Smooth Manifolds (PDFDrive)

Rajnikant Sinha
Smooth
Manifolds
Smooth Manifolds
Rajnikant Sinha
Smooth Manifolds
123
Rajnikant Sinha
Department of Mathematics
Magadh University
Bodh Gaya, Bihar
India
ISBN 978-81-322-2103-6 ISBN 978-81-322-2104-3 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2104-3
Library of Congress Control Number: 2014948765
Springer New Delhi Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London
© Springer India 2014

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or
information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief
excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the
purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the
work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of
the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always
be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright
Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of
publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for
any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein.
Printed on acid-free paper
Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Preface
The theory of smooth manifolds is a frequently discussed area in modern mathe-

matics among the broad class of audience. A number of popular books on this
subject are available for general readers with little prerequisite in mathematics. On
the other hand, numerous textbooks and monographs for advanced graduate stu-
dents and research fellows are available as well. The intermediate books, allowing
senior undergraduate students to enter the exciting field of smooth manifolds in a
pedagogical way, are very few.
It is argued that new concepts involved in this field are too complicated to allow
a simple introduction. Thus, the only way to master this theory is to be a time-
consuming effort to accumulate the intelligible parts of advanced textbooks into a
comprehensible collection of notes. No doubt, this approach has the advantage of
making young students, with perseverance to go through such a learning process, a
very well-trained future research worker. But unfortunately, this severely limits the
number of students who ever really master the subject. This book modestly attempts
to bridge the gap between a university curriculum and the more advanced books on
Smooth Manifolds. Actually, the manuscript has evolved from my habit of writing
elaborate proofs of different theorems over the past one decade.
This book intentionally supplies to the readers a high level of detail in arguments
and derivations. More lengthy proofs of various theorems are, in general, outlined
in such a way that they can be digested by an interested senior undergraduate
student with little risk of ever getting lost. This book has been written in such a style
that it invites the young students to fill in the gaps everywhere during its study. It is
another matter that the author is there for the needy students with complete solu-
tions. That is why, supplying a separate list of problems will only deviate us from
the main aim of this book.
In my experience, some common problems for a young university student, trying
to master mathematics, are the phrases in literatures like “it is clear that …”, “it is
easy to see that …”, “it is straightforward”, etc. If a student cannot supply the proof
of such a “clearly,” which most likely is the case, the common reaction under the
time pressure of the studies is to accept the statement as true. And from this point
v
vi Preface
on, throughout the rest part of the course, the deeper understanding of the subject is
lost.
I have benefited from a number of advanced textbooks on the subject, and some
unpublished works of my own and my distinguished friends. Some of these sources
are mentioned in the bibliography. However, in an introductory book such as this, it
is not possible to mention all literatures and all the people who have contributed to
the understanding of this exciting field.
It is hoped that our readers (active and passive both) will find that I have
substantially fulfilled the objective of bridging the gap between university curric-
ulum and more advanced texts, and that they will enjoy the reading this book as
much as I did while writing it.
Rajnikant Sinha
Contents
1 Differentiable Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Topological Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Smooth Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Examples of Smooth Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 Tangent Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.1 Smooth Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2 Algebra of Smooth Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3 Smooth Germs on Smooth Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.4 Derivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.5 Cotangent Spaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.6 Tangent Space as a Dual Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.7 Contravariant Vectors and Covariant Vectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.8 Tangent Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3 Multivariable Differential Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

3.1 Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.2 Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.3 Inverse Function Theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.4 Implicit Function Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.5 Constant Rank Theorem (Easy Version) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
3.6 Smooth Bump Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
3.7 The Constant Rank Theorem in Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
3.8 Taylor’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
4 Topological Properties of Smooth Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

4.1 Constant Rank Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.2 Lie Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
4.3 Locally Path Connected Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.4 Smooth Manifold as Paracompact Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
vii
viii Contents
4.5 Partitions of Unity Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

4.6 Topological Manifolds With Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
4.7 Smooth Covering Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
5 Immersions, Submersions, and Embeddings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

5.1 Pointwise Pushforward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
5.2 Open Submanifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
5.3 Tangent Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
5.4 Smooth Immersion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
5.5 Inverse Function Theorem for Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
5.6 Shrinking Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
5.7 Global Rank Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
5.8 Properly Embedded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
5.9 Regular Level Sets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
5.10 Smooth Submanifolds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
5.11 Tangent Space to a Submanifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
6 Sard’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431

6.1 Measure Zero in Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
6.2 Taylor’s Inequality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
6.3 Sard’s Theorem on Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
6.4 Sard’s Theorem on Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
7 Whitney Embedding Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

7.1 Compact Whitney Embedding in RN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
7.2 Compact Whitney Embedding in R2mþ1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
About the Author
Rajnikant Sinha is former professor of mathematics at Magadh University, Bodh

Gaya, India. A passionate mathematician by heart, Prof. Sinha has published sev-
eral interesting researches in international journals and contributed a book Solutions
to Weatherburn’s Elementary Vector Analysis. His research areas are topological
vector spaces, differential geometry, and manifolds.
ix
Chapter 1
Differentiable Manifolds
The pace of this chapter is rather slow for the simple reason that the definition of
smooth manifold is itself forbidding for many unfamiliar readers. Although many
young university students feel comfortable with the early parts of multivariable
calculus, if one feels uncomfortable, then he should go first through some parts of
Chap. 3. How verifications are done in various examples of smooth manifolds is a
crucial thing to learn for a novice, so this aspect has been dealt here with some more
detail.
1.1 Topological Manifolds
Definition Let M be a Hausdorff topological space. Let m be a positive integer. If,

for every x in M; there exists an open neighborhood U of x such that U is
homeomorphic to some open subset of Euclidean space Rm , then we say that M is
an m-dimensional topological manifold.
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional topological manifold. Let x be an element
of M: So there exists an open neighborhood U of x such that U is homeomorphic to
some open subset of Euclidean space Rm : Hence, there exists a homeomorphism
uU : U ! uU ðU Þ
such that uU ðUÞ is an open subset of Rm : Here, the ordered pair ðU; uU Þ is called a
coordinate chart of M: ðU; uU Þ is also simply denoted by ðU; uÞ:
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional topological manifold. Let ðU; uU Þ be a
coordinate chart of M: So
uU : U ! uU ðU Þ ð Rm Þ:
© Springer India 2014 1

R. Sinha, Smooth Manifolds, DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2104-3_1
2 1 Differentiable Manifolds
Hence, for every x in U; uU ðxÞ is in Rm : So there exist real numbers u1 ; . . .; um

such that

uU ð xÞ ¼ u1 ; . . .; um :
Here, we say that ui ði ¼ 1; . . .; mÞ are the local coordinates of the point x. In

short, we write
ðuU ð xÞÞi ui :
Lemma 1.1 Let M be an m-dimensional topological manifold. Let ðU; uU Þ; ðV; uV Þ

be coordinate charts of M such that U \ V is nonempty. Then,
1. domðuV ðuU Þ1 Þ ¼ uU ðU \ VÞ;
2. ranðuV ðuU Þ1 Þ ¼ uV ðU \ VÞ;
3. uV ðuU Þ1 is a function,
4. uV ðuU Þ1 is 1–1,
5. uU ðU \ VÞ; uV ðU \ VÞ are open subsets of Rm ;
6. ðuV ðuU Þ1 Þ1 ¼ uU ðuV Þ1 ;
7. ðuV ðuU Þ1 Þ : uU ðU \ VÞ ! uV ðU \ VÞ, and ðuU ðuV Þ1 Þ : uV ðU \ VÞ
! uU ðU \ VÞ are homeomorphisms.
Proof of 1 Let us take any x in domðuV ðuU Þ1 Þ: We want to show that x is in
uU ðU \ VÞ:
Since x is in domðuV ðuU Þ1 Þ, by the definition of domain, there exists y such
that ðx; yÞ is in uV ðuU Þ1 : Since ðx; yÞ is in uV ðuU Þ1 , by the definition of
composition, there exists z such that ðx; zÞ is in ðuU Þ1 ; and ðz; yÞ is in uV : Since
ðx; zÞ is in ðuU Þ1 ; ðz; xÞ is in uU : Since ðz; xÞ is in uU ; and uU : U ! uU ðUÞ;
uU ðzÞ ¼ x; and z is in U: Since ðz; yÞ is in uV ; and uV : V ! uV ðVÞ; uV ðzÞ ¼ y;
and z is in V: Here, z is in U; and z is in V; so z is in U \ V: Since z is in U \ V; and
x ¼ uU ðzÞ; x is in uU ðU \ VÞ: Thus, (see Fig. 1.1),

dom uV ðuU Þ1 uU ðU \ V Þ:
Next, let x be in uU ðU \ VÞ: We want to prove that x is in domðuV ðuU Þ1 Þ:

Since x is in uU ðU \ VÞ; there exists y in U \ V such that uU ðyÞ ¼ x: Since y is in
U \ V; y is in U; and y is in V: Since y is in U; and uU : U ! uU ðUÞ; there exists z
such that ðy; zÞ is in uU : Since y is in V; and uV : V ! uV ðVÞ; there exists w such that
ðy; wÞ is in uV : Since ðy; zÞ is in uU ; ðz; yÞ is in ðuU Þ1 : Since ðz; yÞ is in ðuU Þ1 ; and
1.1 Topological Manifolds 3
Fig. 1.1 m-dimensional topological manifold
ðy; wÞ is in uV ; ðz; wÞ is in uV ðuU Þ1 ; and hence, z is in domðuV ðuU Þ1 Þ: Since
ðy; zÞ is in uU ; and uU is a function, uU ðyÞ ¼ z: Since uU ðyÞ ¼ z; and uU ðyÞ ¼ x;
x ¼ z: Since x ¼ z; and z is in domðuV ðuU Þ1 Þ; x is in domðuV ðuU Þ1 Þ: Thus,

uU ðU \ V Þ dom uV ðuU Þ1 :
h
Proof of 2 On using 1, we have domðuU ðuV Þ1 Þ ¼ uV ðV \ UÞ: So
1
LHS ¼ ran uV ðuU Þ1 ¼ dom uV ðuU Þ1
1
¼ dom ðuU Þ1 ðuV Þ1

¼ dom uU ðuV Þ1
¼ uV ðV \ U Þ
¼ uV ðU \ V Þ ¼ RHS:
h
Proof of 3 Since ðU; uU Þ is a coordinate chart of M, uU is a 1–1 function, and

hence, ðuU Þ1 is a function. Since ðuU Þ1 is a function, and uV is a function, their
composite uV ðuU Þ1 is a function. h
Proof of 4 Since ðU; uU Þ is a coordinate chart of M; uU is a 1–1 function, and
hence, ðuU Þ1 is a 1–1 function. Since ðV; uV Þ is a coordinate chart of M; uV is a
1–1 function. Since ðuU Þ1 is 1–1, and uV is 1–1, uV ðuU Þ1 is 1–1. h
Proof of 5 Since ðU; uU Þ is a coordinate chart of M; uU : U ! uU ðUÞ is a
homeomorphism from open subset U of M onto open subset uU ðUÞ of Rm : Sim-
ilarly, V is an open subset of M: Since U; V are open subsets of M; U \ V is an
open subset of M: Since U; U \ V are open subset of M; and U \ V U; U \ V is
open in U: Since U \ V is open in U; and uU : U ! uU ðUÞ is a homeomorphism,
uU ðU \ VÞ is open in uU ðUÞ: Since uU ðU \ VÞ is open in uU ðUÞ; and uU ðUÞ is an
open subset of Rm ; uU ðU \ VÞ is an open subset of Rm :
Similarly, uV ðU \ VÞ is an open subset of Rm : h
Proof of 6
1 1
1 1
LHS ¼ uV ðuU Þ ¼ ðuU Þ ðuV Þ1 ¼ uU ðuV Þ1 ¼ RHS:
h
Proof of 7 Since ðuV ðuU Þ1 Þ1 ¼ uU ðuV Þ1 ; it suffices to prove that

uV ðuU Þ1 : uU ðU \ V Þ ! uV ðU \ V Þ;
and

uU ðuV Þ1 : uV ðU \ V Þ ! uU ðU \ V Þ
are continuous.
Since ðU; uU Þ is a coordinate chart of M; uU is a homeomorphism, and hence,
ðuU Þ1 is continuous. Since ðV; uV Þ is a coordinate chart of M; uV is a homeo-
morphism, and hence, uV is continuous. Since ðuU Þ1 ; uV are continuous, their
composite uV ðuU Þ1 is continuous.
Similarly, uU ðuV Þ1 is continuous. Hence, uV ðuU Þ1 is a homeomorphism.
Similarly, uU ðuV Þ1 is a homeomorphism. h
1.2 Smooth Manifolds 5
1.2 Smooth Manifolds
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional topological manifold. Let ðU; uU Þ; ðV; uV Þ

be coordinate charts of M; and let U \ V be nonempty. So

uV ðuU Þ1 : uU ðU \ V Þ ! uV ðU \ V Þ
is a homeomorphism from uU ðU \ VÞ onto uV ðU \ VÞ; where uU ðU \ VÞ and

uV ðU \ VÞ are open subsets of Rm :
For every ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uU ðU \ VÞ; put

uV ðuU Þ1 x1 ; . . .; xm f 1 x1 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; f m x1 ; . . .; xm ¼ y1 ; . . .; ym ;
where ðy1 ; . . .; ym Þ is in uV ðU \ VÞ; and

uU ðuV Þ1 y1 ; . . .; ym g1 y1 ; . . .; ym ; . . .; gm y1 ; . . .; ym ¼ x1 ; . . .; xm :
Since uV ðuU Þ1 is continuous, each f i : uU ðU \ VÞ ! R is continuous.

Similarly, each gi : uV ðU \ VÞ ! R is continuous.
For fixed i; and for every j ¼ 1; . . .; m; if ðDj f i Þðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ exists at every point
ðx ; . . .; xm Þ of uU ðU \ VÞ; then we get functions Dj f i : uU ðU \ VÞ ! R: If every
1
Dj f i : uU ðU \ VÞ ! R is continuous, then we say that f i is C 1 :

Similarly, by gi is C 1 ; we shall mean that each Dj gi : uV ðU \ VÞ !
R ðj ¼ 1; . . .; mÞ is continuous. By ðU; uU Þ and ðV; uV Þ are C1 -compatible, we
mean that
either ðU \ V is an empty setÞ;
or
ðf i ; gi are C1 for every i ¼ 1; . . .; m; whenever U \ V is a nonempty setÞ:
For fixed i; and for every j; k ¼ 1; . . .; m; if Dk ðDj f i Þ ð Dkj f i Þ exists at every

point of uU ðU \ VÞ; then we get functions Dk ðDj f i Þ : uU ðU \ VÞ ! R: If each
Dk ðDj f i Þ : uU ðU \ VÞ ! R is continuous, then we say that f i is C 2 :
Similarly, by gi is C 2 ; we shall mean that each Dk ðDj gi Þ : uV ðU \ VÞ !
R ðj; k ¼ 1; . . .; mÞ is continuous. By ðU; uU Þ and ðV; uV Þ are C 2 -compatible, we
mean that
either ðU \ V is an empty setÞ;
or
ðf i ; gi are C2 for every i ¼ 1; . . .; m; whenever U \ V is a nonempty setÞ:
Similar definitions for ðU; uU Þ and ðV; uV Þ are C 3 -compatible can be supplied,
etc.
It is clear that if ðU; uU Þ and ðV; uV Þ are C 3 -compatible, then ðU; uU Þ and
ðV; uV Þ are C 2 -compatible, etc.
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional topological manifold. Let r be a positive
integer. Let
A fðU; uU Þ; ðV; uV Þ; ðW; uW Þ; . . .g
be a nonempty collection of coordinate charts of M: If

1. fU; V; W; . . .g is a cover of M; that is, [fU : ðU; uU Þ is in Ag ¼ M;
2. all pairs of members in A are C r -compatible,
e ; u Þ is a coordinate chart of M, but not a
3. A is maximal (in the sense that if ð U e
U
member of A; then there exists ðU; uU Þ in A; such that ð U e ; u Þ and ðU; uU Þ
e
U
r
are not C -compatible),
then we say that A is a Cr -differentiable structure on M; and the ordered pair
ðM; AÞ is called a Cr -differentiable manifold. Here, members of A are called
admissible coordinate charts of M:
Theorem 1.2 Let M be an m-dimensional topological manifold. Let r be a positive
integer. Let
be a nonempty collection of coordinate charts of M satisfying

2. all pairs of members in A are Cr -compatible.
Then, there exists a unique C r -differentiable structure B on M which contains A:
(This theorem suggests that in constructing a differentiable manifold, it is enough to
find a collection A of coordinate charts for which conditions 1 and 2 are satisfied.)
Proof Existence Let B be the collection of all coordinate charts ðU; uU Þ
of M such that ðU; uU Þ is Cr -compatible with every member of A: First of all, we
shall try to show that B contains A: For this purpose, let us take any ðU; uU Þ in A:
By the condition 2, ðU; uU Þ is C r -compatible with all members of A; so by the
definition of B; ðU; uU Þ is in B: Hence, A is a subset of B: Further since A is
nonempty, and A is a subset of B; B is nonempty.
Now we want to prove that B is a Cr -differentiable structure on M; that is,

1. [fU : ðU; uU Þ is in Bg ¼ M;
2. all pairs of members of B are C r -compatible.
3. B is maximal (in the sense that, if ð U e
U
member of B; then there exists ðU; uU Þ in B such that ð Ue ; u Þ and ðU; uU Þ are
e
U
r
not C -compatible).
For 1: Since A is contained in B; [fU : ðU; uU Þis in Ag [fU : ðU; uU Þ
is in Bg M: Now, by the given condition 1, [fU : ðU; uU Þ is in Bg ¼ M:
For 2: Let us take any ðU; uU Þ in B; and ðV; uV Þ in B: We have to prove that
ðU; uU Þ and ðV; uV Þ are C r -compatible.
Here, two cases arise: either U \ V is an empty set, or U \ V is a nonempty set.h
Case I: when U \ V is an empty set. In this case, by the definition of C r -
compatible, ðU; uU Þ and ðV; uV Þ are C r -compatible.
Case II: when U \ V is a nonempty set. For every ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uU ðU \ VÞ; put

uV ðuU Þ1 x1 ; . . .; xm f 1 x1 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; f m x1 ; . . .; xm

¼ y1 ; . . .; ym ;

uU ðuV Þ1 y1 ; . . .; ym g1 y1 ; . . .; ym ; . . .; gm y1 ; . . .; ym

¼ x1 ; . . .; xm :
We have to show that f i ; gi are C r for every i ¼ 1; . . .; m:

Since U \ V is nonempty, there exists an element x in U \ V ð MÞ: Since x is in
M, by condition 1, there exists ðW; uW Þ in A such that x is in W: Since
ðU; uU Þ is in B; and ðW; uW Þ is in A, by the definition of B; ðU; uU Þ and ðW; uW Þ
are Cr -compatible. Since x is in W; and x is in U \ Vð UÞ; x is in W \ U; and
hence, U \ W is a nonempty set. Since ðU; uU Þ and ðW; uW Þ are Cr -compatible,
and U \ W is nonempty, by the definition of C r -compatible, f1i ; gi1 are C r for
every i ¼ 1; . . .; m, where for every ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uU ðU \ WÞ;

uW ðuU Þ1 x1 ; . . .; xm f11 x1 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; f1m x1 ; . . .; xm ¼ y1 ; . . .; ym
2 uW ðU \ W Þ;
and
1 1
uU ðuW Þ1 y1 ; . . .; ym g11 y1 ; . . .; ym ; . . .; gm
1 y ; . . .; y
m
¼ x ; . . .; xm :
Similarly, f2i ; gi2 are Cr for every i ¼ 1; . . .; m, where for every ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ in
uV ðV \ WÞ;

uW ðuV Þ1 x1 ; . . .; xm f21 x1 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; f2m x1 ; . . .; xm ¼ y1 ; . . .; ym
;
2 uW ðV \ W Þ
and
1 1
uV ðuW Þ1 y1 ; . . .; ym g12 y1 ; . . .; ym ; . . .; gm
2 y ; . . .; y
m
¼ x ; . . .; xm :
Now for every ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uU ðU \ V \ WÞ

1 1
f x ; . . .; xm ; . . .; f m x1 ; . . .; xm

¼ uV ðuU Þ1 x1 ; . . .; xm

¼ uV ðuW Þ1 uW ðuU Þ1 x1 ; . . .; xm


¼ uV ðuW Þ1 f11 x1 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; f1m x1 ; . . .; xm
1 1
¼ g12 f11 x1 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; f1m x1 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; gm 2 f1 x ; . . .; x ; . . .; f1 x ; . . .; x
m m 1 m
:
Hence,

f 1 x1 ; . . .; xm ¼ g12 f11 x1 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; f1m x1 ; . . .; xm :
Since g12 ; and each f1k ðk ¼ 1; . . .; mÞ are Cr ;

og12 f11 ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ; . . .; f1m ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ
ox1 !

X n
og2 f1 ðx ; . . .; xm Þ; . . .; f1m ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ of1k ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ
1 1 1
¼
k¼1
of1k ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ ox1
exists and is continuous. It follows that

of 1 ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ og12 f11 ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ; . . .; f1m ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ
¼
ox1 ox1
exists and is continuous. Similarly, of ðxox;...;x Þ 1 1 m

2 exists and is continuous, etc.
So f is C : Similarly, f is C ; etc. Hence, f 1 is C r : Similarly, f 2 is C r ; etc. So
1 1 1 2
each f i is C r : Similarly, each gi is C r : Thus, we have shown that, in all cases,

ðU; uU Þ and ðV; uV Þ are C r -compatible.
For 3: We claim that B is maximal. If not, otherwise, let B be not maximal. We
have to arrive at a contradiction. Since B is not maximal, there exists a
coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M such that ðU; uU Þ is not a member of B; and

ðU; uU Þ is Cr -compatible with every member of B: Since ðU; uU Þ is
C r -compatible with every member of B; and A is contained in B; ðU; uU Þ is
C r -compatible with every member of A; and hence, by the definition
of B; ðU; uU Þ is in B; a contradiction.
Thus, we have shown that B is a C r -differentiable structure on M; which contains A:
Uniqueness If not, otherwise, let B1 and B2 be two distinct C r -differentiable
structures on M; which contains A: We have to arrive at a contradiction. Since B1
and B2 are two distinct C r -differentiable structures on M; either (there exists a
coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M such that ðU; uU Þ is in B1 ; and ðU; uU Þ is not in
B2 Þ or (there exists a coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M such that ðU; uU Þ is in B2 ;
and ðU; uU Þ is not in B1 Þ:
Case I: when there exists a coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M such that ðU; uU Þ is in
B1 ; and ðU; uU Þ is not in B2 : First of all, we shall show that B1 is contained in
B; where B is the differential structure constructed above. For this purpose, let
us take any coordinate chart ðV; uV Þ of M in B1 : We have to show that ðV; uV Þ
is in B: Since ðV; uV Þ is in B1 ; and B1 is a C r -differentiable structure on M
which contains A; ðV; uV Þ is C r -compatible with every member of A; and
hence, by the definition of B; ðV; uV Þ is in B: Thus, we have shown that B1 is
contained in B:
Similarly, B2 is contained in B: Since ðU; uU Þ is not in B2 ; and B2 is Cr -
differentiable structure on M; there exists ðV; uV Þ in B2 ; such that ðV; uV Þ and
ðU; uU Þ are not C r -compatible. Since ðV; uV Þ is in B2 ; and B2 is contained in B;
ðV; uV Þ is in B: Since ðU; uU Þ is in B1 ; and B1 is contained in B; ðU; uU Þ is in B:
Since ðU; uU Þ; ðV; uV Þ are in B; and B is a C r -differentiable structure on M;
ðV; uV Þ and ðU; uU Þ are Cr -compatible, a contradiction.
Case II: when there exists a coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M such that ðU; uU Þ is
in B2 ; and ðU; uU Þ is not in B1 . This case is similar to the case I. h
Theorem 1.3 Let M be an m-dimensional topological manifold. Let

2. all pairs of members in A are C2 -compatible.
Then, there exists a unique C 1 -differentiable structure B on M which contains A:
Proof First of all, we shall show that 20 : all pair of members in A are C 1 -compatible.
For this purpose, let us take any ðU; uU Þ and ðV; uV Þ in A: Here, two cases arises:
either U \ V is an empty set, or U \ V is a nonempty set. h
Case I: when U \ V is an empty set. In this case, by the definition of
C 1 -compatible, ðU; uU Þ and ðV; uV Þ are C1 -compatible.


