1.

Subject–Verb Agreement Rules

Key: subject = yellow, bold; verb = green, underline

Subjects and verbs must agree in number. In addition to the explanations on this page,
also see the post on Subject—Verb Agreement.

1. If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular too.

Example: She writes every day.

Exception: When using the singular "they," use plural verb forms.
Example: The participant expressed satisfaction with their job. They are currently
in a managerial role at the organization.

2. If the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural.

Example: They write every day.

Sometimes, however, it seems a bit more complicated than this.

3. When the subject of the sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns
connected by and, use a plural verb.

Example: The doctoral student and the committee members write every day.
Example: The percentage of employees who called in sick and the number
of employees who left their jobs within 2 years are reflective of the level of job
satisfaction.

4. When there is one subject and more than one verb, the verbs throughout the
sentence must agree with the subject.

Example: Interviews are one way to collect data and allow researchers to gain
an in-depth understanding of participants.
Example: An assumption is something that is generally accepted as
true and is an important consideration when conducting a doctoral study.

5. When a phrase comes between the subject and the verb, remember that the verb
still agrees with the subject, not the noun or pronoun in the phrase following the
subject of the sentence.

Example: The student, as well as the committee members, is excited.

Example: The student with all the master’s degrees is very motivated.
Example: Strategies that the teacher uses to encourage classroom
participation include using small groups and clarifying expectations.
Example: The focus of the interviews was nine purposively selected
participants.
6. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by "or" or "nor,"
use a singular verb.

Example: The chairperson or the CEO approves the proposal before

proceeding.

7. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun
joined by "or" or "nor," the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is
closest to the verb. This is also called the rule of proximity.

Example: The student or the committee members write every day.

Example: The committee members or the student writes every day.

8. The words and phrases "each," "each one," "either," "neither," "everyone,"
"everybody," "anyone," "anybody," "nobody," "somebody," "someone," and "no
one" are singular and require a singular verb.

Example: Each of the participants was willing to be recorded.

Example: Neither alternative hypothesis was accepted.
Example: I will offer a $5 gift card to everybody who participates in the study.
Example: No one was available to meet with me at the preferred times.

9. Noncount nouns take a singular verb.

Example: Education is the key to success.

Example: Diabetes affects many people around the world.
Example: The information obtained from the business owners was relevant to
include in the study.
Example: The research I found on the topic was limited.

10. Some countable nouns in English such as earnings, goods, odds, surroundings,
proceeds, contents, and valuables only have a plural form and take a plural verb.

Example: The earnings for this quarter exceed expectations.

Example: The proceeds from the sale go to support the homeless population in
the city.
Example: Locally produced goods have the advantage of shorter supply
chains.

11. In sentences beginning with "there is" or "there are," the subject follows the verb.
Since "there" is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows the verb.

Example: There is little administrative support.

Example: There are many factors affecting teacher retention.
12. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but are considered
singular and take a singular verb. Some examples are "group," "team,"
"committee," "family," and "class."

Example: The group meets every week.

Example: The committee agrees on the quality of the writing.

However, the plural verb is used if the focus is on the individuals in the group.
This is much less common.
Example: The committee participate in various volunteer activities in their
private lives.
Grammar: Sentence Structure and Types of Sentences

2. Sentence structure refers to the physical nature of a sentence and how the
elements of that sentence are presented. Just like word choice, writers should
strive to vary their sentence structure to create rhythmic prose and keep their reader
interested.

Definitions and Examples of Basic Sentence Elements

Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green underline = verb, blue, italics = object, pink, regular
font = prepositional phrase

Independent clause: An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. It contains

a subject and a verb and is a complete idea.

o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.

Dependent clause: A dependent clause is not a complete sentence. It must be attached

to an independent clause to become complete. This is also known as a subordinate
clause.

o Although I like spaghetti,…

o Because he reads many books,…

Subject: A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that does an action. Determine the
subject in a sentence by asking the question “Who or what?”

o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.

