Continental Shelf Research 118 (2016) 49–62

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Continental Shelf Research

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Research papers

Seasonal and inter-annual dynamics of suspended sediment at the

mouth of the Amazon river: The role of continental and oceanic
forcing, and implications for coastal geomorphology and
mud bank formation
Erwan Gensac a,n, Jean-Michel Martinez a, Vincent Vantrepotte b, Edward J. Anthony c
a
Géoscience Environnement Toulouse, GET, UMR 5563 (CNRS/UPS/IRD), Toulouse University, France
b
Laboratoire d’Océanologie et de Géosciences, LOG, UMR 8187 (CNRS/ULCO/Lille1), Littoral Côte d'Opale University, France
c
Aix Marseille Université, Institut Universitaire de France, Centre Européen de Recherche et d’Enseignement des Géosciences de l’Environnement, CEREGE UM
34, France

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Fine-grained sediments supplied to the Ocean by the Amazon River and their transport under the in-
Received 2 January 2015 fluence of continental and oceanic forcing drives the geomorphic change along the 1500 km-long coast
Received in revised form northward to the Orinoco River delta. The aim of this study is to give an encompassing view of the
3 August 2015
sediment dynamics in the shallow coastal waters from the Amazon River mouth to the Capes region
Accepted 19 February 2016
Available online 22 February 2016
(northern part of the Amapa region of Brazil and eastern part of French Guiana), where large mud banks
are formed. Mud banks are the overarching features in the dynamics of the Amazon-Orinoco coast. They
Keywords: start migrating northward in the Capes region. Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) concentrations were
MODIS calculated from satellite products (MODIS Aqua and Terra) acquired over the period 2000–2013. The
Amazon River mouth
Census-X11 decomposition method used to discriminate short-term, seasonal and long-term time
Shallow coastal waters
components of the SPM variability has rendered possible a robust analysis of the impact of continental
Surface suspended sediment concentration
Mud banks and oceanic forcing. Continental forcing agents considered are the Amazon River water discharge, SPM
Estuarine processes concentration and sediment discharge. Oceanic forcing comprises modelled data of wind speed and
direction, wave height and direction, and currents. A 150 km-long area of accretion is detected at Cabo
Norte that may be linked with a reported increase in the river's sediment discharge concurrent with the
satellite data study period. We also assess the rate of mud bank migration north of Cabo Norte, and
highlight its variability. Although we confirm a 2 km y 1 migration rate, in agreement with other au-
thors, we show that this velocity may be up to 5 km y 1 along the Cabo Orange region, and we highlight
the effect of water discharge by major rivers debouching on this coastal mud belt in modulating such
rates. Finally, we propose a refined sediment transport pattern map of the region based on our results
and of previous studies in the area such as the AMASSEDS programme, and discuss the relationship
between sediment transport and accumulation patterns and the coastal geomorphology of this region.
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction and rationale
The Amazon River drains a catchment of 5.9
106 km2 and is the
world's first fluvial purveyor of fresh water to the ocean with a
mean annual discharge of 208,000 m3 s 1 (Callède et al., 2010).
Regarding sediment supply, a recent assessment over the period
1995–2007 has shown that the Amazon River delivers
n tuates between 286
103 and 1506
103 km2 (Molleri et al., 2010;
Correspondence to: Géoscience Environnement Toulouse, 14 Avenue Edouard
Belin, 31400 Toulouse, France.
E-mail address: erwan.gensac@get.obs-mip.fr (E. Gensac).
754  106 t yr 1 78% of sediment to the Atlantic (Martinez et al.,
2009). About 20% of this supply forms fluid mud and mud banks
(Eisma et al., 1991) that migrate in a 1500 km long coastal belt
from the mouth of the Amazon River to that of the Orinoco River.
These mud banks constitute the overarching control on the mor-
phodynamics and the ecosystems of this coast (Froidefond et al.,
1988; Allison et al., 2000; Alisson and Lee, 2004; Gardel and
Gratiot, 2005; Anthony et al., 2010, 2014).
The position and the shape of the Amazon plume, which fluc-
Kang et al., 2013), are mainly influenced by the strength of the
river discharge, wind direction and ocean surface currents (Geyer,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2016.02.009
0278-4343/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
50 E. Gensac et al. / Continental Shelf Research 118 (2016) 49–62

1995; Lentz, 1995; Lentz and Limeburner, 1995; Geyer, 1995; Nit-
trouer and DeMaster, 1996). Although the fluctuations of the
Amazon plume and the effects of these fluctuations on oceanic
waters are well documented, only few studies have dealt with the
spatiotemporal dynamics of SPM concentrations of the superficial
coastal waters under the influence of the Amazon River (Kineke
and Steinberg, 1995; Geyer et al., 1996; Kineke et al., 1996; Geyer
et al., 2004). The Amazon shelf is a complex area with large
temporal and spatial variations in SPM generated by the combined
influence of the large Amazon discharge and of the hydrodynamic
processes affecting the circulation of water masses in the Atlantic
Ocean. Several earlier studies were based on in situ measure-
ments, which are obviously necessary for understanding the aty-
pical fate of the fine sediment supplied by the Amazon River.
Such studies provide, however, only very punctual and partial
information for this very vast area subjected to high frequency
variability. The dispersal of the SPM supplied by the Amazon River
is not directly linked to the variation in the river's plume. Sedi-
ment transport, due to flocculation, settlement and resuspension
processes, diverges from the route of the fresh water outflow