It is enough to show that f i ; gi are C1 for every i ¼ 1; . . .; m:

Since ðU; uU Þ and ðV; uV Þ in A, by condition 2, ðU; uU Þ is C 2 -compatible with
ðV; uV Þ: Since ðU; uU Þ is C 2 -compatible with ðV; uV Þ; and U \ V is nonempty, by
the definition of C 2 -compatible, f i ; gi are C2 for every i ¼ 1; . . .; m. Since,
for every i ¼ 1; . . .; m; f i ; gi are C 2 ; we have f i ; gi are C1 :
Now, on using conditions 1, 20 , and Theorem 1.2, there exists a unique
C1-differentiable structure B on M which contains A: h
Note 1.4 As above, we can prove the following result:
Let M be an m-dimensional topological manifold. Let r; s be positive integers

satisfying 0\s r: Let

2. all pairs of members in A are C r -compatible.
Then, there exists a unique C s -differentiable structure B on M which contains A:
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional topological manifold. Let A be a nonempty
collection of coordinate charts of M: If
1. [fU : ðU; uU Þ is in Ag ¼ M;
2. all pairs of members in A are C 1 -compatible (in the sense that every pair of
members in A is C r -compatible for every positive integer rÞ,
then we say that A is an atlas on M:
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional topological manifold. Let
be a nonempty collection of coordinate charts of M: If

1. A is an atlas on M;
2. A is maximal (in the sense that if ð U e
U
member of A; then there exists ðU; uU Þ in A; such that ð U e ; u Þ and ðU; uU Þ
e
U
are not C1 -compatible),
then we say that A is a C1 -differentiable structure on M; and the pair ðM; AÞ is
called a C 1 -differentiable manifold. C1 -differentiable structure is also called
smooth structure, and C 1 -differentiable manifold is also called smooth manifold.
Here, members of A are called admissible coordinate charts of M:

Note 1.5 We shall try to prove: if A is an atlas on an m-dimensional topological
manifold M, then there exists a unique C1 -differentiable structure B on M which
contains A:
Existence Let B be the collection of all coordinate charts ðU; uU Þ
of M such that ðU; uU Þ is C 1 -compatible with every member of A:
First of all, we shall try to show that B contains A: For this purpose, let us take
any ðU; uU Þ in A: Since A is an atlas, and ðU; uU Þ is in A; ðU; uU Þ is C 1 -
compatible with all members of A, and hence, by the definition of B; ðU; uU Þ is in
B: Hence, A is a subset of B:
Further since A is nonempty, and A is a subset of B; B is nonempty. Now we
want to prove that B is a C 1 -differentiable structure on M; that is,
1. [fU : ðU; uU Þ is in Bg ¼ M;
2. all pairs of members of B are C 1 -compatible.
e ; u Þ a coordinate chart of M, but not a
3. B is maximal (in the sense that if ð U e
U
e ; u Þ and ðU; uU Þ are
member of B; then there exists ðU; uU Þ in B such that ð U e
U
1
not C -compatible.
For 1: Since A is contained in B; [fU : ðU; uU Þ is in Ag [fU : ðU; uU Þ
is in Bg M: Since A is an atlas, [fU : ðU; uU Þ is in Ag ¼ M: Thus, [fU :
ðU; uU Þ is in Bg ¼ M:
For 2: Let us take any ðU; uU Þ in B; and ðV; uV Þ in B: We have to prove that
ðU; uU Þ and ðV; uV Þ are C1 -compatible. Here, two cases arise: either U \ V is
an empty set, or U \ V is a nonempty set.
Case I: when U \ V is an empty set. In this case, by the definition of C r -
compatible, ðU; uU Þ and ðV; uV Þ are Cr -compatible for every positive integer r,
and hence, ðU; uU Þ and ðV; uV Þ are C1 -compatible.



We have to show that f i ; gi are C 1 for every i ¼ 1; . . .; m:

Since U \ V is nonempty, there exists an element x in U \ V ð MÞ: Since x is in
M; and A is an atlas, there exists ðW; uW Þ in A such that x is in W: Since
ðU; uU Þ is in B; and ðW; uW Þ is in A, by the definition of B; ðU; uU Þ and ðW; uW Þ
are C 1 -compatible. Since x is in W; and x is in U \ Vð UÞ; x is in W \ U; and
hence, U \ W is a nonempty set. Since ðU; uU Þ and ðW; uW Þ are C1 -compatible,
and U \ W is nonempty, by the definition of C1 -compatible, f1i ; gi1 are C 1 for
every i ¼ 1; . . .; m, where for every ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uU ðU \ WÞ;

uW ðuU Þ1 x1 ; . . .; xm f11 x1 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; f1m x1 ; . . .; xm

¼ y1 ; . . .; ym 2 uW ðU \ W Þ;
and
1 1
uU ðuW Þ1 y1 ; . . .; ym g11 y1 ; . . .; ym ; . . .; gm
1 y ; . . .; y
m
¼ x ; . . .; xm :
Similarly, f2i ; gi2 are C 1 for every i ¼ 1; . . .; m, where for every ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ in
uV ðV \ WÞ;

uW ðuV Þ1 x1 ; . . .; xm f21 x1 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; f2m x1 ; . . .; xm

¼ y1 ; . . .; ym 2 uW ðV \ W Þ;
and
1 1
uV ðuW Þ1 y1 ; . . .; ym g12 y1 ; . . .; ym ; . . .; gm
2 y ; . . .; y
m
¼ x ; . . .; xm :
Now for every ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uU ðU \ V \ WÞ

1 1
f x ; . . .; xm ; . . .; f m x1 ; . . .; xm

¼ uV ðuU Þ1 x1 ; . . .; xm



¼ uV ðuW Þ1 f11 x1 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; f1m x1 ; . . .; xm
1 1
¼ g12 f11 x1 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; f1m x1 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; gm 2 f1 x ; . . .; x ; . . .; f1 x ; . . .; x
m m 1 m
:
Hence,
f 1 x1 ; . . .; xm ¼ g12 f11 x1 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; f1m x1 ; . . .; xm :
Since g12 ; and each f1k ðk ¼ 1; . . .; mÞ are C1 ;

og12 f11 ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ; . . .; f1m ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ
ox1 !
Xn
og2 f1 ðx ; . . .; x Þ; . . .; f1m ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ of1k ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ
1 1 1 m
¼
k¼1
of1k ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ ox1
exists and is continuous. It follows that

of 1 ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ og12 f11 ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ; . . .; f1m ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ
¼
ox1 ox1
exists and is continuous. Similarly, of ðxox;...;x Þ

1 1 m
2 exists and is continuous, etc.
So f 1 is C 1 : Similarly, f 1 is C2 ; etc. Hence, f 1 is C1 : Similarly, f 2 is C 1 ; etc. So
each f i is C 1 : Similarly, each gi is C 1 : Thus, we have shown that, in all cases,
ðU; uU Þ and ðV; uV Þ are C1 -compatible.
For 3: We claim that B is maximal. If not, otherwise, let B be not maximal. We
have to arrive at a contradiction. Since B is not maximal, there exists a coordinate
chart ðU; uU Þ of M such that ðU; uU Þ is not a member of B; and ðU; uU Þ is C 1 -
compatible with every member of B: Since ðU; uU Þ is C 1 -compatible with every
member of B; and A is contained in B; ðU; uU Þ is C1 -compatible with every
member of A; and hence, by the definition of B; ðU; uU Þ is in B; a contradiction. Thus,
we have shown that B is a C 1 -differentiable structure on M; which contains A:
Uniqueness If not, otherwise, let B1 and B2 be two distinct C 1 -differentiable
structures on M; which contains A: We have to arrive at a contradiction. Since B1
and B2 are two distinct C 1 -differentiable structures on M;
either
(there exists a coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M such that ðU; uU Þ is in B1 ; and
ðU; uU Þ is not in B2 Þ
or
(there exists a coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M such that ðU; uU Þ is in B2 ; and
ðU; uU Þ is not in B1 Þ:
Case I: when there exists a coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M such that ðU; uU Þ is in
B1 ; and ðU; uU Þ is not in B2 .
First of all, we shall show that B1 is contained in B; where B is the differential
structure constructed above. For this purpose, let us take any coordinate chart
ðV; uV Þ of M in B1 : We have to show that ðV; uV Þ is in B: Since ðV; uV Þ is in B1 ;
and B1 is a C1 -differentiable structure on M which contains A; ðV; uV Þ is
C 1 -compatible with every member of A; and hence, by the definition of B;

ðV; uV Þ is in B: Thus, we have shown that B1 is contained in B:
Similarly, B2 is contained in B: Since ðU; uU Þ is not in B2 ; and B2 is C 1 -
differentiable structure on M; there exists ðV; uV Þ in B2 such that ðV; uV Þ and
ðU; uU Þ are not C 1 -compatible. Since ðV; uV Þ is in B2 ; and B2 is contained in B;
ðV; uV Þ is in B: Since ðU; uU Þ is in B1 ; and B1 is contained in B; ðU; uU Þ is in B:
Since ðU; uU Þ; ðV; uV Þ are in B; and B is a C 1 -differentiable structure on M;
ðV; uV Þ and ðU; uU Þ are C1 -compatible, a contradiction.
Case II: when there exists a coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M such that ðU; uU Þ is
in B2 ; and ðU; uU Þ is not in B1 . This case is similar to the case I. Thus, in all
cases, we get a contradiction. h
From now on, we shall assume without further mention that in our differentiable
manifold ðM; AÞ; M is a second countable topological space.
1.3 Examples of Smooth Manifolds
Example 1.6 (i) Let G be a nonempty open subset of Rm : Let us take G for M:
Since Rm is a Hausdorff second countable topological space, G with the induced
topology is a Hausdorff second countable topological space. For every x in G; G is
an open neighborhood of x: Since the identity mapping
IdG : G ! G
given by
IdG ð xÞ ¼ x
for every x in G is a homeomorphism from G onto G; G is an m-dimensional

topological manifold. For A; let us take the singleton set fðG; IdG Þg: It is easy to
observe that A satisfies the conditions 1 and 2 of Theorem 1.2 for every positive
integer r: Hence, there exists a unique C1 -differentiable structure on G which
contains fðG; IdG Þg: This C1 -differentiable structure on G is called the standard
differentiable structure of G: Thus, every nonempty open subset of Rm is an
example of a smooth manifold.
(ii) Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, whose topology is O; and
differential structure is A: Let ðU; uU Þ 2 A:
Since ðU; uU Þ 2 A; U is an open subset of M: Let O1 be the induced topology
over U; that is, O1 ¼ fG : G U; and G 2 Og: Put A1 fðU; uU Þg. Since M is
an m-dimensional smooth manifold, M is a Hausdorff space. Since M is a Hausdorff
space, and U is a subspace of M; U with the induced topology is a Hausdorff space.
Since M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, M is a second countable space.
Since M is a second countable space, and U is a subspace of M; U with the induced
1.3 Examples of Smooth Manifolds 15
topology is a second countable space. It is easy to observe that A satisfies the

conditions 1 and 2 of Theorem 1.2 for every positive integer r: Hence, there exists a
unique C 1 -differentiable structure on U which contains fðU; uU Þg:
Thus for every admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of an m-dimensional smooth
manifold M; U is an m-dimensional smooth manifold.
Example 1.7 For m ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .; by the m-dimensional unit sphere Sm ; we mean
the set
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
x1 ; . . .xmþ1 : x1 ; . . .xmþ1 2 Rmþ1 and ðx1 Þ2 þ þ ðxmþ1 Þ2 ¼ 1 :
Since Rmþ1 is a Hausdorff second countable topological space, and Sm is a subset

of Rmþ1 ; Sm with the induced topology is a Hausdorff second countable topological
space. Here,
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
S1 x1 ; x2 : x1 ; x2 2 R2 and ðx1 Þ2 þðx2 Þ2 ¼ 1 ;
1 2 3 1 2 3 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
S2 x ; x ; x : x ; x ; x 2 R3 and ðx1 Þ2 þðx2 Þ2 þðx3 Þ2 ¼ 1 ; etc.
Now we shall try to prove that the unit circle S1 is a 1-dimensional topological
manifold. For this purpose, let us take any ða1 ; a2 Þ in S1 : We have to find an open
neighborhood G of ða1 ; a2 Þ, and a homeomorphism u : G ! uðGÞ such that uðGÞ
is an open subset of R1 : Since ð0; 0Þ does not lie in S1 ; and ða1 ; a2 Þ is in S1 ; both of
a1 ; a2 cannot be 0. So two cases arise: either a1 6¼ 0 or a2 6¼ 0:
Case I: when a1 6¼ 0
Now two subcases arise: either 0\a1 or a1 \0:
Subcase I: when 0\a1 . Let us take

x1 ; x2 : x1 ; x2 2 S1 and 0\x1
for G1 : Since ða1 ; a2 Þ 2 S1 and 0\a1 ; ða1 ; a2 Þ 2 G1 : Since

x1 ; x2 : x1 ; x2 2 S1 and 0\x1 ¼ x1 ; x2 : x1 ; x2 2 R2 and 0\x1 \ S1 ;
and fðx1 ; x2 Þ : ðx1 ; x2 Þ 2 R2 and 0\x1 gð¼ ð0; 1Þ ð1; 1ÞÞ is open in R2 ;
fðx1 ; x2 Þ : ðx1 ; x2 Þ 2 S1 and 0\x1 gð¼ G1 Þ is open in S1 relative to the induced
topology. Thus, G1 is open in S1 : Since ða1 ; a2 Þ 2 G1 ; and G1 is open in S1 ; G1 is
an open neighborhood of ða1 ; a2 Þ: Since

G1 ¼ x1 ; x2 : x1 ; x2 2 S1 and 0\x1
1 2 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
¼ x ; x : ðx1 Þ2 þðx2 Þ2 ¼ 1 and 0\x1 ;
it is clear that fx2 : ðx1 ; x2 Þ 2 G1 g is equal to the open interval ð1; 1Þ:
Let us define a function

p1 : G1 ! x2 : x1 ; x2 2 G
as follows: for every ðx1 ; x2 Þ in G1 ;

p1 x 1 ; x 2 ¼ x 2 :
Clearly, p1 is a 1–1 function from G1 onto the open interval ð1; 1Þ: Further,
since projection map is a continuous and open map,
p1 : G1 ! ð1; 1Þ
is a homeomorphism. Thus, we have shown that there exist an open neighborhood

G1 of ða1 ; a2 Þ and a homeomorphism p1 : G1 ! ð1; 1Þ; where ð1; 1Þ is an
open subset of R1 :
Subcase II: when a1 \0. Proceeding as in subcase I, there exist an open
neighborhood

G2 x1 ; x2 : x1 ; x2 2 S1 and x1 \0
of ða1 ; a2 Þ and a homeomorphism

p2 : G2 ! ð1; 1Þ
defined as: for every ðx1 ; x2 Þ in G2 ;

p2 x 1 ; x 2 ¼ x 2 :
Case II: when a2 6¼ 0

Now two subcases arise: either 0\a2 or a2 \0:
Subcase I: when 0\a2 . Proceeding as above, there exist an open neighborhood
1 2 1 2
G3 x ; x : x ; x 2 S1 and 0\x2

p3 : G3 ! ð1; 1Þ

p3 x 1 ; x 2 ¼ x 1 :
Subcase II: when a2 \0. Proceeding as above, there exist an open neighborhood
1 2 1 2
G4 x ; x : x ; x 2 S1 and x2 \0

p4 : G4 ! ð1; 1Þ

p4 x 1 ; x 2 ¼ x 1 :
Thus, we see that in all cases, there exist an open neighborhood G of ða1 ; a2 Þ,
and a homeomorphism u : G ! uðGÞ; where uðGÞ is an open subset of R1 :
Hence, by the definition of topological manifold, S1 is a 1-dimensional topo-
logical manifold. Here, we get four coordinate charts ðG1 ; p1 Þ; ðG2 ; p2 Þ; ðG3 ; p3 Þ;
ðG4 ; p4 Þ: Let us take
fðG1 ; p1 Þ; ðG2 ; p2 Þ; ðG3 ; p3 Þ; ðG4 ; p4 Þg
for A: We want to show that A has the following two properties:

1. [fU : ðU; uU Þ is in Ag ¼ S1 ;
2. all pairs of members in A are C 1 -compatible.
For 1: Here,
[fU : ðU; uU Þ; is in Ag
¼ G1 [ G2 [ G3 [ G4

¼ x1 ; x2 : x1 ; x2 2 S1 and 0\x1 [ x1 ; x2 : x1 ; x2 2 S1 and x1 \0

[ x1 ; x2 : x1 ; x2 2 S1 and 0\x2 [ x1 ; x2 : x1 ; x2 2 S1 and x2 \0
¼ S1 :
For 2: Let us take ðG1 ; p1 Þ; ðG2 ; p2 Þ as a pair of members of A: Since

G1 \ G2 ¼ ð x1 ; x2 : x1 ; x2 2 S1 and 0\x1 \ x1 ; x2 : x1 ; x2 2 S1 and x1 \0 Þ
is an empty set, by the definition of C r -compatible, ðG1 ; p1 Þ; ðG2 ; p2 Þ are

C r -compatible for every positive integer r: Hence, ðG1 ; p1 Þ; ðG2 ; p2 Þ are
C 1 -compatible.
Next, let us take ðG1 ; p1 Þ; ðG3 ; p3 Þ as a pair of members of A: Here,

1 2
G1 \ G3 ¼ x1 ; x2 : x ; x 2 S1 and 0\x1 \ x1 ; x2 : x1 ; x2 2 S1 and 0\x2
1 2
¼ x1 ; x2 : x ; x 2 S1 ; 0\x1 and 0\x2 :
We want to prove that

p1 p1
3 : p3 ðG1 \ G3 Þ ! p1 ðG1 \ G3 Þ
is C 1 :
By Lemma 1.1, p1 ðp1 3 Þ is a homeomorphism from open subset p3 ðG1 \ G3 Þ
of R1 onto open subset p1 ðG1 \ G3 Þ of R1 : Now let us take any p3 ðxÞ in
p3 ðG1 \ G3 Þ; where x is in G1 \ G3 : Since x is in G1 \ G3 ; and G1 \ G3 ¼
fðx1 ; x2 Þ : ðx1 ; x2 Þ 2 S1 ; 0\x1 and 0\x2 g; there exist real numbers x1 ; x2 such
that x ¼ ðx1 ; x2 Þ 2 S1 ; 0\x1 and 0\x2 . Since
1 2 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
x ; x 2 S1 ¼ x1 ; x2 : x1 ; x2 2 R2 and ðx1 Þ2 þðx2 Þ2 ¼ 1 ;
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
and 0\x2 ; x2 ¼ 1 ðx1 Þ2 : Since 0\x1 ; 0\x2 ; and ðx1 Þ2 þ ðx2 Þ2 ¼ 1; it follows
that 0\x1 \1; and 0\x2 \1: Hence, t p3 ðxÞ ¼ p3 ðx1 ; x2 Þ ¼ x1 2 ð0; 1Þ: Now it
is clear that p3 ðG1 \ G3 Þ is equal to the open interval ð0; 1Þ:
Further,

p1 p1
3 ðtÞ ¼ p1 p1
3 ðp3 ð xÞÞ ¼ p1 p1 3 ðp3 ð xÞÞ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
¼ p1 ð xÞ ¼ p1 x1 ; x2 ¼ x2 ¼ 1 ðx1 Þ2
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
¼ 1 ðp3 ðx1 ; x2 ÞÞ2 ¼ 1 ðp3 ð xÞÞ2 ¼ 1 t2
or, qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

p1 p1
3 ð t Þ ¼ 1 ðt Þ2
for every t in p3 ðG1 \ G3 Þð¼ ð0; 1ÞÞ: Therefore,
0 1 t
p1 p1
3 ðtÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð2tÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 1t 2 1 t2
or,
0 t
p1 p1
3 ðtÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ðt 2 ð0; 1ÞÞ:
1 t2
It follows that t 7! ðp1 ðp1

3 ÞÞðtÞ is a differentiable function on the open subset
p3 ðG1 \ G3 Þ of R : Also, since
1
0 t
p1 p1
3 ðtÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi :
1 t2
and t 7! pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
t
1t2
is a continuous function,

p1 p1
3 : p3 ðG1 \ G3 Þ ! p1 ðG1 \ G3 Þ
is C 1 : Similarly, we can show that

p1 p1
3 : p3 ðG1 \ G3 Þ ! p1 ðG1 \ G3 Þ
is C 2 ; etc. Thus,

p1 p1
3 : p3 ðG1 \ G3 Þ ! p1 ðG1 \ G3 Þ
is C r for every positive integer r: Hence,

p1 p1
3 : p3 ðG1 \ G3 Þ ! p1 ðG1 \ G3 Þ
is C 1 : Thus, we have shown that the pair ðG1 ; p1 Þ; ðG3 ; p3 Þ are C1 -compatible.
Similarly, we can show that all other pairs of members in A are C1 -compatible.
This proves 2. Hence, by Theorem 1.2, there exists a unique C 1 -differentiable
structure B on S1 which contains A: Thus, the ordered pair ðS1 ; BÞ is an example of
a smooth manifold of dimension 1.
Similarly, we can construct a C 1 -differentiable structure on S2 ; etc. In short, the
unit sphere Sm is a smooth manifold of dimension m.
Example 1.8 Let us define a relation over R2 fð0; 0Þg as follows:
For every ðx1 ; x2 Þ; ðy1 ; y2 Þ in R fð0; 0Þg; by
2
1 2 1 2
x ;x y ;y
we shall mean there exists a real number t such that

1 2
x ; x ¼ t y1 ; y2 :
We shall try to show that is an equivalence relation over R2 fð0; 0Þg; that is,
1. ðx1 ; x2 Þ ðx1 ; x2 Þ for every ðx1 ; x2 Þ in R2 fð0; 0Þg;
2. if ðx1 ; x2 Þ ðy1 ; y2 Þ; then ðy1 ; y2 Þ ðx1 ; x2 Þ;
3. if ðx1 ; x2 Þ ðy1 ; y2 Þ; and ðy1 ; y2 Þ ðz1 ; z2 Þ then ðx1 ; x2 Þ ðz1 ; z2 Þ:
For 1: Since ðx1 ; x2 Þ ¼ 1ðx1 ; x2 Þ; ðx1 ; x2 Þ ðx1 ; x2 Þ:

For 2: Since ðx1 ; x2 Þ ðy1 ; y2 Þ; there exists a real number t such that ðx1 ; x2 Þ ¼
tðy1 ; y2 Þ: Since ðx1 ; x2 Þ; ðy1 ; y2 Þ are in R2 fð0; 0Þg; ðx1 ; x2 Þ and ðy1 ; y2 Þ are
nonzero. Since ðx1 ; x2 Þ and ðy1 ; y2 Þ are nonzero, and ðx1 ; x2 Þ ¼ tðy1 ; y2 Þ; t is
nonzero, and hence, ðy1 ; y2 Þ ¼ 1t ðx1 ; x2 Þ: Since ðy1 ; y2 Þ ¼ 1t ðx1 ; x2 Þ; ðy1 ; y2 Þ
ðx1 ; x2 Þ:
For 3: Since ðx1 ; x2 Þ ðy1 ; y2 Þ; there exists a real number t such that ðx1 ; x2 Þ ¼
tðy1 ; y2 Þ: Since ðy1 ; y2 Þ ðz1 ; z2 Þ; there exists a real number s such that
ðy1 ; y2 Þ ¼ sðz1 ; z2 Þ: Since ðx1 ; x2 Þ ¼ tðy1 ; y2 Þ; and ðy1 ; y2 Þ ¼ sðz1 ; z2 Þ; ðx1 ; x2 Þ ¼
tðsðz1 ; z2 ÞÞ ¼ ðstÞðz1 ; z2 Þ; and hence, ðx1 ; x2 Þ ðz1 ; z2 Þ:
Thus, we have shown that is an equivalence relation over R2 fð0; 0Þg:
If ðx ; x Þ 6¼ ð0; 0Þ; then the equivalence class of ðx1 ; x2 Þ is given by
1 2
1 2
x1 ; x2 y1 ; y2 : y1 ; y2 x ;x
1 2 1 2
¼ y ; y : y ; y ¼ t x1 ; x2 for some real t
or,

x1 ; x2 ¼ t x1 ; x2 : t 6¼ 0 :
We shall denote the quotient space

R2 fð0; 0Þg =
of all equivalence classes by P1 : Thus,

1 2 1 2
P1 x ;x : x ; x 6¼ ð0; 0Þ
or,

P1 ¼ t x1 ; x2 : t 6¼ 0 : x1 ; x2 6¼ ð0; 0Þ :
The topology of R2 fð0; 0Þg is the induced topology of the standard topology of
R2 ; and the topology of the quotient space ðR2 fð0; 0ÞgÞ= ð¼ P1 Þ is the
quotient topology. Thus, a subset G of P1 is open means the set