Verb: Expresses what the person, animal, place, thing, or concept does. Determine the
verb in a sentence by asking the question “What was the action or what happened?”

o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.
o The movie is good. (The be verb is also sometimes referred to as a copula or a
linking verb. It links the subject, in this case "the movie," to the complement or the
predicate of the sentence, in this case, "good.")

Object: A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that receives the action. Determine
the object in a sentence by asking the question “The subject did what?” or “To
whom?/For whom?”

o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.
Prepositional Phrase: A phrase that begins with a preposition (i.e., in, at for, behind,
until, after, of, during) and modifies a word in the sentence. A prepositional phrase
answers one of many questions. Here are a few examples: “Where? When? In what
way?”

o I like spaghetti for dinner.

o He reads many books in the library.

English Sentence Structure

The following statements are true about sentences in English:

 A new sentence begins with a capital letter.

o He obtained his degree.

 A sentence ends with punctuation (a period, a question mark, or an exclamation

point).
o He obtained his degree.

 A sentence contains a subject that is only given once.

o Smith he obtained his degree.

 A sentence contains a verb or a verb phrase.

o He obtained his degree.

 A sentence follows Subject + Verb + Object word order.

o He (subject) obtained (verb) his degree (object).

 A sentence must have a complete idea that stands alone. This is also called an
independent clause.
o He obtained his degree.

Simple Sentences
A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an object and
modifiers. However, it contains only one independent clause.
Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green underline = verb, blue, italics = object, pink, regular
font =prepositional phrase
Here are a few examples:

 She wrote.
 She completed her literature review.
 He organized his sources by theme.
 They studied APA rules for many hours.
Compound Sentences
A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses. These two
independent clauses can be combined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction or
with a semicolon.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma or semicolon = pink, regular font;
coordinating conjunction = green, underlined
Here are a few examples:

 She completed her literature review, and she created her reference list.
 He organized his sources by theme; then, he updated his reference list.
 They studied APA rules for many hours, but they realized there was still
much to learn.

Using some compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.

Complex Sentences
A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause. Dependent clauses can refer to the subject (who, which) the
sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent
clause.
If a sentence begins with a dependent clause, note the comma after this clause. If, on
the other hand, the sentence begins with an independent clause, there is not a comma
separating the two clauses.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma = pink, regular font; dependent clause
= blue, italics
Here are a few examples:

 Although she completed her literature review, she still needed to work on her
methods section.
o Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent
clause.

 Because he organized his sources by theme, it was easier for his readers to
follow.
o Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent
clause.

 They studied APA rules for many hours as they were so interesting.
o Note that there is no comma in this sentence because it begins with an
independent clause.

 Using some complex sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.

Compound-Complex Sentences
Sentence types can also be combined. A compound-complex sentence contains at least
two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma or semicolon = pink, regular font;
coordinating conjunction = green, underlined; dependent clause = blue, italics

 She completed her literature review, but she still needs to work on her
methods section even though she finished her methods course last semester.
 Although he organized his sources by theme, he decided to arrange them
chronologically, and he carefully followed the MEAL plan for organization.
 With pizza and soda at hand, they studied APA rules for many
hours, and they decided that writing in APA made sense because it was
clear, concise, and objective.

 Using some complex-compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence

variety.
 Pay close attention to comma usage in complex-compound sentences so that the
reader is easily able to follow the intended meaning.

Sentence Fragments

A sentence fragment is a sentence that is missing either its subject or its main verb. Some sentence
fragments occur as the result of simple typographical errors or omission of words. They can often be
avoided with careful proofreading.

Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a sentence that is missing either its subject or its
main verb.

Some sentence fragments occur as the result of simple typographical errors

or omission of words. They can often be avoided with careful proofreading.

Incorrect: Went to the store yesterday.

Incorrect: After the classes, the library. My life

nowadays.

The first sentence above does not have a subject, and the second one does
not have a main verb.

