinking skills in mobile learning. Procedia
- Social and Behavioural Sciences, 1(1), 434-438. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.078
Demski, J. (2011). ELL to go. The Journal, 38(5), 28-32.
Dualde, J., Buendia, F., & Cano, J. (2010). On the design of interactive classroom environments
based on the tablet PC technology. Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) 2010 IEEE.
Washington. doi:10.1109/FIE.2010.5673355
Hall, O. P., & Smith, D. M. (2011). Assessing the role of mobile learning systems in graduate
management education. In K. Reggie, J. Fong, L.-F. Kwok, & J. Lam (Eds.), Hybrid learning
(pp. 279-288). Heidelberg: Springer Berlin.

7
Haifa Albadry

Henderson, S., & Yeow, J. (2012). iPad in education: a case study of iPad adoption and use in
primary school. Proceedings the 45th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences.
Hulme, A., & Shield, L. (2008). An overview of mobile assisted language learning: from content
delivery to supported collaboration and interaction. ReCALL, 20(3), 271-289.
Kinash, S., & Brand, J. (2012). Challenging mobile learning discourse through research: student
perceptions of Blackboard mobile learn and iPads. Australian Journal of Educational
Technology, 28(4), 639-655.
Li, Y., & Li, J. (2011). Learning on the move: a case study of mobile learning assisted English
reading instruction in Chinese tertiary education. The 6th International Conference on
Computer Science 7 Education. Singapore: IEEE. doi:10.1109/iccse.2011.6028799
Manuguerra, M., & Petocz, P. (2011). Promoting student engagement by integrating new
technology into tertiary education: the role of the iPad. Asian Social Science, 7(11), 61-65.
doi:10.5539/ass.v7n11p61
Meurant, R. (2010). The iPad and EFL digital literacy. Communications in Computer and
Information Science, 123, 224-234. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-17641-8_27
Murphy, G. (2011). Post-PC devices: a summary of early iPad technology adoption in tertiary
environments. e-Journal of Business Education & Scholarship of Teaching, 5(1),18-32.
Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies: what every teacher should know. New York:
Newbury House.
Rau, P.-L. P., Gao, Q., & Wub, L.-M. (2008). Using mobile communication technology in
high school education: motivation, pressure, and learning performance. Computers and
Education, 50, 1-22. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2006.03.008
Wang, Y., & Wang, H. (2009). Investigating the determinants and age and gender differences in
the acceptance of mobile learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(1), 92-118.
doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2007.00809.x

8
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ARTICLE 2:

ERYANSYAH1, ERLINA2, FIFTINOVA3, ARI

Author(s) of Article
NURWENI4
Year of Article 2019
EFL Students' Needs of Digital Literacy to Meet the
Article Title
Demands of 21st Century Skills
Journal Title Indonesian Research Journal in Education
Volume and Page Numbers
Vol 3, issue 2, page 442 – 460
of Articles
Jambi University, the Graduate School, Doctoral Program
Publisher of Article
in Education

Eryansyah et al. (2019) conducted a study about current knowledge and skills of EFL students
in ICT (Information and Communication Technology). Because as the time goes by, we have moved
into using technology in educational purposes, replacing the old tools with the new tools of digital
technology. In contrast, the use of ICT in the classroom in many developing countries like Indonesia
is still a new phenomenon as they still had limitations in using digital media (Eryansyah et al.,
2019). Because being digitally native does not guarantee to be digitally literate, as some use the
digital technology mostly only as a medium for communication or information sharing, and as the
result of being digitally illiterate, they sometimes ignore the ethics in using social media.
The participants were involving two groups of students from two state-owned universities in
the southern part of Sumatra; 62 students from university A and 57 students from university B. This
was a quantitative study since it used a quantitative data instrument in the form of questionnaires to
gather information from EFL students on their existing ICT knowledge and abilities, as well as the
issues that prevented them from improving their ICT knowledge and skills properly.
The findings showed that the students from State-owned university A used ICT mainly for
supporting teamwork and collaboration, sharing information and self-instruction; meanwhile, the
students from state-owned university B mainly used ICT for sharing information, owning data
protection, self-instruction, supporting teamwork or collaboration and for direct interaction with
experts or members of local/global communities. Both groups shared similar ideas that ICT had been
used to support teamwork or collaboration, to share information, and to be used for self-instruction;
however, the data also reveal that more ICT tools were very limitedly used by participants from both
groups. Regarding the frequency of using computer and internet applications, the data findings show
that participants from State-owned university B had used computers and internet applications more
frequently than those from state-owned university A. From students’ self-rating on their skills in
using computers and internet applications showed that only two internet applications (web search
engines and dictionary applications) that were claimed by more than 60% of participants from both
groups. However, the data also showed that despite the limited access, low knowledge and skills in
using computers and internet applications, the students stated that they had a positive attitude toward
the importance of digital literacy in language learning.
 The author suggested that in order for the students could improve their digital literacy in ICT
was the availability of public computers with internet access that can be accessed by students
anytime, ICT training for both teachers and students, and the continuous integration of ICT in
language learning. Eryansyah et al. (2019) also recommended for further study investigating EFL
students’ digital literacy which involves more samples from several universities in Indonesia, various
research instruments, and a longer time to conduct the study, because this study had some limitations
including its non-generalizability, limited number of samples, time constraints, and less varied
research instruments.