Fig. 1. Satellite image in true colour of the mouth of the Amazon, the Amapá coast of Brazil, and the Capes region astride French Guiana and Brazil. Main geomorphological
features are numbered (orange for land structures and blue for water bodies). Amazon waters are supplied to the ocean by two major channels, the Southern (5) and,
especially, the Northern channel (2). Marajo Island (8) and Cabo Norte (9) bound the mouth of the Amazon, but the Para River (7) is usually considered as part of this mouth.
Just north of Maraca Island (10) is the starting point of a long coast in erosion up to the south of Cabo Cassiporé (11). Cabo Cassiporé is the eastern part of the Capes region,
which comprises Cabo Cassiporé, Cabo Orange (12) and Pointe Béhague (14-French Guiana) which are separated by the Cassiporé, the Oyapock and the Approuague Rivers,
respectively. The onset on the bottom left corner is a map of the North of the South America. Obidos city along the Amazon River, Cayenne and Kourou cities in French Guiana
are outlined. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
 E. Gensac et al. / Continental Shelf Research 118 (2016) 49–62
(Geyer et al., 2004).
The meeting of the fresh and highly turbid waters of the
Amazon with saline Atlantic Ocean water generates the constitu-
tion of a tremendous amount of fluid mud that is not confined to
the Amazon's mouth but trapped in a maximum turbidity area
(TM) 100–200 km seaward (Gibbs, 1970; Nittrouer et al., 1986;
Geyer et al., 1991). Kuehl et al. (1986a, 1986b) and Geyer et al.
(2004) estimated that almost all of the fine sediment supplied
each year by the Amazon is trapped during the constitution of this
fluid mud, which acts as a purveyor of sediment to the subaqueous
Amazon delta, but also to the mud banks that migrate alongshore
towards the Orinoco River delta. Consequently, a fluid mud layer a
few meters thick occurs on the inner and the middle shelf (0–60 m
depth) over an area ranging from 5700 km2 during phases of
falling and low river discharge, to 10,000 km2 during phases of
rising and high discharge (Kineke and Steinberg, 1995). This fluid
mud consists of about 90% of silt and clay (Milliman and Meade,
1983; Pujos et al., 1996). The coagulation and flocculation pro-
cesses leading to the formation of fluid mud were described by
Faas (1986) and Gibbs and Konwar (1986).
Although the Cabo Norte shoal separating the TM from the
Amapà coast (Fig. 1) might play an important role in the fate of the
portion of this fluid mud that migrates alongshore under the
combined influence of currents and waves, the only observations
available in this critical sector are those of Kineke and Sternberg
(1995) who, noted, in fact, the absence of fluid mud. Fundamental
questions thus still remain regarding fluid mud transport between
the Amazon subaqueous delta and the Amapá coast.
It is interesting to note that the Amapá coast up north to Cabo
Norte is mainly in erosion with sandy beaches or consolidated
muddy shores (Allison et al., 1995). However, a fluid mud layer
several meters thick was documented 100 km offshore of this
coast by Alexander et al. (1986). This pattern of inshore mud de-
pletion in this area could be explained by the influence of tides
and waves, which tend to maintain sediment in suspension be-
tween 0 and 15 m, thus preventing deposition. This point will be
discussed later. Maximum deposition ( E10 cm y 1) occurs just
beyond the 15 m depth contour where sediment removal by
oceanic forcing is not too strong, thus allowing for settling (Kuehl
et al., 1986). The fine sediment dynamics in this region have been
punctually described during key periods of the Amazon's seasonal
discharge and in relation to oceanic forcing during the course of
the AMASSEDS project at the beginning of the 1990 s (Nittrouer
et al., 1991). However, no studies dealing with longer term, rather
than seasonal, processes were realised in the course of this project.
There is, therefore, a lack of knowledge on the inter-annual
variability of fine sediment transport in this area.
Allison et al. (2000) identified the area between Cabo Cassipore
and Cabo Orange (Capes region) as the region of formation of the
mud banks. These authors also highlighted from seismic reflection
two parts of small mud banks offshore of Cabo Orange in waters
between 5 and 20 m depth ( E20 km offshore). Further west along
the French Guiana coast, mud banks have been clearly identified
from their shoreline imprints (Froidefond et al., 1988; Allison et al.,
2000; Gardel and Gratiot, 2005). Using an original decomposition
method based on Census-X11 (see Section 2), Vantrepotte et al.
(2013) highlighted a relationship between mud bank migration
and decadal variations in SPM concentration assessed by satellite
in coastal waters. The main objective of this paper is to assess the
seasonal and inter-annual dynamics of suspended sediments and
fluid mud transport in shallow coastal waters from the mouth of
the Amazon to neighbouring French Guiana through a study of
SPM variations from satellite data. SPM variations are analysed on
a seasonal basis that complements data from earlier field-based
studies but with improved spatial and temporal resolutions. The
study also aims at relating SPM variability to the ambient physical
51
processes and further attempts to identify areas respectively under
continental and oceanic influences. We identify near-bottom se-
diment transport in shallow waters on the basis of a thorough
analysis of a 14-year time series, and highlight the relationship
shown by Vantrepotte et al. (2013) between fluid mud transport
and SPM concentrations from satellite data. The impact of key
geomorphic features such as Cabo Norte shoal and the Capes re-
gion (Fig. 1), on fine sediment transport, and the role of large river
mouths debouching on this coastal area north of the Amazon on
fluid mud transport are also discussed.
2. Methods
2.1. Satellite-derived SPM concentrations
This study is based on space and time analysis of SPM con-
centrations in surface waters based on satellite assessment.
Usually, coastal waters are studied using ocean colour satellite
data. This type of data is well adapted for the open ocean;
nevertheless, ocean colour data from coastal waters, and especially
those with high turbidity, are still rather unreliable. Highly turbid
waters strongly reflect light at near infrared, and saturate satellite
sensors at red wavelengths, such that commonly turbid coastal
waters are usually classified as clouds by conventional atmo-
spheric correction algorithms (Franz et al., 2006). Consequently,
such waters are usually masked and nearshore pixels are not as-
sessed from ocean colour satellite products. Considering these
limitations, we use in this study MODIS Aqua and Terra satellite
continental products in order to retrieve SPM concentrations
within the Amazon River mouth and along the coastal zone to-
wards French Guiana. MODIS continental products are developed
for continental studies where high reflectance at the near-infrared
wavelength is not masked, rendering data from these products
well adapted to extremely turbid waters. However, continental
products may show unreliable reflectance estimates offshore,
where Case-1 waters show very low reflectance values. In order to
avoid spurious results, pixels showing less than 50% of reliable
data (cloud-free and positive reflectance values) over the 14-year
time series were discarded from our study. Fig. 2 (left panel)
shows that the exploitable pixels selected are mainly confined to
an area corresponding to the mouth of the Amazon and to shallow
coastal waters under the Amazon's influence. Our pixels match the
region of subaqueous deltaic topset beds identified by Nittrouer
and DeMaster (1986) at a depth of 10–20 m (Fig. 3, right panel).
MODIS data products (MOD09Q1, MOD09A1, MYD09A1,
MYD09Q1) were downloaded from the NASA Reverb Echo website
(http://reverb.echo.nasa.gov/reverb). For each MODIS reflectance
product, 1166 eight-day composites were analysed from February
2000 to December 2013 at a spatial resolution of 250 m. Each pixel
of each eight-day composite image represents the best pixel ac-
quired over the period in terms of quality (atmospheric conditions,
viewing geometry). Additional image quality information was re-
trieved from the 500-m eight-day composites (satellite and sun
geometry, aerosols and cirrus information) to remove pixels af-
fected by sun-glint effects and residual atmospheric artefacts. The
SPM concentrations are calculated using a single band algorithm
developed for SPM concentration assessment in the Amazon River,
known for its particularly turbid waters. In practice, this algorithm
is based on the infrared (841–876 nm) MODIS 250-m reflectance
band, which is a good proxy for SPM in highly turbid waters where
shorter wavelengths (i.e. blue to red) saturate rapidly as a function
of SPM concentration (Martinez et al., 2009).
52 E. Gensac et al. / Continental Shelf Research 118 (2016) 49–62

