Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57 – 76

www.elsevier.com/locate/margeo

The timing and evolution of the post-glacial transgression across the

Sea of Marmara shelf south of İstanbul
K.K. Eriş a,⁎, W.B.F. Ryan b , M.N. Çağatay a , U. Sancar a ,
G. Lericolais c , G. Ménot d , E. Bard d
a . .
Istanbul Technical University Faculty Of Mines, Emcol, Geology Department Ayazağa, Istanbul Turkey
b
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, Palisades, NY, USA
c
Laboratoire de Environnements Sedimentaires, IFREMER, France
d
College de France, CEREGE, UMR-6635, France

Received 18 August 2006; received in revised form 21 March 2007; accepted 13 April 2007

Abstract

High-resolution seismic reflection profiles and analyses of the sedimentary substrate at the Sea of Marmara (SoM) entrance to the Strait
of İstanbul (SoI, Bosphorus) provide a detailed record of the transgression that took place after the SoM reconnected with the
Mediterranean. The sediments progressively fill a paleo shelf valley that incised the margin from the SoI to the shelf break at the time of the
pre-Holocene lowstand. We map seven seismic reflection units that can be confidently correlated to sediment cores by lithology and
physical properties. Sediments in the cores are dated by radiocarbon methods. Early channel and levee deposits within the paleo valley
belong to the Younger Dryas cold stage and record outflow from the Black Sea via the SoI. Small clinoform packages on the valley margin
formed in proximity to climbing paleo shorelines. The elevations of these deposits conform to the sealevel history recorded in Barbados
corals. The younger part of the succession includes a subaqueous prodelta sourced from the Kurbağalıdere River. Its relatively young age
when the Holocene sea had almost reached its modern level suggests that the thick progradational and aggradational clinoform
development was primarily a response to sediment supply rather than the filling of expanding accommodation space. Our findings refute
the hypothesis of Aksu et al. (Aksu, A.E., Hiscott, R.N., Mudie., P.J., Rochon, A., Kaminski, M.A., Abrojano, T., Yaşar, D., 2002a.
Persistent Holocene outflow fromn the Black Sea to the Eastern Mediterranean contradicts Noah's Flood hypothesis, GSA Today 10,(6),
3–7., Aksu, A.E., Hiscott, R.N., Kaminski, M.A., Mudie, P.J., Gillespie, H., Abrojano, T., Yaşar, D., 2002b. Last glacial–Holocene
paleoceanography of the Black Sea and Marmara Sea: stable isotopic, foraminiferal and coccolith evidence. Mar. Geol., 190, 119–149.)
and Hiscott et al. (Hiscott, R.N., Aksu, A.E., Yaşar, D., Kaminski, M.A., Mudie, P.J., Kostylev, V.E., MacDonald, J.C. Isler, F.I., Lord, A.R.,
2002. Deltas south of the Bosphorus Strait record persistent Black Sea outflow to the Marmara Sea since ∼10 ka, Mar. Geol., 190, 95–118.,
Hiscott, R.N., Aksu, A.E., Mudie., P.J., Kaminski, M.A., Abrajano, T., Yaşar, D., Rochon, A., 2007. The Marmara Sea gateway since
∼16 ky BP: non-catastrophic causes of paleoceanographic events in the Black Sea at 8.4 and 7.15 ky BP. In Yanko-Hombach,V., Gilbert,
A.S., Dolukhanov, P.M. (Eds.), The Black Sea Flood Question, Springer, The Netherlands, 89–117.) that this deposit was supplied from the
SoI and that its presence requires a persistent Black Sea outflow since 10 14C ka bp (not corrected from the reservoir age or calibrated).
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: seismic stratigraphy; sealevel; Holocene; Marmara Sea; delta; sapropel

⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: keris@itu.edu.tr (K.K. Eriş), billr@ldeo.columbi.edu (W.B.F. Ryan), cagatay@itu.edu.tr (M.N. Çağatay), sancarum@itu.edu.tr
(U. Sancar), menot@cerege.fr (G. Ménot), bard@cerege.fr (E. Bard).