Rule to Remember
A sentence fragment is a sentence that is missing either its subject or its
main verb.
Correcting the Problem
There are many ways to correct the sentences above. In the first sentence,
introduce the subject and in the second add the main verb.

Correct: I went to the store yesterday.

Correct: After the classes, I am going to the library. This happens to

be my life nowadays.

Aside from typographical errors, the two most common causes of fragments
are the misuse of subordinators and the misuse of prepositions. In order to
understand how these errors occur, it is first necessary to define clauses in
English.

In English, a clause is defined as a unit that contains both a verb and its
subject. As the following examples illustrate, a sentence may consist of a
single clause or may contain multiple clauses:

One clause: I hate listening to political pundits.

Two clauses: Students dislike Mr. Jones because his classes can be tough.

Two clauses: I am upset that it is snowing in the middle of April.

Three Since you drew the short straw, you must walk to the gas
clauses: station while we stay here.

The easiest way to count the number of clauses in a sentence is to count the
number of verbs, then find their corresponding subjects.

Phrase fragments
Incorrect Since I was done with the exam, I put my pen and paper
: down. Waiting for the teacher to start collecting papers.

Unattached phrases must be made part of a complete sentence. We can join

them either using a comma or a conjunction.

Correct Since I was done with the exam, I put my pen and paper
: down, waiting for the teacher to start collecting papers.

Correct I was done with the exam; I put my pen and paper down and was
 : waiting for the teacher to start collecting papers.

Subordinate clause fragments

Incorrect: Students dislike Mr. Jones. Because his classes
can be tough.

Incorrect: Since you drew the short straw. You must walk
to the gas station while we stay here.

This type of sentence fragment occurs because the subordinate clause is

separated from the main clause and cannot stand on its own. Two clauses
can be combined using a subordinating conjunction or an adverb to show the
dependence of one clause on the other.

Rule to Remember
Correct sentence fragments by joining two fragmented parts with either a
conjunction or an adverb.

Correct: Students dislike Mr. Jones because his classes can be tough.

Correct: Since you drew the short straw, you must walk to the gas station while we stay here.

A correct clause has to express a complete thought.

Run on Sentences
A run-on sentence occurs when two independent clauses run together without proper
punctuation or appropriate conjunctions

Run-on sentence examples

Below is an example of two independent clauses that are structured as a
run-on sentence. It fuses two complete thoughts into one sentence without
proper punctuation.

Lila enjoyed the bouquet of tulips John gave her on prom night however she prefers
roses.

Now, here is an example of how to write these two independent clauses

correctly. A semicolon is placed between the two clauses to separate each
thought. It also includes a comma after the conjunctive adverb, however, as
a transition into the second clause.

Lila enjoyed the bouquet of tulips John gave her on prom night; however, she prefers
roses.

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Fixing and correcting run-on sentences

To avoid run-on sentences, see if there is more than one idea

communicated by two or more independent clauses. In our examples, there
are two complete sentences:

Lily enjoyed the bouquet of tulips John gave her on prom night.

She prefers roses.

Both sentences are complete ideas by themselves; therefore, use a

semicolon or a period to indicate that they are separate independent
clauses.
Parallelism
Parallelism refers to the use of identical grammatical structures for related
words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence or a paragraph.

Parallelism can make your writing more forceful, interesting, and clear. It helps
to link related ideas and to emphasize the relationships between them. Once
a grammatical pattern has been established, the reader doesn’t have to strain to
understand your meaning and ideas. Faulty parallelism refers to the absence of
parallel structure and the subsequent loss of clarity.

Achieving parallel structure

Parallelism ensures that similar clauses or phrases are uniform in expression and
function. To achieve parallelism, you must use the same verb, noun, adverb, or
adjective forms consistently throughout a sentence.

Consider the following examples:

1. Paul likes dancing, swimming, and running.

2. Paul likes to dance, swimming, and run.

In the sentence “Paul likes dancing, swimming, and running,” all of the activities
Paul enjoys are consistently presented as gerunds (verbs in their –ing form that act
as a noun), which retains parallelism. On the other hand, in the sentence “Paul likes
to dance, swimming, and run,” the activities Paul enjoys are presented in
inconsistent forms, resulting in a sentence that is not parallel. This results in a
decreased flow, an awkward sentence, and an increased amount of work for the
reader.