Fig. 2. (a) Percent of exploitable data for each pixel between February 2000 and December 2013. 1166 eight-day composite images have been analysed. Areas presenting a
minimum of 50% records available for analysis over the time series appear as green to red. (b) Bathymetric chart of Amazon continental shelf, showing locations of the main
geomorphological features, adapted from Nittrouer and DeMaster (1986). CO: Cabo Orange; CN: Cabo Norte; Ama. Riv.: Amazon River. (For interpretation of the references to
color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

2.2. Ancillary data
Wind speed and wind direction but also Significant Swell and
Wave Heights (SSWH) and wave directional data were retrieved
from the reanalysis climate ERA-INTERIM archive, provided by the
European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF)
at a daily timescale with a spatial resolution of 0.75°. Wind, waves
and tidal currents are considered as the main forcing parameters
in the Amazon and in waters along the coast of the Guianas in-
fluenced by Amazon mud (Eisma et al., 1991; Allison et al., 2000;
Augustinuus, 2004; Gratiot et al., 2007; Anthony et al., 2010, 2014).
Winds are important not only in generating waves, but also in the
formation of coastal currents. Tides have not been considered in
this study because of the seasonal and pluri-annual timescale
analysis. The data on winds and waves are used to define the
temporal variations of the oceanic conditions close to the Amazon
delta. The seasonal and inter-annual timescales as well as monthly
averaging entails lowering the impact of smaller timescale pro-
cesses at diurnal and fortnightly tidal cycles. Monthly means of
wind speed, wind direction and SSWH were calculated between
longitudes 310.5 and 312.75°E and between latitudes 0 and 2.5°N,
i.e. seaward of the mouth of the Amazon. This region has been
found to be representative of the mean coastal conditions of the
entire study zone. The position of the Intertropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ), involved in changes in wind and wave directions,
calculated by Servain et al. (2014), has been used in this study.
The Amazon River water and sediment discharges constitute
the fundamental continental forcing agents in the Amazon plume
dynamics. These discharges are measured by the HYBAM pro-
gramme (http://www.ore-hybam.org), an observatory of the
Amazon River that uses 14 monitoring stations spread over the
river basin. We used hydrological and sedimentological data from
Óbidos station, which is the most downstream station with no
tidal influence and downstream of which there are no other major
tributaries of the Amazon. Monthly-averaged water and sediment
discharges were assessed from the HYBAM database between
February 2000 and September 2013. SPM concentration at Obidos
station was also retrieved using MODIS imagery from 2000 to 2013
(see further details in Martinez et al. (2009)).
2.3. Time series analysis
Monthly time series of SPM and forcing parameters were de-
composed using the Census X-11 method (Pezzulli et al., 2005),
the advantages of which, have been demonstrated in several stu-
dies (Vantrepotte and Mélin, 2009; Mélin et al., 2011, Vantrepotte
et al., 2011, 2013). In practice, this iterative bandpass filtering
method aims at decomposing a time series X(t) into three additive
components:
X (t) = S (t) + T (t) + I (t)
 E. Gensac et al. / Continental Shelf Research 118 (2016) 49–62 53

Fig. 3. Median climatology of three Amazon components of continental forcing: (a) SPM concentration, (b) sediment discharge and (c) liquid discharge. Four components of
oceanic forcing are considered: (d) position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone, (e) swell and wind-wave heights and (f) direction, (g) wind speed and (h) direction.

where S is the seasonal signal, T the trend cycle signal and I the
irregular or residual signal (Shiskin et al., 1967; Vantrepotte and
Mélin, 2009). The detailed procedure is documented in Van-
trepotte and Mélin (2011). The most remarkable feature of this
methodology resides in the fact that the seasonal term is not de-
fined as a strictly periodical signal. This allows for a specific as-
sessment of year-to-year variation in the seasonal oscillation (in
terms of period and amplitude) and thus for a clear identification
of the non-linear long-term evolution in the series not affected by
inter-annual modulation in the seasonal signal (Gregg and Rous-
seaux 2014; Beaulieu et al., 2013). In order to summarize the
spatial patterns of the temporal variability associated with the
analysed times series, the relative part of the variance of the
components can be estimated for each grid point and then map-
ped. In addition to the latter statistical method, the presence of a
significant monotonic long-term change in the times series was
assessed using the non-parametric seasonal Kendall statistics, and
the amplitude of change evaluated using the non-parametric Sen's
slope estimator expressed in % yr 1 (Gilbert, 1987; Vantrepotte
et al., 2011).
2.4. Correlation maps
Pearson correlation between monthly time series of SPM and
forcing was conducted on a pixel basis over the area delineated in
Fig. 2. The Pearson correlation is used because of the near in-
stantaneous response of SPM variation to variation in oceanic
forcing (regional wind and wave). Considering the Amazon mean
river water speed (1–2 m s 1), the Óbidos signal reaches the
mouth of the Amazon River in a few days, which can be considered
as compatible with our monthly averages.
3. Results
3.1. Continental and oceanic forcing on SPM dynamics
Fig. 3 presents the climatology of continental (Amazon basin)
and oceanic forcing. The influence of the Amazon River on the SPM
concentration dynamics in coastal waters is described using three
variables: superficial SPM concentration (Fig. 3a), river sediment
discharge (Fig. 3b) and river water discharge (Fig. 3c), all from
Óbidos station. The oceanic forcing considered here concerns the
variables: significant swell and wave height (Fig. 3e) and direction
(Fig. 3f), wind speed (Fig. 3g) and direction (Fig. 3h), and the po-
sition of the ITCZ (Fig. 3d). The ITCZ modulates wind and oceanic
circulation regimes which both drive water column mixing and
sediment transport processes.
54 E. Gensac et al. / Continental Shelf Research 118 (2016) 49–62