REFERENCES
Albadry, H. (2015). The effect of iPad assisted language learning on developing EFL students’
autonomous language learning. Ml, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.14705/rpnet.2015.000302
Eryansyah, Erlina, Fiftinova, & Nurweni., A. (2019). EFL students’ needs of digital literacy to
meet the demands of 21stcentury skills. Indonesian Research Journal in Education, 3(2),
442–460. https://online-journal.unja.ac.id/irje/article/view/8297
EFL Students' Needs of Digital Literacy to Meet the Demands
of 21stCentury Skills
ERYANSYAH1 , ERLINA2, FIFTINOVA3, ARI NURWENI4

Abstract
This study was a survey study which was aimed at looking at EFL students’ current
knowledge and skills of ICT. The research questions of this study were(1) What
levels of digital literacy are the EFL students?, (2) What are the factors affecting EFL
students in using ICT in language learning?, and (3) What are the students' needs to
improve their digital literacy skills to meet the demands of the 21st century skills?
Two groups of EFL students from two state-owned universities in the southern part
of Sumatra were involved in this study. A set of questionnaires adapted from Ravitz
(2014) was used. The findings showed that EFL students’ current level of digital
literacy was categorized low. Factors affecting them from using ICT in language
learning properly were limited use of ICT applications as a tool for language learning
and limited access to computers and internet applications on campus. What the EFL
students needed to improve their digital literacy skills was the availability of
computers with internet applications to be used anytime on campus, ICT training for
both teachers and students, and continuous integration of ICT in language learning.

Keywords
Digital technology, ICT, digital native, digitally literate

1. Language and Arts Education Department, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Sriwijaya
University, Palembang, Indonesia; eryansyah@unsri.ac.id.
2. Language and Arts Education Department, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Sriwijaya
University, Palembang, Indonesia; erlina@fkip.unsri.ac.id.
3. Language and Arts Education Department, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Sriwijaya
University, Palembang, Indonesia; fiftinova@fkip.unsri.ac.id.
4. Language and Arts Education Department, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Lampung
University, Bandar Lampung, Indonesia; a.nurweni@yahoo.com.

IRJE | Vol. 3 | No. 2| Year 2019 |E-ISSN: 2580-5711 442

 Introduction

Teaching EFL students today is different from the one we did several decades ago,
especially in terms of technology used in language teaching. Several decades ago, we still
used a tape player, video player, and blackboard or whiteboard as media used in the
classroom. Today those media have been replaced by digital technologies such as mp3
replacing tape cassette, mp4 replacing videotapes, and smart board replacing blackboard and
whiteboard. All those teaching media can be controlled from a single computer. The
communication between teacher and students outside class hours have changed too. We
used to communicate through landlines and mobile phones. Today our communication is
made through digital-based technologies such as smartphones or tablets with various
applications (Instagram, email, short text messages, WhatsApp, video calls from WhatsApp,
Gmail, Facebook, and Skype) (Kuldip-Singh & Samah, 2018; Miakotko, 2017). The massive
use of those applications indicates that most people today including the EFL teachers and
students today are active users of digital technologies.
Digital technologies have been used in teaching and learning activities in most
developed countries for more than 25 years (Passey et al., 2016). They named digital
technologies as ICT, Information and Communication Technology. In contrast, the use of
ICT in the classroom in many developing countries like Indonesia is still a new
phenomenon. ICT has not been integrated into the classroom yet especially in EFL classes.
A study conducted by Kurniawati, Maolida, and Anjaniputra (2018) concluded that EFL
teachers today were still in the stage of adapting digital media to their EFL classes. They still
had limitations in using digital media. Although the use of ICT has been introduced in
education since 2001 based on the Decree of the Ministry of State Apparatus Utilization No.
133/M.PAN/5/2001, EFL teachers are still reluctant to integrate it in their EFL teaching
(Durriyah & Zuhdi, 2018). One of the causes, as explained by Lubis (2018), is that “time
allocation and technical problems become the major constraints to conduct a proper
integration” (p. 18). Price-Dennis, Wiebe, and Fowler-Amato (2014 as cited in Durriyah &
Zuhdi, 2018, p. 54) add that “a gap between availability and use of digital technologies in
classroom” also affect teachers’ reluctance to integrate digital technologies or ICT in the
classroom. Realizing that EFL teaching today has changed and the change has involved
digital technology or ICT, EFL teachers and/or EFL students who are the prospective EFL
teachers must have anticipated the changes. Although they are digital natives1, there is no
guarantee that they are digitally literate. Data from Kominfo (2014) shows that there were 82
million internet users in Indonesia in 2014 which was the 8th largest users in the world. That
number must have increased significantly this year. Despite the big number, according to
1
Digital natives are those who are born in the digital era and are the native speakers of “the digital language of
computers, video games and the Internet” (Prensky, 2001, p. 1).