0025-3227/$ - see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2007.04.010
58 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76
1. Introduction
The Sea of Marmara (SoM) serves as a gateway (Fig. 1)
between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea (Stanley
and Blanpied, 1980). Relatively high salinity marine
water from the northern Aegean enters today as an
undercurrent via the Çanakkale Strait (Dardanelles). This
water of Mediterranean origin crosses the SoM and
continues into the Black Sea via the Strait of İstanbul (SoI,
Bosphorus) while low salinity water exits on the surface
from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean in the opposite
direction (Ünlüata et al., 1990; Latif et al., 1991).
When global sealevel dropped below the Çanakkale
Strait bedrock sill at around − 83 m during Marine
Isotope Stage 2 (MIS 2) of the last glacial period, the
SoM lost its Mediterranean input and freshened accord-
ingly from Black Sea outflow supplied by rivers, rain and
ice sheet melting. Marmara sediments record the
freshening of this seaway by the presence of a Neoeuxine
fauna including Dressina rostriformis (mollusk), Am-
monia beccari (benthic foraminifera) and Spiniferites
cruciformis (dinoflagellate cyst), all sensitive indicators
of fresh to slightly brackish conditions (Çağatay et al.,
2000; Kaminski et al., 2002; Mudie et al., 2002, 2004).
The ∂18O in mollusk shells decreased by more than 4‰
relative to modern values to reflect the composition of
the Black Sea's Neoexine lake (Major et al., 2002, 2004,
2006).
Since the SoM has a relatively broad continental
margin with a shelf break located between − 90 to
− 100 m, much of the shelf (N 57% the present area of the
SoM) transformed into a terrestrial landscape during
MIS 2 as the surface of the SoM dropped to its outlet
spillway in the Çanakkale Strait. A prominent shoreline
terrace at − 83 ± 2 m marks the stillstand (Çağatay et al.,
2003; Polonia et al., 2004). Sun-shaded multibeam ba-
thymetry west of the entrance to the SoI (Cormier et al.,
2006) illuminates the continuity of this shoreline over
tens of kilometers. The subbottom reflector correspond-
ing to the eroded surface correlates with reflector Q1
(Hiscott et al., 2002; Aksu et al., 2002a; Hiscott et al.,
2007) and with the excavated walls and floor of the
buried Bosphorus (SoI) shelf valley (Ryan et al., 1997a;
Ryan, 2007) leading southward from the SoI entrance to
the SoM slope.
With the rise of global sealevel accompanying north-
ern hemisphere deglaciation during the Bølling/Allerød
stages (Fairbanks, 1989; Bard et al., 1990; Siddall et al.,
2003), Mediterranean marine waters soon returned to
the SoM. Dating by AMS carbon 14 methods shows the
marine connection beginning around 12 14C ka bp
(Çağatay et al., 2000; Major et al., 2002; Hiscott et al.,
2002; Sperling et al., 2003; Hiscott et al., 2007). [Note
that our radiocarbon dates are reported as measurements
without the modern ∼ 415 yr reservoir correction (Siani
et al., 2000) and without dendrochronological calibra-
tion (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993) and are labeled 14C ka
bp. Reservoir corrected and calibrated dates are labeled
as cal ka BP.]
The SoM connection with the Mediterranean led to
the initial drowning of the outer shelf, the introduction
of marine mollusks, foraminifera and dinoflagellates,
and a shift of ∂18O to heavier values compared to the
Neoeuxine measurements (Çağatay et al., 2000; Sper-
ling et al., 2003; Major et al., 2004).
The sea transgressed the SoM shelf in tandem with
global eustacy. Lambeck et al. (2007) have predicted an
envelop for sealevel rise in the Çanakkale Strait region
taking into account glacio-hydro-isostatic effects based
on realistic ice and earth models calibrated against
observational data. Their calculations infer a breaching
of the Çanakkale sill at − 83 m between 15.0 and
13.7 cal ka BP or ∼ 12.9 to 11.8 14C ka bp using the
CALIB 5.0 calibration of Stuiver et al. (2005). Their
calculations place the sealevel curve for Çanakkale
Strait approximately 15 m above their predicted and
observed curves for Pelopennese, the Mediterranean
coast of France, the Levant, and the southern Black Sea
shelf (Fleming et al., 1998; Lambeck et al., 2007). The
vertical offset is attributed to the intercontinental setting
of the SoM and its presumably reduced response to the
effects of water loading. However, their predicted ma-
rine connection occurs N 1000 yr earlier than the first
observed marine and transgressive signal in the sedi-
ments of the SoM.
Çağatay et al. (2003) have described a second and also
widely-distributed terrace on the SoM shelf at −65 m that
they attributed to an early sealevel slowdown or stillstand
in global sealevel rise during the Younger Dryas climatic
cooling event. This event at 11.5 to 10.4 14C ka bp
(without marine reservoir correction) and at 12.8 to
11.6 cal ka BP has been recognized in sediment cores
from the SoM and follows by N 1000 yr the reconnection
with the Mediterranean (Sperling et al., 2003).
Two buried delta-like deposits with characteristic
topset, foreset and bottomset clinoforms are observed in
reflection profiles that cross the Marmara shelf in the
vicinity of the SoI entrance. One deposit west of the SoI
(Fig. 1C) is off the mouth of the Ayamama River (Kurt,
1994). The second is east of the SoI (Fig. 1D) and lies
directly offshore a bay fed by the Kurbağalıdere River
(Oktay et al., 2002; Gökaşan et al., 2005). The source of
this deposit and the timing of its appearance remains
controversial (Hiscott et al., 2002, 2007).
 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76
Fig. 1. (A) Bathymetric map of the Sea of Marmara (SoM); (B) bathymetry of Bakırköy shelf region and the Ayamama River offshore delta; (C) southern entrance to the Strait of İstanbul (SoI) showing
the location of B and D panels; and (D) SoI's entrance to the SoM and the drainage basin of the Kurbağalıdere River. Contours are in meters.

59
60 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76

Fig. 2. Bathymetric map of Sea of Marmara entrance to the Strait of İstanbul created by using the digitized seabed echo-return from reflection profiles
supplemented with additional SHOD soundings around the margins. Color strips indicate the multibeam swath coverage. Solid lines are tracks of surveys
of R/V Çubuklu. The thick portions of these lines are illustrated profiles. Solid dots mark the locations of cores discussed in the text. Broken lines are the
seismic profiles studied by Hiscott et al. (2002). A prominent valley exits from the SoI and continues to the shelf edge. Contours are in meters.

In this study, we present detailed seismic stratigraphic
analysis of a network of reflection profiles on the shelf
south of the entrance of SoI, together with the inves-
tigations of sediment cores that sampled strata corre-
sponding to the reflecting horizons. Our objectives are to
discuss the chronostratigraphic evolution of the trans-
gressive sediments up through formation of the delta-like
deposits and shed light on water exchange between the
Marmara and the Black Seas as the Holocene rise of
sealevel progressed.

Table 1
Uncalibrated AMS Carbon 14 dates (without reservoir correction and without calibration to tree rings) in cores discussed in this study (mbss, meters
below sea surface; mbsf, meters below sea floor)
Site, location, water depth (mbss), dated material (lab. number) Unit Core depth (mbsb) Age (ka bp) Source
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, TSU03-13, − 34 m, mollusc (A-13668) Unit 2 1.55 4.38 ± 0.1 This study
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, MD-2750, −68 m, bivalve (SACA-002573a) Unit 2 3.27 5.77 ± 0.6 This study
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, MD-2750, − 68 m, bivalve (OS-50131) Unit 3 3.56 6.46 ± 0.055 This study
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, MD-2750, − 68 m, bivalve (SACA-002574) Unit 4 5.9 8.38 ± 0.07 This study
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, MD-2750, − 68 m, bivalve (SACA-002575) Unit 5 9.4 9.82 ± 0.08 This study
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, MD-2750, − 68 m, bivalve (OS-53538) Unit 5 11.26 10.45 ± 0.05 This study
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, MD-2750, − 68 m, bivalve (OS-50130) Unit 6 12.36 10.9 ± 0.065 This study
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, M02-111, − 72 m, bivalve (TO-11150) Unit 6 2.84 10.95 ± 0.1 Hiscott et al. (2002)
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, M02-110, − 62 m, bivalve (T0-11149) Unit 5 2.75 10.58 ± 0.1 Hiscott et al. (2002)
Southern entrance to the İstanbul Strait, M98-9, − 64 m, bivalve (T0-7792) Unit 5 1.13 10.22 ± 0.1 Hiscott et al. (2002)
 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76 61

2. Methods of data acquisition and analysis
High-resolution reflection profiles were acquired
during two surveys of the Department of Navigation,
Hydrography and Oceanography (SHOD) using the R/V
Çubuklu in 1993 and 1997 (Fig. 2). The signals from a
300 J sparker source were initially recorded on paper and
were subsequently scanned and digitized. The signals
contained sufficient energy to penetrate through the
transgressive sediment cover. Trisponder radio ranging
with three shore-based beacons produced an accuracy of
10 m for the shotpoint locations. Depths of reflectors
below the sea surface were calculated using average water
and sediment velocities of 1500 and 1700 m s− 1,
respectively. We created our bathymetric map of the
southern entrance to the SoI from the digitized seafloor
returns of the reflection profiles supplemented by multi-
beam swath data obtained from the R/V Odin Finder in
2000 using the Simrad EM300 system and by additional
SHOD echo-soundings around the coast (Fig. 2). Our
shotpoint positions, digitized soundings, gridded swath
bathymetry and the tracklines from Hiscott et al. (2002)