Situations that require parallel structure

You will encounter many instances where you will need to make sure your sentence is
parallel. The most common situations are listed below:

Lists or series

All lists of things, qualities, or actions should take the same grammatical form.

1. Faulty: Cassandra loves reading the newspaper, taking long walks, and to
dance the tango.
2. Parallel: Cassandra loves reading the newspaper, taking long walks,
and dancing the tango.

Note that there are various ways to create parallel structure in a sentence:
 1. For opera to take root in Great Britain, infrastructure was required: the
building of financial support, the training of singers, and the
education of audiences.
2. For opera to take root in Great Britain, three things were
required: building financial support, training singers,
and educating audiences.
3. For opera to take root in Great Britain, it was necessary to build financial
support, train singers, and educate audiences.

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that adds to the meaning of, changes, clarifies, or
describes another word, phrase, or clause.

Sometimes writers use modifiers incorrectly, leading to strange and unintentionally humorous
sentences. The two common types of modifier errors are called misplaced modifiers and
dangling modifiers. Another type of modifier error is called squinting error; this means that
the writer “squints” at their sentence, trying to force a modifier error to work. Don’t squint!

If either of these errors occurs, readers can no longer read smoothly. Instead, they become
stumped trying to figure out what the writer meant to say. Here, a reader may “squint” as well
to figure out what the writer is saying. A writer’s goal must always be to communicate
clearly and to avoid distracting the reader with strange sentences or awkward sentence
constructions.

Misplaced Modifiers

A misplaced modifier is a modifier that is placed too far from the word or words
it modifies. Misplaced modifiers make the sentence awkward and sometimes
unintentionally humorous.
Incorrect: She wore a bicycle helmet on her head that was too large.

Correct: She wore a bicycle helmet that was too large on her head.

Notice in the incorrect sentence it sounds as if her head was too large! Of course, the
writer is referring to the helmet, not to the person’s head. The corrected version of the
sentence clarifies the writer’s meaning.
 Look at the following two examples:
Incorrect: They bought a kitten for my brother they call Shadow.

Correct: They bought a kitten they call Shadow for my brother.

In the incorrect sentence, it seems that the brother’s name is Shadow. That’s because the
modifier is too far from the word it modifies, which is kitten.
Incorrect: The patient was referred to the physician with stomach pains.

Correct: The patient with stomach pains was referred to the physician.

The incorrect sentence reads as if it is the physician who has stomach pains! What the
writer means is that the patient has stomach pains.
Tip: Simple modifiers like only, almost, just, nearly, and barely often get used incorrectly
because writers often stick them in the wrong place.

Confusing: Tyler almost found fifty cents under the sofa cushions.

Repaired: Tyler found almost fifty cents under the sofa cushions.

 How do you almost find something? Either you find it or you do not. The repaired
sentence is much clearer.

Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that describes something that has been left
out of the sentence. When there is nothing that the word, phrase, or clause can modify, the
modifier is said to dangle.
Incorrect: Riding in the sports car, the world whizzed by rapidly.

Correct: As Jane was riding in the sports car, the world whizzed by rapidly.

In the incorrect sentence, riding in the sports car is dangling. The reader is left wondering who is
riding in the sports car. The writer must tell the reader!
Incorrect: Walking home at night, the trees looked like spooky aliens.

Correct: As Jonas was walking home at night, the trees looked like spooky aliens.

Correct: The trees looked like spooky aliens as Jonas was walking home at night.

In the incorrect sentence walking home at night is dangling. Who is walking home at night? Jonas.
Note that there are two different ways the dangling modifier can be corrected.
Incorrect: To win the spelling bee, Luis and Gerard should join our team.