IRJE | Vol. 3 | No. 2| Year 2019 |E-ISSN: 2580-5711 443

Tampubolon (2017), most Indonesians, in reality, do not have a strong understanding of
how the digital world works. A large number of them are still digitally illiterate. They use
digital technology mainly only as a medium for communication or information sharing.
The above condition is relevant to what was stated by Spires and Bartlett (2012) that
although the students today are digital natives, they lack complete knowledge of digital
literacy. They are not very aware of how the actual use of technology has influenced their
learning. As a result, they sometimes ignore ethics in using social media. In the Indonesian
context, Supratman and Wahyudin (2017) found that the lack of digital literacy education has
caused many Indonesian students do not know how to use social media wisely and
responsibly. Based on the explanations above, it is obvious that being digitally literate is
important for everyone in this digital era including those who are in higher education. For
university students, as claimed by Fieldhouse and Nicholas (2008), being digitally literate
allows them to have the skills to think critically on how to determine the information
received is credible and possessing the information, and the skills to contextualize, analyze,
and synthesize any information found online. In short, digital literacy is becoming a skill
necessary for everyone in this 21st century. Knowing students’ lack of digital literacy skills
and realizing the importance of being digitally literate in the 21st century, the authors
considered it was important to teach digital literacy skills to students including those, the
prospective EFL teachers who were in the last year of their study at university. Before
teaching digital literacy to them, it was deemed necessary to find out their current level of
digital literacy and their needs of digital literacy to meet the demands of the 21st century
skills. For that reason, this study was conducted to investigate EFL students’ current level of
digital literacy and their needs for digital literacy to meet the demands of 21st century skills.
This study was a survey study involving English education study program students
from two state-owned universities in two big cities in the southern part of Sumatra. The
focus of this study was to investigate EFL students’ current level of digital literacy and their
needs of digital literacy to meet the demands of 21st century skills. The purpose of the study
was aimed at looking at EFL students’ current level of digital literacy, finding out factors
affecting EFL students in using ICT in language learning, and identifying EFL students’
needs to improve their digital literacy skills to meet the demands of the 21st century skills. To
achieve the purpose of the study, these research questions guided the study: (1) What levels
of digital literacy are the EFL students?, (2) What are the factors affecting EFL students in
using ICT in language learning?, and (3) What are the students' needs to improve their digital
literacy skills to meet the demands of the 21st century skills?

Literature Review

Digital technology

Digital technology refers to “the ever-evolving suite of digital software, hardware and
architecture used in learning and teaching in the school, the home and beyond both home

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and school environments” (Lee & Finger, 2010, p. 15).This term is used interchangeably
with educational technology, computer-based technologies, learning technology, and ICT.
Among those terms, ICT (Information and Communication Technology) is the most
commonly used term (Lee & Finger, 2010). Therefore, the term ICT will be mostly used in
the rest of this article.
ICT has changed the ways people do their daily activities. It affects them at least in
three main sectors, that is, education, communication, and entertainment and leisure. In
terms of education, the advancement of technology today has changed the ways teaching
and learning activities performed in the class. Ciroma (2014) found out that,

Worldwide research has shown that ICT can lead to improved student learning and
better teaching methods. A report made by the National Institute of Multimedia
Education in Japan proved that an increase in student exposure to educational ICT
has a significant impact on student’s achievement, especially in terms of knowledge,
comprehension, practical skill and presentation skill in subject areas such as
mathematics, science, and social study. (p. 99)

The above explanation indicates that the integration of ICT in the classroom gives
benefits to both teachers and students. Through ICT, teachers can use a lot of images to
improve retention of students’ memory, explain difficult instruction and ensure students’
understanding of the material discussed, and create more exciting class instruction, attract
students’ attention and improve their concentration (Lachica, 2015; Mogekwu, 2015).
ICT has also changed the role of a teacher in the classroom. The teacher is no longer
the only source of knowledge. He or she facilitates the creation of knowledge and skills. This
condition changes students’ behaviors from passive to active students. Being facilitated by
the teacher, students can collaborate with others to discover new knowledge and skills. In
brief, the integration of ICT in the classroom transforms the teaching and learning process
in the class from teacher-centered to be student-centered (Lachica, 2015).
The impact of ICT on entertainment is that ICT has enabled people to have more
entertainment offered. People spend less time outside during their leisure time as they can
find any entertainment they need through their gadgets (such as smartphones, tablets, or
laptops) to watch online movies on YouTube or paid movies, listen to MP3 songs, or play
online games. They can even watch TV or movies for the whole family at home using home
internet and cable TV.

Impact of ICT on EFL teaching and learning

ICT is believed to have great impacts on EFL teaching and learning. Research
findings on ICT around the world show that the use of ICT in EFL teaching “can lead to
increased student learning and improved teaching methods” (Papadima-Sophocleous,
Giannikas, & Kakoulli-Constantinou, 2014, p. 296).In a similar vein, Azmi (2017) and

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Hussain (2018)assert that the use of ICT in the language classroom affects the increase of
students’ autonomous learning, motivation, and performance in EFL learning. For EFL
teachers, Houcine (2011) summarizes six impacts of the use of ICT on EFL teaching.