[ x1 ; x2 : x1 ; x2 2 G
is open in R2 fð0; 0Þg; that is,

1 2
[ t x1 ; x2 : t 6¼ 0 : x ;x 2G
is open in R2 fð0; 0Þg; that is, either

1 2
[ t x1 ; x2 : t 6¼ 0 : x ;x 2G
or

[ t x1 ; x2 : t 6¼ 0 : x1 ; x2 2 G [fð0; 0Þg
is open in R2 :
Since R2 is a Hausdorff space, its subspace R2 fð0; 0Þg is a Hausdorff space,
and hence, its quotient space ðR2 fð0; 0ÞgÞ= ð¼ P1 Þ is a Hausdorff space.
Since R2 is a second countable space, its subspace R2 fð0; 0Þg is a second
countable space, and hence, its quotient space ðR2 fð0; 0ÞgÞ= ð¼ P1 Þ is a
second countable space. Put
1 2
U1 x ;x : x1 6¼ 0 :
We want to show that U1 is open in P2 :

For this purpose, we must show that

[ t x1 ; x2 : t 6¼ 0 : x1 ; x2 2 U1
is open in R2 fð0; 0Þg:

Since (see Fig. 1.2),

[ t x1 ; x2 : t 6¼ 0 : x1 ; x2 2 U1 ¼ [ t x1 ; x2 : t 6¼ 0 : x1 6¼ 0

¼ R2 0; x2 : x2 is any real ;
and R2 fð0; x2 Þ : x2 is any realg is open in R2 ; [fftðx1 ; x2 Þ : t 6¼ 0g :

½ðx1 ; x2 Þ 2 U1 g is open in R2 fð0; 0Þg: Thus, we have shown that U1 is open in P1 :
O
O
Fig. 1.2 Hausdorff space

Now let us define a function
u1 : U1 ! R
as follows: for every ½ðx1 ; x2 Þ in U1
x2
u1 x1 ; x2 :
x1
We shall try to show that

1. u1 is well-defined,
2. u1 is 1–1,
3. u1 is continuous,
4. u1 ðU1 Þ is open in R;
5. u1
1 : u1 ðU1 Þ ! U1 is continuous.
For 1: Let ½ðx1 ; x2 Þ ¼ ½ðy1 ; y2 Þ ; where ½ðx1 ; x2 Þ ; ½ðy1 ; y2 Þ are in U1 : Since

½ðx1 ; x2 Þ ; ½ðy1 ; y2 Þ are in U1 ; ðx1 ; x2 Þ; ðy1 ; y2 Þ are nonzero members of R2 ; and
2 2
x1 ; y1 are nonzero. Since x1 ; y1 are nonzero, xx1 ; yy1 are real numbers.
We must prove that
x2 y2
¼ :
x1 y1
Since ½ðx1 ; x2 Þ ¼ ½ðy1 ; y2 Þ ; ðx1 ; x2 Þ ðy1 ; y2 Þ: Further since ðx1 ; x2 Þ; ðy1 ; y2 Þ are
nonzero members of R2 ; there exists a nonzero real number t such that

x1 ; x2 ¼ t y1 ; y2 ¼ ty1 ; ty2 :
So x1 ¼ ty1 ; and x2 ¼ ty2 : Since x1 ¼ ty1 ; x2 ¼ ty2 ; and x1 ; y1 ; t are nonzero,

2 2 2
x
x1 ¼ tyty1 ¼ yy1 : This proves 1.
For 2: Let u1 ð½ðx1 ; x2 Þ Þ ¼ u1 ð½ðy1 ; y2 Þ Þ: We have to prove that ½ðx1 ; x2 Þ ¼

½ðy1 ; y2 Þ ; that is, there exists a real number t such that ðx1 ; x2 Þ ¼ tðy1 ; y2 Þ: Here,
x2 y2
1
¼ u1 x1 ; x2 ¼ u 1 y1 ; y2 ¼ 1:
x y
Case I: when x2 6¼ 0
2 2 2 2
Since xx1 ¼ yy1 ; and x2 6¼ 0; y2 6¼ 0; and hence, x1 ¼ xy2 y1 : So ðx1 ; x2 Þ ¼ xy2 ðy1 ; y2 Þ:
Case II: when x2 ¼ 0

2 2 1 1
Since xx1 ¼ yy1 ; and x2 ¼ 0; y2 ¼ 0: So ðx1 ; x2 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; 0Þ ¼ xy1 ðy1 ; 0Þ ¼ xy1 ðy1 ; y2 Þ:
Thus, we see that in all cases, there exists a real number t such that ðx1 ; x2 Þ ¼
tðy1 ; y2 Þ: This proves 2.
For 3. Let us note that the equivalence class ½ðx1 ; x2 Þ of ðx1 ; x2 Þ is simply the
straight line joining the origin O and ðx1 ; x2 Þ; but origin O deleted. Further, the
slope ð¼ tan hÞ of this line is the u1 -image of ½ðx1 ; x2 Þ : Since tan h is a con-
tinuous function over ð p2 ; p2Þ; it is clear that
u1 : U1 ! R
is a continuous function.
For 4. It is clear that
u1 ðU1 Þ ¼ ð1; þ1Þ ¼ R ;
and R is an open set, so u1 ðU1 Þ is an open set of real numbers.

For 5. In 4, we have seen that u1 ðU1 Þ ¼ R; so it remains to prove that u1
1 :
R ! U1 is continuous.
Since, for every m in R; ½ð1; mÞ is in U1 ; and u1 ð½ð1; mÞ Þ ¼ m1 ¼ m;
u1
1 ðmÞ ¼ ½ð1; mÞ :
Since m 7! ð1; mÞ is continuous, and ðx1 ; x2 Þ 7! ½ðx1 ; x2 Þ is continuous, their

composite m 7! ½ð1; mÞ is continuous, that is, u1
1 is a continuous function. This
proves 5.
Similarly, we can show that
1 2
U2 x ;x : x2 6¼ 0
is an open subset of P1 ; and the function
u2 : U2 ! R
defined as follows: for every ½ðx1 ; x2 Þ in U2
x1
u2 x1 ; x2 ;
x2
is a homeomorphism from U2 onto R: Thus, the open subset U2 of P2 is

homeomorphic to R:
Since P1 is a Hausdorff space, and fU1 ; U2 g is an open cover of P1 , P1 is a

1-dimensional topological manifold. Here, we get two coordinate charts ðU1 ; u1 Þ;
ðU2 ; u2 Þ: Let us take
fðU1 ; u1 Þ; ðU2 ; u2 Þg:
for A: We want to show that A has the following two properties:

1. U1 [ U2 ¼ P1 ;
2. all pairs of members in A are C r -compatible, for every r ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .:
For 1: It is clear from the construction of U1 and U2 :
For 2: Let us take ðU1 ; u1 Þ; ðU2 ; u2 Þ as a pair of members in A: Here,

U1 \ U2 ¼ x1 ; x2 : x1 6¼ 0; and x2 6¼ 0 :
Further
u2 ðu1 Þ1 : u1 ðU1 \ U2 Þ ! u2 ðU1 \ U2 Þ
is a continuous function. Also, for every m in u1 ðU1 \ U2 Þ; there exists ½ðx1 ; x2 Þ

in U1 \ U2 such that

m ¼ u1 x1 ; x2 :
2
Since ½ðx1 ; x2 Þ is in U1 \ U2 ; x1 6¼ 0 and x2 6¼ 0: Now m ¼ u1 ð½ðx1 ; x2 Þ Þ ¼ xx1 ,
and hence,

u2 ðu1 Þ1 ðmÞ ¼ u2 ðu1 Þ1 ðmÞ ¼ u2 ðu1 Þ1 u1 x1 ; x2
x1 1
¼ u 2 x1 ; x2 ¼ 2¼ :
x m
Now since u1 ðU1 \ U2 Þ ¼ R f0g ¼ u2 ðU1 \ U2 Þ; ðu2 ðu1 Þ1 Þ : m 7! m1

is Cr for every r ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .: This proves 2. Hence, by Theorem 1.2, there exists
a unique C1 -differentiable structure B on P1 which contains A: Thus, the ordered
pair ðP1 ; BÞ is an example of a smooth manifold of dimension 1. Similarly, we can
construct a C 1 -differentiable structure on P2 ; etc.
In short, we say that the projective space Pm is a smooth manifold of dimension m.
Example 1.9 Let M be a 2-dimensional smooth manifold with differentiable
structure A; and let N be a 3-dimensional smooth manifold with differentiable
structure B:
Now we want to show that the Cartesian product M N; with the product
topology, is a ð2 þ 3Þ-dimensional topological manifold. For this purpose, we must
prove that
1. M N; with the product topology, is a Hausdorff topological space,
2. for every ðx; yÞ in M N; there exists an open neighborhood of ðx; yÞ in M N
which is homeomorphic to some open subset of the Euclidean space R2þ3 (see
Fig 1.3).
For 1: Since M is a smooth manifold, the topology of M is Hausdorff. Similarly
the topology of N is Hausdorff. Since the topologies of M and N are Hausdorff,
their product topology is Hausdorff. This proves 1.
For 2: Let us take any ðx; yÞ in M N; where x is in M; and y is in N: Since x is
in M; and M is a 2-dimensional smooth manifold with differentiable structure A;
there exists a coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ 2 A such that x is in U: Similarly, there
exists a coordinate chart ðV; wV Þ 2 B such that y is in V: Since ðU; uU Þ 2 A;
and A is a differentiable structure on M; uU is a homeomorphism from the open
subset U of M onto the open subset uU ðUÞ of R2 : Similarly, wV is a homeo-
morphism from the open subset V of N onto the open subset wV ðVÞ of R3 :
Since x is in U; and U is open in M; U is an open neighborhood of x: Similarly,
V is an open neighborhood of y: Since U is an open neighborhood of x; and V is
an open neighborhood of y; the Cartesian product U V is an open neighborhood
of ðx; yÞ in M N: Since uU ðUÞ is open in R2 ; and wV ðVÞ is open in R3 ; their
Cartesian product ðuU ðUÞÞ ðwV ðVÞÞ is open in R2 R3 ð¼ R2þ3 Þ:
Now let us define a function
ðuU wV Þ : U V ! ððuU ðU ÞÞ ðwV ðV ÞÞÞ
as follows: for every ðx; yÞ in U V;
ðuU wV Þðx; yÞ ðuU ð xÞ; wV ð yÞÞ:
It remains to prove that ðuU wV Þ is a homeomorphism, that is,
Fig. 1.3 Hausdorff topological space

1: ðuU wV Þ is 1 1;
2: ðuU wV Þ is onto;
3: ðuU wV Þ is continuous,
4: ðuU wV Þ1 is continuous:
For 1: Let ðuU wV Þðx; yÞ ¼ ðuU wV Þðz; wÞ; where x; z are in U; and y; w are
in V: We have to show that ðx; yÞ ¼ ðz; wÞ; that is, x ¼ z; and y ¼ w: Since
ðuU ð xÞ; wV ð yÞÞ ¼ ðuU wV Þðx; yÞ ¼ ðuU wV Þðz; wÞ ¼ ðuU ðzÞ; wV ðwÞÞ;
uU ð xÞ ¼ uU ðzÞ; and wV ð yÞ ¼ wV ðwÞ:
Since uU is a homeomorphism, uU is 1–1. Since uU is 1–1, and uU ðxÞ ¼ uU ðzÞ;

x ¼ z: Similarly y ¼ w: This proves 1.
For 2: We have to prove that
is onto. For this purpose, let us take any ðs; tÞ in ðuU ðUÞÞ ðwV ðVÞÞ: Now we
have to find a member of U V; whose ðuU wV Þ-image is ðs; tÞ: Since ðs; tÞ is
in ðuU ðUÞÞ ðwV ðVÞÞ; s is in uU ðUÞ; and t is in wV ðVÞ: Since s is in uU ðUÞ;
there exists an element x in U such that s ¼ uU ðxÞ. Similarly, there exists an
element y in V such that t ¼ wV ðyÞ: Since x is in U; and y is in V; ðx; yÞ is in
U V: Further
ðuU wV Þðx; yÞ ¼ ðuU ð xÞ; wV ð yÞÞ ¼ ðs; tÞ:
This proves 2.
For 3: Since uU is a homeomorphism, uU is a continuous function, and hence,
x 7! uU ðxÞ is continuous. Since, in the product topology, ðx; yÞ 7! x is contin-
uous, and x 7! uU ðxÞ is continuous, their composite ðx; yÞ 7! uU ðxÞ is continu-
ous. Similarly, ðx; yÞ 7! wV ðyÞ is continuous. Since ðx; yÞ 7! uU ðxÞ is continuous,
and ðx; yÞ 7! wV ðyÞ is continuous, with respect to product topology,
ðx; yÞ 7! ðuU ðxÞ; wV ðyÞÞð¼ ðuU wV Þðx; yÞÞ is continuous, and hence,
is a continuous function. This proves 3.

For 4: We have to prove that ðuU wV Þ1 : ððuU ðUÞÞ ðwV ðVÞÞÞ ! U V
is continuous, that is,
is an open mapping. For this purpose, let us take any open subset G H of
U V; where G is open in U; and H is open in V: We have to prove that
ðuU wV ÞðG HÞ is open in ðuU ðUÞÞ ðwV ðVÞÞ. By the definition of
ðuU wV Þ;
ðuU wV ÞðG H Þ ¼ ðuU ðGÞ wV ðH ÞÞ:
Since uU : U ! ðuU ðUÞÞ is a homeomorphism, and G is open in U; uU ðGÞ is an

open subset of uU ðUÞ. Similarly, wV ðHÞ is an open subset of wV ðVÞ: Since uU ðGÞ
is an open subset of uU ðUÞ; and wV ðHÞ is an open subset of wV ðVÞ; their
Cartesian product uU ðGÞ wV ðHÞð¼ ðuU wV ÞðG HÞÞ is an open subset of
the product space uU ðUÞ wV ðVÞ: This proves 4.
Thus,
is a homeomorphism. This proves 2.

Hence, M N; with the product topology, is a ð2 þ 3Þ-dimensional topological
manifold. Since M is a 2-dimensional smooth manifold, M is a second countable
space. Similarly, N is a second countable space. Since M; N are second countable
spaces, their product M N is a second countable space. Here, for every ðU; uU Þ 2
A; and for every ðV; wV Þ 2 B, we get the coordinate chart ðU V; ðuU wV ÞÞ of
M N: Let us denote the collection
fðU V; ðuU wV ÞÞ : ðU; uU Þ 2 A; ðV; wV Þ 2 Bg
of coordinate charts of M N by C:
We want to show that C has the following two properties:
1: [fU V : ðU V; ðuU wV ÞÞ 2 Cg ¼ M N;
2: all pairs of members in C are Cr -compatible, for every r ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .:
For 1: This is clear from the above discussion.

For 2: Let us take any ðU V; ðuU wV ÞÞ; ðU ^ V;
^ ðu ^ w ^ ÞÞ as a pair of
U V
members in C: Here,

ðU V Þ \ U^ V
^ ¼ U \U ^ :
^ V \V
Now we want to prove that the mapping

uU^ wV^ ðuU wV Þ1 : ðuU wV Þ ðU V Þ \ U^ V^

! uU^ wV^ ðU V Þ \ U ^ V^
is C 1 ; that is,

^ V \V
uU^ wV^ ðuU wV Þ1 : ðuU wV Þ U \ U ^

! uU^ wV^ U \ U ^ V \V^
is C 1 : Here, ðU V; ðuU wV ÞÞ is in C; so ðU; uU Þ 2 A and ðV; wV Þ 2 B:

^ u ^ Þ 2 A and ðV;
Similarly, ðU; ^ w ^ Þ 2 B: Since ðU; uU Þ 2 A; ðU; ^ u ^ Þ 2 A; and
U V U
A is a differentiable structure, ðU; uU Þ and ðU; ^ u ^ Þ are C -compatible for every
r
U
positive integer r: Since ðU; uU Þ and ðU; ^ u ^ Þ are Cr -compatible for every positive
U
^ u ^ Þ are C 1 -compatible. Since ðU; uU Þ and ðU;
integer r; ðU; uU Þ and ðU; ^ u ^ Þ are
U U
C -compatible, f ; f ; g ; g
1 1 2 1 2
are C ; where, for every ðx1 ; x2 Þ in
1
^
uU ðU \ UÞð R2 Þ;

uU^ ðuU Þ1 ^ ;
x1 ; x2 f 1 x1 ; x2 ; f 2 x1 ; x2 ¼ y1 ; y2 2 uU^ U \ U
and
1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2
uU uU^ y ;y g y ;y ;g y ;y ¼ x ;x :
Similarly, h1 ; h2 ; h3 ; k 1 ; k2 ; k3 are C1 ; where for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in

^
wV ðV \ VÞð R3 Þ;

wV^ ðwV Þ1 x1 ; x2 ; x3 h1 x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; h2 x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; h3 x1 ; x2 ; x3

¼ y1 ; y2 ; y3 2 wV^ V \ V ^ ;
and
1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 3 3 1 2 3
wV wV^ y ;y ;y k y ;y ;y ;k y ;y ;y ;k y ;y ;y

¼ x1 ; x2 ; x3 :
Let us take any ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ in ðuU wV ÞððU \ UÞ ^

^ ðV \ VÞÞð R2þ3 Þ: So
there exist x in U \ U^ and x in V \ V ^ such that

ðuU ð xÞ; wV ðx ÞÞ ¼ ðuU wV Þðx; x Þ ¼ x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 :
Hence,

ðuU wV Þ1 x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 ¼ ðx; x Þ;
or

u U ð xÞ ¼ x1 ; x2 ;
and

wV ðx Þ ¼ x3 ; x4 ; x5 :
Now

uU^ wV^ ðuU wV Þ1 x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5

¼ uU^ wV^ ðuU wV Þ1 x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5

¼ uU^ wV^ ðx; x Þ

¼ uU^ ðuU Þ1 uU ð xÞ; wV^ ðwV Þ1 wV ðx Þ

¼ uU^ ðuU Þ1 uU ð xÞ; wV^ ðwV Þ1 wV ðx Þ

¼ uU^ ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð xÞÞ; wV^ ðwV Þ1 ðwV ðx ÞÞ

¼ uU^ ðuU Þ1 x1 ; x2 ; wV^ ðwV Þ1 x3 ; x4 ; x5

¼ uU^ ðuU Þ1 x1 ; x2 ; wV^ ðwV Þ1 x3 ; x4 ; x5

¼ f 1 x 1 ; x 2 ; f 2 x 1 ; x 2 ; h1 x 3 ; x 4 ; x 5 ; h2 x 3 ; x 4 ; x 5 ; h3 x 3 ; x 4 ; x 5

¼ f 1 x 1 ; x 2 ; f 2 x 1 ; x 2 ; h1 x 3 ; x 4 ; x 5 ; h2 x 3 ; x 4 ; x 5 ; h3 x 3 ; x 4 ; x 5 :
^ ðV \ VÞÞð
Thus, for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ in ðuU wV ÞððU \ UÞ ^ R2þ3 Þ;


¼ f 1 x 1 ; x 2 ; f 2 x 1 ; x 2 ; h1 x 3 ; x 4 ; x 5 ; h2 x 3 ; x 4 ; x 5 ; h3 x 3 ; x 4 ; x 5 :
Now we want to prove that F 1 : ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 7! f 1 ðx1 ; x2 Þ is C1 : Here,

F ¼ f 1 a; where a : R5 ! R2 is defined by aðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ ðx1 ; x2 Þ: So
1
for x ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ;
1
DF ð xÞ ¼ D f 1 a ð xÞ ¼ Df 1 ðað xÞÞ ððDaÞð xÞÞ
or,
h 1 1 i 1 0 0 0 0

of of
DF 1 ð xÞ ¼ ox1 ðað xÞÞ ox2 ð a ð x Þ Þ
0 1 00 0
h 1 1 i
of of
¼ ox1 ðað xÞÞ ox 2 ð a ð x Þ Þ 0 0 0 :
Hence,
DF 1 ¼ ðD1 f 1 Þ a ðD2 f 1 Þ a 0 0 0 :
Since f 1 is C 1 ; ðD1 f 1 Þ is continuous. Since ðD1 f 1 Þ is continuous, and a is

continuous, their composite ðD1 f 1 Þ a is continuous. Similarly, ðD2 f 1 Þ a is
continuous. Since ðD1 f 1 Þ a; ðD2 f 1 Þ a are continuous, and

DF 1 ¼ ðD1 f 1 Þ a ðD2 f 1 Þ a 0 0 0 ;
F 1 is C 1 : Thus, we have shown that ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 7! f 1 ðx1 ; x2 Þ is C 1 :

Similarly, the functions ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 7! f 2 ðx1 ; x2 Þ; ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 7!
h ðx ; x ; x Þ;
1 3 4 5

x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 !7 h2 x3 ; x4 ; x5 ; x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 7! h3 x3 ; x4 ; x5
are C1 : Since ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 7! f 1 ðx1 ; x2 Þ; ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 7! f 2 ðx1 ; x2 Þ;

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 7! h3 x3 ; x4 ; x5 ; x ; x ; x ; x ; x 7! h x ; x ; x ;
1 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
x ; x ; x ; x ; x 7! h x ; x ; x
are C1 ; and


¼ f 1 x 1 ; x 2 ; f 2 x 1 ; x 2 ; h1 x 3 ; x 4 ; x 5 ; h2 x 3 ; x 4 ; x 5 ; h3 x 3 ; x 4 ; x 5 ;

^ V \V
uU^ wV^ ðuU wV Þ1 : ðuU wV Þ U \ U ^

! uU^ wV^ U \ U ^ V \V^
is C 1 :
Similarly, we can prove that ðuU^ wV^ Þ ðuU wV Þ1 is C 2 ; etc. Hence, the
pair ðU V; ðuU wV ÞÞ; ðU ^ V;
^ ðu ^ w ^ ÞÞ of members in C are Cr -compatible,
U V
for every r ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .: This proves 2.
Hence, by Theorem 1.2, there exists a unique C 1 -differentiable structure D on
M N which contains C: Thus, the ordered pair ðM N; DÞ is an example of a
smooth manifold of dimension ð2 þ 3Þ. Similarly, if M is an m-dimensional
smooth manifold, and N is an n-dimensional smooth manifold, then the Cartesian
product M N; with the product topology, becomes an ðm þ nÞ-dimensional
smooth manifold. In short, we say that the product manifold M N is an ðm þ nÞ-
dimensional smooth manifold.
Chapter 2
Tangent Spaces
Above dimension three, Euclidean space loses its quality of being visible. So, in order
to investigate higher-dimensional smooth manifolds, we need to generalize the
concept of tangent line in the case of curves in two-dimensional Euclidean space, and
tangent plane in the case of surfaces in three-dimensional Euclidean space, using
abstract tools of algebra, and analysis. This generalized concept has been named the
tangent space. Among many other concepts that facilitate the enquiry into the
properties of higher-dimensional smooth manifolds as we shall see later, the notion of
tangent space is foremost. It is possible to introduce tangent space in various ways.
Because each method has its own merit, we shall introduce it in multiple ways in this
chapter for deeper understanding. Remember that in the process of generalization,
unlike curves and surfaces, smooth manifolds are devoid of any ambient space. It was
in this sense a challenging task for early mathematicians.
2.1 Smooth Functions
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let f : M ! R be any

function. Let p be an element of M. If, for every admissible coordinate chart
ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying p 2 U, ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ : uU ðUÞ ! R is C 1 at the point
uU ðpÞ in Rm , then we say that f is C 1 at p in M.
Observe that, if f is C 1 at p in M, then f is continuous at p.