Fig. 3. Generalized seismic stratigraphic units with their reflection characteristics observed in the profiles and their interpreted depositional facies both
within paleo shelf valley and on the shelf margin. The letters A through K represent eight reflector surfaces mapped throughout the region surveyed.
62 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76
were entered into a GIS application (ESRI ArcView)
along with the SHOD coastline and the locations of our
cores and others reported in relevant publications.
Tracklines were oriented in an orthogonal pattern to
allow all digitized reflectors on the N–S lines to be
cross-tied to the E–W lines at intersections (Fig. 2). We
incorporated the published profiles of Hiscott et al.
(2002, 2007) and correlated our reflectors to theirs using
common track intersections and by obtaining the
subbottom depth of their reflectors by measuring the
traveltime from the seafloor since their profiles
(obtained by a deep-towed device) are not uniformly
referenced to the sea surface. We then constructed
contoured surfaces for each of the nine reflectors that we
traced throughout the network of reflection profiles.
One gravity core (TSU03-13, 40° 56.789' N, 29°
00.09' E, − 37 m) from the R/V MTA Sismik-1 in 2003 is
located on the eastern part of our E–W reflection profile
K3 (Fig. 2) and reaches into the topset deposits of the
delta-like sediment body east of the SoI. A long piston
core (MD-2750, 40° 56.70' N, 28° 56.15' E, − 68 m)
from the R/V Marion Dufresne in 2004 was targeted
directly on our E–W reflection profile K4 and recovers
the upper half of the sediment succession filling the
Bosphorous shelf valley south of the SoI entrance. Three
additional gravity cores described in Hiscott et al. (2002,
2007) are also located in Fig. 2.
The percentage of the sand-plus-silt fraction of the
sediment was determined by wet sifting of the samples
through a 63 μm sieve. Physical properties measurements
of Core MD-2750 took place on whole round cores using
a shipboard Geotek Multi-Sensor Core Logger equipped
with gamma density, P-wave velocity and magnetic sus-
ceptibility sensors (Boyce, 1976; Gerland and Villinger,
1995; Breitzke, 2000). Organic carbon (Corg) was ana-
lysed by the Walkey–Blake method (Gaudette et al., 1974).
Sediment ages were obtained by AMS C-14 dating of
bivalve shells after careful cleaning to remove any coat-
ings and after examination under the microscope to en-
sure that the carbonate was unaltered. The radiocarbon
analyses were carried out at the University of Arizona,
the Woods Hole NOSAMS and the Saclay ARTEMIS
facilities. Laboratory errors are expressed as ± 1σ. We
report the radiocarbon ages in Table 1.
3. Results
3.1. Seismic stratigraphy
We identified eight reflector surfaces not including
the seafloor and seven seismic units sandwiched be-
tween the reflectors (Fig. 3). All units appeared to have
been deposited since the SoM reconnected with the
Mediterranean and the onset of the marine transgression.
The lowstand unconformity surface is represented in the
seismic profiles by reflection surface K that incised a
paleo Bosphorous valley into the shelf with its thalweg
reaching − 110 m at the shelf break. Surface K correlates
with reflector Q1 of Hiscott et al. (2002, 2007). Our
lowermost seismic Unit 7 onlaps surface K and initiates
the filling of the paleo valley (Fig. 3). Unit 7 extends
laterally to shoreface deposits along a wave-cut terrace
situated at − 81 m on the east side of the paleo valley
(Fig. 4). Reflection surface G truncates Unit 7, onto
which Unit 6 was deposited (Fig. 3).
Unit 6 consists of highly-reflective, conformable, but
wavy strata that formed ridges along the sides of a
contemporary channel within the confines of the older
paleo valley (Figs. 4, 5 and 6A). The ridges display a
relief exceeding 15 m and align downstream along the
floor of the paleo valley. The ridges have the charac-
teristic shape of channel levees. Reflector surface E
truncates the top of Unit 6, extends as shallow as −65 m,
and correlates with reflector β3 of Hiscott et al. (2002,
2007). As noted by these researchers, surface E is pop-
ulated by small mounds a few meters high and generally
b100 m across (Fig. 6B).
The levee unit is overlaid by Unit 5 over truncation
surface E, which is more acoustically transparent and
significantly less-stratified than Unit 6 (Fig. 3). Unit 5 is
characterized by moderately continuous, sub-parallel
internal reflections that result in a preferential filling of
the relief of the paleo valley and a draping of the ridges
(Figs. 4, 5 and 6). Unit 5 strata onlap the margins of the
paleo valley and are eroded at their top by reflector
surface D. Unit 5 can be traced shoreward to − 56 m on
the paleo valley margin (Table 2).
Unit 5 is followed upward by Unit 4 over unconform-
able reflection surface D (Fig. 3). Unit 4 is characterized
by faint but continuous parallel internal reflectors within
the paleo valley axis (Figs. 4, 5 and 6). On the valley
margin, this unit is associated by the formation of − 63 m
paleo-shoreface deposits between reflectors D and C,
characterized by progradational clinoforms with acous-
tically strong internal reflectors (Fig. 5). Unit 3 is sepa-
rated from Unit 4 by reflection surface C and represents
a laterally continuous, regularly stratified package of
weak internal reflectors (Fig. 3).
Unit 2 lies more or less conformable on Unit 3 (Fig. 3).
However, in marked contrast to previous deposits, Unit 2
is substantially thicker on the margins and thins rapidly as
it passes into the paleo valley floor from its rim (Figs. 5, 7
and 8)). Reflector surface B marks the base of Unit 2. On
the eastern margin, Unit 2 consists of oblique clinoforms
 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76
Fig. 4. Portion of the E–W reflection profile K4 showing clinoforms at −75 m and − 68 m on the margin of the paleo shelf valley and a wavy deposit in the axis of the valley, sandwiched between
reflector surfaces G and E. Piston Core MD-2750 penetrates through surface E into the wavy deposit interpreted here as a depositional levee. Prograding sequences on the paleo valley margin are
delimited by reflectors K–G and E–D. Surfaces B, D, E, G and K are partly erosional. Surface K marks the lowstand exposed landscape drowned by the transgression that commenced when the
Mediterranean Sea reconnected with the SoM.