(1) The possibility to adapt easily the teaching materials according to circumstances,
learner’s needs and response; (2) ICT allows to react upon and enables the use of
recent/daily news, it offers access to authentic materials on the web; (3) Quick
feedback is made possible; (4) Possibility to combine/use alternately (basic) skills
(text and images, audio and video clip...); (5) Lectures become more interesting and
less ordinary which boosts learners’ engagement; (6) ICT enables to focus on one
specific aspect of the lesson (pronunciation, vocabulary...). (Houcine, 2011, pp. 1-2)

The above explanation shows that the use of ICT in language teaching has given
positive impacts for both teachers and students. The integration of ICT in language teaching
makes EFL teaching more effective in enhancing language learning as stated by Cetto (2010),
“In my experience, technology has broadened the spectrum of interaction while empowering
the students’ learning process by providing better opportunities for language usage” (p. 121).

Importance of being digitally literate

As most of the undergraduate students today are digital natives, they have been
exposed to the use of digital technology (smartphones, tablets, laptops, desktops, music and
movie players, etc.). It is believed that many of them are digitally literate. This condition is an
opportunity for EFL teachers. They can integrate ICT into their EFL classrooms. They can
use smartphones, for example, to develop students’ language skills (listening, speaking,
reading, and writing) by adapting any authentic materials available on the internet that are
appropriate to be used for their students. They can share the materials using smartphone
applications such as WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram, etc.
To run an ICT-based EFL teaching well, both EFL teachers and students must be
digitally literate. The meaning of the term literate used here is different from its literal
meaning found in a dictionary, that is, having the capability of reading and writing. The
advancement of technology and the internet today has integrated the word literacy with digital
literacy. Jones and Flannigan (2006)define,

Digital literacy is the ability to understand and use information in multiple formats
from a wide range of sources when it is presented via computers... (Not) only must
you acquire the skill of finding things, you must also acquire the ability to use those
things in your life. Acquiring digital literacy for Internet use involves mastering a set
of core competencies. (p. 6)

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 In brief, being digitally literate here can be interpreted as having the ability to
navigate digital media for information and communication and to utilize them effectively,
creatively, and responsibly. There are three components that EFL teachers and students
need to have to be indicated that they are digitally literate. Those components are
information literacy (IL), information and communication technology (ICT) skills, and media
literacy (ML)(Chu, Reynolds, Tavares, Notari, & Lee, 2017). Chu et al. (2017) further explain,

IL is the ability to effectively and ethically select, evaluate and use information to
gain, apply and share their knowledge…, ICT skills … refer to the ability to use
digital technology, communication tools, and/or networks to access, manage,
integrate, evaluate and create bodies of information, [and] ML … is associated with
the ability to access, analyze, evaluate and communicate messages in a variety of
forms. (p. 22)

Being digitally literate is deemed very important today. Since digital media are
available almost everywhere today and most of students today are already digital natives, the
EFL teachers who are digitally literate can utilize ICT to create new ways of teaching and
learning within or outside the classroom. But, EFL students’ current level of digital literacy
skills and any factors affecting the implementation of ICT in the class should be identified
before the ICT program is properly integrated into EFL teaching. In this way, students’ need
for digital literacy is to meet the demand of the 21st century skills can be properly
programmed.

Methodology
Research design
This was a survey study involving two groups of students from two state-owned
universities in the southern part of Sumatra. There were three reasons why this study
involved two state-owned universities in the southern part of Sumatra. Firstly, both
universities were nationally accredited. They were national-class universities representing two
provinces in the southern part of Sumatra, Indonesia. Secondly, both universities had a big
number of students coming from several cities in the south of Sumatra. Therefore, they
represented the population of students in the southern part of Sumatra. Finally, as the two
universities were located in big cities, the students were assumed to have been familiar with
digital technologies and the universities were assumed to have provided facilities supporting
the use of digital technologies. To the rest of this article, the two state-owned universities
were called State-owned university A and State-owned university B. This study was a
quantitative study as it employed a quantitative data instrument in the form of questionnaires
to seek EFL students’ self-report regarding their current knowledge and skills of ICT and the
factors that inhibited them from developing their ICT knowledge and skills properly.

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 Sampling procedure

This study employed convenience sampling as its sampling method. Fraenkel and
Wallen (2005) explain that convenience sampling refers to “a group of individuals who
(conveniently) are available for study” (p. 75). The samples of this study were the 7 th
semester students of English education study programs from two state-owned universities
explained earlier. They were targeted in this study since they were the end product of an
undergraduate program, in this case, the English Education Study Program. In addition, they
were conveniently available for this study as they had fewer subjects taken in this semester
compared to the 5thor 3rdsemester students. In other words, they had more available time to
be involved in this study. Therefore, they were considered ideal to be suited as the sample in
this study.
There were 62 EFL students from the English education study program of
State-owned university A and 57 students from the English education study program of
State-owned university B participating in this study. The genders of those participants can be
found in the following table.

Table 1. Participant genders

State-owned University A State-owned University B

Male Percentage Female Percentage Male Percentage Female Percentage

8 12.9% 54 87.09% 6 10.52% 51 89.47%

Data from table 1 above show that the majority of research participants in both
state-owned universities were female. This phenomenon as occurred in the last two decades
that more female students pursuing their studies in the faculty of teacher training and
education. Data from Kemendikbudin 2016 and 2017 reveal that an increasing percentage of
female teachers teaching in junior and senior high schools (Kemendikbud, 2016, 2017). This
tendency seems to continue as the prospective teachers as shown in Table 1 above are
dominated by female students.