Reason: Since M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, and p is an element of M,
there exists an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying p 2 U. Since f is
C 1 at p in M, ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ : uU ðUÞ ! R is C1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm : Since
ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ : uU ðUÞ ! R is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm , ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ :
uU ðUÞ ! R is continuous at the point uU ðpÞ. Since ðU; uU Þ is an admissible
coordinate chart of M, uU : U ! uU ðUÞ is continuous. Since uU : U ! uU ðUÞ is
continuous, and p 2 U, uU : U ! uU ðUÞ is continuous at p. Since uU : U ! uU ðUÞ
is continuous at p, and ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ : uU ðUÞ ! R is continuous at the point uU ðpÞ,

32 2 Tangent Spaces
their composite function ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ uU ð¼ f ððuU Þ1 uU Þ ¼ f Þ is continu-

ous at p. Thus, f is continuous at p.
Theorem 2.1 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let f : M ! R be any
function. Let p be an element of M. If there exists an admissible coordinate chart
ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying p 2 U such that ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ : uU ðUÞ ! R is C1 at the
point uU ðpÞ in Rm , then f is C1 at p in M.
Proof Let us take any admissible coordinate chart ðV; uV Þ of M satisfying p 2 V.
We have to show that ðf ðuV Þ1 Þ : uV ðVÞ ! R is C1 at the point uV ðpÞ in Rm .
Since

f ðuV Þ1 ¼ f ðuU Þ1 uU ðuV Þ1 ¼ f ðuU Þ1 uU ðuV Þ1

¼ f ðuU Þ1 uU ðuV Þ1 ;
ðuU ðuV Þ1 Þ is C 1 at the point uV ðpÞ in Rm , and ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ is C1 at the point
uU ðpÞ in Rm , their composite ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ ðuU ðuV Þ1 Þð¼ ðf ðuV Þ1 ÞÞ is
C 1 at the point uV ðpÞ in Rm : Thus, we have shown that ðf ðuV Þ1 Þ : uV ðVÞ ! R
is C 1 at the point uV ðpÞ in Rm : h
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let f : M ! R be any
function. By f is C 1 on M (or f is smooth on M), we mean that f is C 1 at every
point p in M. The set of all smooth functions f : M ! R on M is denoted by
C 1 ðMÞ.
Observe that, if f is C 1 on M, then f is a continuous function.

Definition Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, and N be an n-dimen-
sional smooth manifold. Let f : M ! N be any continuous function. Let p be an
element of M. If for every admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying
p 2 U, and for every admissible coordinate chart ðV; wV Þ of N satisfying f ðpÞ 2 V,
each of the n component functions of the mapping

wV f ðuU Þ1 : uU U \ f 1 ðVÞ ! wV ðVÞ
is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm (in short, the mapping

wV f ðuU Þ1 : uU U \ f 1 ðV Þ ! wV ðV Þ
is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm ); then, we say that f is C 1 at p in M.

As above we observe that if f : M ! N is C 1 at p in M, then f is continuous at p.
Theorem 2.2 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, and N be an
n-dimensional smooth manifold. Let f : M ! N be any continuous function. Let p
2.1 Smooth Functions 33
be an element of M. If there exist an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M

satisfying p 2 U, and an admissible coordinate chart ðV; wV Þ of N satisfying f ðpÞ 2
V such that each of the n component functions of the mapping

is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm ; then, f is C1 at p in M.
Proof Let us take any admissible coordinate chart ð U b,

b ; u Þ of M satisfying p 2 U
b
U
b ; w Þ of N satisfying f ðpÞ 2 V
and any admissible coordinate chart ð V b . We have to
b
V
show that
1
wb f u b : ub U b \ f 1 V
b ! wb Vb
V U U V
is C 1 at the point u b ðpÞ in Rm . Since

U
1
1
wb f u b ¼ wb f ðuU Þ1 uU ub
V U V U
1
¼ wb f ðuU Þ1 uU u b
V U
1
1 1
¼ wb ðwV Þ wV f ðuU Þ uU u b
V U
1
¼ wb ðwV Þ1 ðwV f Þ ðuU Þ1 uU u b ;
V U
1
ðuU ðuU Þ1 Þ is C 1 at the point u b ðpÞ in Rm , wV ðf ðuU Þ Þ is C 1 at the point
U
uU ðpÞ in Rm , and ðwb ðwV Þ1 Þ is C1 at the point wV ðf ðpÞÞ in Rn , their composite
V
ðwb ðwV Þ1 Þ ðððwV f Þ ðuU Þ1 Þ ðuU ðu b Þ1 ÞÞ ð¼ wb ðf ðu b Þ1 ÞÞ is C 1
V U V U
at the point u b ðpÞ in Rm .
U
b \ f 1 ð V
Thus, we have shown that wb ðf ðu b Þ1 Þ : u b ð U b ÞÞ ! w ð V
b Þ is
V U U b
V
1
C at the point u b ðpÞ in R .m
h
U
Lemma 2.3 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, N be an n-dimensional

smooth manifold, and K be a k-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p be an element
of M. Let f : M ! N be C 1 at p in M, and g : N ! K be C 1 at f(p) in N. Then,
g f is C1 at p in M.
Proof We have to prove that g f is C1 at p in M. By Theorem 2.2, we must find
an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying p 2 U; and an admissible
coordinate chart ðW; vw Þ of K satisfying ðg f ÞðpÞ 2 W such that the mapping
34 2 Tangent Spaces

vw ðg f Þ ðuU Þ1 : uU U \ ðg f Þ1 ðW Þ ! vw ðW Þ
is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm . Since p is in M, and M is an m-dimensional smooth

manifold, there exists an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying
p 2 U. Since f : M ! N, and p is in M, f(p) is in N. Since f(p) is in N, and N is an n-
dimensional smooth manifold, there exists an admissible coordinate chart ðV; wV Þ
of N satisfying f ðpÞ 2 V. Since f : M ! N is C 1 at p in M, ðU; uU Þ is an
admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U, and ðV; wV Þ is an admissible
coordinate chart of N satisfying f ðpÞ 2 V, the mapping

is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm .

Similarly, there exists an admissible coordinate chart ðW; vw Þ of K satisfying
gðf ðpÞÞ 2 W such that the mapping

vw g ðwV Þ1 : wV V \ g1 ðW Þ ! vw ðW Þ
is C 1 at the point wV ðf ðpÞÞ in Rn . Since wV ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ is C 1 at the point

uU ðpÞ in Rm , and vw ðg ðwV Þ1 Þ is C 1 at the point wV ðf ðpÞÞ in Rn , their
composite ðvw ðg ðwV Þ1 ÞÞ ðwV ðf ðuU Þ1 ÞÞð¼ vw ððg f Þ ðuU Þ1 ÞÞ is
C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm : h
sional smooth manifold. Let p be an element of M, and let G be an open neigh-
borhood of p in M. Let f : G ! N be any continuous function. If for every
admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying p 2 U, and for every admis-
sible coordinate chart ðV; wV Þ of N satisfying f ðpÞ 2 V, each of the n component
functions of the mapping

wV f ðuU Þ1 : uU U \ G \ f 1 ðV Þ ! wV ðV Þ
is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm (in short, the mapping

wV f ðuU Þ1 : uU U \ G \ f 1 ðV Þ ! wV ðV Þ
is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm ); then, we say that f is C 1 at p in M.

sional smooth manifold. Let G be a nonempty open subset of M. Let f : G ! N be
any continuous function. By f is a smooth map from G to N, we mean that f is C 1 at
every point p in G.
Definition Let M and N be m-dimensional smooth manifolds. Let f : M ! N be a

1–1, onto mapping. If f is a smooth map from M to N, and f 1 is a smooth map from
N to M, then we say that f is a diffeomorphism from M onto N. We observe that if f is
a diffeomorphism from M onto N, then f is a homeomorphism from M onto N.
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, and N be an m-dimen-
sional smooth manifold. If there exists a function f : M ! N such that f is a
diffeomorphism from M onto N, then we say that the manifolds M and N are
isomorphic (or, diffeomorphic).
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let a and b be any real
numbers such that a < b. Let c be a continuous function from the open interval ða; bÞ
to M. Recall that the open interval ða; bÞ is a 1-dimensional smooth manifold. Hence,
it is meaningful to say that c is a smooth map from ða; bÞ to M. If c is a smooth map
from ða; bÞ to M, then we say that c is a parametrized curve in the manifold M.
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M. Let c be a
parametrized curve in the manifold M. If there exists a real number e [ 0 such that c
is defined on the open interval ðe; eÞ, and cð0Þ ¼ p, then we say that c is a
parametrized curve in M through p. The set of all parametrized curves in M through
p is denoted by Cp ðMÞ (or, simply Cp Þ.
Example 2.4 In the Example 1.9, let us define
p1 : M N ! M
as follows: for every ðx; yÞ in M N,

p1 ðx; yÞ ¼ x:
We want to prove that p1 is a smooth function from the product manifold M N

onto M. For this purpose, let us take any ðp; qÞ in M N. Now, there exists a
coordinate chart ðU V; ðuU wV ÞÞ of the product manifold M N such that
ðU; uU Þ 2 A; ðV; wV Þ 2 B, and ðp; qÞ is in U V. Hence, ðU; uU Þ is a coordinate
chart of M such that pð¼ p1 ðp; qÞÞ is in U. We want to show that
uU p1 ðuU wV Þ1 : ðuU wV ÞðU V Þ ! uU ðU Þ
is C 1 at the point ðuU wV Þðp; qÞð¼ ðuU ðpÞ; wV ðqÞÞÞ in R2þ3 . Let us take any
ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ in ðuU wV ÞðU VÞ. So, there exist u in U, and v in V such that

ðuU ðuÞ; wV ðvÞÞ ¼ ðuU wV Þðu; vÞ ¼ x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 :
Hence,

ðuU wV Þ1 x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 ¼ ðu; vÞ;
36 2 Tangent Spaces
or

uU ðuÞ ¼ x1 ; x2 ; wV ðvÞ ¼ x3 ; x4 ; x5 :
So

uU p1 ðuU wV Þ1 x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 ¼ ðuU p1 Þ ðuU wV Þ1 x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5
¼ ðuU p1 Þðu; vÞ ¼ uU ðp1 ðu; vÞÞ ¼ uU ðuÞ

¼ x1 ; x2 :
Hence, ðuU p1 ðuU wV Þ1 Þ : ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 7! ðx1 ; x2 Þ, which is trivi-

ally C 1 .
So, by Theorem 2.2, the natural projection p1 of the product manifold M N is

a smooth map. Similarly, the natural projection p2 of the product manifold M N
is a smooth map.
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p be an element of
M. By Cp1 ðMÞ (or, simply Cp1 Þ, we mean the collection of all real-valued functions
f whose dom f is an open neighborhood of p in M, and for every admissible
coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying p 2 U,

f ðuU Þ1 : uU ððdom f Þ \ U Þ ! R
is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm . Observe that if f is in Cp1 ðMÞ, then f is continuous

on some open neighborhood of p.
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let f : M ! Rk be any
function. By f is smooth, we mean for every p in M there exists an admissible
coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying p 2 U such that the composite function
f ðuU Þ1 : uU ðUÞ ! Rk is smooth in the sense of ordinary calculus. Remember,
uU ðUÞ is an open subset of Rm containing uU ðpÞ.
Note 2.5 Let G be a nonempty open subset of Rm . We know that G is an m-
dimensional smooth manifold with the standard differentiable structure containing
fðG; IdG Þg. Let f : G ! Rk be any smooth function in the sense just defined. We
want to show that f : G ! Rk is a smooth function in the sense of ordinary calculus.
Since G is nonempty, there exists a in G. Since a is in G, and f : G ! Rk be any
smooth function in the sense just defined, there exists an admissible coordinate chart
ðU; uU Þ of G satisfying a 2 U such that the composite function f ðuU Þ1 :
uU ðUÞ ! Rk is smooth in the sense of ordinary calculus. Since ðU; uU Þ is in
fðG; IdG Þg, U ¼ G, and uU ¼ IdG . Since U ¼ G, and uU ¼ IdG , f ðuU Þ1 ¼
f ðIdG Þ1 ¼ f IdG ¼ f , and uU ðUÞ ¼ IdG ðUÞ ¼ U ¼ G. Since uU ðUÞ ¼ G; and
f ðuU Þ1 ¼ f , and f ðuU Þ1 : uU ðUÞ ! Rk is smooth in the sense of ordinary
calculus, f : G ! Rk is smooth in the sense of ordinary calculus.
Conversely, let f : G ! Rk be smooth in the sense of ordinary calculus. We

want to show that f : G ! Rk is a smooth function in the sense just defined. Let us
take any a in G. We have to find an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of
G satisfying a 2 U such that the composite function f ðuU Þ1 : uU ðUÞ ! Rk is
smooth in the sense of ordinary calculus. Let us take ðG; IdG Þ for ðU; uU Þ. Hence,
uU ðUÞ ¼ IdG ðUÞ ¼ U ¼ G; and f ðuU Þ1 ¼ f ðIdG Þ1 ¼ f IdG ¼ f . Since
uU ðUÞ ¼ G; f ðuU Þ1 ¼ f , and f : G ! Rk is smooth in the sense of ordinary
calculus, f ðuU Þ1 : uU ðUÞ ! Rk is smooth in the sense of ordinary calculus.
Thus, we have shown that f : G ! Rk is smooth in the sense of ordinary cal-
culus if and only if f : G ! Rk is a smooth function in the sense just defined.
Note 2.6 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let f : M ! Rk be any
smooth function. Similar to the proof of Theorem 2.1, it can be shown that for every
p in M, and for every admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying p 2 U;
the composite function f ðuU Þ1 : uU ðUÞ ! Rk is smooth in the sense of
ordinary calculus.
2.2 Algebra of Smooth Functions
Note 2.7 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. By C 1 ðMÞ, we mean the

collection of all smooth functions f : M ! R. For every f, g in C 1 ðMÞ, we define
ðf þ gÞ : M ! R as follows: for every x in M,
ðf þ gÞð xÞ f ð xÞ þ gð xÞ:
For every f in C1 ðMÞ, and for every real t, we define ðtf Þ : M ! R as follows:
for every x in M,
ðtf Þð xÞ tðf ð xÞÞ:
It is clear that the set C 1 ðMÞ, together with vector addition, and scalar multi-
plication defined as above, constitutes a real linear space. In short, C 1 ðMÞ is a real
linear space.
For every f, g in C 1 ðMÞ, we define ðf gÞ : M ! R as follows: for every x in M,
ðf gÞð xÞ ðf ð xÞÞðgð xÞÞ:

38 2 Tangent Spaces
It is easy to see that

1. for every f ; g; h in C1 ðMÞ, ðf gÞ h ¼ f ðg hÞ,
2. for every f ; g in C1 ðMÞ, f g ¼ g f ,
3. for every f ; g; h in C1 ðMÞ, ðf þ gÞ h ¼ f h þ g h,
4. for every real t, and for every f ; g in C1 ðMÞ, tðf gÞ ¼ ðtf Þ g.
In short, C 1 ðMÞ is an algebra.
Note 2.8 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M. Let ðU; uU Þ be
an admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U. Let c be in Cp ðMÞ. Since c is in
Cp ðMÞ, there exists a real number d [ 0 such that c is a smooth map from ðd; dÞ to
M, and cð0Þ ¼ p. Since c is a smooth map from ðd; dÞ to M, and 0 is in ðd; dÞ, c is
continuous at 0. Since c is continuous at 0, cð0Þ ¼ p, and U is an open neighborhood
of p, c1 ðUÞ is an open neighborhood of 0, and hence, ðd; dÞ \ c1 ðUÞ is an open
neighborhood of 0. Also since domðuU Þ ¼ U, and domðcÞ ¼ ðd; dÞ, domðuU cÞ
¼ ðd; dÞ \ c1 ðUÞ. Since ðuU cÞ : ððd; dÞ \ c1 ðUÞÞ ! Rm , ðd; dÞ \ c1 ðUÞ
is an open neighborhood of 0, uU is a smooth, and c is a smooth map, ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ
exists and is a member of Rm .
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M. Let c; c1 be in
Cp ðMÞ. By c c1 , we shall mean that for every admissible coordinate chart
ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying p 2 U, ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ ¼ ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ.
Lemma 2.9 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M. Let c; c1 be
in Cp ðMÞ. If there exists an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying
p 2 U, and ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ ¼ ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ, then c c1 .
Proof Let us take any admissible coordinate chart ðV; wV Þ of M satisfying p 2 V:
We have to prove that ðwV cÞ0 ð0Þ ¼ ðwV c1 Þ0 ð0Þ.
0
LHS ¼ ðwV cÞ0 ð0Þ ¼ wV ðuU Þ1 uU c ð0Þ
0
¼ wV ðuU Þ1 ðuU cÞ ð0Þ
0
¼ wV ðuU Þ1 ððuU cÞð0ÞÞ ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ
0
¼ wV ðuU Þ1 ððuU cÞð0ÞÞ ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ
0
¼ wV ðuU Þ1 ðuU ðcð0ÞÞÞ ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ
0
¼ wV ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ
0
¼ wV ðuU Þ1 ðuU ðc1 ð0ÞÞÞ ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ
0
¼ wV ðuU Þ1 ððuU c1 Þð0ÞÞ ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ ;
2.2 Algebra of Smooth Functions 39
and
0
RHS ¼ ðwV c1 Þ0 ð0Þ ¼ wV ðuU Þ1 uU c1 ð0Þ
0
¼ wV ðuU Þ1 ðuU c1 Þ ð0Þ
0
¼ wV ðuU Þ1 ððuU c1 Þð0ÞÞ ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ :
Hence, LHS = RHS. h

Lemma 2.10 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M. Then, is
an equivalence relation over Cp ðM Þ.
Proof Here, we must prove
1. for every c in Cp ðM Þ, c c,
2. if c c1 , then c1 c,
3. if c c1 and c1 c2 , then c c2 .
For 1: Since p 2 M, and M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, there exists an
admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying p 2 U: Since
ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ ¼ ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ, by Lemma 2.9, c c:
For 2: Let c c1 : We have to prove that c1 c: For this purpose, let us take any
admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying p 2 U. We must show that
ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ ¼ ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ. Since c c1 , ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ ¼ ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ, and
hence, ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ ¼ ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ.
For 3: Let c c1 and c1 c2 . We have to prove that c c2 . For this purpose,
let us take any admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying p 2 U.
We must show that ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ ¼ ðuU c2 Þ0 ð0Þ. Since c c1 , ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ ¼
ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ. Since c1 c2 , ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ ¼ ðuU c2 Þ0 ð0Þ. Since ðuU cÞ0
ð0Þ ¼ ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ; and ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ ¼ ðuU c2 Þ0 ð0Þ, ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ ¼ ðuU c2 Þ0
ð0Þ. h
Note 2.11 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M. By the Lemma

2.10, the quotient set Cp ðMÞ= is the collection of all equivalence classes ½½c,
where c is in Cp ðMÞ. Thus,

Cp ðM Þ= ½½c : c 2 Cp ðM Þ
where

½½c c1 2 Cp ðM Þ : c1 c :
Intuitively, the Lemma 2.10 says that in Cp ðMÞ we will not distinguish between
c1 and c whenever c1 c.
40 2 Tangent Spaces
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M. Let ðU; uU Þ

be any admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U. Let c; c1 be in Cp ðMÞ. If
½½c ¼ c1 , then c c1 , and hence, ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ ¼ ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ. This shows that
½½c 7! ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ is a well-defined function from Cp ðMÞ= to Rm . We shall
denote this function by uU : Thus,
uU : ðCp ðMÞ=Þ ! Rm
is the function defined as follows: for every ½½c in Cp ðMÞ= where c is in Cp ðMÞ,
uU ð½½cÞ ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ:
Lemma 2.12 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M. Let

ðU; uU Þ be any admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U. Then, the
function

uU : Cp ðM Þ= ! Rm
is 1–1 and onto.

Proof 1–1: Let uU ð½½cÞ ¼ uU ð½½c1 Þ, where c; c1 are in Cp ðMÞ. We have to prove
that ½½c ¼ ½½c1 , that is, c c1 . Since ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ ¼ uU ð½½cÞ ¼ uU ð½½c1 Þ ¼
ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ, ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ ¼ ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ, and hence, by Lemma 2.9, c c1 .
Onto: Let us take any v in Rm . We have to find c in Cp ðMÞ such that
uU ð½½cÞ ¼ v; that is, ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ ¼ v; that is, limt!0 ðuU cÞðtÞðu
t
U cÞð0Þ
¼ v; that is,
limt!0 uU ðcðtÞÞu
t
U ðcð0ÞÞ
¼ v; that is, limt!0 uU ðcðtÞÞu
t
U ðpÞ
¼ v. Let us define a function
c1 : ð1; 1Þ ! R as follows: For every t in the open interval ð1; 1Þ,
m
c1 ðtÞ tv þ uU ð pÞ:
Put
c ðuU Þ1 c1 :
We shall try to prove that

1. cð0Þ ¼ p;
2. 0 is an interior point of the domain of c,
3. c is a smooth map from ðd; dÞ to M for some d [ 0,
4. limt!0 uU ðcðtÞÞu
t
U ðpÞ
¼ v.
For 1: Here,

LHS ¼ cð0Þ ¼ ðuU Þ1 c1 ð0Þ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðc1 ð0ÞÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ð0v þ uU ð pÞÞ
¼ ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ¼ p ¼ RHS:
This proves 1.
For 2: By the definition of c1 , the function c1 : ð1; 1Þ ! Rm is continuous.
Since c1 : ð1; 1Þ ! Rm is continuous, and 0 is in the open interval ð1; 1Þ, c1
is continuous at 0. Since ðU; uU Þ is a coordinate chart of M, ðuU Þ1 : uU ðUÞ !
U is a 1–1, onto, continuous function, and uU ðUÞ is an open subset of Rm . Since
p 2 U, uU ðpÞ 2 uU ðUÞ. Since c1 ð0Þ ¼ 0v þ uU ðpÞ ¼ uU ðpÞ 2 uU ðUÞ, and
ðuU Þ1 : uU ðUÞ ! U is continuous, ðuU Þ1 : uU ðUÞ ! U is continuous at the
point c1 ð0Þ. Since c1 ð0Þ 2 uU ðUÞ, and uU ðUÞ is an open subset of Rm , uU ðUÞ
is an open neighborhood of c1 ð0Þ. Since c1 : ð1; 1Þ ! Rm is continuous,
uU ðUÞ is an open neighborhood of c1 ð0Þ, there exists d [ 0 such that d\1 and,
for every t in ðd; dÞ, we have c1 ðtÞ 2 uU ðUÞ, and hence, cðtÞ ¼
ððuU Þ1 c1 ÞðtÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðc1 ðtÞÞ 2 U. Since cðtÞ 2 U for every t in ðd; dÞ, it
follows that ðd; dÞ is a subset of the domðcÞ. Hence, 0 is an interior point of the
domain of the function c. This proves 2.
For 3: In 2, we have seen that c is defined over ðd; dÞ. Now, it remains to be
proved that c is a smooth map from ðd; dÞ to M; that is, c is C 1 at every point
t in ðd; dÞ. Here, c is defined over ðd; dÞ, so cðtÞ is meaningful for every t in
ðd; dÞ. Since cðtÞ is meaningful for every t in ðd; dÞ, and

cðtÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 c1 ðtÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðc1 ðtÞÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðtv þ uU ð pÞÞ;
ðuU Þ1 ðtv þ uU ðpÞÞ is meaningful for every t in ðd; dÞ. Since ðU; uU Þ is a
coordinate chart of M, ðuU Þ1 : uU ðUÞ ! U. Since ðuU Þ1 : uU ðUÞ ! U, and
ðuU Þ1 ðtv þ uU ðpÞÞ is meaningful for every t in ðd; dÞ, ðuU Þ1 ðtv þ uU ðpÞÞ
is in U for every t in ðd; dÞ. Since ðuU Þ1 ðtv þ uU ðpÞÞ is in U for every t in
ðd; dÞ, and cðtÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðtv þ uU ðpÞÞ, cðtÞ is in U for every t in ðd; dÞ:
Thus, c maps ðd; dÞ to U:
Now, it remains to be proved that c is a smooth map from ðd; dÞ to M; that is,
c is C 1 at every point t in ðd; dÞ: For this purpose, let us fix any t in ðd; dÞ:
Since c1 is C1 at t; c ¼ ðuU Þ1 c1 ; c maps ðd; dÞ to U; and t is in ðd; dÞ;
uU c is C 1 at t: Since uU c is C1 at t; and ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate
chart of M satisfying cðtÞ 2 U, by Theorem 2.2, c is C1 at t in ðd; dÞ: This
proves 3. From 1, 2, and 3, we find that c is a parametrized curve in M through p;
that is, c is in Cp ðMÞ.
42 2 Tangent Spaces
uU ðcðtÞÞ uU ðpÞ u ðððuU Þ1 c1 ÞðtÞÞ uU ðpÞ c ðtÞ uU ðpÞ