The Amazon River SPM concentration starts increasing in Oc- sediment discharge presents a different seasonal pattern. The
tober and reaches a maximum of E250 mg l 1 in January or maximum of the river sediment discharge is reached in March
February and then rapidly decreases to reach a minimum in June (1.1
108 t per month) and the minimum occurs in October (3
107 t
and July (E60 mg l 1). The seasonal variation of the river per month). This lag between sediment discharge and SPM is

Fig. 4. Map (a) shows the variation coefficient of SPM concentration over the period 2000–2013. Maps (b) and (c) depict the relative contributions, in percent for each pixel,
explained by seasonal (a) and inter-annual (Trend cycle term) (b) processes in the overall variation of SPM obtained by the Census X-11 decomposition method. Map
(d) shows the long-term trend expressed in percent per year of the SPM concentration between 2000 and 2013. This percentage is calculated using a monotonic tendency.
CO: Cabo Orange; CN: Cabo Norte.
 E. Gensac et al. / Continental Shelf Research 118 (2016) 49–62
explained by a shift in the hydrological cycles of the main tribu-
taries of the Amazon River that drain catchments located in both
the northern (Negro River) and southern hemispheres (Madeira
and Solimoes Rivers). The seasonal Amazon River water discharge
has a sinusoidal shape with a maximum of approximately 2.4

105 m3 s 1 in June and a minimum of 1
105 m3 s 1 in November.
The maximum discharge coincides with the sharp decrease of the
Amazon River SPM concentration, illustrating dilution processes.
The ITCZ is close to the Equator from January to March and
migrates towards the North in April to reach 11°N in August. The
ITCZ migrates back southward in September. During the northern
hemisphere winter, winds are from the northeast ( E50°) and are
associated with the strongest velocities, which reach up to 6 m s 1
in February. From March to July, wind direction turns to east-
southeast (100°) and velocity decreases to 4 m s 1. An increase in
the wind velocity occurs in autumn when wind direction reverts
back to northeast (5 m s 1). Waves are strongly tied to wind
conditions, and thus evince the same patterns. During much of the
year (November–May) waves are from the northeast. Significant
heights reach up to 1.5 m during winter with a maximum in
February and then decrease to 1.2 m in August, while directions
change to east. Wave height again increases in autumn, with an
approach direction from east-northeast.
3.2. SPM variability in coastal waters
Shallow coastal waters show strong seasonal variation asso-
ciated with modulation of the Amazon River outflow and the
impact of oceanic forcing. The SPM concentrations obtained from
the satellite data for the various channels of the Amazon varies
from 350 mg l 1 to less than 70 mg l 1 in agreement with the
concentration range upstream at Óbidos station (Martinez et al.,
2009). In the river mouth and its surrounding areas, the SPM
variations are greater with a maximum of 1000 mg l 1 (Supple-
mentary data, Figure A1). The SPM concentrations assessed by
satellite are thus of the same order as those measured along
transects in the mouth of the river and the Cabo Cassiporé region
(Nittrouer et al., 1986; Curtin and Legeckist, 1986), in the frontal
zone of the river mouth (J.-M. Martinez, unpublished data), as well
as in French Guiana (Froidefond et al., 2004; Loisel et al., 2009;
Vantrepotte et al., 2011).
Between January and March, when both the Amazon sediment
discharge and wave energy peak, all the shallow coastal waters
show relatively high SPM concentration reaching up to
400 mg l 1. Nevertheless, two specific areas offshore of Cabo
Norte and offshore of Santa Rosa Bay exhibit larger values with a
concentration of up to 700 mg l 1. In April, the SPM concentration
begins to decrease for the whole coastal domain. In May and July,
which correspond to the Amazon peak water discharge, the SPM
concentration continues to decrease ( E200 mg l 1) except over
the Cabo Norte shoal and offshore of Santa Rosa Bay which tends
to increase until December, notwithstanding the decrease in
Amazon water discharge. The region offshore of Santa Rosa Bay,
characterised by a T-shaped pattern can be associated with the
transverse shoal described in this region (Barreto et al., 1975;
Milliman, 1979; Nittrouer et al., 1986). North of the Cabo Norte
region, along the Amapá coast, SPM concentration increases
slightly from August to November, then sharply increases from
December to March, and finally decreases from April to July. Along
the French Guiana coast, SPM concentration increases from Jan-
uary to March, reaching up 600 mg l 1, before decreasing sharply
from April to December ( o100 mg l 1).
3.3. Temporal scales of SPM concentration variations
Fig. 4 shows the variation coefficient of the SPM concentration
55
(a) as the relative contribution of the seasonal (b) and inter-annual
(c) components extracted from the Census X-11 decomposition
procedure of the SPM time series for the period 2000–2013. The
monotonic trend (d) depicts significant increase or decrease trends
in SPM concentration. Along the French Guiana coast, offshore of
the Amapá coast and the Amazon mouth, and in the Para River, the
variation coefficient shows strong variability (60 to more than
100%)and may be linked to a decrease in reliable data (Fig. 2, left
panel) due to limitations in the MODIS continental product far
from the coast. The lowest values (10–30%) of the variation coef-
ficient, above the Cabo Norte shoal and the T-shaped pattern
mentioned above, reflect the constant high turbidity of these
waters. Areas associated with the North and the Jurupary chan-
nels, such as the inshore region of Cabo Norte, show a higher
variation that attains 50–60% and mainly explained by seasonal
processes (70–80% of the overall SPM variation, Fig. 4b). Seasonal
processes largely dominate much of the SPM variation in shallow
coastal waters ( 460% overall), with a maximum contribution to
the total variance in the mouth of the Amazon mouth. Longer-term
processes play an important role in a coastal fringe approximately
10 km wide along the French Guiana coast and offshore of Cabo
Norte (trend cycle, Fig. 4c). Along French Guiana as South of Cabo
Norte, the inter-annual trend is approximately 30% and reaches
60% in the nearshore zone of mud banks in French Guiana. This
indicates the influence of sharp inter-annual processes in SPM
variation. For some islands at the mouth of the Amazon and along
Cabo Norte, the very high percentages of the trend cycle con-
tribution (from 80% to 100%) reflect the accretion of coastal
mudflats that consequently greatly increase the reflectance in the
infrared domain.
The monotonic trend analysis highlights areas with a sig-
nificant increase or decrease in SPM concentration over the period
2000–2013 (Fig. 4d). No monotonic trends are highlighted in the
mouth of the Amazon except for some islands associated with
active mudflat formation. Of interest is a marked 150 km-long
spit-like pattern offshore of Cabo Norte. This pattern shows an
increase in SPM concentration from 2% to 10% a year and reaching
20% a year close to the North Channel. The coastal region between
Cabo Cassiporé and Cabo Norte does not show any significant
trend whereas 30 km offshore of Maraca Island and south of Cabo
Cassiporé, large areas show significant SPM increases (from 2% to
10% a year).
Regions with strong increases or decreases in the monotonic
trend alternate along the French Guiana coast. These regions (20–
40 km long and 20 km wide) are associated with the mud bank
migration process in agreement with the findings of Vantrepotte
et al. (2013) based on MERIS data. In French Guiana, the SPM de-
crease is linked to the erosion of a mud bank whereas the process
of silting up of coastal areas by fluid mud deposits released by
mud bank erosion causes SPM increases of up to 10 or 20% a year.
No such alternating trend is observed elsewhere in the study area.
Over the large mud bank area at Cabo Orange described by Allison
et al. (2000), only two small regions present a significant increase
in SPM concentration of about 2–10% a year. A significant increase
can also be noted at Pointe Béhague and in the western part of
Cabo Orange (Fig. 4d).
3.4. Impact of oceanic and continental forcing
The seasonal signal was found to be the dominant one in ac-
counting for temporal variability in SPM over the investigated
area. Fig. 5 shows the spatial distribution of the seasonal correla-
tion between SPM concentration and continental/oceanic forcing.
Continental forcing components are represented by Amazon se-
diment discharge (Fig. 5a), Amazon water discharge (Fig. 5b) and
Amazon River SPM concentration (Fig. 5c), whereas oceanic
56 E. Gensac et al. / Continental Shelf Research 118 (2016) 49–62