Data collection and analysis

The instruments used to collect data in this study were in the form of questionnaires.
The questionnaires were adapted from Ravitz (2014) and were used to collect data related to
EFL students’ current knowledge and skills of ICT and factors that inhibited them from
developing their ICT knowledge and skills properly. As stated earlier, the questionnaire was
in the form of students’ self-responses related to their views of current knowledge and skills
of ICT and factors inhibiting them from developing their ICT knowledge and skills properly.

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 The questionnaire had five sections. The first four sections came with rated items.
The first section regarding the use of technology as a tool for language learning asked the
participants to rate their responses from almost never to almost daily. The second section, asking
participants’ frequency in using computer and internet applications, asked them to rate their
response from never to very frequently. The third section, asking their skills in using computer
and internet applications, asked them to rate their responses from do not know to very good.
The fourth section, asking their attitude toward the use of ICT in language learning, asked
them to rate their responses from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Meanwhile, the last section
provided participants with a list of factors affecting the use of ICT for language learning.
They were asked to choose any factors affecting them in using digital technology. The
collected data from the questionnaires were analyzed descriptively based on the frequencies
and percentages of participants’ responses using Microsoft excel. Only the highest rating
from each section of the questionnaire was analyzed. The findings from each section of the
questionnaire were presented in the form of tables. Each table presented the findings from
both groups of participants as can be seen from table 2 to table 6.

Ethical consideration

As this study involved two groups of students as research participants from two
state-owned universities in the southern part of Sumatra, ethical issues such as access to
research participants, informed consent, confidentiality, and anonymity were considered. To
get access to research participants, the authors as researchers in this study asked formal
permission from the deans of the faculty of teacher training and education of the two
universities to undertake the research. When the authors as researchers met the research
participants for collecting data, the research participants were informed about the research
aims and procedures, benefits of their involvement in the study, and consent form informing
them about their involvement in the study, protection for their confidentiality, and
entitlement of withdrawing their participation.

Findings
The questionnaires on students’ digital literacy knowledge and skills and factors that
inhibited them from developing their ICT knowledge and skills properly were administered
to the participants during their class hours where they were requested to complete the
questionnaire voluntarily. They had no obligation to complete it if they had no interest in it.
As explained under the research ethics above, the participants were advised to complete the
consent form and they were assured that their participation in the study was anonymous.
Data from the questionnaires were analyzed anonymously and were based on research
participants’ responses only. They were described based on the frequency and percentage of
answers given by the students.

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 Data findings from the questionnaires from both groups of research participants
were presented in pairs where only the highest scale from each questionnaire was compared
and contrasted as seen in the following tables.

Table 2. Use of ICT as a tool for language learning in the classroom

State-owned State-owned
Statements
University A university B
Frequency % Frequency %
a Use of ICT to share information 31 50% 35 61.4%
b Use of ICT for self-instruction 30 48.4% 33 57.9%
Use of appropriate ICT tools or
c 15 24.2% 10 17.5%
resources for completing a task
Use of online or installed application to
d 19 30.7% 21 36.8%
improve language skills
Use of ICT to support teamwork or
e 35 56.5% 32 56.1%
collaboration
Use of ICT to interact directly with
f experts or members of local/global 23 37.1% 30 52.6%
communities
Use of technology to keep track of your
g 21 33.8% 15 26.3%
work on extended tasks or assignments
h Use of ICT to analyze information 21 33.9% 13 22.8%
Own data protection using the current
i 26 41.9% 35 61.4%
technology
Evaluation of online resource credibility
j 9 14.5% 3 5.3%
and relevance
Use of academic website, blog, or
k application to solve a given problem or 19 30.7% 16 28.1%
perform a specific task

Data from Table 2 above show that the students from State-owned university A used
ICT mainly for supporting teamwork and collaboration (35 students or 56.5%), sharing
information (31 students or 50%), and self-instruction (30 students or 48.4%). Meanwhile,
the students from state-owned university B mainly used ICT for sharing information (35
students or 61.4%), for owning data protection (31 students or 61.4%), for self-instruction
(33 students or 57.9%), for supporting teamwork or collaboration (32 students or 56.1%),
and for direct interaction with experts or members of local/global communities (30 students

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or 52.6%). In brief, students from state-owned university B used ICT as tools for language
learning in the classroom more than those in state-own university A.