Correct: If we want to win the spelling bee this year, Luis and Gerard should join our team.
In the incorrect sentence, to win the spelling bee is dangling. Who wants to win the spelling bee? We
do!
Tip: The following three steps will help you quickly spot a dangling modifier:
1. Look for an -ing modifier at the beginning of your sentence or another modifying phrase:

Painting for three hours at night, the kitchen was finally finished by Maggie. (Painting is the -
ing modifier.)
2. Underline the first noun that follows it:

Painting for three hours at night, the kitchen was finally finished by Maggie.
3. Make sure the modifier and noun go together logically. If they do not, it is very likely you
have a dangling modifier.

After identifying the dangling modifier, rewrite the sentence.

Painting for three hours at night, Maggie finally finished the kitchen.

Paragraphs
What is a paragraph?
Paragraphs are the building blocks of papers. Many students define paragraphs in terms of length: a
paragraph is a group of at least five sentences, a paragraph is half a page long, etc. In reality, though, the
unity and coherence of ideas among sentences is what constitutes a paragraph. A paragraph is defined as “a
group of sentences or a single sentence that forms a unit” (Lunsford and Connors 116). Length and
appearance do not determine whether a section in a paper is a paragraph. For instance, in some styles of
writing, particularly journalistic styles, a paragraph can be just one sentence long. Ultimately, a paragraph
is a sentence or group of sentences that support one main idea. In this handout, we will refer to this as the
“controlling idea,” because it controls what happens in the rest of the paragraph.

How do I decide what to put in a paragraph?

Before you can begin to determine what the composition of a particular paragraph will be, you must first
decide on an argument and a working thesis statement for your paper. What is the most important idea that
you are trying to convey to your reader? The information in each paragraph must be related to that idea. In
other words, your paragraphs should remind your reader that there is a recurrent relationship between your
thesis and the information in each paragraph. A working thesis functions like a seed from which your
paper, and your ideas, will grow. The whole process is an organic one—a natural progression from a seed
to a full-blown paper where there are direct, familial relationships between all of the ideas in the paper.

The decision about what to put into your paragraphs begins with the germination of a seed of ideas; this
“germination process” is better known as brainstorming. There are many techniques for brainstorming;
whichever one you choose, this stage of paragraph development cannot be skipped. Building paragraphs
can be like building a skyscraper: there must be a well-planned foundation that supports what you are
building. Any cracks, inconsistencies, or other corruptions of the foundation can cause your whole paper to
crumble.

So, let’s suppose that you have done some brainstorming to develop your thesis. What else should you
keep in mind as you begin to create paragraphs? Every paragraph in a paper should be:

 Unified: All of the sentences in a single paragraph should be related to a single controlling idea
(often expressed in the topic sentence of the paragraph).
 Clearly related to the thesis: The sentences should all refer to the central idea, or thesis, of the
paper (Rosen and Behrens 119).
 Coherent: The sentences should be arranged in a logical manner and should follow a definite plan
for development (Rosen and Behrens 119).
 Well-developed: Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately explained and
supported through evidence and details that work together to explain the paragraph’s controlling
idea (Rosen and Behrens 119).

How do I organize a paragraph?

There are many different ways to organize a paragraph. The organization you choose will depend on the
controlling idea of the paragraph. Below are a few possibilities for organization, with links to brief
examples:

 Narration: Tell a story. Go chronologically, from start to finish. (See an example.)

 Description: Provide specific details about what something looks, smells, tastes, sounds, or feels
like. Organize spatially, in order of appearance, or by topic. (See an example.)
 Process: Explain how something works, step by step. Perhaps follow a sequence—first, second,
third. (See an example.)
 Classification: Separate into groups or explain the various parts of a topic. (See an example.)
 Illustration: Give examples and explain how those examples support your point. (See an example
in the 5-step process below.)

Illustration paragraph: a 5-step example

From the list above, let’s choose “illustration” as our rhetorical purpose. We’ll walk through a 5-step
process for building a paragraph that illustrates a point in an argument. For each step there is an
explanation and example. Our example paragraph will be about human misconceptions of piranhas.