63
 64
K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76
Fig. 5. Portion of the E–W reflection profile K2 showing broad and presumably wave-cut terraces at − 63 m on the paleo valley margin. Prograding sequences on the paleo valley margin are delimited
by reflectors D–C. A large sediment body with early progradational and later aggradational foreset beds appears between reflector surfaces A and B on the eastern rim of the valley. The clinoforms in
this cross-section are strikingly similar in appearance to those in other Late-Holocene subaqueous prodeltas that formed on many Mediterranean margins after the attainment of the modern sea-level
highstand, about 6 14C ka bp.
 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76
Fig. 6. A) N–S reflection profile down the paleo shelf valley showing the development of two sediment ridge interpreted as levee bounding a central channel. Cores MD-2750 and M02-111 are projected onto
this profile and show that the core of the ridges formed prior to 10.45 14C ka bp and was then draped by sediments until the time represented by reflector surface C. At that time the ridge tops are truncated. B) E–W

65
profile B10 showing the axis of the modern and paleo shelf valley and locations of cores M02-111, MAR98-09 and M02-110 studied by Hiscott et al. (2002, 2007). A bioherm has grown on reflector surface E.
66 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76

Table 2 valley floor. The youngest topsets of Unit 2 are only

Attributes of the reflector surfaces. Ages are uncalibrated present along the southern and southeastern rim of the
Reflector Minimum Maximum Erosion Age Reflector delta. Erosion along reflector surface A has removed
surface depth (m) depth (m) (ka bp) surface topsets from the seaward rim of the deposit to expose the
description
tops of truncated foresets prior to the subsequent phase of
A 15 76 Yes 3.8 Truncates forests Unit 1 deposition. Unit 1 consists of a package of moder-
of the delta
ately continuous and regular reflectors, representing on-
B 16 82 No 6.2 Base of the delta
clinoforms lapping sediments over truncation surface A (Figs. 5, 7
C 50 83 No 8.0 Conformable and 8)). Unit 1 resumes the preferential filling of the paleo
with B surface valley (Fig. 3). Our Unit 1 and 2 deposits are equivalent to
D 56 86 Yes 8.8 Mainly truncating the Unit 1 and 2 deposits of Hiscott et al. (2002, 2007).
E and F surfaces
Our surface A corresponds to their reflector β1.
E 65 87 Yes 10.5 Truncated by D
surface
F 68 88 No 10.9 Partly truncated 3.2. Sediment cores and radiocarbon ages
by D surface
G 75 91 Yes 11.5 Showing little Core TSU03-13 was taken near the rim of the delta
erosion
where young topsets are clearly visible (Figs. 7 and 8).
K 78 110 Yes 12.2 Incised into older
units to create the This location is b 100 m from shotpoint F931 on the N–
original paleo S Huntec DTS reflection profile A–B illustrated in
shelf valley Hiscott et al. (2002) and can be projected over a distance
of 900 m onto our N–S profile B2 to a position near
shotpoint 7 (Figs. 6 and 7). In the vicinity of the topset–
with acoustically strong reflectors that have the appear- foreset transition, the thickness of the overlying Unit 1 is
ance of prograding foresets. According to the architectural only a few meters. Because TSU03-13 is a gravity core,
features of the foresets, the Unit 2 on the margin its 1.65 m of recovery under represents the total depth of
comprises lower progradational and upper aggradational penetration into the sediment substrate. Gravity cores
parts of a delta complex (Figs. 5 and 7). The direction of typically under-recover due to wall friction, and actual
foreset dip has been determined at track intersections recovery is often just 70 to 90% of the total section
(Fig. 9) and forms a pattern of seaward growth from the penetrated. The observed sandy gravel with lithic rock
Kurbağalıdere River estuary as previously proposed by fragments up to 5 mm in diameter in the bottom 0.12 m
Gökaşan et al. (2005). Unit 2 is more than 20 m thick on of this core and the abrupt transition from gravel to
the inner shelf. It thins abruptly to b 6 m in the region of overlying mud (Fig. 10) are compelling indicators that
the youngest foresets and is barely 1 m thick on the paleo the core passed through reflector surface A and entered

Fig. 7. N–S profile B2 presenting another cross-section through the prodelta on the eastern margin of the paleo shelf valley and oriented perpendicular
to the section in profile K2 of Fig. 5. Core TSU03-13 penetrated into young topset beds near the break in slope from youngest topset to foreset bed.
The same evolution from early prograding to later aggrading is observed. In this cross-section the deposit between surfaces A and B represents a
relatively-brief portion of the total interval of accumulation from the lowstand surface K to the modern seabed.
 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76 67

Fig. 8. E–W reflection profile K3 across the prodelta deposits sandwiched between reflector surfaces A and B. Top panel is the gray scale reflection
profile and bottom panel contains the reflector interpretation. Core TSU03-13 is located directly on this profile. Notice the delta foresets dip in
opposite directions from the prodelta apex. Core TSU03-13 sampled young topset beds composed of lithic gravel and sand containing a mollusk shell
dated at 4.36 ± 0.1 14C ka bp.

into the highly reflective topset deposits of Unit 2 as Piston core MD-2750 recovered 13 m of the sediment
illustrated in Figs. 7 and 8. A radiocarbon date of 4.38 cover on the western flank of our inferred levee deposits
± 0.1 ka bp from a single mollusk valve within the gravel (Unit 6 in Figs. 4 and 6A). Instead of under-recovering the
at 1.55 m requires surface A to be younger than this age. substrate, some giant piston coring devices may in fact

Fig. 9. Thickness of the large prodelta on the eastern rim of the paleo shelf valley. Contours are in meters. Solid lines are isopachs derived from our
measurements of the thickness between reflector surfaces A and B and dashed lines are measurements of Hiscott et al. (2002, 2007) between their
reflectors β1 and β2. The light gray area is the outline of prodelta deposit according to Gökaşan et al. (2005). Arrows are our measurements of the true
direction of foreset dips determined by vector additions at profile intersections. The solid dots are locations of the cores discussed in the text. Our
isopach shows the sediment body thickening towards the coastal bay into which the Kurbağalıdere River (thick solid line) discharges.
 68
K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76
Fig. 10. Lithology and grain size in cores TSU03-13 and MD-2750 showing correlation of Unit 1 and Unit 2 boundary between the two sites. Also plotted are variations in gamma density, P-wave velocity
and magnetic susceptibility measured with the Geotek Multi-Sensor Core Logger through the plastic liners of Core MD-2750. The percent sand plus silt and the percent organic carbon were measured on
closely-spaced samples. Letters A through E represent the correlations of sediment properties in Core MD-2750 to the reflector surfaces made possible by the precise location of this core on profile K4.
 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76 69