Table 3. Self-rating of the frequency of using computer and internet applications

State-owned State-owned
Items
university A university B
Frequency % Frequency %
a Word processor 17 27.4% 29 50.9%
b Email 22 35.5% 25 43.9%
c World Wide Web 29 46.8% 33 57.9%
d Graphics software 5 8.1% 5 8.8%
e Database 6 9.7% 3 5.3%
f Spreadsheet (for data organization) 4 6.5% 8 14.0%
g Concordancer (for text analysis) 4 6.5% 1 1.8%
Language learning software (CD-ROM,
h 7 11.3% 5 8.8%
DVD)
i Language learning website 12 19.4% 12 21.1%
j Language learning mobile app 17 27.4% 15 26.3%
k Blog 15 24.2% 15 26.3%
l Wiki 14 22.6% 24 42.1%
m Text chatting 25 40.3% 32 26.1%
n Voice chatting 16 25.8% 25 43.9%
o Video conferencing 10 16.1% 16 28.1%
p Computer game 11 17.7% 12 21.1%
q Electronic dictionary 38 61.3% 36 63.2%

In terms of self-rating in using computer and internet applications, data in Table 3

show that electronic dictionary was the computer application that was commonly used by
the majority of students from state-owned university A (38 students or 61.3%). Other
computer or internet applications commonly used by the students were World Wide Web
(29 students or 46.8%), and text chatting (25 students or 40.3%). In the meantime, the
students from state-owned university B also used an electronic dictionary as the most
commonly used computer application (36 students or 63.3%). Another computer application
they commonly used was word processor (29 students or 50.9%). They also used internet
applications such as world wide web (33 students or 57.9%), voice chatting (25 students or
43.9%), and Wiki (24 students or 42.1%).

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Table 4. Self-rating of skills in using computer and internet applications

State-owned State-owned
Statements University A university B
Frequency % Frequency %
Word processing applications (e.g., MS
a 30 48.4% 25 43.9%
Word)
b Spreadsheet applications (e.g., MS Excel) 16 25.8% 10 17.5%
c Database applications (e.g., MS Access) 5 8.1% 2 3.5%
Presentation applications (e.g., MS
d 28 45.2% 25 43.9%
PowerPoint)
e Communication applications (e.g., Skype) 9 14.5% 11 19.3%
Learning management systems (e.g.,
f 1 1.6% 1 1.8%
Moodle)
g Virtual worlds (e.g., Second Life) 4 6.5% 4 7.0%
Social networking services (e.g.,
h 23 37.1% 26 45.6%
Facebook)

i Blogs (e.g., Blogger) 14 22.6% 13 22.8%

j Wikis (e.g., PBworks) 7 11.3% 14 24.6%

k Podcasts (e.g., Apple Podcasts) 12 19.4% 6 10.5%
l File sharing sites (e.g., Dropbox) 15 24.2% 13 22.8%
m photo sharing sites (e.g., Picasa) 14 22.6% 22 38.6%
n Video sharing sites (e.g., YouTube) 28 45.2% 24 42.1%
Web design applications (e.g.,
o 8 12.9% 8 14.0%
Dreamweaver)
p Web search engines (e.g., Google) 35 56.5% 35 61.4%
q Dictionary apps (e.g., Dictionary.com) 38 61.3% 38 66.7%

Data in Table 4 show students’ self-rating regarding their skills in using computer
and internet applications. It can be seen from the data that 38 students or 61.3% students
from state-owned university A confirmed that they were skilled in using dictionary
applications, 35 students or 56.55 of the students felt skillful in using web search engines, 30
students or 48.4% were proficient in using word processor, 28 students or 45.2% were able
to use presentation applications, and another 28 students or 45.2% could share videos online
using YouTube. Students from state-owned university B, on the other hand, claimed that
they were skillful in using dictionary applications (38 students or 61.3%), 35 students or
61.4% were competent in using web search engines, 26 students or 45.6% were experienced

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in using social network services, 25 students or 43.9% were proficient in using word
processing applications, another 25 students or 43.9% were capable of using presentation
application, and 24 students or 42.1% were experienced in sharing videos online.

Table 5. Self-rating of attitude toward the use of ICT

State-owned State-owned
Statements
university A university B
Frequenc
Frequency % %
y
a I enjoy using digital devices. 32 51.6% 33 57.9%
b I feel comfortable using digital devices. 30 48.4% 34 59.6%
I am aware of various types of digital
c 20 32.3% 21 36.8%
devices.
d I understand what digital literacy is. 21 33.9% 15 26.3%
I am willing to learn more about digital
e 20 32.3% 31 54.4%
technologies.
I feel threatened when other people discuss
f 5 8.1% 8 14%
about ICT.
I feel that I am behind my fellow students in
g 6 9.7% 13 22.8%
using digital technologies.
I think that improving my own digital
h 21 33.9% 26 45.6%
literacy is important.
I believe that the use of digital technologies
i 21 33.9% 28 49.1%
can improve my learning.
I think that training in technology-enhanced
j language learning should be included in 24 38.7% 27 47.4%
language education programs.

Regarding students’ attitude toward the use of ICT in the class, data from Table 5
show that 32 students (51.6%) from state-owned university A confirmed that they enjoyed
using the ICT devices, 30 students or 48.4% felt comfortable using digital devices, 24
students or 38.7% considered the importance of technology-enhanced language learning
training to be included in language education programs. Meanwhile, 34 students (59.6%)
from state-owned university B confirmed that they felt comfortable in using digital devices,
33 students or 57.9% enjoyed using digital devices in the classroom, 31 students or 54.4%
had willingness to learn more about digital technologies, 28 students or 49.1% believed the
use of digital tools and resources would enhance their learning, and 27 students or 47.4%
understood that training on technology-enhanced language learning should be a part of a
language education program.