Step 1. Decide on a controlling idea and create a topic sentence

Paragraph development begins with the formulation of the controlling idea. This idea directs the
paragraph’s development. Often, the controlling idea of a paragraph will appear in the form of a topic
sentence. In some cases, you may need more than one sentence to express a paragraph’s controlling idea.
 Controlling idea and topic sentence — Despite the fact that piranhas are relatively harmless,
many people continue to believe the pervasive myth that piranhas are dangerous to humans.

Step 2. Elaborate on the controlling idea

Paragraph development continues with an elaboration on the controlling idea, perhaps with an explanation,
implication, or statement about significance. Our example offers a possible explanation for the
pervasiveness of the myth.

Elaboration — This impression of piranhas is exacerbated by their mischaracterization in

popular media.

Step 3. Give an example (or multiple examples)

Paragraph development progresses with an example (or more) that illustrates the claims made in the
previous sentences.

Example — For example, the promotional poster for the 1978 horror film Piranha features an
oversized piranha poised to bite the leg of an unsuspecting woman.

Step 4. Explain the example(s)

The next movement in paragraph development is an explanation of each example and its relevance to the
topic sentence. The explanation should demonstrate the value of the example as evidence to support the
major claim, or focus, in your paragraph.

Continue the pattern of giving examples and explaining them until all points/examples that the writer
deems necessary have been made and explained. NONE of your examples should be left unexplained. You
might be able to explain the relationship between the example and the topic sentence in the same sentence
which introduced the example. More often, however, you will need to explain that relationship in a
separate sentence.

Explanation for example — Such a terrifying representation easily captures the imagination and
promotes unnecessary fear.

Notice that the example and explanation steps of this 5-step process (steps 3 and 4) can be repeated as
needed. The idea is that you continue to use this pattern until you have completely developed the main idea
of the paragraph.

Step 5. Complete the paragraph’s idea or transition into the next

paragraph
The final movement in paragraph development involves tying up the loose ends of the paragraph. At this
point, you can remind your reader about the relevance of the information to the larger paper, or you can
make a concluding point for this example. You might, however, simply transition to the next paragraph.

Sentences for completing a paragraph — While the trope of the man-eating piranhas lends
excitement to the adventure stories, it bears little resemblance to the real-life piranha. By paying
more attention to fact than fiction, humans may finally be able to let go of this inaccurate belief.

Finished paragraph
Despite the fact that piranhas are relatively harmless, many people continue to believe the
pervasive myth that piranhas are dangerous to humans. This impression of piranhas is exacerbated
by their mischaracterization in popular media. For example, the promotional poster for the 1978
horror film Piranha features an oversized piranha poised to bite the leg of an unsuspecting
woman. Such a terrifying representation easily captures the imagination and promotes
unnecessary fear. While the trope of the man-eating piranhas lends excitement to the adventure
stories, it bears little resemblance to the real-life piranha. By paying more attention to fact than
fiction, humans may finally be able to let go of this inaccurate belief.

Troubleshooting paragraphs

Problem: the paragraph has no topic sentence

Imagine each paragraph as a sandwich. The real content of the sandwich—the meat or other filling—is in
the middle. It includes all the evidence you need to make the point. But it gets kind of messy to eat a
sandwich without any bread. Your readers don’t know what to do with all the evidence you’ve given them.
So, the top slice of bread (the first sentence of the paragraph) explains the topic (or controlling idea) of the
paragraph. And, the bottom slice (the last sentence of the paragraph) tells the reader how the paragraph
relates to the broader argument. In the original and revised paragraphs below, notice how a topic sentence
expressing the controlling idea tells the reader the point of all the evidence.

Original paragraph

Piranhas rarely feed on large animals; they eat smaller fish and aquatic plants. When confronted
with humans, piranhas’ first instinct is to flee, not attack. Their fear of humans makes sense. Far
more piranhas are eaten by people than people are eaten by piranhas. If the fish are well-fed, they
won’t bite humans.