produce over-recovery. The abrupt change from sand from Units 2, 3 and 4 by high magnetic susceptibility
below to clay above across a visual erosional boundary on (Fig. 10).
the split face of the core at 11.26 mbsf indicates that this
level corresponds to reflection surface E and that the sand 4. Discussion
belongs to Unit 6 (Fig. 10). This unit is differentiated from
the sediments above by its relatively coarse-grained 4.1. Chronology of the depositional units and reflector
nature. Its sand-plus-silt fraction amounts to 10–47% of surfaces
the total sediment. The coarse-grained components in
the deposit are also revealed in the gamma-density and P- Our radiocarbon dates allow us to construct an age-
wave velocity profiles, which show a fining upwards depth model for Core MD-2750 and use the model to
within the top of the unit (Fig. 10). Magnetic susceptibility place the seismic units in a chronological context (Fig. 11).
values increase upwards in correspondence with increas- The model reveals sedimentation rates of N 3 m ka− 1 from
ing clay content. The Unit 6 sediment is light brown in 11 to 9 14C ka bp that decrease markedly to 0.5 m ka− 1
color and moderately bioturbated. An AMS C-14 analysis from 8 14C ka bp to the present. The roll off in the
on a mollusk valve within Unit 6 at 12.36 mbsf gives an sedimentation rate at ∼8.4 14C ka bp proceeds by a
age of 10.9± 0.065 14C ka bp (Fig. 10; Table 1). considerable amount of time the dramatic slowing of
Unit 5 sediments comprise marine shelly homogeneous
clay in the lower part and pass upward into finely-parallel
and cross-laminated silt characterized by increasing organic
carbon content (Fig. 10). The laminated sediments are
darker in color, show little sign of bioturbation, and have
uniform low magnetic susceptibility and low gamma
density. An AMS C-14 analysis on a mollusk valve from
the lowermost part of Unit 5 at 11.26 m gives an age of
10.45 ± 0.05 14C ka bp, and another measurement within
Unit 5 at 9.4 mbsf gives an age of 9.8± 0.080 14C ka bp
(Fig. 10; Table 1). The Unit 5/4 boundary at 6.75 m displays
an angular truncation of the underlying laminations that
correlates with erosion seen in the reflection profiles along
reflector surface D.
Unit 4 sediments are also finely-laminated silt and
little different from the upper part of Unit 5, but pos-
sessing high organic carbon contents reaching 2.5% of
the bulk composition (Fig. 10). An AMS C-14 analysis
on a mollusk valve from the top of Unit 4 at 5.1 m gives
an age of 8.4 ± 0.070 14C ka bp (Fig. 10; Table 1). They
pass abruptly at 4.6 m to mollusk-bearing bioturbated
clay of Unit 3 possessing higher gamma density. The
depth below the seafloor of this marked change in lithol-
ogy corresponds to reflector surface C. Organic carbon
contents decrease upwards through Unit 3. A mollusk
shell at 3.56 m near the top of Unit 3 has a radiocarbon
age of 6.46 ± 0.055 14C ka bp (Fig. 10; Table 1).
Unit 2 in the MD-2750 core is a shelly, clayey silt
that fines upwards (Fig. 10). The organic carbon content Fig. 11. Age-depth model for Core MD-2750 based on radiocarbon
is low compared to the underlying Units 3, 4 and 5. An ages plotted as dots. Units 1 through 6 are placed according to their
AMS C-14 analysis on a mollusk valve from base of depths in the core and ages of the boundaries (letters A through E) are
Unit 2 at 3.2 m gives an age of 5.8 ± 0.060 14C ka bp interpolated from the model. All ages are without reservoir correction
(Fig. 10; Table 1). The top of Unit 2 at 2.15 m is heavily or calibration. The duration of the Younger Dryas is shown using its
conventional terrestrial carbon age, but with a marine reservoir
bioturbated and corresponds to reflector surface A. Unit correction added so that it registers correctly on the illustrated time
1 consists of clay intercalated with silty sand and con- scale. The range of early Holocene Sapropel is depicted based the high
taining marine mollusk shells. It distinguishes itself organic carbon content in Units 3, 4 and 5.
70 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76
Fig. 12. The Barbados sealevel curve from Fairbanks (1989) plotted
without subtraction of the marine reservoir age. Shown are the level of
the Çanakkale Strait bedrock sill at − 83 m and the minimum depths of
the reflectors E and B (stars), corresponding to termination of levee
deposition and onset of the deltaic deposition. Radiocarbon measure-
ments on Core MD-2750 assign Unit 6 to the Younger Dryas stage.
Also shown is a segment of profile K3 with its Unit 2 clinoforms
located on the depth axis according to the level of its reflectors below
the modern sea surface. Our dating places Unit 2 between 6.2 and 3.8
14
C ka bp. Therefore the youngest topsets must have formed around
25 m below the contemporary sealevel, confirming that this feature is
an offshore subaqueous prodelta deposit.
sealevel rise at 6.5 14C ka bp seen in the predicted
Dardanelles sealevel curve of Lambeck et al. (2007) as
well as the more gradual slowing recorded by C-14 dating
of corals from Barbados (Fairbanks, 1989; Bard et al.,
1990; Fig. 12). We plot the minimum depth and age of the
reflectors E and B on sealevel curve of Fairbanks (1989),
which correspond to termination of the levee deposition
and onset of the deltaic deposition (Fig. 12). The
magnitude of the offset suggests a relatively shallow
wavebase (5–6 m) at that time below which sediment
accumulation became permanent.
Unit 7 represents the initial transgressive deposit in
the paleo Bosphorus shelf valley (Fig. 3). Lowermost
part of the Unit 7 correlates with shoreface deposits
comprising a thin prograding clinoforms with topsets
at − 75 m implying a landward migration of the coast
(Fig. 4). It presumably accompanies a rising sea after
formation of a wave-cut terrace developed over reflector
surface K at ca. − 81 m on the eastern margin of the paleo
Bosphorus valley (Fig. 4). This terrace can be correlated
with the 12 kyr BP old − 85 m shoreline observed in
different parts of the SoM (Çağatay et al., 2003; Polonia
et al., 2004). Reflection surface G truncates Unit 7, onto
which Unit 6 was deposited (Fig. 3). Considering that the
minimum depth of reflector G is around − 75 m and the
wavebase of about 5–6 m, approximate age of this
reflector can be estimated as 11.5 14C ka bp from global
sealevel curve of Fairbanks (1989) (Fig. 12).
In core MD-2750, the levee unit (Unit 6) is overlaid
by Unit 5 over truncation surface E, which corresponds
to the onset of the early Holocene Sapropel (Çağatay
et al., 2000; Tolun et al., 2002) as indicated by high Corg
values (N 1.5 wt.%) and its stratigraphic position in Core
MD-2750 (Fig. 10). This sapropelic layer was previ-
ously dated 10.6–6.4 14C ka bp by Çağatay et al. (2000).
Its onset age is consistent with the 14C ages of 10.45 14C
ka bp obtained above truncation surface E and 10.5 14C
ka bp obtained from the age model (Fig. 11). On the
basis of these chronostratigraphic data, we can tenta-
tively estimate the age of Unit 6 between 11.5 and
10.5 kyr BP, which implies that Unit 6 with its wavy