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Table 6. Factors affecting the use of ICT for language learning

State-owned State-owned
Statements university university
A B
Frequency % Frequency %
a Students’ lack of time 34 54.8% 25 43.9%
b Teachers’ lack of knowledge 45 72.6% 30 52.6%
c Teachers’ lack of skills 38 61.3% 21 36.8%
d Teachers’ lack of interest 36 58.1% 26 4.6%
e Students’ lack of training 33 53.2% 33 57.9%
f Lack of supporting resources 31 50% 33 57.9%
g Students’ Lack of budget 46 74.2% 37 64.9%
h Students’ lack of knowledge 35 56.5% 29 50.9%
i Students’ lack of skills 34 54.8% 25 43.9%
j Students’ lack of interest` 33 53.2% 18 31.6%
k Lack of learning materials 33 53.2% 23 43.9%
l Lack of facilities 45 54.8% 43 75.4%

Table 6 lists all possible factors that could affect the development of students’ digital
literacy skills. Students from state-owned university A considered all the factors listed in the
table affecting them from using ICT in the classroom properly. When they were ranked in
terms of frequencies from the highest to the lowest, it can be seen that 46 students (74.2%)
consider lack of budget as one of the factors inhibiting them from using ICT for language
learning properly, 45 students (72.6%) considered teachers’ lack knowledge, 38 students
(61.3%) considered teachers’ lack of skills, 36 students (58.1%) considered teachers’ lack of
interest, 35 students (56.5%) considered students’ lack of knowledge, 34 students (54.8%)
considered students’ lack of time, 34 students (54.8%) considered students’ lack of skills, 33
students (53.2%) considered students’ lack of training, interest, and learning materials, 31
students (50%) considered lack of supporting devices.
Different from students of state-owned university A, those from state-owned
university B considered 6 factors as the main factors affecting them from using ICT for
language learning properly. They are lack of facilities (43 students or 75.4%), students’ lack
of budget (37 students or 64.9%), students’ lack of training (33 students or 57.9%), lack of
supporting devices (33 students or 57.9%), teachers’ lack of knowledge (30 students or
52.6%), and students’ lack of knowledge (29 students or 50.9%).

Discussion

The study was aimed at looking at EFL students’ current level of digital literacy,
finding out factors affecting EFL students in using ICT in language learning, and identifying

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EFL students’ needs to improve their digital literacy skills to meet the demands of the 21st
century skills. The findings derived from data analysis of questionnaires given to both groups
of participants involved in this study indicated that in terms of ICT use as a tool for language
learning in the class, the findings indicated that ICT had been used as a tool for language
learning in the classroom. Both groups shared similar ideas that ICT had been used to
support teamwork or collaboration, to share information, and to be used for self-instruction.
However, data from Table 2 reveal that more ICT tools were very limitedly used by
participants from both groups. This means that although ICT had been used as a tool in
language learning, it had not been used optimally.
Regarding the frequency of using computer and internet applications, data findings
from Table 3 show that participants from State-owned university B had used computers and
internet applications (word processor, world wide web, Wiki, voice chatting, electronic
dictionaries) more frequently than those from state-owned university Ac(world wide web,
voice chatting and electronic dictionary). These findings are relevant to the previous findings
where participants from state-owned university B used more ICT applications than those in
state-owned university A (see Table 2). However, the limited number (with percentages
under 30%) of students using other computer and internet applications indicates that access
to use computer and internet applications seemed to be limited.
From students’ self-rating on their skills in using computers and internet applications
as shown in Table 4, only two internet applications (web search engines and dictionary
applications) that were claimed by more than 60% of participants from both groups. That
only two skills among the thirteen skills of using computer and internet applications claimed
by both groups of participants indicate that the majority of the participants had low skills in
using computer and internet applications. In other words, their digital literacy skills could be
categorized low. This finding seemed to be related to the first two findings described above,
less use of ICT applications as a tool in language learning and limited access to computer
and internet applications. These two factors seemed to have contributed to students’ low
knowledge and skills in using computer programs and internet applications.
Notwithstanding the participants in both groups had limited access and low
knowledge and skills in using computers and internet applications, data in Table 5 show that
they had a positive attitude toward the importance of digital literacy in language learning.
Both groups confirmed that they enjoyed using digital devices and felt comfortable using the
devices. They also shared the same idea about the importance of ICT training in language
education programs. The table also reveals very limited number of students confirming they
felt threatened when others talked about digital technologies (6 of 62 students from
State-owned university A and 8 of 57 students from State-owned university B) and felt
behind their fellows in using digital technology (8 of 62 students from State-owned
university A and 13 of 57 students from State-owned university B) further confirm that
majority of them had positive attitude toward the use of ICT in language learning.
Concerning factors affecting the proper use of ICT in language learning, participants’
responses could be classified into three different factors, i.e. institution, teachers, and