4. LHS ¼ lim ¼ lim U ¼ lim 1
t!0 t t!0 t t!0 t
ðtv þ uU ðpÞÞ uU ðpÞ
¼ lim ¼ v ¼ RHS:
t!0 t
This proves that uU : ðCp ðMÞ=Þ ! Rm is onto. h
Note 2.13 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M: Let ðU; uU Þ
be any admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U:
Since uU : ðCp ðMÞ=Þ ! Rm is 1–1 onto, ðuU Þ1 : Rm ! ðCp ðMÞ=Þ exists,
and is 1–1 onto. This fact allows us to define a binary operation + over Cp ðMÞ=
as follows:
For every ½½c; ½½c1 in Cp ðMÞ= where c; c1 are in Cp ðMÞ; by ½½c þ ½½c1 , we
mean
ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð½½cÞ þ uU ð½½c1 ÞÞ:
Next, for every ½½c in Cp ðMÞ= where c is in Cp ðMÞ; and for every real t; by
t½½c, we mean
ðuU Þ1 ðtðuU ðcÞÞÞ:
Hence, uU ð½½c þ ½½c1 Þ ¼ uU ð½½cÞ þ uU ð½½c1 Þ; and uU ðt½½cÞ ¼ tðuU ð½½cÞÞ:
Now, we want to verify that Cp ðMÞ= is a real linear space:
1. þ is associative: Take any ½½c; ½½c1 ; ½½c2 in Cp ðMÞ= where c; c1 ; c2 are in
Cp ðMÞ: We have to show that ð½½c þ ½½c1 Þ þ ½½c2 ¼ ½½c þ ð½½c1 þ ½½c2 Þ:

LHS ¼ ð½½c þ ½½c1 Þ þ ½½c2 ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð½½cÞ þ uU ð½½c1 ÞÞ þ ½½c2

¼ ðuU Þ1 uU ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð½½cÞ þ uU ð½½c1 ÞÞ þ uU ð½½c2 Þ
¼ ðuU Þ1 ððuU ð½½cÞ þ uU ð½½c1 ÞÞ þ uU ð½½c2 ÞÞ
¼ ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð½½cÞ þ ðuU ð½½c1 Þ þ uU ð½½c2 ÞÞÞ;

RHS ¼ ½½c þ ð½½c1 þ ½½c2 Þ ¼ ½½c þ ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð½½c1 Þ þ uU ð½½c2 ÞÞ

¼ ðuU Þ1 uU ð½½cÞ þ uU ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð½½c1 Þ þ uU ð½½c2 ÞÞ
¼ ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð½½cÞ þ ðuU ð½½c1 Þ þ uU ð½½c2 ÞÞÞ:
Hence, LHS ¼ RHS:

2. Existence of zero element: Here uU : ðCp ðMÞ= Þ ! Rm is 1–1 onto, and
0 2 Rm ; so ðuU Þ1 ð0Þ is in ðCp ðMÞ= Þ: We shall try to prove that ðuU Þ1 ð0Þ
serves the purpose of zero element. For this purpose, let us take any ½½c in
Cp ðMÞ= where c is in Cp ðMÞ: We have to show that
ðuU Þ1 ð0Þ þ ½½c ¼ ½½c:
LHS ¼ ðuU Þ1 ð0Þ þ ½½c

¼ ðuU Þ1 uU ðuU Þ1 ð0Þ þ uU ð½½cÞ
¼ ðuU Þ1 ð0 þ uU ð½½cÞÞ
¼ ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð½½cÞÞ ¼ ½½c ¼ RHS:
3. Existence of negative element: Let us take any ½½c in Cp ðMÞ= where c is in

Cp ðMÞ: Since ½½c is in Cp ðMÞ=, and uU : ðCp ðMÞ= Þ ! Rm ; uU ð½½cÞ is
in Rm ; and hence, ðuU ð½½cÞÞ is in Rm : So ðuU Þ1 ððuU ð½½cÞÞÞ is in
ðCp ðMÞ=Þ: We have to show that
ðuU Þ1 ððuU ð½½cÞÞÞ þ ½½c ¼ ðuU Þ1 ð0Þ:
LHS ¼ ðuU Þ1 ððuU ð½½cÞÞÞ þ ½½c

¼ ðuU Þ1 uU ðuU Þ1 ððuU ð½½cÞÞÞ þ uU ð½½cÞ
¼ ðuU Þ1 ðððuU ð½½cÞÞÞ þ uU ð½½cÞÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ð0Þ ¼ RHS:
4. þ is commutative: Take any ½½c; ½½c1 in Cp ðMÞ= where c; c1 are in Cp ðMÞ: We

have to show that ½½c þ ½½c1 ¼ ½½c1 þ ½½c:
LHS ¼ ½½c þ ½½c1 ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð½½cÞ þ uU ð½½c1 ÞÞ

¼ ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð½½c1 Þ þ uU ð½½cÞÞ
¼ ½½c1 þ ½½c ¼ RHS:
5. Take any ½½c; ½½c1 in Cp ðMÞ= where c; c1 are in Cp ðMÞ: Take any real number t:
We have to prove that
tð½½c þ ½½c1 Þ ¼ t½½c þ t½½c1 :
LHS ¼ tð½½c þ ½½c1 Þ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðtðuU ð½½c þ ½½c1 ÞÞÞ

¼ ðuU Þ1 t uU ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð½½cÞ þ uU ð½½c1 ÞÞ
¼ ðuU Þ1 ðtðuU ð½½cÞ þ uU ð½½c1 ÞÞÞ;

RHS ¼ t½½c þ t½½c1 ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðtðuU ð½½cÞÞÞ þ ðuU Þ1 t uU ½½c1 :
44 2 Tangent Spaces
So it remains to be proved that
ðuU Þ1 ðtðuU ð½½cÞ þ uU ð½½c1 ÞÞÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðtðuU ð½½cÞÞÞ
þ ðuU Þ1 ðtðuU ð½½c1 ÞÞÞ
that is,

tðuU ð½½cÞ þ uU ð½½c1 ÞÞ ¼ uU ðuU Þ1 ðtðuU ð½½cÞÞÞ þ ðuU Þ1 ðtðuU ð½½c1 ÞÞÞ :

RHS ¼ uU ðuU Þ1 ðtðuU ð½½cÞÞÞ þ ðuU Þ1 ðtðuU ð½½c1 ÞÞÞ

¼ uU ðuU Þ1 ðtðuU ð½½cÞÞÞ þ uU ðuU Þ1 ðtðuU ð½½c1 ÞÞÞ
¼ tðuU ð½½cÞÞ þ tðuU ð½½c1 ÞÞ
¼ tðuU ð½½cÞ þ uU ð½½c1 ÞÞ ¼ LHS:
6. Take any ½½c in Cp ðMÞ= where c is in Cp ðMÞ: Take any real numbers s; t: We
have to prove that
ðs þ tÞ½½c ¼ s½½c þ t½½c:
LHS ¼ ðs þ tÞ½½c ¼ ðuU Þ1 ððs þ tÞðuU ð½½cÞÞÞ

¼ ðuU Þ1 ðsðuU ð½½cÞÞ þ tðuU ð½½cÞÞÞ;
RHS ¼ s½½c þ t½½c ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðuU ðs½½cÞ þ uU ðt½½cÞÞ:
So it remains to be proved that
ðuU Þ1 ðsðuU ð½½cÞÞ þ tðuU ð½½cÞÞÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðuU ðs½½cÞ þ uU ðt½½cÞÞ;
that is,
sðuU ð½½cÞÞ þ tðuU ð½½cÞÞ ¼ uU ðs½½cÞ þ uU ðt½½cÞ:
RHS ¼ uU ðs½½cÞ þ uU ðt½½cÞ ¼ sðuU ð½½cÞÞ þ tðuU ð½½cÞÞ ¼ LHS:
7. Take any ½½c in Cp ðMÞ= where c is in Cp ðMÞ: Take any real numbers s; t: We
have to prove that
ðstÞ½½c ¼ sðt½½cÞ:
LHS ¼ ðstÞ½½c ¼ ðuU Þ1 ððstÞðuU ð½½cÞÞÞ;
RHS ¼ sðt½½cÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðsðuU ðt½½cÞÞÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðsðtðuU ð½½cÞÞÞÞ
¼ ðuU Þ1 ððstÞðuU ð½½cÞÞÞ:
Hence, LHS ¼ RHS:

8. Take any ½½c in Cp ðMÞ= where c is in Cp ðMÞ: We have to prove that
1½½c ¼ ½½c:
LHS ¼ 1½½c ¼ ðuU Þ1 ð1ðuU ð½½cÞÞÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð½½cÞÞ ¼ ½½c ¼ RHS: h
Thus, we have shown that Cp ðMÞ= is a real linear space.

Since Cp ðMÞ= is a real linear space, uU : ðCp ðMÞ= Þ ! Rm is 1–1, onto,
uU ð½½c þ ½½c1 Þ ¼ uU ð½½cÞ þ uU ð½½c1 Þ; and uU ðt½½cÞ ¼ tðuU ð½½cÞÞ;
so uU is an isomorphism between real linear space Cp ðMÞ= and the real linear
space Rm : Further since the dimension of Rm is m; Cp ðMÞ= is a real linear space
of dimension m:
Conclusion: Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p be an element
of M: Then, Cp ðMÞ= is isomorphic to Rm for some vector addition, and scalar
multiplication over Cp ðMÞ=:
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p be an element of M:
The set Cp ðMÞ= is denoted by Tp M or Tp ðMÞ (see Fig. 2.1).
Note 2.14 Let M be a 2-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M: Let ðU; uU Þ be
any admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U: Let us define functions
u1 : U ! R; u2 : U ! R
as follows: for every x in U;
Fig. 2.1 Dimensional smooth manifold

46 2 Tangent Spaces

uU ð xÞ u1 ð xÞ; u2 ð xÞ :
(In short, we say that u1 ; u2 are the component functions of uU :) We shall try to
prove that u1 is in Cp1 ðMÞ: By the definition of Cp1 ðMÞ; it remains to be proved that
for every admissible coordinate chart ðV; uV Þ of M satisfying p 2 V,

u1 ðuV Þ1 : uV ðU \ V Þ ! R
is C 1 at the point uV ðpÞ in R2 :
Since M is a 2-dimensional smooth manifold, and ðU; uU Þ; ðV; uV Þ are admissible

coordinate charts of M satisfying p 2 U \ V, by the definition of smooth manifold,

uU ðuV Þ1 : uV ðU \ V Þ ! R
is C 1 at the point uV ðpÞ in R2 :

For every ðy1 ; y2 Þ in uV ðU \ VÞ; we have ðuV Þ1 ðy1 ; y2 Þ 2 U \ V U; and
hence,

uU ðuV Þ1 y1 ; y2 ¼ uU ðuV Þ1 y1 ; y2

¼ u1 ðuV Þ1 y1 ; y2 ; u2 ðuV Þ1 y1 ; y2

¼ u1 ðuV Þ1 y1 ; y2 ; u2 ðuV Þ1 y1 ; y2
So ðu1 ðuV Þ1 Þ; ðu2 ðuV Þ1 Þ are the component functions of ðuU ðuV Þ1 Þ:
Next, since ðuU ðuV Þ1 Þ is C 1 at the point uV ðpÞ in R2 ; its component functions
ðu1 ðuV Þ1 Þ; ðu2 ðuV Þ1 Þ are C 1 at the point uV ðpÞ in R2 : This proves that u1 is
in Cp1 ðMÞ: Similarly, u2 is in Cp1 ðMÞ:
Theorem 2.15 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p be an element
of M:
Let be a relation over Cp1 ðMÞ defined as follows: for every f and g in
1
Cp ðMÞ; by f g; we shall mean that there exists an open neighborhood H of p
such that f ðxÞ ¼ gðxÞ for every x in H: Then, is an equivalence relation over
Cp1 ðMÞ:
1. for every f in Cp1 ðMÞ; f f ;
2. if f g, then g f ;
3. if f g; and g h, then f h:
For 1. Let us take any f in Cp1 ðMÞ: So, by the definition of Cp1 ðMÞ; dom f is an
open neighborhood of p in M: Since dom f is an open neighborhood of p in M;
and f ðxÞ ¼ f ðxÞ for every x in dom f , by the definition of ; f f : This proves 1.
For 2. Let f g where f and g are in Cp1 ðMÞ: So, by the definition of ; there
exists an open neighborhood H of p such that f ðxÞ ¼ gðxÞ for every x in H:
Hence, gðxÞ ¼ f ðxÞ for every x in H; where H is an open neighborhood of p:
Therefore, by the definition of , g f , this proves 2.
For 3. Let f g; and g h; where f ; g; h are in Cp1 ðMÞ: Since f g, by the
definition of ; there exists an open neighborhood H of p such that f ðxÞ ¼ gðxÞ
for every x in H: Similarly, there exists an open neighborhood K of p such that
gðxÞ ¼ hðxÞ for every x in K: Since H; K are open neighborhoods of p; H \ K is
an open neighborhood of p: Also we have f ðxÞ ¼ hðxÞ for every H \ K: Hence,
by the definition of ; f h: This proves 3.
Hence, is an equivalence relation over Cp1 ðMÞ: h
From Theorem 2.15, the relation is an equivalence relation over Cp1 ðMÞ: The
1
quotient set Cp ðMÞ= ; of all equivalence classes is denoted by F p ðMÞ (or, simply
F p Þ: Thus,
n o
F p ðM Þ ½ f : f 2 Cp1 ðM Þ
where
n o
½ f g : g 2 Cp1 ðM Þ and g f :
Intuitively, Theorem 2.15 says that in Cp1 ðMÞ we will not distinguish between f
and g whenever f g:
Let f ; g be in Cp1 ðMÞ: By the sum f þ g, we mean the function whose domain is
ðdom f Þ \ ðdom gÞ; and for every x in ðdom f Þ \ ðdom gÞ;
ðf þ gÞð xÞ f ð xÞ þ gð xÞ:
By the product f g, we mean the function whose domain is ðdom f Þ \ðdom gÞ;
and for every x in ðdom f Þ \ðdom gÞ;
ðf gÞð xÞ f ð xÞ gð xÞ:
For any real t; by the scalar multiple tf , we mean the function whose domain is
dom f ; and for every x in dom f ;
48 2 Tangent Spaces
ðtf Þð xÞ tðf ð xÞÞ:

of M: If f ; g are in Cp1 ðMÞ, then f þ g is in Cp1 ðMÞ:
Proof Here, let f ; g be in Cp1 ðMÞ: We must prove:
1. domðf þ gÞ is an open neighborhood of p in M;
2. for every admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying p 2 U,

ðf þ gÞ ðuU Þ1 : uU ððdomðf þ gÞÞ \ U Þ ! R
is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm :

For 1. Since f ; g are in Cp1 ðMÞ; dom f and dom g are open neighborhoods of p
in M; and hence, their intersection ðdom f Þ \ðdom gÞ is an open neighborhood
of p in M: Since ðdom f Þ \ðdom gÞ is an open neighborhood of p in M; and
domain of f þ g is ðdom f Þ \ðdom gÞ; domðf þ gÞ is an open neighborhood of p
in M: This proves 1.
For 2. Let us take any admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying
p 2 U: Since f is in Cp1 ðMÞ, by the definition of Cp1 ðMÞ;

is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm : Similarly,

g ðuU Þ1 : uU ððdom gÞ \ U Þ ! R
is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm : Further, since

and

g ðuU Þ1 : uU ððdom gÞ \ U Þ ! R;
their sum is the function

f ðuU Þ1 þ g ðuU Þ1 : ðuU ððdom f Þ \ U ÞÞ \ ðuU ððdom gÞ \ U ÞÞ ! R;
and is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm : Now, since

dom f ðuU Þ1 þ g ðuU Þ1 ¼ ðuU ððdom f Þ \ U ÞÞ \ ðuU ððdom gÞ \ U ÞÞ
¼ uU ðððdom f Þ \ U Þ \ ððdom gÞ \ U ÞÞ
¼ uU ðððdom f Þ \ ðdom gÞÞ \ U Þ
¼ uU ððdomðf þ gÞÞ \ U Þ

¼ dom ðf þ gÞ ðuU Þ1

and, for every x in dom ðf þ gÞ ðuU Þ1 ;

f ðuU Þ1 þ g ðuU Þ1 ð xÞ ¼ f ðuU Þ1 ð xÞ þ g ðuU Þ1 ð xÞ

¼ f ðuU Þ1 ð xÞ þ g ðuU Þ1 ð xÞ

¼ ðf þ gÞ ðuU Þ1 ð xÞ

¼ ðf þ gÞ ðuU Þ1 ð xÞ
so,

f ðuU Þ1 þ g ðuU Þ1 ¼ ðf þ gÞ ðuU Þ1 :
Since ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ þ ðg ðuU Þ1 Þ ¼ ðf þ gÞ ðuU Þ1 ; and ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ þ
ðg ðuU Þ1 Þ is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm ; ðf þ gÞ uU Þ1 is C1 at the point
uU ðpÞ in Rm : This proves 2. Hence, f þ g is in Cp1 ðMÞ: h

of M: If f ; g are in Cp1 ðMÞ, then f g is in Cp1 ðMÞ:
Proof Its proof is quite similar to the proof of Theorem 2.16. h
of M: If t is a real, and f is in Cp1 ðMÞ, then tf is in Cp1 ðMÞ:
Proof Its proof is similar to the proof of Theorem 2.16. h
of M: If f ; g; h; k are in Cp1 ðMÞ; f g; and h k, then ðf þ hÞ ðg þ kÞ:
Proof Let us take any f ; g; h; k in Cp1 ðMÞ; and let f g; h k: Since f ; g are in
Cp1 ðMÞ, by Theorem 2.16, f þ h is in Cp1 ðMÞ: Similarly g þ k is in Cp1 ðMÞ: We
have to prove that ðf þ hÞ ðg þ kÞ: So, by the definition of ; we must find an
50 2 Tangent Spaces
open neighborhood H of p such that ðf þ hÞðxÞ ¼ ðg þ kÞðxÞ for every x in H:

Since f g; there exists an open neighborhood H1 of p such that f ðxÞ ¼ gðxÞ for
every x in H1 : Since h k; there exists an open neighborhood H2 of p such that
hðxÞ ¼ kðxÞ for every x in H2 : Since H1 ; H2 are open neighborhoods of p; H1 \ H2
is an open neighborhoods of p: Also, for every x in H1 \ H2 ; ðf þ hÞðxÞ ¼ f ðxÞþ
hðxÞ ¼ gðxÞ þ kðxÞ ¼ ðg þ kÞðxÞ: h
of M: If f ; g; h; k are in Cp1 ðMÞ; f g; and h k, then ðf hÞ ðg kÞ:
of M: If f ; g are in Cp1 ðMÞ; f g; and t is a real, then ðtf Þ ðtgÞ:
Proof Let us take any f ; g in Cp1 ðMÞ; and let f g: Since f ; g are in Cp1 ðMÞ, by
Theorem 2.18, tf is in Cp1 ðMÞ: Similarly, tg is in Cp1 ðMÞ: We have to prove that
ðtf Þ ðtgÞ: So, by the definition of ; we must find an open neighborhood H of p
such that ðtf ÞðxÞ ¼ ðtgÞðxÞ for every x in H: Since f g; there exists an open
neighborhood H of p such that f ðxÞ ¼ gðxÞ for every x in H: So, for every x in H;
ðtf ÞðxÞ ¼ tðf ðxÞÞ ¼ tðgðxÞÞ ¼ ðtgÞðxÞ: h
Note 2.22 Theorems 2.19, 2.20, and 2.21 give guarantee that the following defi-
nitions are legitimate.
Definition For every f ; g in Cp1 ðMÞ; and for every real t;
½f þ ½g ½f þ g;
t½f ½tf ;
½f ½g ½f g:

of M: The quotient set Cp1 ðMÞ= ; together with vector addition, and scalar
multiplication is defined as follows: for every f ; g in Cp1 ðMÞ; and for every real t;
½f þ ½g ½f þ g; t½f ½tf ;
constitute a real linear space. In short, F p ðMÞ is a real linear space.
Let us define multiplication operation over Cp1 ðMÞ= as follows: for every f ; g
in Cp1 ðMÞ;
½f ½g ½f g:
Then,
1. for every f ; g; h in Cp1 ðMÞ; ð½f ½gÞ½h ¼ ½f ð½g½hÞ;
2. for every f ; g in Cp1 ðMÞ; ½f ½g ¼ ½g½f ;
3. for every f ; g; h in Cp1 ðMÞ; ð½f þ ½gÞ½h ¼ ½f ½h þ ½g½h;
4. for every real t; and for every f ; g in Cp1 ðMÞ; tð½f ½gÞ ¼ ðt½f Þ½g:
In short, F p ðMÞ is an algebra.
Proof The conditions for linear space remain to be verified.
1. + is associative: Let us take any f ; g; h in Cp1 ðMÞ: We have to prove that
ð½ f þ ½gÞ þ ½h ¼ ½ f þ ð½g þ ½hÞ:
LHS ¼ ð½ f þ ½gÞ þ ½h ¼ ½f þ g þ ½h ¼ ½ðf þ gÞ þ h ¼ ½f þ ðg þ hÞ

¼ ½ f þ ½g þ h ¼ ½ f þ ð½g þ ½hÞ ¼ RHS:
2. Existence of zero element: Let us define the constant function 0 : M ! R as

follows: For every x in M; 0ðxÞ 0: We want to prove that 0 is in Cp1 ðMÞ: For
this purpose, we must prove
1. The domain of the function 0 is an open neighborhood of p in M;

0 ðuU Þ1 : uU ððdom 0Þ \ U Þ ! R

For 1: Here, the domain of the function 0 is M which is an open neigh-
borhood of p in M: This proves 1.
For 2: Let us take any admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying
p 2 U. Now, by the definition of the function 0; ð0 ðuU Þ1 Þ is the constant
function 0 defined on the open subset uU ðUÞ of Rm ; which is known to be
C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm : This proves 2.
Thus, we have shown that 0 is in Cp1 ðMÞ: Now, it remains to be showed that
½0 þ ½f ¼ ½f ¼ ½f þ ½0 for every f in Cp1 ðMÞ: Here,
LHS ¼ ½0 þ ½ f ¼ ½0 þ f ¼ ½ f ¼ ½f þ 0 ¼ ½ f þ ½0 ¼ RHS:
This proves 2.
52 2 Tangent Spaces
3. Existence of negative element: Let us take any f in Cp1 ðMÞ: So, by the definition
of Cp1 ðMÞ; f is a real-valued function f whose dom f is an open neighborhood
of p in M; and for every admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying
p 2 U,


Now, let us define a function ðf Þ : ðdom f Þ ! R as follows:
For every x in dom f ; ðf ÞðxÞ ðf ðxÞÞ: We want to prove that ðf Þ is in
Cp1 ðMÞ: For this purpose, we must prove
1. The domain of the function ðf Þ is an open neighborhood of p in M;
2. For every admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying p 2 U,