levee and channel strata was deposited during the
Younger Dryas cold stage when, according to Major
et al. (2002, 2006), the Black Sea discharged its fresher
waters into the Sea of Marmara. At that time the
Neouxine Black Sea lake was at a highstand. Neoeuxine
sediments are found on the shallow Black Sea margin, in
the subsurface of coastal limans, and on the floor of the
Sea of Azov (Ryan et al., 2003; Ryan, 2007). Our Units
6 and 7 are equivalent to Unit 5 of Hiscott et al. (2002)
as shown in Fig. 13.
According to our age model for Core MD-2750,
marine shelly clay of Unit 5 dates from 10.5 to 8.8 14C
ka bp (Fig. 11). In reflection profiles the onset of Unit 5
begins with the appearance of small mounds on surface
E (equivalent to reflector β4 of Hiscott et al., 2002) that
look like bioherms (Fig. 6B). Unit 5 drapes across
reflector surface E and over the mound, but is quite thin
on the bedrock promontory at the eastern margin of the
paleo shelf valley. Here Unit 5 was sampled at − 65 mbsl
by Core MAR98-9 of Hiscott et al. (2002, 2007) with
radiocarbon dates of the shells ranging upwards from
10.22 to 8.81 14C ka bp (Fig. 6B). The same shelly clay
was again sampled by these researchers a few years later
in their Unit 4 at a similar depth of − 64 mbsl in Core
M02-110 with an age of 10.58 14C ka bp (Fig. 6B).
Somewhat older clay at a deeper depth below the seabed
and with a lithology corresponding to our Unit 6 was
 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76
Fig. 13. Correlation of our seismic stratigraphic units and those of
Hiscott et al. (2002) based on mapping the same reflectors that we
cross-tied at mutual track intersections (see Fig. 2). The prodelta
deposit on the eastern margin of the paleo shelf valley corresponds to
our Unit 2, but in Hiscott et al. (2002) it is mapped as a somewhat
thicker deposit between their reflectors β1 and β2. All our reflector
ages are determined from the age model based on C-14 datings from
cores MD-2750 and TSU03-13, except for reflection surfaces G and K
which are dated according their minimum depth on the Barbados
sealevel curve (see Fig. 12) considering wavebase of about 5 m.
sampled in Core M02-111 at − 75 mbsl (Fig. 6B). Its
mollusks give an age of 10.95 14C ka bp.
Unit 5 is followed upward by Unit 4 over unconform-
able reflection surface D (Fig. 3). Unit 4 is represented
by finely-laminated mud drape in the paleo shelf valley
and by paleo-shoreface deposits at − 63 m between
reflectors D and C on the eastern margin of the paleo-
strait's channel (Fig. 5). The shoreface deposits indicate
progradational clinoforms characterized by acoustically
strong internal reflectors. According to the age model,
age of the Unit 4 can be delimited between 8.0 and 8.8
14
C ka bp (Fig. 11). This is the interval where the
organic carbon content is the highest (Fig. 10).
The marked contrast in lithology from Unit 4 to Unit
3 corresponds to the rapid decrease in sedimentation
rate. Based on the rich abundance of organic material
throughout Units 5, 4 and 3 of Core MD-2750 (Fig. 10)
and the almost varve-like appearance of the split surface
71
in Units 5 and 4, we consider these three units to repre-
sent the early Holocene Sapropel (Çağatay et al., 2000;
Tolun et al., 2002). Unit 3 is bounded at the top by
reflection surface B, onto which deltaic Unit 2 was de-
posited. According to Corg profile in Fig. 10, reflection
surface B corresponds to termination of the early
Holocene Sapropel that has been dated at ∼ 6.4 14C ka
bp (Çağatay et al., 2000; Sperling et al., 2003) and 6.0
14
C ka bp (Hiscott et al., 2002). This is in agreement
with a C-14 age of 6460 ka bp obtained from the upper
part of the Unit 3 in Core MD-2750 (Fig. 10). However,
our age model places reflection surface B closer to 6.2
14
C ka bp (Fig. 11).
Unit 2 contains the oblique prograding and aggrading
clinoforms with strong internal reflectors on the eastern
margin of the paleo Bosphorus shelf valley (Figs. 5
and 7) first illustrated in Ryan et al. (1997a) and then
described in more detail by Aksu et al. (2002b) and by
Hiscott et al. (2002, 2007) as their Δ1 delta. Whereas
our age model would place Unit 2 and hence Δ1 be-
tween 6.2 and 3.8 14C ka bp (Fig. 11), these other
researchers have proposed an age between 10.58 and
8.81 14C ka bp. Furthermore Gökaşan et al. (2005)
suggest an even earlier onset age of 11 14C ka bp. These
older age assignments for the progradational package
create a discrepancy with our younger ages that warrants
further discussion.
As to the upper age of Unit 2, our core TSU03-13
directly sampled young topset deposits near the final
topset/foreset transition (Figs. 7 and 8). These deposits
consist of sand and gravel composed of lithic rock
fragments including quartz, feldspar, greywacke and
some limestone mixed with shells (Fig. 10). Aksu et al.
(2002a) and Hiscott et al. (2002) assigned an older age
to the delta-top reflector β1 (equivalent to reflector sur-
face A in this study) by tracing reflector β1 southwest
from the most seaward foresets to a location on the
previously described bedrock promontory where the
sediment cover of a few meters thick. In Hiscott et al.
(2002) reflector β1 is obscured in the seabed reverber-
ation. In addition, the dated materials in Core MAR98-
09 are just over a meter thick. Although their 500-Joule
source is broadband, the seabed reverberation with a
frequency content centered at 1000 Hz obscures
reflectors more closely spaced than 1.5 m. However,
these researchers affirm that they can discriminate not
only the seabed return, but reflectors β1 and β2 within
the 1.25 m-thick interval recovered.
Our approach has been instead to trace the reflector
surface A widely throughout the region and tie this
surface carefully together at track intersections (Fig. 2).
On numerous profiles reflector A can be traced from the
72 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76
topset/foreset transition all the way to Core MD-2750 in
the paleo valley without interruption. The truncation of
reflection surface A implies subaqueous erosion of the
delta platform after termination of the delta deposition.
Unit 1 is sufficiently thick that reflector surface A is not
obscured by the reverberant seafloor. Our radiocarbon
age of 4.38 ka bp from just below the youngest topset
horizon on the delta top (Figs. 7 and 8). Considering the
4.38 14C ka bp age from upper part of the delta topset,
the age of the deltaic unit (Unit 2) can be delimited
between 6.2 and 3.8 14C ka bp (Fig. 13).
4.2. Kurbağalıdere River: its drainage area and water
and sediment discharges
Present day Kurbağalıdere River has several small
tributaries, draining a total area of 46 km2 with a steep
topography (Fig. 1D). The drainage area exposes mainly
schist, greywacke, limestone and quartzite of Paleozoic
age and Neogene sand and gravel derived from this
bedrock. The highest elevation of the catchment is
around + 180 m. Present day mean discharge rate is
about 80 m3/yr (DSİ İstanbul, unpublished data). The
suspended sediment load of the Kurbağalıdere River has