Fig. 5. Seasonal correlation maps between SPM concentration and continental/oceanic forcing components. Only correlation indices from 0.5 to 1 (reddish tones) or lower
than 0.5 (bluish tones) are mapped. Continental forcing components considered are Amazon River SPM concentration (a), Amazon sediment discharge (b) and Amazon
liquid discharge (c).Oceanic forcing components are Significant S well and Wave Height (SSWH) (d), wind speed (e) and the position of the ITCZ (f). (For interpretation of the
references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

forcing components are assessed through the seasonal fluctuations
of SSWH (Fig. 5d), wind speed (Fig. 5e), and the latitudinal position
of the ITCZ (Fig. 5f). Correlation between wind and wave direction
and SPM concentration in coastal waters gives results very similar
to those obtained when the ITCZ position is considered, and these
results are therefore not shown. Note that no convincing correla-
tions were found for inter-annual variation between SPM
concentration in coastal waters and all forcing components (i.e.
continental and oceanic). This result may be due to the inadequate
length of the time-series or to a nonlinear relationship between
forcing and SPM at the inter-annual scale.
Interestingly, whereas significant correlations (0.7–0.9) are
found between the Amazon River SPM concentration and the
entire domain of Amazon mouth waters (Fig. 5a), low correlations
 E. Gensac et al. / Continental Shelf Research 118 (2016) 49–62 57

(0.3–0.5) occur between the Amazon River sediment discharge
and SPM concentration in the waters of the river mouth (Fig. 5b).
This result point outs the time shift between the Amazon River
discharge peak and the sediment discharge peak (Fig. 3). The
temporal variability in SPM in the mouth of the Amazon is also
related to that of the Amazon River discharge specifically in two
restricted areas, located respectively in Santa Rosa bay and at the
south bank of the South channel along Marajo Island, where there
are significant negative correlations between these two para-
meters (Fig. 5c).
Oceanic forcing controls SPM concentrations in the mouth of
the Amazon and these concentrations are significantly correlated
with SSWH and wind speed (Fig. 5d and e), with spatial patterns
very similar to those found for the correlation with the Amazon
River SPM concentration (Fig. 5a). Seasonal variations in the
Amazon River SPM concentration, SSWH and wind speed are
globally co-varying. The relative impact of each of the latter for-
cing components is therefore difficult to distinguish using a simple
correlation analysis. The SPM concentration of the Northern
channel and a part of the southern sector of the Amazon River
mouth is anti-correlated (0.7–0.9) with the ITCZ position and thus
with wind and swell direction (Fig. 5f).
Excepting the influence of the Amazon River discharge on a
40 km-wide narrow coastal fringe, the SPM dynamics in the Cabo
Norte sector is almost not linked to continental forcing. A re-
stricted area north of Cabo Norte presents a significant anti-cor-
relation with the Amazon solid discharge (0.6–0.8). This latter
region and an area situated 50 km offshore of Cabo Norte are also
positively correlated (0.5–0.7) with ITCZ position and thus with
wind and wave direction. This positive correlation indicates that
the SPM concentration increases when winds and waves are from
east-southeast.
For regions extending north off Cabo Norte, the Amazon in-
fluence is not the dominant forcing component, as indicated by
(Curtin and Legeckist, 1986) or Anthony et al. (2014). Correlations
with continental forcing in this area may simply be due to co-
variation of the temporal SPM signal. The coastal waters near
Maraca Island are significantly correlated with wind speed (0.5–
0.8). The increase in wind velocity favours water column mixing
and resuspension processes especially in these very shallow wa-
ters (o 5 m depth). The SPM concentration in the coastal area
north of Maraca Island and south of Cabo Orange is correlated with
both SSWH (0.7–0.9) and wind speed (0.5–0.8), and anti-corre-
lated with the ITCZ ( 0.6 to 0.9). The positive correlations de-
note resuspension processes whereas the negative correlation
marks the offshore migration of the Amazon River plume. In the
Capes region and in French Guiana the SPM concentration varies in
a similar way with the same type of correlations as in the afore-
mentioned area except for wind speed (0.3–0.5).
3.5. Fluid mud transport
The constant presence of a fluid mud mass within shallow
coastal waters in a specific area substantially enhances the SPM
concentration in the water column, thus impacting the surface
waters visible with satellite imagery. Fig. 6 shows spatiotemporal