ðf Þ ðuU Þ1 : uU ððdomðf ÞÞ \ U Þ ! R

For 1: Since f is in Cp1 ðMÞ, by the definition of Cp1 ðMÞ; dom f is an open
neighborhood of p in M: Since dom f is an open neighborhood of p in M; and,
by the definition of ðf Þ; domðf Þ ¼ dom f ; domðf Þ is an open neighborhood
of p in M: This proves 1.
For 2: Let us take an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying p 2 U.
Now, by the definition of the function ðf Þ; ðf Þ ðuU Þ1 ¼ ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ:
Since ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm ; ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ is C1 at the
point uU ðpÞ in Rm : Since ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ is C1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm ; and
ðf Þ ðuU Þ1 ¼ ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ; ðf Þ ðuU Þ1 is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in
Rm : This proves 2.
Thus, we have shown that ðf Þ is in Cp1 ðMÞ: Now, it remains to be showed
that ½ðf Þ þ ½f ¼ ½0 ¼ ½f þ ½ðf Þ. Here,
LHS ¼ ½ðf Þ þ ½ f ¼ ½ðf Þ þ f ¼ ½0 ¼ ½f þ ðf Þ ¼ ½ f þ ½ðf Þ ¼ RHS:
This proves 3.
4. + is commutative: Let us take any f ; g in Cp1 ðMÞ: We have to prove that
½ f þ ½g ¼ ½g þ ½ f :
Here
LHS ¼ ½ f þ ½g ¼ ½f þ g ¼ ½g þ f ¼ ½g þ ½ f ¼ RHS:
This proves 4.
5. For every real s; t; and f in Cp1 ðMÞ; ðs þ tÞ½f ¼ s½f þ t½f :
Here
LHS ¼ ðs þ tÞ½ f ¼ ½ðs þ tÞf ¼ ½ðsf Þ þ ðtf Þ ¼ ½ðsf Þ þ ½ðtf Þ ¼ s½ f þ t½ f

¼ RHS:
6. For every real s; t; and f in Cp1 ðMÞ; ðstÞ½f ¼ sðt½f Þ :

Here,
LHS ¼ ðstÞ½ f ¼ ½ðstÞf ¼ ½sðtf Þ ¼ s½ðtf Þ ¼ sðt½ f Þ ¼ RHS:
7. For every real t; and for every f ; g in Cp1 ðMÞ; tð½f þ ½gÞ ¼ t½f þ t½g :
Here,
LHS ¼ tð½ f þ ½gÞ ¼ t½ðf þ gÞ ¼ ½tðf þ gÞ ¼ ½ðtf Þ þ ðtgÞ
¼ ½ðtf Þ þ ½ðtgÞ ¼ t½ f þ t½g ¼ RHS:
8. For every f in Cp1 ðMÞ; 1½f ¼ ½f :

Here,
LHS ¼ 1½ f ¼ ½1f ¼ ½ f ¼ RHS:
Thus, we have shown that quotient set Cp1 ðMÞ= is a real linear space.
Now, we want to prove that F p ðMÞ is an algebra.
1. Multiplication is associative:
LHS ¼ ð½ f ½gÞ½h ¼ ½f g þ ½h ¼ ½ðf gÞ h ¼ ½f ðg hÞ

¼ ½ f ½g h ¼ ½ f ð½g½hÞ ¼ RHS:
2. Multiplication is commutative:
LHS ¼ ½ f ½g ¼ ½f g ¼ ½g f ¼ ½g½ f ¼ RHS:
3. Multiplication distributes over +:
LHS ¼ ð½ f þ ½gÞ½h ¼ ½f þ g½h ¼ ½ðf þ gÞ h ¼ ½ðf hÞ þ ðg hÞ

¼ ½f h þ ½g h ¼ ½ f ½h þ ½g½h ¼ RHS:
4. LHS ¼ tð½f ½gÞ ¼ t½f g ¼ ½tðf gÞ ¼ ½ðtf Þ g ¼ ½tf ½g ¼ ðt½f Þ½g ¼ RHS: h
54 2 Tangent Spaces
2.3 Smooth Germs on Smooth Manifolds

Under the vector addition, and scalar multiplication as defined in Theorem 2.23,
F p ðMÞ is a real linear space. The members of F p ðMÞ are called C 1 -germs at p on
M. Thus, if f is in Cp1 ðMÞ, then the equivalence class ½f is in F p ðMÞ; and hence, ½f
is a C1 -germ at p on M:
of M: Let c be in Cp ðMÞ: Let f be in Cp1 ðMÞ: Then,
1. 0 is an interior point of the domain of the real-valued function f c;
2. limt!0 ðf cÞð0þtÞðf
t
cÞð0Þ
exists,
3. if f g, then
ðf cÞð0 þ tÞ ðf cÞð0Þ ðg cÞð0 þ tÞ ðg cÞð0Þ

lim ¼ lim :
t!0 t t!0 t
Proof
1: Since c is in Cp ðMÞ, by the definition of Cp ðMÞ; there exists a real number
d [ 0 such that c : ðd; dÞ ! M, cð0Þ ¼ p; and c is a smooth map from
ðd; dÞ to M: Since cis a smooth map from ðd; dÞ to M; c is a continuous
map.
Since f is in Cp1 ðMÞ; f : ðdom f Þ ! R and dom f is an open neighborhood of p
in M: Since cð0Þ ¼ p; and p is in dom f ; 0 is an element of the domain of f c:
Since f is in Cp1 ðMÞ; f is continuous on some open neighborhood U of p. Since
c : ðd; dÞ ! M is a continuous map, cð0Þ ¼ p; and U is an open neighborhood of
p; there exists e [ 0 such that e\d and, for every t in ðe; eÞ, we have cðtÞ 2 U
ð ðdom f ÞÞ; and hence, ðf cÞðtÞ ¼ f ðcðtÞÞ 2 R: It follows that ðe; eÞ is a subset
of domðf cÞ: Hence, 0 is an interior point of the domain of the function f c: This
proves 1.
2: Since 0 is an interior point of the domain of the real-valued function f c; it is
meaningful to write
ð f c Þ ð 0 þ t Þ ð f c Þ ð 0Þ
lim ;
t!0 t
provided it exists. Now we shall try to show that limt!0 ðf cÞð0þtÞðf

t
cð0Þ
exists.
2.3 Smooth Germs on Smooth Manifolds 55
Since p 2 M; and M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, there exists an

admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying p 2 U: Since f is in Cp1 ðMÞ;
and ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U;

is C1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm : Observe that the domain of ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ; that is,
uU ððdom f Þ \ UÞ is an open neighborhood of uU ðpÞ ð¼ uU ðcð0ÞÞ ¼ ðuU cÞð0ÞÞ
in Rm : Since c is a smooth map from ðd; dÞ to M; and 0 2 ðd; dÞ; c is C 1 at 0 in
R: Since c is C1 at 0 in R; cð0Þ ¼ p; and ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart
of M satisfying p 2 U; ðuU cÞ : ðd; dÞ ! Rm is C1 at the point 0 in R: Since
ðuU cÞ : ðd; dÞ ! Rm
is C 1 at the point 0;

is C 1 at the point ðuU cÞð0Þ in Rm ; and the domain of ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ is an open
neighborhood of ðuU cÞð0Þ in Rm ; the composite function ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ
ðuU cÞð¼ f cÞ is C 1 at the point 0 in R: Hence,
dðf cÞðtÞ
dt t¼0
that is,
lim
t!0 t
exists. This proves 2.

3: Let f g:

lim ¼ lim :
t!0 t t!0 t
Since f g, there exists an open neighborhood H of pð¼ cð0ÞÞ such that f ðxÞ ¼
gðxÞ for every x in H: Since f ðxÞ ¼ gðxÞ for every x in H; and cð0Þ is in H;
ðf cÞð0Þ ¼ f ðcð0ÞÞ ¼ gðcð0ÞÞ ¼ ðg cÞð0Þ:

56 2 Tangent Spaces
Since c : ðd; dÞ ! M is a continuous map, and H is an open neighborhood of

cð0Þ; there exists e1 [ 0 such that e1 \d; and for every t in the open interval
ðe1 ; e1 Þ; cðtÞ is in H: Since 0 is an interior point of the domain of the function f c;
there exists e2 [ 0 such that e2 \d; and the open interval ðe2 ; e2 Þ is contained in the
domain of the function f c: Similarly, there exists e3 [ 0 such that e3 \d; and the
open interval ðe3 ; e3 Þ is contained in the domain of the function g c: Put
e minfe1 ; e2 ; e3 g:
Clearly, e [ 0: If t is in the open interval ðe; eÞ; then t is in the open interval
ðe2 ; e2 Þ; and hence, ðf cÞðtÞ is meaningful. Similarly, if t is in the open interval
ðe; eÞ; then ðg cÞðtÞ is meaningful. If t is in the open interval ðe; eÞ; then t is in
the open interval ðe1 ; e1 Þ; and hence, cðtÞ is in H: Since, for every t in ðe; eÞ; cðtÞ
is in H; and since f ðxÞ ¼ gðxÞ for every x in H; for every t in ðe; eÞ;
ðf cÞðtÞ ¼ f ðcðtÞÞ ¼ gðcðtÞÞ ¼ ðg cÞðtÞ:
Hence,
lim ¼
t!0 t
ðf cÞðtÞ ðf cÞð0Þ ðf cÞðtÞ ðf cÞð0Þ
lim ¼ lim
t!0 t t ! 0; t
t in ðe; eÞ
ð g c Þ ð t Þ ð g c Þ ð 0Þ
¼ lim
t ! 0; t
t in ðe; eÞ
ð g c Þ ð 0 þ t Þ ð g c Þ ð 0Þ
¼ lim
t ! 0; t
t in ðe; eÞ
ðg cÞð0 þ tÞ ðg cÞð0Þ
¼ lim :
t!0 t
This proves 3. h
Note 2.25 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p be an element of M:
Let c be in Cp ðMÞ: Let ½f be in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ: Let ½g be in F p ðMÞ
where g is in Cp1 ðMÞ: If ½f ¼ ½g, then f g; and hence,

lim ¼ lim :
t!0 t t!0 t
So the following definition is well defined.

Let c be in Cp ðMÞ: Let ½f be in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ: Then,
lim
t!0 t
exists, and is denoted by c; ½f : Thus,

ðf cÞð0 þ tÞ ðf cÞð0Þ
c; ½ f lim
t!0 t
or,
dð f c Þ ð t Þ
c; ½ f :
dt t¼0

of M: Let c be in Cp ðMÞ: Let ½f be in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ: Let ½g be in
F p ðMÞ where g is in Cp1 ðMÞ: Then,
1. c; ½ f þ ½g ¼ c; ½ f þ c; ½g ;
2. c; a½f ¼ a c; ½f for every real a:
In short, we say that ; is linear in the second variable.
Proof
1. Here
ððf þ gÞ cÞð0 þ tÞ ððf þ gÞ cÞð0Þ

LHS ¼ c; ½ f þ ½g ¼ c; ½f þ g ¼ lim
t!0 t
ðf þ gÞðcðtÞÞ ðf þ gÞðcð0ÞÞ ðf ðcðtÞÞ þ gðcðtÞÞÞ ðf ðcð0ÞÞ þ gðcð0ÞÞÞ
¼ lim ¼ lim
t!0 t t!0 t
ðf ðcðtÞÞ f ðcð0ÞÞÞ þ ðgðcðtÞÞ gðcð0ÞÞÞ
¼ lim
t!0
t
ðf ðcðtÞÞ f ðcð0ÞÞÞ ðgðcðtÞÞ gðcð0ÞÞÞ
¼ lim þ
t!0 t t
ðf ðcðtÞÞ f ðcð0ÞÞÞ ðgðcðtÞÞ gðcð0ÞÞÞ
¼ lim þ lim
t!0 t t!0 t
ðf ðcðt þ 0ÞÞ f ðcð0ÞÞÞ ðgðcðt þ 0ÞÞ gðcð0ÞÞÞ
¼ lim þ lim
t!0 t t!0 t
¼ c; ½ f þ c; ½g ¼ RHS:
58 2 Tangent Spaces
2. Here
ððaf Þ cÞð0 þ tÞ ððaf Þ cÞð0Þ

LHS ¼ c; a½ f ¼ c; ½af ¼ lim
t!0 t
ðaf ÞðcðtÞÞ ðaf Þðcð0ÞÞ að f ð c ð t Þ Þ Þ að f ð c ð 0Þ Þ Þ
¼ lim ¼ lim
t!0
t
t!0
t
f ðcðtÞÞ f ðcð0ÞÞ f ð c ð t Þ Þ f ð c ð 0Þ Þ
¼ lim a ¼ a lim
t!0 t t!0 t

f ðcðt þ 0ÞÞ f ðcð0ÞÞ
¼ a lim ¼ a c; ½ f ¼ RHS: h
t!0 t
h
Note 2.27 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M: Let ½½c; ½½c1
be in Tp Mð¼ Cp ðMÞ=Þ where c; c1 are in Cp ðMÞ: Let ½f ; ½f1 be in F p ðMÞ where
f ; f1 are in Cp1 ðMÞ: Let ½½c ¼ ½½c1 ; and ½f ¼ ½f1 : We shall try to show that
dð f c Þ ð t Þ dðf1 c1 ÞðtÞ
¼ :
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
Since p 2 M; and M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, there exists an

admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying p 2 U: Now since ½½c ¼
½½c1 ; c c1 ; and hence, ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ ¼ ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ: Since ½f ¼ ½f1 ; f g; and
hence, there exists an open neighborhood H of pð¼ cð0ÞÞ such that f ðxÞ ¼ gðxÞ for
every x in H:

dðf cÞðtÞ d f ðuU Þ1 uU c ðtÞ
LHS ¼ ¼
dt t¼0 dt
t¼0
d f ðuU Þ1 ðuU cÞ ðtÞ

¼
dt
t¼0
0
1
¼ f ðuU Þ ððuU cÞð0ÞÞ ðuU cÞ0 ð0Þ
0
¼ f ðuU Þ1 ððuU cÞð0ÞÞ ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ
0
¼ f ðuU Þ1 ððuU ðcð0ÞÞÞÞ ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ
0
¼ f ðuU Þ1 ððuU ð pÞÞÞ ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ
0
¼ f ðuU Þ1 ððuU ðc1 ð0ÞÞÞÞ ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ
0
¼ f ðuU Þ1 ððuU c1 Þð0ÞÞ ðuU c1 Þ0 ð0Þ

d f ðuU Þ1 ðuU c1 Þ ðtÞ dðf c1 ÞðtÞ
¼ ¼ ¼ RHS:
dt dt t¼0
t¼0
Hence, the following definition is legitimate:

Definition Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M: Let ½½c be in
Tp M where c is in Cp ðMÞ: Let ½f be in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ: By ½½c½f , we
dðf cÞðtÞ
shall mean dt jt¼0 ð¼ c; ½f Þ:
Lemma 2.28 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M: Let ½½c be

in Tp M where c is in Cp ðMÞ: Then
1. ½½cð½f þ ½f1 Þ ¼ ½½c½f þ ½½c½f1 for every ½f ; ½f1 in F p ðMÞ where f ; f1 are in
Cp1 ðMÞ;
2. ½½cðt½f Þ ¼ tð½½c½f Þ for every ½f in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ; and for every
real t;
3. ½½cð½f ½f1 Þ ¼ ð½½c½f Þðf1 ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞð½½c½f1 Þ
for every ½f ; ½f1 in F p ðMÞ where f ; f1 are in Cp1 ðMÞ:
Proof
1: LHS ¼ ½½cð½f þ ½f1 Þ ¼ ½½cð½f þ f1 Þ ¼ c; ½f þ f1 ¼ c þ ½f1
¼ c; ½f þ c; ½f1 ¼ c½f þ c½f1 ¼ RHS:
2: LHS ¼ ½½cðt½f Þ ¼ ½½cð½tf Þ ¼ c; t½f ¼ t c; ½f ¼ tð½½c½f Þ ¼ RHS:
dððf f1 Þ cÞðtÞ dððf f1 ÞðcðtÞÞÞ
3: LHS ¼ ½½cð½f ½f1 Þ ¼ ½½cð½f f1 Þ ¼ jt¼0 ¼ jt¼0
dt dt
dððf ðcðtÞÞ f1 ðcðtÞÞÞÞ dððððf cÞðtÞÞ ððf1 cÞðtÞÞÞÞ
¼ jt¼0 ¼ jt¼0
dt dt
dððf cÞðtÞÞ dððf1 cÞðtÞÞ h
¼ jt¼0 ððf1 cÞð0ÞÞ þ ððf cÞð0ÞÞ jt¼0
dt dt
¼ ð½½c½f Þððf1 cÞð0ÞÞ þ ððf cÞð0ÞÞð½½c½f Þ
¼ ð½½c½f Þððf1 ðcð0ÞÞÞÞ þ ðf ðcð0ÞÞÞð½½c½f1 Þ
¼ ð½½c½f Þððf1 ðpÞÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞð½½c½f1 Þ ¼ RHS: h
2.4 Derivations

Let D : F p ðMÞ ! R be any function. If
1. Dð½f þ ½f1 Þ ¼ D½f þ D½f1 for every ½f ; ½f1 in F p ðMÞ where f ; f1 are in Cp1 ðMÞ;
2. Dðt½f Þ ¼ tðD½f Þ for every ½f in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ; and for every real t;
3. Dð½f ½f1 Þ ¼ ðD½f Þðf1 ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞðD½f1 Þ for every ½f ; ½f1 in F p ðMÞ where f ; f1
are in Cp1 ðMÞ;
then we say that D is a derivation at p. Here, the collection of all derivations at p is
denoted by Dp ðMÞ:
60 2 Tangent Spaces
Example 2.29 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M: Let ½½c be

in Tp M where c is in Cp ðMÞ:
By the Lemma 2.28, the mapping ½f 7! ½½c½f is an example of a derivation at p:
We shall denote this derivation by D½ c : Thus,
D½ c ð½ f Þ ½½c½ f
for every ½f in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ: Also

Dc : ½½c 2 Tp M Dp ðM Þ:

For every D; D1 in Dp ðMÞ; we define D þ D1 : F p ðMÞ ! R as follows: For every
½f in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ; ðD þ D1 Þð½f Þ D½f þ D1 ½f : We shall try to
show that D þ D1 is in Dp ðMÞ; that is,
1. ðD þ D1 Þð½f þ ½f1 Þ ¼ ðD þ D1 Þ½f þ ðD þ D1 Þ½f1 for every ½f ; ½f1 in F p ðMÞ
where f ; f1 are in Cp1 ðMÞ;
2. ðD þ D1 Þðt½f Þ ¼ tððD þ D1 Þ½f Þ for every ½f in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ;
and for every real t;
3. ðD þ D1 Þð½f ½f1 Þ ¼ ððD þ D1 Þ½f Þðf1 ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞððD þ D1 Þ½f1 Þ for every
½f ; ½f1 in F p ðMÞ where f ; f1 are in Cp1 ðMÞ:
For 1: LHS ¼ ðD þ D1 Þð½f þ ½f1 Þ ¼ Dð½f þ ½f1 Þ þ D1 ð½f þ ½f1 Þ

¼ ðD½f þ D½f1 Þ þ ðD1 ½f þ D1 ½f1 Þ
¼ ðD½f þ D1 ½f Þ þ ðD½f1 þ D1 ½f1 Þ
¼ ðD þ D1 Þ½f þ ðD þ D1 Þ½f1 ¼ RHS:
For 2: LHS ¼ ðD þ D1 Þðt½f Þ ¼ Dðt½f Þ þ D1 ðt½f Þ
¼ tðD½f Þ þ tðD1 ½f Þ ¼ tðD½f þ D1 ½f Þ
¼ tððD þ D1 Þ½f Þ ¼ RHS:
For 3: LHS ¼ ðD þ D1 Þð½f ½f1 Þ ¼ Dð½f ½f1 Þ þ D1 ð½f ½f1 Þ
¼ ððD½f Þðf1 ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞðD½f1 ÞÞ þ ððD1 ½f Þðf1 ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞðD1 ½f1 ÞÞ
¼ ððD½f Þ þ D1 ½f Þðf1 ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞðD½f1 þ D1 ½f1 Þ
¼ ððD þ D1 Þ½f Þðf1 ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞððD þ D1 Þ½f1 Þ ¼ RHS:
This proves that D + D1 is in Dp ðMÞ.
For every D in Dp ðMÞ; and for every real t; we define tD : F p ðMÞ ! R as follows:
For every ½f in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ; ðtDÞð½f Þ tðD½f Þ: We shall try to
show that tD is in Dp ðMÞ; that is,
1. ðtDÞð½f þ ½f1 Þ ¼ ðtDÞ½f þ ðtDÞ½f1 for every ½f ; ½f1 in F p ðMÞ where f ; f1 are in
Cp1 ðMÞ;
2. ðtDÞðs½f Þ ¼ sððtDÞ½f Þ for every ½f in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ; and for
every real s;
2.4 Derivations 61
3. ðtDÞð½f ½f1 Þ ¼ ððtDÞ½f Þðf1 ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞððtDÞ½f1 Þ for every ½f ; ½f1 in F p ðMÞ
where f ; f1 are in Cp1 ðMÞ:
For 1: LHS ¼ ðtDÞð½f þ ½f1 Þ ¼ tðDð½f þ ½f1 ÞÞ
¼ tðD½f þ D½f1 Þ ¼ tðD½f Þ þ tðD½f1 Þ ¼ ðtDÞ½f þ ðtDÞ½f1 ¼ RHS:
For 2: LHS ¼ ðtDÞðs½f Þ ¼ tðDðs½f ÞÞ ¼ tðsðD½f ÞÞ
¼ sðtðD½f ÞÞ ¼ sððtDÞ½f Þ ¼ RHS:
For 3: LHS ¼ ðtDÞð½f ½f1 Þ ¼ tðDð½f ½f1 ÞÞ ¼ tððD½f Þðf1 ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞðD½f1 ÞÞ
¼ tðD½f Þðf1 ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞtðD½f1 Þ
¼ ððtDÞ½f Þðf1 ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞððtDÞ½f1 Þ ¼ RHS:
This proves that tD is in Dp ðMÞ:
Now, we shall try to verify that Dp ðMÞ is a real linear space.
1. + is associative: Let us take any D; D1 ; D2 in Dp ðMÞ: We have to prove that
ðD þ D1 Þ þ D2 ¼ D þ ðD1 þ D2 Þ; that is, for every ½f in F p ðMÞ where f is in
Cp1 ðMÞ; ððD þ D1 Þ þ D2 Þ½f ¼ ðD þ ðD1 þ D2 ÞÞ½f :
LHS ¼ ððD þ D1 Þ þ D2 Þ½ f ¼ ðD þ D1 Þ½ f þ D2 ½ f ¼ ðD½ f þ D1 ½ f Þ þ D2 ½ f
D½ f þ ðD1 ½ f þ D2 ½ f Þ ¼ D½ f þ ðD1 þ D2 Þ½ f ¼ ðD þ ðD1 þ D2 ÞÞ½ f ¼ RHS:
2. Existence of zero element: Let us define the constant function 0 : F p ðMÞ ! R
as follows: for every ½f in F p ðMÞ; 0½f 0: We want to prove that 0 is in
Dp ðMÞ: For this purpose, we must prove
1. 0ð½f þ ½f1 Þ ¼ 0½f þ 0½f1 for every ½f ; ½f1 in F p ðMÞ where f ; f1 are in
Cp1 ðMÞ;
2. 0ðt½f Þ ¼ tð0½f Þ for every ½f in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ; and for every
real t;
3. 0ð½f ½f1 Þ ¼ ð0½f Þðf1 ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞð0½f1 Þ; for every ½f ; ½f1 in F p ðMÞ where f ;
f1 are in Cp1 ðMÞ:
For 1: LHS ¼ 0ð½f þ ½f1 Þ ¼ 0 ¼ 0 þ 0 ¼ 0½f þ 0½f1 ¼ RHS:
For 2: LHS ¼ 0ðt½f Þ ¼ 0 ¼ t 0 ¼ tð0½f Þ ¼ RHS:
For 3: LHS ¼ 0ð½f ½f1 Þ ¼ 0ð½f f1 Þ ¼ 0 ¼ 0ðf1 ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞ0 ¼ ð0½f Þðf1 ðpÞÞ þ
ðf ðpÞÞð0½f1 Þ ¼ RHS:
Thus, we have shown that 0 is in Dp ðMÞ: Now, it remains to be showed that
0 þ D ¼ D for every D in Dp ðMÞ; that is, for every ½f in F p ðMÞ where f is in
Cp1 ðMÞ; ð0 þ DÞ½f ¼ D½f :
LHS ¼ ð0 þ DÞ½ f ¼ 0½ f þ D½ f ¼ 0 þ D½ f ¼ D½ f ¼ RHS:
Hence, 0 serves the purpose of zero element in Dp ðMÞ:
3. Existence of negative element: Let us take any D in Dp ðMÞ: Now, let us define
ðDÞ : F p ðMÞ ! R as follows: For every ½f in F p ðMÞ; ðDÞ½f ðD½f Þ:
We want to prove that ðDÞ is in Dp ðMÞ: For this purpose, we must prove
62 2 Tangent Spaces
1. ðDÞð½f þ ½f1 Þ ¼ ðDÞ½f þ ðDÞ½f1 for every ½f ; ½f1 in F p ðMÞ where f ;

f1 are in Cp1 ðMÞ;
2. ðDÞðt½f Þ ¼ tððDÞ½f Þ for every ½f in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ; and for
every real t;
3. ðDÞð½f ½f1 Þ ¼ ððDÞ½f Þðf1 ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞððDÞ½f1 Þ; for every ½f ½f1 in
F p ðMÞ where f ; f1 are in Cp1 ðMÞ
For 1: LHS ¼ ðDÞð½f þ ½f1 Þ ¼ ðDð½f þ ½f1 ÞÞ ¼ ðD½f þ D½f1 Þ