not been measured. We estimate this load to be around
60,000 t/yr based on the measured load of other rivers in
the southern Marmara region (Table 3; EİE, 1993).
Although this value may be representative for the mod-
ern era of greater İstanbul, it would have been different
in the pre-industrial and pre-historic past. In the
Marmara region, it is estimated that total sediment
flux of rivers to be 35% more than the measured
suspension sediment flux because of retention behind
reservoirs and additional bedload (Kazancı et al., 2004).
The bedload constitutes about 10% of the total sediment
influx (Milliman and Meade, 1983). The total sediment
retained behind dams and the bedload is assumed to
balance the opposite effects of deforestation and cul-
tivation (Stanley and Hait, 2000), based on the con-
Table 3
Mean discharge and suspended sediment discharge rates of rivers
around Marmara and western Black Sea regions (EİE, 1993)
Rivers Mean discharge Suspended sediment
(m3 a− 1) discharge (t a− 1)
Gönen River 477 × 106 188,000
Devrenkani River 227 × 106 177,760
Kocaçay River 633 × 106 375,000
Soğanlı River 864 × 106 1,210,000
Karasu River 142 × 106 82,000
Boluçayı River 251 × 106 140,000
Kurbağalıdere River 80 × 106 60,000
clusion of Syvitski et al. (2005) that the opposite effect
of different human activities on the sediment yield on a
global scale is almost in balance. Thus, the Kurbağa-
lıdere River, with its present sediment discharge, is
large enough to form the observed offshore deposit of
∼ 290 × 106 tons.
4.3. Origin of the deltaic deposit (Unit 2)
Source and depositional period of the delta can be
confidently deduced from the correlation of the seismic
stratigraphic units with the chronostratigraphic units in the
cores. The seismic units identified by us and Hiscott et al.
(2002) can be correlated, while two sets of profiles used
by Hiscott et al. (2002) and this study cross each other at
the intersections (Fig. 2). Seismic interpretations of both
studies can be compared and correlated with high
confidence (Fig. 13). Seismic stratigraphic Units 2 and
3 of this study correspond to the deltaic unit (Unit 2
between β1 and β2 reflectors) of Hiscott et al. (2002).
Unit 3 defined by us is clearly not a part of the delta,
because the delta foresets downlap onto reflector B lying
above Unit 3 (Figs. 5, 7 and 8)). This important disparity
in the seismic interpretation, produces significant differ-
ences in the delta isopach maps of the two studies (Fig. 9).
Our isopach map of the Unit 2 topsets and foreset
deposits shows a N22 m-thick lobe thinning radially
from the mouth of a bay fed by the Kurbağalıdere River
(Fig. 9). Foresets dip at an average of 7° not only towards
SE, but towards S, SW, W, and NW with some true dips
of up to 12°. This delta geometry strongly suggests that
the delta is sourced from the Kubagalıdere River. The
delta also extends northwards towards the SoI. This
northward extension is because of the strong outflow of
the Mediterranean water to the Black Sea through the
SoI, which started about 8.4 14C ka bp (Major et al.,
2002, Ryan et al., 2003). Such an outflow could easily
redistribute the deltaic sediments further north of the
Kurbağalıdere River mouth. There is no other river of
reasonable size in the north of the Kurbağalıdere River to
cause a northward extension of the delta from the river's
mouth. A similar transport mechanism by the undercur-
rent has been suggested for the formation of the − 35 m
southern sill of the Bosphorus by Algan et al. (2001).
There, the sediment input by the Alibeyköy and
Kağıthane into the Golden Horn estuary was eventually
transported northwards into the strait's channel and piled
up between Dolmabahçe and Üsküdar to form the
southern sill (see Fig. 1C).
Contrary to the interpretations of Hiscott et al. (2002)
and Gökaşan et al. (2005) that this deposit formed during
the course of a rapid sealevel rise, our dating places its
 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76
growth after sealevel had nearly reached its modern level
about 6.5 14C ka bp (Fig. 12). Thus the transition from
early progradation to later aggradation must be related
primarily to sediment supply and the ultimate filling of
accommodation space rather than to new space made by
continuing sealevel rise. As mapped out in plan view the
outline of the topsets and foresets of Unit 2 coincides well
with the same deposit mapped by Gökaşan et al. (2005).
On common lines our picks of the reflectors belonging to
the prograding and aggrading packages are the same as
theirs. Also the radial pattern of the seaward migration of
the foreset reflectors is identical. Gökaşan et al. (2005),
Alavi et al. (1989) and Oktay et al. (2002) have each made
compelling arguments for the sourcing of this deposit
from the Kurbağalıdere River. Topset/foreset transition in
the deltaic deposits occur at −32 m. Considering a wave
base of about 6 m according to the Barbados sealevel
curve of Fairbanks (1989), the water depth above the
topsets exceeded 25 m during the entire period of growth
of this thick deposit. In fact the predicted sealevel curve of
Lambeck et al. (2007) would only increase the apparent
water depth. Consequently, all the clinoforms comprising
this deposit must have formed in a relatively deep
subaqueous environment much like the young Holocene
prodeltas found elsewhere in the Mediterranean and Black
Seas (Shopov et al., 1986, 1992; Amorosi and Milli, 2001;
Cattaneo et al., 2003).
In this regard the Kurbağalıdere River prodelta appears
during the decelerating of sealevel rise around 6 14C ka bp
and terminates at around 3.8 14C ka bp after the dual-flow
regime between the SoM and the Black Sea was
established (Çağatay et al., 2000; Algan et al., 2001;
Aksu et al., 2002a,b; Kerey et al., 2004). If we calibrate
our radiocarbon measurements with the Marmara reser-
voir age given by Siani et al. (2000) and using the CALIB
5.0 program (Stuiver et al., 2005), the Kurbağalıdere
River delta aggraded its especially thick topsets during the
course of the early to middle Bronze Age. We propose that
the increase of sediment supply from this river's
watershed sufficient to build the bulk of the topsets in
the span of b 2 ka might have been in part the consequence
of increased soil runoff from deforestation made possible
by efficient wood harvesting with the bronze axe.
4.4. Implications for Black Sea water exchange to the SoM
Aksu et al. (2002a,b) and Hiscott et al. (2002, 2007)
used their early date for the formation of this prodelta and
their interpretation that it was sourced directly from the
SoI to propose persistent outflow from the Black Sea
since ∼ 10 14C ka bp. However, it seems from our
mapping of reflector surfaces and their calibrations to
73
Core MD-2750 that Black Sea outflow best explains the
formation of the wavy levee deposit of Units 6 that
appeared abruptly within the axis of the paleo Bosphorus
shelf valley during the Younger Dryas cold period.
Our Unit 6 is equivalent to the upper part of Unit 5 of
these researchers (Fig. 13). They describe their Unit 5 as a