Fig. 6. Time-space diagrams of trend cycle SPM concentrations from February 2000 to December 2013 (seasonal and irregular variations are removed) computed over six
profiles. SPM values lower than 150 mg l 1 are not representative of fluid mud migration and consequently removed. Profiles, numbered A–L, were realized in areas of
significant monotonic trend. Within the profile along Cabo Orange (E-F), the approximate position of two mud banks described by Allison et al. (2000) is indicated and the
dashed arrow indicates the present position of one of these mud banks if its mean migration velocity was approximately of 5.2 km y 1. The map in the upper right corner is a
detailed view of the significant monotonic trend term presented in this figure with the profile positions.
58 E. Gensac et al. / Continental Shelf Research 118 (2016) 49–62
evolution of these long-term SPM fluctuations (trend cycle) along
six transects realised in keys areas along the coast between Kourou
in French Guiana and north of the mouth of the Amazon. The areas
selected show a significant increase and/or decrease in SPM be-
tween 2000 and 2013 and may be associated with fluid mud
transport, as shown also for French Guiana by Vantrepotte et al.
(2013). The SPM concentrations range from 150 mg l 1 to
600 mg l 1, identical to the values measured over mud banks in
French Guiana (Froidefond et al., 2004, Loisel et al., 2009; Van-
trepotte et al., 2011).The first transect (Fig. 6, transect A-B) is po-
sitioned to visualise mud-bank migration in French Guiana (Van-
trepotte et al., 2013). Two mud banks, identifiable by the strong
contrast in their sediment concentration (up to 600 mg l 1)
compared to interbank areas (less than 150 g l 1) migrate in the
Macouria and Kaw regions at a mean speed of 2.1 km y 1. While
this distinction is less clear in the Pointe Béhague region (Fig. 6,
transect C-D) due to the almost permanent presence of fluid mud,
a migrating highly turbid plume is identifiable and associated with
a mud bank moving at a mean speed of 1.6 km y 1.
Similarly, the coastal waters between Cabo Orange and Cabo
Cassiporéare very turbid (Fig. 6, transect E-F). However, two mud
banks migrating at a mean speed of 5.2 and 5.8 km y 1 are visible
in the latter region. Another mud bank was found to migrate be-
tween 2000 and 2004–2005 in the western part of Cabo Orange at
a mean speed of 2 km y 1. This lower migration speed can be
related to: (1) a bias in calculation due to the restricted time
window taken into account; (2) the slowing down of the mud
bank migration rate in the vicinity of the Oyapock River, probably
reflecting the ‘hydraulic groyne' effect of strong river flow on the
alongshore migration of mud banks (Anthony et al., 2013). This
aspect is further evoked below. These features detected from our
results can be associated with mud banks already identified by
Allison et al. (2000) south of Cabo Orange. These authors have
estimated a maximum bank migration rate of approximately
1.4 km y 1 based on the space between mud banks and 210Pb
analysis of mud bank cores, but the time integration of their as-
sessment is not detailed. This difference in migration rates be-
tween our study and that of Allison et al. (2000) could be due to
the different methods employed. By estimating the position of
mud banks in 1996, based on migration rates calculated in this
paper, the mud bank migrating at 5.2 km y 1 could be one of the
two mud banks observed by Allison et al. (2000). The second mud
bank migrating at a mean speed of 2 km y 1 cannot be associated
with the mud bank already described by Allison et al. (2000),
except if the mean migration rate was faster than observed,
reaching an approximate speed of 5 km y 1. Even though the
latter hypothesis tends to plead for a possible bias in the mean
speed calculation, a combination of the two hypotheses should
explain the observed differences.
Other major rivers can produce a hydraulic-groyne effect that
slows down mud migration on the eastern part of their mouths.
This effect is visible with the presence of a constant turbid zone on
the coast updrift (eastern side) of the Approuague River estuary
and the afore-mentioned Oyapock River estuary (Fig. 6, transects
C-D and E-F) that can be linked to the continuous presence of
muddy sediments. Minor rivers such as the Mahury or Cayenne
Rivers do not exert the same hydraulic effect (Fig. 6, transect A-C)
due to their low water discharge, which is apparently too weak to
affect mud bank migration.
Three other regions were analysed to follow up fluid mud
transport from the mouth of the Amazon. The first one is located
40 km offshore south of Cabo Cassiporé (Fig. 6, transect G-H) and
shows a significant increase in SPM of approximately 2–10% a year
between 2000 and 2013. This trend is, however, only explained by
an abrupt increase in turbidity in 2013. The second trend area is
located seaward of Maraca Island (Fig. 6, transect I-J). The waters
are also relatively turbid ( o150 mg l 1), but no clearly migrating
turbid plume can be identified. However, a sharp increase in SPM
occurs, especially in the eastern part of this region, and has been
noticeable since 2009. Closer to the Amazon mouth, along Cabo
Norte, the last transect (Fig. 6, transect K-L) cuts through the spit-
like feature characterized by an important increase in SPM
(Fig. 4d). This area shows highly turbid water, with concentrations
between 360 mg l 1 and 600 mg l 1 but with an increase in
2002–2003 for the entire region and a decrease in 2008 and 2010
for the northern part of the transect.
4. Discussion
4.1. Fate of the Amazon mud supply and implications for coastal
geomorphology
SPM variations throughout a year in the mouth of the Amazon
River are relatively complex with the significant influence of two
to four forcing components, depending on the area (Fig. 5). This
complex situation leads to a multi-seasonal sedimentary dynamic
pattern (Supplementary data, Figure A1). Continental forcing re-
lated to the river itself is believed to drive the SPM variations in
the mouth because of the strong water discharge, which pushes
saline water 100–200 km offshore. Oceanic forcing may also con-
tribute to SPM dynamics through resuspension of fine sediment in
the water column under the control of winds, tides and currents,
but the relative importance of these agents in relation to con-
tinental forcing in the mouth of this large river is still to be as-
sessed. Tides have not been considered in this study because of the
seasonal and pluri-annual timescale analysis but they should be
taken into account in further studies because of their significant
role in the mouth and over the entire coastal zone of the Amazon
(Anthony et al., 2014). The large tides (up to 8 m at spring tides) in
this area influence mixing of the water column and the re-
suspension and transport of fine sediment. Short-term tidal cycles
such as diurnal and fortnightly could be analysed to obtain a more
detailed picture of SPM variation in the river mouth and more
particularly in the offshore estuarine frontal zone where our work
has highlighted a lack of correlation between SPM concentration
and continental/oceanic forcings.
The results of our study can be synthesized in conceptual maps
(Fig. 7) that summarize the sediment dynamics and forcing in-
fluences. The patterns deriving from these are important in con-
tributing to a better understanding of the geomorphic status of the
coast. Fig. 7 depicts coastal areas in accretion or in erosion in the
beginning of the 1990 s (Nittrouer et al., 1991) and the sedimen-
tary facies distribution in the 1980 s (Kuelh et al., 1986). The main
geomorphic features and sedimentary processes highlighted in
our study, and discussed in the following, are detailed for two
focus areas: the Amazon-Cabo Norte region, and from Maraca Is-
land to the Capes region.
Strong and constant SPM values (i.e. 4400 mg l 1) have been
highlighted over three areas: one offshore of Santa Rosa bay, one
on the south bank of the Jurapari Channel along Marajo Island, and
the last one offshore of Cabo Norte, northward of the North
Channel (Supplementary data, Figure A1 and Fig. 7c). These areas
are located on both sides of the main stream of each channel,
which are preferential areas for sediment accumulation (Kuehl
et al. (1982) for the North Channel). These areas with strong and
constant SPM values could highlight the presence of shoals gen-
erated by accumulation of sediment supplied by the Amazon River.
Parts of these high SPM concentration areas are negatively
correlated with Amazon River discharge. This negative correlation
may underline the offshore flushing of sediment by the strong
Amazon outflow, and, thus, an SPM decrease when the Amazon
 E. Gensac et al. / Continental Shelf Research 118 (2016) 49–62 59