Revised paragraph

Although most people consider piranhas to be quite dangerous, they are, for the most part, entirely
harmless. Piranhas rarely feed on large animals; they eat smaller fish and aquatic plants. When
confronted with humans, piranhas’ first instinct is to flee, not attack. Their fear of humans makes
 sense. Far more piranhas are eaten by people than people are eaten by piranhas. If the fish are
well-fed, they won’t bite humans.

Once you have mastered the use of topic sentences, you may decide that the topic sentence for a particular
paragraph really shouldn’t be the first sentence of the paragraph. This is fine—the topic sentence can
actually go at the beginning, middle, or end of a paragraph; what’s important is that it is in there
somewhere so that readers know what the main idea of the paragraph is and how it relates back to the
thesis of your paper. Suppose that we wanted to start the piranha paragraph with a transition sentence—
something that reminds the reader of what happened in the previous paragraph—rather than with the topic
sentence. Let’s suppose that the previous paragraph was about all kinds of animals that people are afraid
of, like sharks, snakes, and spiders. Our paragraph might look like this (the topic sentence is bold):

Like sharks, snakes, and spiders, piranhas are widely feared. Although most people consider
piranhas to be quite dangerous, they are, for the most part, entirely harmless. Piranhas rarely
feed on large animals; they eat smaller fish and aquatic plants. When confronted with humans,
piranhas’ first instinct is to flee, not attack. Their fear of humans makes sense. Far more piranhas
are eaten by people than people are eaten by piranhas. If the fish are well-fed, they won’t bite
humans.

Problem: the paragraph has more than one controlling idea

If a paragraph has more than one main idea, consider eliminating sentences that relate to the second idea,
or split the paragraph into two or more paragraphs, each with only one main idea. Watch our short video
on reverse outlining to learn a quick way to test whether your paragraphs are unified. In the following
paragraph, the final two sentences branch off into a different topic; so, the revised paragraph eliminates
them and concludes with a sentence that reminds the reader of the paragraph’s main idea.

Original paragraph

Although most people consider piranhas to be quite dangerous, they are, for the most part, entirely
harmless. Piranhas rarely feed on large animals; they eat smaller fish and aquatic plants. When
confronted with humans, piranhas’ first instinct is to flee, not attack. Their fear of humans makes
sense. Far more piranhas are eaten by people than people are eaten by piranhas. A number of
South American groups eat piranhas. They fry or grill the fish and then serve them with coconut
milk or tucupi, a sauce made from fermented manioc juices.

Revised paragraph

Although most people consider piranhas to be quite dangerous, they are, for the most part, entirely
harmless. Piranhas rarely feed on large animals; they eat smaller fish and aquatic plants. When
confronted with humans, piranhas’ first instinct is to flee, not attack. Their fear of humans makes
sense. Far more piranhas are eaten by people than people are eaten by piranhas. If the fish are
well-fed, they won’t bite humans.
Problem: transitions are needed within the paragraph
You are probably familiar with the idea that transitions may be needed between paragraphs or sections in a
paper (see our handout on transitions). Sometimes they are also helpful within the body of a single
paragraph. Within a paragraph, transitions are often single words or short phrases that help to establish
relationships between ideas and to create a logical progression of those ideas in a paragraph. This is
especially likely to be true within paragraphs that discuss multiple examples. Let’s take a look at a version
of our piranha paragraph that uses transitions to orient the reader:

Although most people consider piranhas to be quite dangerous, they are, except in two main
situations, entirely harmless. Piranhas rarely feed on large animals; they eat smaller fish and
aquatic plants. When confronted with humans, piranhas’ instinct is to flee, not attack. But there
are two situations in which a piranha bite is likely. The first is when a frightened piranha is lifted
out of the water—for example, if it has been caught in a fishing net. The second is when the water
level in pools where piranhas are living falls too low. A large number of fish may be trapped in a
single pool, and if they are hungry, they may attack anything that enters the water.