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students. In terms of institutional factors, both groups shared the same opinion that lack of
facilities, lack of supporting devices, and lack of training given by the institution as the most
dominant factor affecting their full literacy of ICT. From the teacher factor, both groups
shared a similar problem, that is, teachers’ lack of knowledge of ICT as the affecting factor.
Related to teacher factor, participants from state-owned university A seemed to be more
aware. They identified two other factors from the teacher's side, i.e. lack of skill and interest
in ICT. Finally, in terms of student factors, participants in both groups were on the same
boat. They considered a lack of budget and skills in ICT to be their problems. The other two
problems related to students were added by participants from state-owned university A.
They are lack of knowledge of ICT and less time to study ICT.
All the findings discussed above seem to be relevant to whatSpires and Bartlett
(2012), Supratman and Wahyudin (2017), and Tampubolon (2017)have stated earlier that
even though the EFL students today are digital natives, they still lack digital knowledge and
skills. In other words, they are not digitally literate. Although some activities have been done
to improve students’ digital literacy (as seen in Table 2), they are still unsatisfactory (Kurnia
& Astuti, 2017). Therefore, more efforts must be done to improve EFL students’ digital
literacy. The authors agree with Azmi (2017); Houcine (2011); Hussain (2018);
Papadima-Sophocleous et al. (2014)that the use of ICT in language learning not only
increases EFL students’ digital literacy, but it also improves their performance in language
learning.
To use ICT as a tool for language learning optimally, EFL students’ current digital
literacy skills must be known and any problems or factors affecting the development of their
digital literacy skills must be identified. This study found that EFL students’ low digital
literacy skills were caused by limited use of ICT applications as a tool for language learning
and limitation to access computers and internet applications. The first factor seemed to be
caused by EFL teachers who seemed to be reluctant to integrate ICT in their EFL teaching
and learning activities. As reported by Kurniawati et al. (2018), the EFL teacher themselves
were still in the stage of adapting ICT in their EFL teaching. They still had limitations in
using digital devices. The second factor can be caused by the students themselves such as
lack of budget, less training on ICT, and limited time to access computer and internet
applications. The less availability of free computer and internet applications on campus with
their supporting devices and less training to learn digital devices and resources contributed to
EFL students’ low digital literacy skills as well. If all the problems above could be resolved,
EFL students’ low digital literacy skills could be improved and the students could “take
advantage of the [digital] tools and resources for language learning in authentic contexts”
(Son, Park, & Park, 2017).

Conclusion, Limitations, and Implications

The study reported in this article was focused on evaluating EFL students’ current
digital knowledge and skills, their attitude toward the use of ICT in language learning and

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their needs to meet the demand of the 21st century skills. Data findings from the
questionnaire showed that ICT was already used as a tool for language learning and students
had a positive attitude toward the use of ICT in language learning. Although in general, they
had basic knowledge and skills in using computers and internet applications, they were not
fully literate in using ICT. Several factors affected them from fully literate in ICT such as
lack of ICT facilities and supporting devices, teachers’ lack of knowledge and skills of ICT,
students’ lack of budget and skills of ICT. In brief, what students need to improve their
digital literacy in ICT was the availability of public computers with internet access that can
be accessed by students anytime, the need for ICT training for both teachers and students,
and the continuous integration of ICT in language learning.
Several limitations had been identified related to the results of this study including its
non-generalizability, limited number of samples, time constraints, and less varied research
instruments. However, research findings still provided valuable information. On this basis,
the authors recommend further study investigating EFL students’ digital literacy which
involves more samples from several universities in Indonesia, various research instruments,
and a longer time to conduct the study. In this way, a more generalized conclusion can be
made regarding the current condition of EFL students’ digital literacy and a more
appropriate plan can be designed to improve EFL students’ digital literacy to meet the
demands of the 21st century skills.
The findings of this study, although on a small scale, provide valuable information
regarding the current condition of EFL students’ digital literacy. They strengthened the
previous claim that being digital natives does not guarantee someone is digitally
literate(Spires & Bartlett, 2012; Tampubolon, 2017). The research findings also contribute to
the literature on the current condition of EFL students’ digital literacy in tertiary education
in Indonesia. The authors believe that the findings of this study will help to develop people’s
awareness of the importance of being digitally literate in the era of digital technology.

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Biographical notes

ERYANSYAH is an assistant professor at Language and Arts Education

Department, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Sriwijaya University in Palembang,
Indonesia. He obtained his Ph.D. in Applied Linguistics at Waikato University, New
Zealand. His research interests include the impacts of digital technology on language
learning. Email: eryansyah@unsri.ac.id.
ERLINA is an assistant professor at Language and Arts Education Department,
Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Sriwijaya University, Palembang, Indonesia. She
obtained her master degree in Education and English Language Teaching at Flinders
University, Australia. She is now serving as the Secretary of Language and Arts Education
Department. Email: erlina@fkip.unsri.ac.id.

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 FIFTINOVA is an assistant professor at Language and Arts Education Department,
Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Sriwijaya University in Palembang, Indonesia.
She obtained her master degree at Indonesian Education University, Bandung, Indonesia.
Email: fiftinova@fkip.unsri.ac.id.
ARI NURWENI is an associate professor at Language and Arts Education
Department, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Lampung University, Bandar
Lampung, Indonesia. She obtained her doctoral degree in Linguistics at Gajah Mada
University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. She is currently the Head of English Education Study
Program, Language and Arts Education Department, Lampung University. Email:
a.nurweni@yahoo.com.

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