Fig. 7. (a) Map of coastal areas in accretion or in erosion from the mouth of the Amazon to Cabo Orange (modified, after Nittrouer et al., 1991). (b) Map of the bottom
sediment distribution from the river mouth to Cabo Orange (modified, after Kuelh et al., 1986). The main geomorphic features and sedimentary processes from the river
mouth to the Cabo Norte area (c) and from Maraca Island to Cabo Orange (d). For a better visualization areas with more than one forcing agent are dashed.

water discharge is high. of more than 10% in SPM concentration along Cabo Norte in the
The shallow depths ( o 5 m) of the Cabo Norte and Santa Rosa shape of a spit is detected (Fig. 4d) from 2000 to 2014. This spit is
Bay regions render field studies difficult, explaining the lack of more than 100 km long and approximately 20 km wide, and
geological or sedimentological data for these shoals. An increase stretches along the strong SPM concentration area associated
60 E. Gensac et al. / Continental Shelf Research 118 (2016) 49–62
with shoals (Fig. 7c) and the 5 m bathymetric contour (Fig. 2b).
The increase in SPM from 2003 to 2013 throughout the Cabo
Norte region (Fig. 6) could be associated with the progradation
of shoals towards the North Channel of the Amazon. This phe-
nomenon may be associated with the increase in Amazon River
sediment discharge from 1995 to 2007 calculated by Martinez
et al. (2009). A significant increase in SPM north of Cabo Norte,
seaward of Maraca Island, is also detected since 2008 and could
be related to this increase in the Amazon River sediment dis-
charge but with a certain temporal shift driven probably by es-
tuarine processes in the river mouth and sediment transport
processes northward of the mouth.
4.2. Sediment dynamics in the coastal waters of northern Amapá
Sediment supplied by the Amazon River and currents gener-
ated during the hydrological cycle of this river's discharge strongly
control the dispersal of suspended and sea bottom sediments ei-
ther by flushing or by favouring the concentration of suspended
and deposited sediments in specific areas. However, North of Cabo
Norte, the influence of the Amazon River on resuspension and
sediment transport decreases (Curtin and Legeckist, 1986; An-
thony et al., 2014), relinquishing command to oceanic forcing.
The significant correlation of SPM concentration in coastal wa-
ters near Maraca Island with wind speed can be related to the fact
that the Maraca Island region is situated in very shallow waters, less
than 5 m depth (Fig. 2, right panel), where wind-induced currents
can be active in sediment resuspension processes. In such low water
depths, wave shoaling, especially over the shallow muddy substrate
offshore, leads to significant loss of energy (Wells and Kemp, 1986;
Sheremet and Stone, 2003; Winterwerp et al., 2007; Soltanpour and
Haghshenas, 2009). This situation of SPM correlation with wind
speed and not with SSWH, prevails along the coast for almost
100 km north of Maraca Island for water depths of 0–5 m (Fig. 7d).
Offshore of this nearshore zone, the SPM concentration becomes
influenced by waves. Along Cabo Cassiporé, both wind speed and
SSWH influence 0–5 m-deep coastal waters, which suggests that
waves are not dampened and impinge directly on the shoreline. The
Cabo Cassiporé region was in erosion in the 1990 s (Kuehl et al.,
1986) and this erosion still strongly prevails (G. Brunier, pers.
comm., 2014), supporting the relationship found in our study be-
tween SSWH and SPM concentration. This may highlight the im-
portance of offshore bathymetry in the extent to which waves are
dampened or not.
The areas only influenced by wind speed should involve a sea
bottom with a thick layer of fluid mud that dampens waves,
whereas the map of shoreline facies shows coasts in erosion for
the entire coastline north of Cabo Norte and around Maraca Island
(Fig. 7a). This erosional trend does not really match with the
presence of fluid mud, which should dampen waves and limit
erosion. Two hypotheses can be discussed. First, as mentioned
earlier, the study period (2000–2013) has been marked by an in-
crease in Amazon mud discharge (Martinez et al., 2009) and areas
offshore of Cabo Norte and Maraca Island exhibit a significant in-
crease in SPM concentration (Fig. 4) that could be associated with
accretion. This supply of sediments, supposedly muddy, may have
changed the bottom sedimentology and affected the coastal mor-
phology, reported as sandy nearly 15 years ago by Allison and
Nittrouer (1998). The second hypothesis does not invoke a change
in coastal geomorphology. Studies realised in this area (Beardsley
et al., 1995; Allison et al., 1995; Gabioux et al., 2005) show that
strong tidal currents may be the predominant forcing agent in
explaining coastal erosion in this sector. This zone is still close to
the mouth of the Amazon to be subjected to a large tidal range
(4 6 m at spring tides). It will be interesting to study the evolution
of the coastal morphology in the Cabo Norte and Maraca Island
region since the 1990 s to determine whether the afore-mentioned
increase in Amazon sediment discharge has had an impact on the
coastline or not. In 2013, the increase in Amazon sediment dis-
charge seemed to be limited to the coastal waters of Maraca Island
(Fig. 4 and Fig. 6).
4.3. Mud bank migration
Variations in SPM concentration are driven by continental and
oceanic forcing, but these variations seem to be mainly seasonal
(Fig. 4). No significant inter-annual correlations between SPM
concentration and forcing were revealed by our work. Similar re-
sults were reported by Loisel et al. (2014) for coastal waters off
the Mekong River, which is also characterized by heavy mud dis-
charge. The absence of correlation may be due to: (1) the length of
the time series analyses (14 years) which may be too short, and
(2) the multiple influences of forcing agents for a same area which
increases the complexity of the inter-annual SPM variation.
The significant variations in SPM concentration shown in
Fig. (4) are thus very likely associated with another phenomenon,
the migration of muddy sediment on the sea bottom. The near-
shore accretion in the Cabo Norte region (Figs. 4 and 6) can be
linked to the transport of fluid mud layers or to the migration of
mud banks reported by Vantrepotte et al. (2013) from French
Guiana. The formation of discrete mud banks, visible along the