Basic Paragraph Format

It is important to note that a paragraph does not have a minimum or maximum
number of sentences that it must have to fit the definition of a paragraph.
Some writers will opt to use very short paragraphs, while others will include
dozens of sentences in their paragraphs. It is also important to know that
most writers separate lines of dialogue into paragraphs, so if a character only
speaks a single line, it will be its own paragraph.

Keeping that in mind, there is a general agreement on the format of a

standard paragraph, which especially applies to informational and
argumentative or persuasive writing. A paragraph should be divided into three
distinct sections that each serve a purpose to the paragraph as a whole.

1. Topic Sentence - The topic sentence is the sentence that lays out a
preview of what the paragraph will be about. Think of it as a preview of
the paragraph. It puts the reader's mindset into the right place to digest
the information.
2. Supporting Sentence - The supporting sentence is the most important
part of the paragraph and provides details to support the topic
sentence. If the topic sentence is about frogs, then the details should
be about frogs as well. This section can be longer or shorter depending
on the content and the writer's preference.
3. Concluding Sentence- The concluding sentence wraps up the
paragraph and ties back to the topic sentence. A conclusion could be a
reiteration of the topic, an opinion based on the topic, or a way to wrap
up the paragraph with a more general statement.

The following paragraph is an example of a simple paragraph that follows the

basic paragraph form.
1 There are many different kinds of animals that live in China. 2 Tigers and
leopards are animals that live in China's forests in the north. 2 In the jungles,
monkeys swing in the trees, and elephants walk through the brush. The
cities in China are filled with millions of people. 2 There are camels in the
deserts in China that people use for transportation. 3 Lots of different kinds
of animals make their home in China.

 In the example paragraph, the topic sentence, labeled with a 1, states

the paragraph's main idea. The reader can rightfully assume that the
content will have to do with animals in China.
 The supporting sentences, indicated by the 2, are separated into
sentences that give more specific information about animals that live in
China. Each detail directly supports the main topic.
 The concluding sentence, indicated by 3, restates the topic sentence
in a slightly different way to help wrap up the paragraph.
 The highlighted sentence in the paragraph is important to note because
it is a detail that does not relate closely enough to the topic sentence
to be included in the essay. While the sentence does mention China, it
would be better placed under a paragraph about people in China or the
cities of China.

Along with the general format of a paragraph, two kinds of paragraphs bear
mentioning. They are a brief paragraph and a piece paragraph. A brief
paragraph is fairly straightforward since it contains the definition in its name.
A brief paragraph is a short paragraph generally consisting of less than ten
sentences in total.

A Piece paragraph is actually an acronym that stands for different parts that
the paragraph should contain.

P - The P stands for the point or the statement that the paragraph is making.
This is often the lead sentence.

I - The I stands for the introduction, which is almost always presented at the
beginning of the paragraph.

E - The E stands for evidence which are sentences that back up the point.

C - The C stands for citation, which tells the reader where the evidence
comes from.

E - The second E stands for the explanation, which is where the writer
explains why it's important or what should be done etc.

The PIECE paragraph is used almost exclusively for argumentative and

expository writing.
 This example paragraph differentiates the three main parts by color.

Types of Paragraph
While the format of paragraphs should be similar, the type of paragraph will
differ greatly depending on the type of writing being done. There are four
common types of paragraphs and do not include paragraphs to separate
dialogue. The table below gives details about the four types.

Type of
Description
Paragraph
A narrative paragraph tells a story of a certain event and gives details
Narrative
that relate to the event being told.
A descriptive paragraph gives details about a person, place, thing, or
Descriptive idea. The topic sentence states what is being described and the details
relate to that topic.
An expository paragraph also can give information, but it can also
explain something, give directions or show how something happens. The
Expository
detailed sentences in expository paragraphs often have linking words such
as first, next, then, or after.
An argumentative paragraph, sometimes referred to as a persuasive
paragraph, is a paragraph where the topic sentence takes a specific
Argumentative
position or request. The details of a persuasive paragraph are written to
prove why the argument is valid.