depositional lobe and call it Δ2. They also presumed that
it was sourced from the SoI, except for them Δ2 is much
older than the Younger Dryas and dates from ∼29.5 to
23.5 14C ka bp within MIS 3. Subsequently, in Hiscott
et al. (2007) the age of Δ2 is revised downward to
between ∼16 and 14.7 14C ka bp in order to deliver
material to it by Black Sea outflow at the time of the rapid
melting of the Eurasian ice sheets (Major et al., 2002;
Ryan et al., 2003). The revised age by Hiscott et al. (2007)
for Δ2 does not seem plausible for the following
observation. The reflector E surface at the top of Unit 6
and equivalent to β3 of Hiscott et al. (2002, 2007) can be
traced as shallow as −70 m. This elevation is well above
the level of the bedrock sill in the Çanakkale Strait outlet.
All researchers concurs that at the time of rapid ice sheet
melting from ∼16- to 14.7 14C ka bp, the SoM was
isolated from the Mediterranean and the surface of the
external ocean remained well below the outlet. Thus it
seems implausible for the surface of the SoM to have been
20 m above the outlet and with the SoM behaving as a
flow-through lake of the Black Sea to Mediterranean
gateway (Stanley and Blanpied, 1980). To counter this
objection, Hiscott et al. (2007) propose a −70 m high
elevation for the outlet sill. However, this level corre-
sponds to the modern seabed sill in the Çanakkale Strait
using maps provided by SHOD. We have had the oppor-
tunity to examine a large number of reflection profiles
within the Çanakkale Strait made available by SHOD and
can attest that the bedrock sill is below −80 m (Ryan et al.,
1997a; Yaltırak et al., 2000). The −83 m sill depth we use
in this paper is further substantiated by the continuous
shoreline at the same elevation along a large stretch of the
northern shelf of the SoM west of the SoI (Çağatay et al.,
2003; Polonia et al., 2004; Cormier et al., 2006).
As to the hypothesis of persistent outflow from the
Black Sea to the SoM over the past 10 14C ka bp, both
Hiscott et al. (2002) and ourselves observe numerous
mounds scattered across reflector surface E (Fig. 6B). If
these mounds signal a return to higher marine salinity
suitable for the colonization of algal-serpulid bioherms
as proposed by them, then the freshwater discharge from
the Black Sea may have briefly shut down at the
conclusion of the Younger Dryas. Bioherms appear at
this time all across new seabed of the rapidly submerging
northern shelf of the SoM (Aksu et al., 1999; Çağatay
et al., 2003, 2004; Polonia et al., 2004).
74 K.K. Eriş et al. / Marine Geology 243 (2007) 57–76
4.5. Implications for the SoM connection with the Black
Sea
Ryan et al. (1997a,b) proposed an abrupt connection
of the SoM with the Black Sea in the early Holocene that
resulted in a rapid drowning of the margins of the Black
Sea's Neoeuxine lake by saltwater introduced over an
SoI cataract. This hypothesis is controversial and is not
widely accepted. Arguments for and against it have been
summarized in Ryan et al. (2003) and Ryan (2007). It is
not the purpose of this paper to give support to the flood
hypothesis, other than to state that our new and
relatively young dating of the Unit 2 Kurbağalıdere
River prodelta removes this feature as an argument for
persistent Black Sea outflow since 10 14C ka bp. The
prodelta is therefore not as a nullifier of the flood
hypothesis, but simply sediment from a nearby river.
Strontium isotope analyses on shells from the Black
Sea provide an excellent proxy for past marine connec-
tions (Major et al., 2004, 2006). The strontium isotope
composition of the Black Sea's Neoeuxine lake switched
abruptly to marine values at 8.35 14C ka bp. At this time
the sedimentation rate in Core MD-2750 decreased to
b20% of its prior value. The onset of a vigorous flow of
salty Mediterranean water into the SoI via the paleo
Bosphorus shelf valley starts with this connection. It is
interesting to note erosion or non-deposition of the levee
crests occurs at this time as depicted by the configuration
of surface C in Fig. 6A.
5. Conclusions
Seismic–stratigraphic and chronostratigraphic analy-
ses near the SoM entrance to the SoI provide important
new information on sedimentation in this region since
the connection of the SoM with the Mediterranean. The
sedimentary sequences in this area were deposited over a
lowstand erosional surface in the course of a shelf-wide
transgression. The sediment cover includes seven seismic
units that can be confidently correlated with radiocarbon-
dated chronostratigraphic units in cores. Within the
confines of the paleo Bosphorus shelf valley, initially
carved at the time of lowstand prior to 12 14C ka bp, we
observe a wavy deposit formed during the Younger Dryas
cold stage and compatible with material delivered by
Black Sea outflow from the SoI passing through the
confines of this shelf valley. Clinoform constructions
along the margin of the shelf valley between 11.5 and 9.8
14
C ka bp indicate that the sealevel in the SoM rose in
tandem with global sealevel according to the timing
preserved in Barbados corals. An adjustment of the SoM
sealevel history to one predicted for the local effects of
redistributed ice and water is permitted but not required by
our observations.
During the later Holocene, discharge from the
Kurbağalıdere River drained a topographically high
area southeast of the SoI and built a large radial prodelta
on the eastern rim of the paleo shelf valley starting at 6.2
14
C ka bp well after the salt water from the SoM had
penetrated into the Black Sea to transform its brackish
lake into a semi-marine water body. The increase in
sediment supply during 6.2–3.8 14C ka bp resulted in
observed climbing topset–foreset transitions. Growth of
this prodelta may have been partly in response to the
clearing of forests in watersheds made practical by the
invention of the bronze axe. Our findings do not
necessarily conflict with the hypothesis of a persistent
Black Sea outflow since 10 14C ka bp as proposed by
Aksu et al. (2002a,b) and Hiscott et al. (2002, 2007), but
neither do they require persistent outflow. The appear-
ance of bioherms all across the floor of the shelf valley
at the conclusion of the Younger Dryas may be a signal
that fresh water outflow from the SoI temporarily ceased
and salinity in the SoM increased once again.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Turkish Department of Navigation,
Hydrography and Oceanography (SHOD) for providing
the seismic reflection profiles and supplementary ba-
thymetry data. We also acknowledge the officers and
crew of the research vessels Çubuklu, MTA Sismik-1,
Odin Finder and Marion Dufresne for their expert
help during the data acquisition. Discussions with
Marie-Helene Cormier, Emin Demirbağ, Naci Görür,
Damayanti Gurung, Candace Major, Cecilia McHugh,
Alina Polonia, Mehmet Sakınç, Leonardo Seeber and
Hüseyin Yüce have been very instructive. Support has
been provided by TÜBITAK and by the US National
Science Foundation grants OCE971130, OCE-0096668
and OCE-0222285.
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