¼ ðD½f Þ þ ððD½f1 ÞÞ ¼ ðDÞ½f þ ðDÞ½f1 ¼ RHS:
This proves 1.
For 2: LHS ¼ ðDÞðt½f Þ ¼ ðDðt½f ÞÞ ¼ ðtðD½f ÞÞ
¼ tððD½f ÞÞ ¼ tððDÞ½f Þ ¼ RHS:
For 3: LHS ¼ ðDÞð½f ½f1 Þ ¼ ðDð½f ½f1 ÞÞ ¼ ððD½f Þðf1 ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞðD½f1 ÞÞ
¼ ððD½f ÞÞðf1 ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞððD½f1 ÞÞ
¼ ððDÞ½f Þðf1 ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞððDÞ½f1 Þ ¼ RHS:
Thus, we have shown that ðDÞ is in Dp ðMÞ: Now, it remains to be showed that
ðDÞ þ D ¼ 0; that is, for every ½f in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ;
ððDÞ þ DÞ½f ¼ 0½f :
LHS ¼ ððDÞ þ DÞ½ f ¼ ðDÞ½ f þ D½ f ¼ ðD½ f Þ þ D½ f ¼ 0 ¼ 0½ f ¼ RHS:

Hence, ðDÞ serves the purpose of negative element of D in Dp ðMÞ:
4. + is commutative: Let us take any D; D1 in Dp ðMÞ: We have to prove that
D þ D1 ¼ D1 þ D; that is, for every ½f in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ;
ðD þ D1 Þ½f ¼ ðD1 þ DÞ½f :
LHS ¼ ðD þ D1 Þ½ f ¼ D½ f þ D1 ½ f ¼ D1 ½ f þ D½ f ¼ ðD1 þ DÞ½ f ¼ RHS:
This proves 4.
5. For every real s; t; and D in Dp ðMÞ; we have to prove that ðs þ tÞD ¼ sD þ tD;
that is, for every ½f in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ; ððs þ tÞDÞ½f ¼
ðsD þ tDÞ½f : Here
LHS ¼ ððs þ tÞDÞ½ f ¼ ðs þ tÞðD½ f Þ ¼ sðD½ f Þ þ tðD½ f Þ ¼ ðsDÞ½ f þ ðtDÞ½ f
¼ ðsD þ tDÞ½ f ¼ RHS:
6. For every real s; t; and D in Dp ðMÞ; we have to prove that ðstÞD ¼ sðtDÞ; that is,
for every ½f in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ; ððstÞDÞ½f ¼ ðsðtDÞÞ½f : Here,
LHS ¼ ððstÞDÞ½ f ¼ ðstÞðD½ f Þ ¼ sðtðD½ f ÞÞ ¼ sððtDÞ½ f Þ ¼ ðsðtDÞÞ½ f ¼ RHS:
2.4 Derivations 63
7. For every real t; and for every D; D1 in Dp ðMÞ; we have to prove that
tðD þ D1 Þ ¼ tD þ tD1 ; that is, for every ½f in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ;
ðtðD þ D1 ÞÞ½f ¼ ðtD þ tD1 Þ½f : Here
LHS ¼ ðtðD þ D1 ÞÞ½ f ¼ tððD þ D1 Þ½ f Þ ¼ tðD½ f þ D1 ½ f Þ ¼ tðD½ f Þ þ tðD1 ½ f Þ

¼ ðtDÞ½ f þ ðtD1 Þ½ f ¼ ðtD þ tD1 Þ½ f ¼ RHS:
8. For every D in Dp ðMÞ; we have to show that 1D ¼ D; that is, for every ½f in
F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ; ð1DÞ½f ¼ D½f : Here,
LHS ¼ ð1DÞ½ f ¼ 1ðD½ f Þ ¼ D½ f ¼ RHS:
Thus, we have shown that Dp ðMÞ is a real linear space.
Lemma 2.31 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p be an element of

M: Let D : F p ðMÞ ! R be a derivation at p. Let ½f be in F p ðMÞ where f is in
Cp1 ðMÞ: If f is a constant function, then D½f ¼ 0:
Proof Since f is a constant function, there exists a real number c such that f ðxÞ ¼ c
for every x in the domain of f : Since
Dð1Þ ¼ Dð1 1Þ ¼ ðDð1ÞÞð1ð pÞÞ þ ð1ð pÞÞðDð1ÞÞ ¼ ðDð1ÞÞ1 þ 1ðDð1ÞÞ

¼ 2ðDð1ÞÞ;
Dð1Þ ¼ 0: Now,
LHS ¼ D½ f ¼ DðcÞ ¼ Dðc1Þ ¼ cðDð1ÞÞ ¼ c 0 ¼ 0 ¼ RHS: h

h
Note 2.32 Let M be a 2-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M: Let ðU; uU Þ be
any admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U: Let u1 ; u2 be the component
functions of uU : So
u1 : U ! R; u2 : U ! R;
and for every x in U;

uU ð xÞ ¼ u1 ð xÞ; u2 ð xÞ :
Since u1 is in Cp1 ðMÞ; ½u1 is in F p ðMÞ: Similarly, ½u2 is in F p ðMÞ:

64 2 Tangent Spaces
Further, let us observe that

D1 u1 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ

¼ D1 u1 ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ

u1 ðuU Þ1 ðu1 ð pÞ þ t; u2 ð pÞÞ u1 ðuU Þ1 ðu1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞÞ
¼ lim
t!0
t
1
u ðuU Þ
1
ððu ð pÞ; u ð pÞÞ þ ðt; 0ÞÞ u1 ðuU Þ1 ðu1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞÞ
1 2
¼ lim
t
t!0

1
u ðuU Þ
1
ðuU ð pÞ þ ðt; 0ÞÞ u1 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ
¼ lim
t!0
t
1
u ðuU Þ
1
ðuU ð pÞ þ ðt; 0ÞÞ u1 ð pÞ
¼ lim
t!0
t
1
u ðuU Þ ðuU ð pÞ þ ðt; 0ÞÞ u1 ð pÞ
1
¼ lim
t!0 t
u1 ð qÞ u1 ð pÞ
¼ lim
t!0 t
where q ðuU Þ1 ðuU ðpÞ þ ðt; 0ÞÞ; that is,

u1 ðqÞ; u2 ðqÞ ¼ uU ðqÞ ¼ uU ð pÞ þ ðt; 0Þ ¼ u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ þ ðt; 0Þ

¼ u1 ð pÞ þ t; u2 ð pÞ :
Hence, u1 ðqÞ ¼ u1 ðpÞ þ t: This shows that

u1 ð qÞ u1 ð pÞ ð u1 ð pÞ þ t Þ u1 ð pÞ
D1 u1 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ¼ lim ¼ lim ¼ 1:
t!0 t t!0 t
Thus,

D1 u1 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ¼ 1:
2.4 Derivations 65
Next

D2 u1 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ

¼ D2 u1 ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ

u1 ðuU Þ1 ðu1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ þ tÞ u1 ðuU Þ1 ðu1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞÞ
¼ lim
t!0
t
1
u ðuU Þ
1
ððu ð pÞ; u ð pÞÞ þ ð0; tÞÞ u1 ðuU Þ1 ðu1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞÞ
1 2
¼ lim
t
t!0

1
u ðuU Þ
1
ðuU ð pÞ þ ð0; tÞÞ u1 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ
¼ lim
t!0
t
1
u ðuU Þ
1
ðuU ð pÞ þ ð0; tÞÞ u1 ð pÞ
¼ lim
t!0
t
1
u ðuU Þ ðuU ð pÞ þ ð0; tÞÞ u1 ð pÞ
1
¼ lim
t!0 t
u1 ð qÞ u1 ð pÞ
¼ lim
t!0 t
where q ðuU Þ1 ðuU ðpÞ þ ð0; tÞÞ; that is,

u1 ðqÞ; u2 ðqÞ ¼ uU ðqÞ ¼ uU ð pÞ þ ð0; tÞ ¼ u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ þ ð0; tÞ

¼ u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ þ t :
Hence, u1 ðqÞ ¼ u1 ðpÞ: This shows that

u1 ð pÞ u1 ð pÞ
D2 u1 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ¼ lim ¼ 0:
t!0 t
Thus,

D2 u1 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ¼ 0:
Similarly, ðD2 ðu2 ðuU Þ1 ÞÞðuU ðpÞÞ ¼ 1; and ðD1 ðu2 ðuU Þ1 ÞÞðuU ðpÞÞ ¼ 0:
Definition Let M be a 2-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p be an element of M:
Let ðU; uU Þ be any admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U: Let u1 ; u2 be
the component functions of uU : The function ouo1 jp : F p ðMÞ ! R is defined as
follows: For every ½f in F p ðMÞ;
66 2 Tangent Spaces
!
o
½ f D1 f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ:
ou1 p
o
The function ou2 jp : F p ðMÞ ! R is defined as follows: For every ½f in F p ðMÞ;
!
o
1
½ f D 2 f ð u Þ ðuU ð pÞÞ:
ou2 p U
From the Note 2.32,

!
o 1 if i¼j
uj ¼
oui p
0 if i 6¼ j:
o
Note 2.33 We shall prove that ou1 jp is in Dp ðMÞ: For this purpose, we must prove
1. ðouo1 jp Þð½f þ ½f1 Þ ¼ ðouo1 jp Þ½f þ ðouo1 jp Þ½f1 for every ½f ; ½f1 in F p ðMÞ where f ; f1
are in Cp1 ðMÞ;
2. ðouo1 jp Þðt½f Þ ¼ tððouo1 jp Þ½f Þ for every ½f in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ; and for
every real t;
3. ðouo1 jp Þð½f ½f1 Þ ¼ ððouo1 jp Þ½f Þðf1 ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞððouo1 jp Þ½f1 Þ; for every ½f ; ½f1 in
F p ðMÞ where f ; f1 are in Cp1 ðMÞ
! !
o o
For 1: LHS ¼ ð ½ f þ ½ f 1 Þ ¼ ð½f þ f1 Þ ¼ D1 ðf þ f1 Þ ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ
ou p
1 ou p
1

1
¼ D1 f ðuU Þ þ f1 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ
! !
o o
1
þ D1 f1 ðuU Þ ðuU ð pÞÞ ¼ ½f þ ½f1 ¼ RHS:
ou1 p ou1 p
!
o
For 2: LHS ¼ ðt½ f Þ ¼ D1 ðtf Þ ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ¼ D1 t f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ
ou1 p
! !
o
¼ t D1 f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ¼ t ½f ¼ RHS:
ou1
! !
p
o o
For 3: LHS ¼ ou1 ð½ f ½f1 Þ ¼ ð½f f1 Þ ¼ D1 ðf f1 Þ ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ
p ou p1

1
¼ D1 f ðuU Þ f1 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ

1
¼ D1 f ðuU Þ ðuU ð pÞÞ f1 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ

þ f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ D1 f1 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ

¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ðf1 ð pÞÞ þ ðf ð pÞÞ D1 f1 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ
! ! ! !
o o
¼ ½ f ð f1 ð p Þ Þ þ ð f ð p Þ Þ ½f1 ¼ RHS:
ou1 p ou1 p
2.4 Derivations 67
o o
This proves that ou1 jp is in Dp ðMÞ: Similarly, ou2 jp is in Dp ðMÞ:
Note 2.34 We shall prove that ouo1 jp ; ouo2 jp are linearly independent. For this purpose,
let t1 ðouo1 jp Þ þ t2 ðouo2 jp Þ ¼ 0: We have to show that t1 ¼ t2 ¼ 0: Since t1 ðouo1 jp Þ þ
t2 ðouo2 jp Þ ¼ 0; so
! !! ! ! ! !
o o o o
0¼0 u 1
¼ t1 þ t2 u 1
¼ t1 u 1
þ t2 u 1
ou1 p ou2 p ou1 p ou2 p
¼ t1 ð1Þ þ t2 ð0Þ ¼ t1 :
Thus, t1 ¼ 0: Similarly, t2 ¼ 0: Thus, we have shown that ouo1 jp ; ouo2 jp are linearly
independent.
Lemma 2.35 Let M be a 2-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p be an element of
M: Let ðU; uU Þ be any admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U: Let us
define functions
u1 : U ! R; u2 : U ! R
as follows: For every x in U;

If uU ðpÞ ¼ ð0; 0Þ, then fouo1 jp ; ouo2 jp g is a basis of the real linear space Dp ðMÞ:
Proof From the above discussion, it remains to be proved that fouo1 jp ; ouo2 jp g gen-
erates the whole space Dp ðMÞ: For this purpose, let us take any D in Dp ðMÞ: We
have to find real numbers t1 ; t2 such that D ¼ t1 ðouo1 jp Þ þ t2 ðouo2 jp Þ; that is, for every
½f in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ; we have
! !!
o o
D ½ f ¼ t1 þ t2 ½ f :
ou1 p ou2 p
Let us take any ½f in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ: It suffices to prove that
! !!
o o
D½ f ¼ D u1 þ D u2 ½ f ;
ou1 p ou2 p
that is,
! ! ! !
o o
D½ f ¼ D u1 ½f þ D u 2
½f :
ou1 p ou2 p
Let us note that for every uU ðqÞð¼ ðu1 ðqÞ; u2 ðqÞÞÞ in uU ðUÞ; where q is in U;
68 2 Tangent Spaces

f ðqÞ f ð pÞ ¼ f ðqÞ f ðuU Þ1 ð0; 0Þ

¼ f ðuU Þ1 u1 ðqÞ; u2 ðqÞ f ðuU Þ1 ð0; 0Þ

¼ f ðuU Þ1 u1 ðqÞ; u2 ðqÞ f ðuU Þ1 ð0; 0Þ
t¼1
¼ f ðuU Þ1 u1 ðqÞ t; u2 ðqÞ t
t¼0
Z1
d
¼ f ðuU Þ1 u1 ðqÞ t; u2 ðqÞ t dt
dt
0
Z 1

d 1
¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ðqÞ t; u2 ðqÞ t u ð qÞ t
dt
0

d 2
þ D2 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ðqÞ t; u2 ðqÞ t u ðqÞ t dt
dt
Z 1 1
¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ðqÞ t; u2 ðqÞ t u ð qÞ
0
2
þ D2 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ðqÞ t; u2 ðqÞ t u ðqÞ dt
Z 1

¼ u1 ðqÞ D1 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ðqÞ t; u2 ðqÞ t dt
0
Z1

þ u2 ðqÞ D2 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ðqÞ t; u2 ðqÞ t dt
0
Z 1

¼ u1 ðqÞ D1 f ðuU Þ1 t u1 ðqÞ; u2 ðqÞ dt
0
Z1

þ u ðqÞ 2
D2 f ðuU Þ1 t u1 ðqÞ; u2 ðqÞ dt
0
Z 1

¼ u1 ðqÞ D1 f ðuU Þ1 ðtðuU ðqÞÞÞ dt
0
Z1

þ u2 ðqÞ D2 f ðuU Þ1 ðtðuU ðqÞÞÞ dt
0
Z1 ! !
o
¼ u ðqÞ 1
½ f dt
ou1 ðuU Þ1 ðtðuU ðqÞÞÞ
0
Z1 ! !

o
þ u ðqÞ 2
½ f dt
0

¼ u1 ðqÞ ðg1 ðqÞÞ þ u2 ðqÞ ðg2 ðqÞÞ;
2.4 Derivations 69
where
Z1 ! !
o
g1 ð qÞ ½ f dt;
0
and
Z1 ! !
o
g2 ðqÞ ½ f dt
0
for every q in U: Hence,

f ð qÞ ¼ u1 ð qÞ ð g1 ð qÞ Þ þ u2 ð qÞ ð g2 ð qÞ Þ þ f ð pÞ ¼ u1 g1 ð qÞ þ u2 g2 ð qÞ þ f ð pÞ

¼ u1 g1 þ u2 g2 þ f ð pÞ ð qÞ
for every q in U: So
f ¼ u1 g1 þ u2 g2 þ f ð pÞ:
Next
D½ f ¼ D f ð pÞ þ u1 g1 þ u2 g2 ¼ D½f ð pÞ þ D u1 g1 þ D u2 g2
¼ 0 þ D u1 g1 þ D u2 g2 ¼ D u1 g1 þ D u2 g2

¼ D u1 ðg1 ð pÞÞ þ u1 ð pÞ ðD½g1 Þ þ D u2 ðg2 ð pÞÞ þ u2 ð pÞ ðD½g2 Þ

¼ D u1 ðg1 ð pÞÞ þ ð0ÞðD½g1 Þ þ D u2 ðg2 ð pÞÞ þ ð0ÞðD½g2 Þ

¼ D u1 ðg1 ð pÞÞ þ D u2 ðg2 ð pÞÞ
0 1 ! ! 1
Z

1 @ o
¼ D u ½ f dtA
ou1 ðuU Þ1 ðtðuU ð pÞÞÞ
0
0 1 ! ! 1
Z

2 @ o
þ D u ½ f dtA
ou2 ðuU Þ1 ðtðuU ð pÞÞÞ
0
0 1 ! ! 1
Z
o
¼ D u1 @ ½ f dtA
ou1 ðuU Þ1 ðtð0;0ÞÞ
0
0 1 ! ! 1
Z
o
þ D u2 @ ½ f dtA
ou2 ðuU Þ1 ðtð0;0ÞÞ
0
70 2 Tangent Spaces
0 ! ! 1
Z1
o
¼ D u1 @ ½ f dtA
ou1 ðuU Þ1 ð0;0Þ
0
0 ! ! 1
Z1
o
þ D u2 @ ½ f dtA
ou2 ðuU Þ1 ð0;0Þ
0
0 ! ! 1 0 1 ! ! 1
Z1 Z
o o
¼ D u1 @ ½ f dtA þ D u2 @ ½ f dtA
ou1 p ou2 p
0 0
0 ! ! Z1 1 0 ! ! Z1 1
o o
¼ D u1 @ ½f 1dtA þ D u2 @ ½f 1dtA
ou1 p ou2 p
0 0
! ! ! !
o o
¼ D u1 ½ f 1 þ D u2 ½f 1
ou1 p ou2 p
! ! ! !
o o
¼ D u1 ½f þ D u 2
½ f ¼ RHS: h
ou1 p ou2 p
h
M: Then, Dp ðMÞ is a 2-dimensional real linear space.
Proof Since M is a 2-dimensional smooth manifold, and p is in M; there exists an
admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying p 2 U: Here, we can find
admissible coordinate chart ðU; wU Þ of M satisfying wU ðxÞ ¼ uU ðxÞ uU ðpÞ for
every x in U: Hence, wU ðpÞ ¼ 0: Let us define functions
u1 : U ! R; u2 : U ! R

u1 ð xÞ; u2 ð xÞ wU ð xÞ:
Then, by Lemma 2.35, fouo1 jp ; ouo2 jp g is a basis of the real linear space Dp ðMÞ:
Hence, the dimension of Dp ðMÞ is 2: h
As above, we can prove the following

Lemma 2.37 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p be an element of
M: Then, Dp ðMÞ is an m-dimensional real linear space. Also, if ðU; uU Þ is any
admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U; then fouo1 jp ; . . .; ouom jp g is a basis
of Dp ðMÞ; where u1 ; . . .; um are the component functions of uU :
2.4 Derivations 71

of M: Put

Hp ðM Þ ½ f : ½ f 2 F p ðM Þ; and c; ½ f ¼0 for every c in Cp ðM Þ :
Then, Hp ðMÞ is a linear subspace of the real linear space F p ðMÞ: In short, we
say that Hp is a linear subspace of F p :
Proof Let us try to prove that Hp ðMÞ is nonempty. Let us recall that ½0 2 F p ðMÞ;
where 0 denotes the constant function zero defined on M: Since, for every c in
Cp ðMÞ,
0ðcðt þ 0ÞÞ 0ðcð0ÞÞ 00

c; ½0 ¼ lim ¼ lim ¼ lim 0 ¼ 0;
t!0 t t!0 t t!0
by the definition of Hp ðMÞ; ½0 2 Hp ðMÞ: Hence, Hp ðMÞ is nonempty.

Now, it remains to be proved that
1. If ½f 2 Hp ðMÞ; ½g 2 Hp ðMÞ; then ½f þ ½g 2 Hp ðMÞ;
2. For every real a; and for every ½f 2 Hp ðMÞ; a½f 2 Hp ðMÞ:
For 1: Let ½f 2 Hp ðMÞ; ½g 2 Hp ðMÞ: Since ½f 2 Hp ðMÞ; ½g 2 Hp ðMÞ; and
Hp ðMÞ is contained in F p ðMÞ; ½f 2 F p ðMÞ; ½g 2 F p ðMÞ: Since ½f 2
F p ðMÞ; ½g 2 F p ðMÞ; and by Theorem 2.23, F p ðMÞ is a real linear space,
½f þ ½g 2 F p ðMÞ:
Now, let us take any c in Cp ðMÞ. Since ½f 2 Hp ðMÞ; by the definition of
Hp ðMÞ; c; ½f ¼ 0: Similarly, c; ½g ¼ 0: Now, by Theorem 2.26,
c; ½ f þ ½g ¼ c; ½ f þ c; ½g ¼ 0 þ 0 ¼ 0:
So, by the definition of Hp ðMÞ; ½f þ ½g 2 Hp ðMÞ: This proves 1.