Guianas coasts, is an important but still unanswered issue re-
garding a better understanding and prediction of geomorphic
changes along the 1500 km of coast between the Capes Region and
Venezuela. The main hypothesis is based on changes in wind in-
tensity that modulates the influence of the North Brazil Current on
sediment transport (Eisma et al., 1991; Allison et al., 2000; Au-
gustinus, 2004). Time series analysed in this work have not pro-
vided a clue that can confirm or invalidate this hypothesis.
Walcker et al. (2015) have suggested that alternations of periods of
lower and higher wave energy driven by the North Atlantic Os-
cillation may be responsible for the creation of bank and interbank
phases at the origin of the mud bank system in the region of Cabo
Cassipore, Brazil. The period considered between two mud banks
is 10–20 years in French Guiana. Based on the analyses of the SPM
trend cycle variation (Fig. 6), the mud bank period calculated in
this work is also of the order of 10–20 years but closer to 10 years
along Cabo Orange and closer to 20 years in French Guiana. The
migration rate of mud banks along the Cabo Orange coast is twice
as high as that along French Guiana. The reasons for this difference
in periodicity are not clear and need more analysis, as they are no
doubt a reflection of the combined influence of various forcing and
geomorphic parameters on mud bank migration rates (Eisma et al.,
1991; Lakhan and Pepper, 1997; Gardel and Gratiot, 2005; Nikiema
et al., 2007; Gardel et al., 2011; Anthony et al., 2014).
Anthony et al. (2013) have discussed the impact of major rivers
on mud transit along the Amazon-Orinoco coast. Major rivers,
several of which debouch on this coast downdrift of the Amazon
mud bank belt, should favour the persistence of muddy accretion
on their updrift (east) coasts and liquefaction of the muddy sedi-
ment on their downdrift (west) coasts. This phenomenon is visible
in Fig. 6 especially for the Oyapock (catchment size: 24,630 km2)
and Approuague (10,250 km2) Rivers, the east sides of which
showed a greater SPM concentration than their west sides even
during the passage of a mud bank. The hydraulic-groyne effect of
major rivers on mud bank migration is clear but it does not block
migration when this process is considered over several years. It is
tempting to identify the mud bank described by Allison et al.
(2000) in 1986 as the one present on the east side of the Oyapock
River in 2004 and offshore of Pointe Béhague in 2006 (Fig. 6,
transects E-F and C-D). If this is indeed the case then this mud
bank migrated cross the Oyapock River in only two or three years.
 E. Gensac et al. / Continental Shelf Research 118 (2016) 49–62
After the Oyapock River, and starting from Pointe Béhague, mud
banks are shorter (turbid imprints are shorter on Fig. 6) and their
migration rate is halved. No clear answer can be forwarded by our
work regarding the decrease in migration rate but the role of
major rivers, and especially the Oyapock, can be invoked.
5. Conclusion
The massive supply of sediment from the Amazon River leads
to the formation of two main shoals in the mouth of this river: one
offshore of Santa Rosa Bay and the other offshore of Cabo Norte
north of the mouth. The SPM concentration above the Santa Rosa
shoal, as above the Cabo Norte shoal, is mainly influenced by the
Amazon River sediment and water discharge. Mud accumulates in
the course of high Amazon sediment discharge that is flushed
seaward during the water discharge peak. The shifts in the sea-
sonal variation in SPM concentration above these shoals is likely
explained by migration of sediment from the Santa Rosa shoal to
the Cabo Norte resulting from both the flushing of sediment (May–
July) and a decrease in the hydraulic-groyne effect exerted by
water discharge through the North Channel (August–October) of
the Amazon. Along Cabo Norte, sediments are preferentially flu-
shed in a relatively narrow 40 km-wide nearshore band during the
May–July period. A 150 km-long spit-like pattern characterized by
a significant increase in SPM concentration between 2000 and
2013 has been highlighted. This increase highlights a silting up of
the Cabo Norte shoal southwards towards the mouth of the
Amazon that may be associated with a notable increase in Amazon
sediment discharge measured from 1995 to 2007. Sediments are
transported northwestward from Cabo Norte to Cabo Orange,
generating mud banks. The formation mode of these mud banks is
still unclear but a new assessment of a migration rate of ap-
proximately 5 km y 1 has been calculated which is two to three
times greater than the rate calculated in previous studies on that
area. Remote sensing has proved to be a powerful tool in assessing
the seasonal and long-term dynamics of SPM, providing evidence
that can also be used to assess changes in coastal geomorphology.
However, a more insightful understanding and interpretation of
sediment dynamics and the ensuing patterns of mud bank for-
mation, migration and coastal geomorphic change will require
recourse to both satellite data and field measurements, including
seismic transects and water sampling.
Author contributions
E.G and J-M.M. analysed the MODIS data. V.V. provided insight
concerning methods, and EJ.A on the articulations between the
SPM data and coastal geomorphology. All authors wrote the paper.
Acknowledgements
The research has been funded by the French Agence Nationale
de la Recherche (ANR 2011 BS56 018 01) through the GlobCoast
project (www.foresea.fr/globcoast). The authors also would like to
thank the NASA MODIS Project for the production and distribution
of MODIS data. The SO-HYBAM programme is acknowledged for
providing Amazon River discharges, SPM concentrations and se-
diment discharge data. The ECMWF is acknowledged for providing
ERA-interim dataset. Edward Anthony benefited from support
from the Belmont Forum project “BF-Deltas: Catalyzing Action
Towards Sustainability of Deltaic Systems with an Integrated
Modeling Framework for Risk Assessment” (Grant number:
61
G8MUREFU3FP-2201-037). The authors would like to thank Jac-
ques Servain for the ITCZ position index data.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in
the online version at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2016.02.009.
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