For 2: Let a be any real number, and let ½f 2 Hp ðMÞ: Since ½f 2 Hp ðMÞ; and
Hp ðMÞ is contained in F p ðMÞ; ½f 2 F p ðMÞ: Since a is a real number,
½f 2 F p ðMÞ;and by Theorem 2.23, F p ðMÞ is a real linear space, a½f 2 F p ðMÞ:
Now, let us take any c in Cp ðMÞ. Since ½f 2 Hp ðMÞ; by the definition of
Hp ðMÞ; c; ½f ¼ 0: Now, by Theorem 2.26,
c; a½ f ¼a c; ½ f ¼ að0Þ ¼ 0:
So, by the definition of Hp ðMÞ; a½f 2 Hp ðMÞ: This proves 2. Hence, Hp ðMÞ is
a linear subspace of the real linear space F p ðMÞ: h
72 2 Tangent Spaces
2.5 Cotangent Spaces

The set

½ f : ½ f 2 F p ðM Þ; and c; ½ f ¼ 0 for every c in Cp ðM Þ
is denoted by Hp ðMÞ (or, simply Hp Þ: From Theorem 2.38, Hp is a linear subspace

F
of the real linear space F p : So it is meaningful to write the quotient space Hpp : We
know that
Fp
½ f þ Hp : ½ f 2 F p :
Hp
Fp
Here, vector addition, and scalar multiplication over Hp are defined as follows:
For every ½f ; ½g 2 F p ; and for every real t;

½ f þ Hp þ ½g þ Hp ð½ f þ ½gÞ þ Hp ¼ ½f þ g þ Hp ;

t ½ f þ Hp ðt½ f Þ þ Hp ¼ ½tf þ Hp :
F
The quotient space Hpp is denoted by Tp ðMÞ (or, simply Tp ) and is called the
F
cotangent space of M at p: Since Hpp is a real linear space, the cotangent space Tp of
M at p is a real linear space. Intuitively, in Tp , we will not distinguish between ½f
and ½g whenever ½f ½g is in Hp :
Let ½f 2 F p : ½f þ Hp is denoted by ½~f ðor; ½f Þ or ðdf Þp ; and is called the
cotangent vector on M at p determined by the term ½f : Thus, we can write

Tp ¼ ½~f : ½ f 2 F p
or,
n o
Tp ¼ ðdf Þp : ½ f 2 F p :
From the above discussion, we get the following formulae:
½ f þ½g ¼ ½f þ g
t½ f ¼ ½tf
or,
2.5 Cotangent Spaces 73
(
ðdf Þp þðdgÞp ¼ ðd ðf þ gÞÞp

t ðdf Þp ¼ ðd ðtf ÞÞp :

of M: Let ½f be in F p ðMÞ where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ: Let ðU; uU Þ be an admissible
coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U: Then, ½f 2 Hp ðMÞ if and only if

D1 f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ¼ D2 f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ¼

¼ Dm f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ¼ 0:
In other words, ½f 2 Hp ðMÞ if and only if ðouo1 jp Þ½f ¼ ðouo2 jp Þ½f ¼ ¼

ðouom jp Þ½f
¼ 0:
Proof (if part): Let

D1 f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ¼ ¼ Dm f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ¼ 0:
We have to show that ½f 2 Hp ðMÞ; that is, c; ½f ¼ 0 for every c in Cp ðMÞ.

dðf cÞðtÞ
For this purpose, let us take any c in Cp ðMÞ. Since c; ½f ¼ jt¼0 ; we
dt
must prove that
dð f c Þ ð t Þ
¼ 0:
dt t¼0
Since c is in Cp ðMÞ, by the definition of Cp ðMÞ; c is a parametrized curve in M

through p; and hence, there exists a real number d [ 0 such that c is defined on the
open interval ðd; dÞ; cð0Þ ¼ p; and c is a smooth map from ðd; dÞ to M: As in
the proof of Theorem 2.24, we can show that 0 is an interior point of the domain of
the mapping uU c: Since 0 is an interior point of the domain of the mapping
uU c; there exists e [ 0 such that e\d; and each of the m component functions of
the mapping
ðuU cÞ : ðe; eÞ ! Rm
is C 1 at 0 in ðe; eÞ; and hence, each of the m functions F1 : ðe; eÞ ! R; . . .; Fm :

ðe; eÞ ! R is C 1 at 0 in ðe; eÞ where
ðF1 ðtÞ; . . .; Fm ðtÞÞ ðuU cÞðtÞ
for every t in ðe; eÞ: Since f is in Cp1 ðMÞ, by the definition of Cp1 ðMÞ; dom f is an
open neighborhood of p in M; and
74 2 Tangent Spaces

is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ ð¼ uU ðcð0ÞÞ ¼ ðuU cÞð0ÞÞ in Rm ; and hence, the partial
derivatives ðD1 ðf ðuU Þ1 ÞÞððuU cÞð0ÞÞ; . . .; ðDm ðf ðuU Þ1 ÞÞððuU cÞð0ÞÞ
exist. Now,

dðf cÞðtÞ d f ðuU Þ1 ðuU cÞ ðtÞ
LHS ¼ ¼
dt t¼0 dt
t¼0
2 3
dF 1 ðtÞ
6 7
h i6 dt 7
6 7
¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 ððuU cÞð0ÞÞ ... Dm f ðuU Þ1 ððuU cÞð0ÞÞ 6 ... 7
6 7
4 dF ðtÞ 5
m
dt
2 3 t¼0
dF1 ðtÞ
6 7
h i6 dt 7
6 7
¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ... Dm f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ 6 .. 7
6. 7
4 dF ðtÞ 5
m
dt
2 3 t¼0
dF1 ðtÞ
6 dt 7
6 7 dF1 ðtÞ dFm ðtÞ
6 7
¼ ½ 0 . . . 0 6 ... 7 ¼ 0 þ ... þ 0 ¼ 0 ¼ RHS:
6 7 dt dt
4 dF ðtÞ 5 t¼0
m
dt t¼0
h
Proof (only if part): Let ½f 2 Hp ðMÞ: We have to show that

D1 f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ¼ ¼ Dm f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ¼ 0:
If not, otherwise, let ðD1 ðf ðuU Þ1 ÞÞðuU ðpÞÞ (for simplicity) be nonzero. We
have to arrive at a contradiction. Let us define a function c1 : ð1; 1Þ ! Rm as
follows: For every t in the open interval ð1; 1Þ;
c1 ðtÞ ðt; 0; . . .; 0Þ þ uU ð pÞ:
Put
c ðuU Þ1 c1 :
We shall try to prove that

1. cð0Þ ¼ p;
2. 0 is an interior point of the domain of c;
3. c is a smooth map from ðd; dÞ to M for some d [ 0:
For 1: Here,

LHS ¼ cð0Þ ¼ ðuU Þ1 c1 ð0Þ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðc1 ð0ÞÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðð0; 0; . . .; 0Þ þ uU ð pÞÞ
¼ ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ¼ p ¼ RHS:
This proves 1.
For 2: By the definition of c1 ; the function c1 : ð1; 1Þ ! Rm is continuous.
Since c1 : ð1; 1Þ ! Rm is continuous, and 0 is in the open interval ð1; 1Þ; c1
is continuous at 0.
Since ðU; uU Þ is a coordinate chart of M; ðuU Þ1 : uU ðUÞ ! U is a 1–1; onto,
continuous function, and uU ðUÞ is an open subset of Rm : Since p 2 U; uU ðpÞ 2
uU ðUÞ: Since c1 ð0Þ ¼ ð0; 0; . . .; 0Þ þ uU ðpÞ ¼ uU ðpÞ 2 uU ðUÞ; and ðuU Þ1 :
uU ðUÞ ! U is continuous, ðuU Þ1 : uU ðUÞ ! U is continuous at the point
c1 ð0Þ: Since c1 ð0Þ 2 uU ðUÞ; and uU ðUÞ is an open subset of Rm ; uU ðUÞ is an
open neighborhood of c1 ð0Þ: Since c1 : ð1; 1Þ ! Rm is continuous, uU ðUÞ is an
open neighborhood of c1 ð0Þ; there exists d [ 0 such that d\1 and, for every t in
ðd; dÞ we have c1 ðtÞ 2 uU ðUÞ; and hence, cðtÞ ¼ ððuU Þ1 c1 ÞðtÞ ¼
ðuU Þ1 ðc1 ðtÞÞ 2 U: Since cðtÞ 2 U for every t in ðd; dÞ; it follows that ðd; dÞ is
a subset of the domðcÞ: Hence, 0 is an interior point of the domain of the function
c: This proves 2.
For 3: In 2, we have seen that c is defined over ðd; dÞ: Now, it remains to be
proved that c is a smooth map from ðd; dÞ to M; that is, c is C 1 at every point t
in ðd; dÞ:
Here, c is defined over ðd; dÞ; so cðtÞ is meaningful for every t in ðd; dÞ:
Since cðtÞ is meaningful for every t in ðd; dÞ; and

cðtÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 c1 ðtÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðc1 ðtÞÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ððt; 0; . . .; 0Þ þ uU ð pÞÞ;
ðuU Þ1 ððt; 0; . . .; 0Þ þ uU ðpÞÞ is meaningful for every t in ðd; dÞ: Since ðU; uU Þ
is a coordinate chart of M; ðuU Þ1 : uU ðUÞ ! U: Since ðuU Þ1 : uU ðUÞ ! U;
and ðuU Þ1 ððt; 0; . . .; 0Þ þ uU ðpÞÞ is meaningful for every t in ðd; dÞ;
ðuU Þ1 ððt; 0; . . .; 0Þ þ uU ðpÞÞ is in U for every t in ðd; dÞ: Since
ðuU Þ1 ððt; 0; . . .; 0Þ þ uU ðpÞÞ is in U for every t in ðd; dÞ; and cðtÞ ¼
ðuU Þ1 ððt; 0; . . .; 0Þ þ uU ðpÞÞ; cðtÞ is in U for every t in ðd; dÞ: Thus, c maps
ðd; dÞ to U:
Now, it remains to be proved that c is a smooth map from ðd; dÞ to M; that is, c
is C 1 at every point t in ðd; dÞ: For this purpose, let us fix any t in ðd; dÞ: From
the definition of c1 ; c1 is C 1 at t: Since t is in ðd; dÞ; and c maps ðd; dÞ to U;
cðtÞ is in U: Since c1 is C 1 at t; c ¼ ðuU Þ1 c1 ; c maps ðd; dÞ to U; and t is in
ðd; dÞ; uU c is C1 at t: Since uU c is C1 at t; and ðU; uU Þ is an admissible
76 2 Tangent Spaces
coordinate chart of M satisfying cðtÞ 2 U, by Theorem 2.2, c is C 1 at t in ðd; dÞ:

This proves 3.
From 1, 2, and 3, we find that c is a parametrized curve in M through p; that is,
c is in Cp ðMÞ: Since ½f 2 Hp ðMÞ; and c is in Cp ðMÞ, by the definition of Hp ðMÞ;
c; ½f ¼ 0: Put
uU ð pÞ ða1 ; . . .; am Þ:
Next, let us define m functions F1 : ðd; dÞ ! R; . . .; Fm : ðd; dÞ ! R such

that for every t in ðd; dÞ;
ðF1 ðtÞ; . . .; Fm ðtÞÞ ðuU cÞðtÞ ¼ c1 ðtÞ ¼ ðt; 0; . . .; 0Þ þ uU ð pÞ

¼ ðt; 0; . . .; 0Þ þ ða1 ; . . .; am Þ ¼ ðt þ a1 ; a2 ; . . .; am Þ:
Hence,

dðf c Þðt Þ d f ðuU Þ1 ðuU cÞ ðtÞ
0¼ c; ½ f ¼ ¼
dt t¼0 dt
t¼0
2 3
dðt þ a1 Þ
6 dt 7
6 7
6 7
h i6 dða2 Þ 7
6 dt 7
¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 ððuU cÞð0ÞÞ Dm f ð u U Þ 1
ððu U c Þð0 ÞÞ 6 7
6 . 7
6 . 7
6 . 7
4 dða Þ 5
m
dt t¼0
3 2
1
h i6 0 7
6 7
¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ Dm f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ 6 .. 7
4 . 5
0 t¼0

1 1
¼ D 1 f ðu U Þ ðuU ð pÞÞ 1 þ 0 þ þ 0 ¼ D1 f ðuU Þ ðuU ð pÞÞ 6¼ 0;
which is a contradiction. h
Theorem 2.40 Let M be a m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p be an element of
M: Let f 1 ; f 2 2 Cp1 ðMÞ: Let G be an open neighborhood of ðf 1 ðpÞ; f 2 ðpÞÞ in R2 : Let
F : G ! R be a smooth function. Then, there exists f in Cp1 ðMÞ such that for every
x in dom f ;

f ð xÞ ¼ F f 1 ð xÞ; f 2 ð xÞ :
Proof For this purpose, by the definition of Cp1 ðMÞ; we must find a function f such
that
1. dom f is an open neighborhood of p in M;
2. f ðxÞ ¼ Fðf 1 ðxÞ; f 2 ðxÞÞ for every x in dom f ; and


Since f 1 2 Cp1 ðMÞ, by the definition of Cp1 ðMÞ; f 1 is a real-valued function
whose domðf 1 Þ is an open neighborhood of p in M: Similarly, f 2 is a real-valued
function whose domðf 2 Þ is an open neighborhood of p in M: Since domðf 1 Þ is an
open neighborhood of p in M; and domðf 2 Þ is an open neighborhood of p in M;
their intersection domðf 1 Þ \ domðf 2 Þ is an open neighborhood of p in M: Put

V1 dom f 1 \ dom f 2 :
g : V1 ! R2
as follows: For every x in V1

gð xÞ f 1 ð xÞ; f 2 ð xÞ :
Since f 1 2 Cp1 ðMÞ; f 1 is continuous at p: Similarly, f 2 is continuous at p: Since

f ; f 2 are continuous at p; and gðxÞ ¼ ðf 1 ðxÞ; f 2 ðxÞÞ for every x in V1 ; g : V1 ! R2
1
is continuous at p. Since g : V1 ! R2 is continuous at p, and G is an open

neighborhood of ðf 1 ðpÞ; f 2 ðpÞÞð¼ gðpÞÞ in R2 ; there exists an open neighborhood
Vð V1 ¼ domðf 1 Þ \ domðf 2 ÞÞ of p such that gðVÞ is contained in G. Since gðVÞ is
contained in G; and F : G ! R, for every x in V; FðgðxÞÞð¼ Fðf 1 ðxÞ; f 2 ðxÞÞÞ is a
real number.
Now, let us define a function
f :V !R
as follows: For every x in V;

f ð xÞ F f 1 ð xÞ; f 2 ð xÞ :
Clearly, the conditions 1 and 2 are satisfied.

78 2 Tangent Spaces
For 3, let us take an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M satisfying p 2 U.

We have to show that the function

f ðuU Þ1 : uU ðV \ U Þ ! R
is C1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm : Here, for every uU ðxÞ in uU ðV \ UÞ; where x is in

V \ U; we have

f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð xÞÞ

¼ f ðuU Þ1 uU ð xÞ ¼ f ðuU Þ1 uU ð xÞ ¼ f ð xÞ

¼ F f 1 ð xÞ; f 2 ð xÞ ¼ F f 1 ðuU Þ1 uU ð xÞ ; f 2 ðuU Þ1 uU ð xÞ

¼F f 1 ðuU Þ1 uU ð xÞ ; f 2 ðuU Þ1 uU ð xÞ

¼F f 1 ðuU Þ1 uU ð xÞ; f 2 ðuU Þ1 uU ð xÞ

¼ F f 1 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð xÞÞ; f 2 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð xÞÞ :
Since f 1 2 Cp1 ðMÞ; and ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M

satisfying p 2 U, by the definition of Cp1 ðMÞ;

f 1 ðuU Þ1 : uU dom f 1 \ U ! R
is C1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm : Since ðdom f Þ \ U ¼ V \ U domðf 1 Þ

\ domðf 2 Þ \ U domðf 1 Þ \ U; uU ððdom f Þ \ UÞ uU ððdomðf 1 ÞÞ \ UÞ: Since uU
ððdom f Þ \ UÞ uU ððdomðf 1 ÞÞ \ UÞ; and ðf 1 ðuU Þ1 Þ : uU ðdomðf 1 Þ \ UÞ ! R
is C1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm ; the restriction of f 1 ðuU Þ1 to uU ððdom f Þ \ UÞ
is C1 at
the point uU ðpÞ in Rm : Therefore, for every x in ðdom f Þ \ U;
uU ð xÞ 7! f 1 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð xÞÞ is C 1 at the point uU ð pÞ in Rm : Similarly, for every x

in ðdom f Þ \ U; uU ð xÞ 7! f 2 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð xÞÞ is C 1 at the point uU ð pÞ in Rm :

It follows that, for every x in ðdom f Þ \ U; uU ð xÞ 7! f 1 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð xÞÞ;

f 2 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð xÞÞÞ is C1 at the point uU ð pÞ in Rm : Since, for every x in
ðdom f Þ \ U; uU ðxÞ 7! ððf 1 ðuU Þ1 ÞðuU ðxÞÞ; ðf 2 ðuU Þ1 ÞðuU ðxÞÞÞ is C 1 at the
point uU ðpÞ in Rm ; G is an open neighborhood of ðf 1 ðpÞ; f 2 ðpÞÞ in R2 ; and F :
G ! R is a smooth function, for every x in ðdom f Þ \ Uð¼ V \ UÞ; the function
uU ðxÞ 7! Fððf 1 ðuU Þ1 ÞðuU ðxÞÞ; ðf 2 ðuU Þ1 ÞðuU ðxÞÞÞð¼ ðf ðuU Þ1 ÞðuU ðxÞÞÞ
is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm ; and hence,

f ðuU Þ1 : uU ðV \ U Þ ! R
is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in Rm : This proves 3. h

of M: Let f 1 ; f 2 2 Cp1 ðMÞ: Let G be an open neighborhood of ðf 1 ðpÞ; f 2 ðpÞÞ in R2 :
Let F : G ! R be a smooth function. Let f ; g be in Cp1 ðMÞ such that for every x in
dom f ;

f ð xÞ ¼ F f 1 ð xÞ; f 2 ð xÞ
and, for every x in dom g;

gð xÞ ¼ F f 1 ð xÞ; f 2 ð xÞ :
Then, f g:
Proof By Theorem 2.40, the existence of f ; g are guaranteed. Since f is in Cp1 ðMÞ;
dom f is an open neighborhood of p in M: Similarly, dom g is an open neighbor-
hood of p in M: Since dom f is an open neighborhood of p in M; and dom g is an
open neighborhood of p in M; their intersection ðdom f Þ \ ðdom gÞ is an open
neighborhood of p in M: Next, let us take any x in ðdom f Þ \ðdom gÞ: It remains to
be showed that f ðxÞ ¼ gðxÞ: Since x is in ðdom f Þ \ðdom gÞ; x is in dom f : Since x is
indom f ; f ðxÞ ¼ Fðf 1 ðxÞ; f 2 ðxÞÞ: Similarly, gðxÞ ¼ Fðf 1 ðxÞ; f 2 ðxÞÞ: Since f ðxÞ ¼
Fðf 1 ðxÞ; f 2 ðxÞÞ and gðxÞ ¼ Fðf 1 ðxÞ; f 2 ðxÞÞ; f ðxÞ ¼ gðxÞ: h
of M: Let f 1 ; f 2 2 Cp1 ðMÞ: Let G be an open neighborhood of ðf 1 ðpÞ; f 2 ðpÞÞ in R2 :
Let F : G ! R be a smooth function. Then, there exists a unique ½f in F p ðMÞ;
where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ; such that for every x in dom f ;

Also

½ f ¼ ðD1 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 1 þ ðD2 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 2 :
Proof Existence: By Theorem 2.40, there exists f in Cp1 ðMÞ such that for every x
in dom f ;

80 2 Tangent Spaces
Further, since f is in Cp1 ðMÞ; the C1 -germ ½f is in F p ðMÞ: This proves the
existence part of the theorem.
Uniqueness: For this purpose, let ½f ; ½g be in F p ðMÞ; where f ; g are in Cp1 ðMÞ;
such that for every x in dom f ;

f ð xÞ ¼ F f 1 ð xÞ; f 2 ð xÞ
and, for every x in dom g;

gð xÞ ¼ F f 1 ð xÞ; f 2 ð xÞ :
We have to prove that ½f ¼ ½g:

By Theorem 2.41, f g: Since f ; g are in Cp1 ðMÞ; f g; and is an equiva-
lence relation over Cp1 ðMÞ; the equivalence class ½f determined by f , and the
equivalence class ½g determined by g are equal, that is, ½f ¼ ½g: This proves the
uniqueness part of the theorem. h
Since ½f 2 F p ðMÞ; the cotangent vector ½f ðthat is; ½f þ Hp Þ on M at p

F
determined by the germ ½f is a member of the quotient space Hpp ðthat is;
the cotangent space Tp ðMÞ of M at pÞ:
Next, since f 1 2 Cp1 ðMÞ; the equivalence class ½f 1 determined by f 1 is a
member of F p ðMÞ; and hence, the cotangent vector ½f 1 on M at p determined by
F
the term ½f 1 is a member of the quotient space Hpp : Similarly, the cotangent vector
Fp
½f 2 onM at p determined by the term ½f 2 is a member of the quotient space Hp :
Fp Fp
Since ½f 1 ; ½f 2 are in Hp ; and Hp is a real linear space, the linear combination
Fp
ððD1 FÞðf ðpÞ; f ðpÞÞÞ½f þ ððD2 FÞðf 1 ðpÞ; f 2 ðpÞÞÞ½f 2
1 2 1
of ½f 1 ; ½f 2 is in Hp :
Finally, we have to show that

½ f ¼ ðD1 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 1 þ ðD2 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 2 :
Since

ðD1 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 1 þ ðD2 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 2

¼ ðD1 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 1 þ ðD2 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 2

¼ ðD1 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 1 þ ðD2 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 2
we have to show that

½ f ¼ ðD1 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 1 þ ðD2 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 2 ;
that is,

f þ Hp ¼ ðD1 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 1 þ ðD2 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 2 þ Hp ;
that is,

ðD1 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 1 þ ðD2 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 2 f 2 Hp ;
that is, for every c in Cp ðMÞ,

c; ðD1 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 1 þ ðD2 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 2 f ¼ 0;

c; ðD1 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 1 þ ðD2 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ f 2 ½ f ¼ 0;

ðD1 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ c; f 1 þ ðD2 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ c; f 2
c; ½ f ¼ 0;

¼ c; ½ f :
For this purpose, let us take any c in Cp ðMÞ. Since c is in Cp ðMÞ; there exists a
real number d [ 0 such that c is defined on the open interval ðd; dÞ; and cð0Þ ¼ p:

¼ c; ½ f :

LHS ¼ ðD1 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ c; f 1 þ ðD2 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ c; f 2
dðf 1 cÞðtÞ dðf 2 cÞðtÞ
¼ ðD1 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ þ ðD2 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
1 dð f 1
ð c ðt ÞÞ Þ d ðf 2
ð c ðt Þ ÞÞ
¼ ðD1 F Þ f ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ þ ðD2 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ :
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
dðf cÞðtÞ dðf ðcðtÞÞÞ dðF ðf 1 ðcðtÞÞ; f 2 ðcðtÞÞÞÞ
RHS ¼ c; ½ f ¼ ¼ ¼
dt t¼0 dt t¼0 dt t¼0
dðF ððf 1 cÞðtÞ; ðf 2 cÞðtÞÞÞ
¼
dt t¼0
82 2 Tangent Spaces
dðf 1 cÞðtÞ
¼ ðD1 F Þ f 1 c ð0Þ; f 2 c ð0Þ
dt t¼0
1 2 dðf 2 cÞðtÞ
þ ðD2 F Þ f c ð0Þ; f c ð0Þ
dt t¼0
1 d ð f 1
ð cð t Þ Þ Þ
¼ ðD1 F Þ f ðcð0ÞÞ; f 2 ðcð0ÞÞ
dt t¼0
1 d ð f 2
ðcðtÞÞÞ
þ ðD2 F Þ f ðcð0ÞÞ; f ðcð0ÞÞ
2
dt t¼0
1 dð f 1
ð c ð t Þ Þ Þ dðf 2 ðcðtÞÞÞ
¼ ðD1 F Þ f ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ þ ðD2 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ :
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
Hence, LHS = RHS. h

Note 2.43 Since ½f is also denoted by ðdf Þp ; the formula in Theorem 2.17 can be
written as:

ðdf Þp ¼ ðD1 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ df 1 p þ ðD2 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ df 2 p :
oF
Since ðD1 FÞðf 1 ðpÞ; f 2 ðpÞÞ is classically written as ox 1 ðf ðpÞ; f ðpÞÞ; etc., we can
1 2
write:

1 2 oF 1 1 oF 1 2
dF f ; f p ¼ ðdf Þp ¼ f ð pÞ; f ð pÞ
2
df p þ f ð pÞ; f ð pÞ
2
df p :
ox1 ox1
Note 2.44 Since the multiplication operation of real numbers is a smooth function
from R2 to R, in Theorem 2.42, we can take multiplication operation in place of F:
oF oF
1 ðf ðpÞ; f ðpÞÞ becomes f ðpÞ; and ox2 ðf ðpÞ; f ðpÞÞ becomes f ðpÞ: Hence,
1 2 2 1 2 1
So ox
we get

1 2 oF 1 1 oF 1 2
d f f p ¼ ðdf Þp ¼ f ð pÞ; f ð pÞ
2
df p þ f ð pÞ; f ð pÞ
2
df p
ox1 ox2
2 1 1 2
¼ f ð pÞ df p þ f ð pÞ df p
or,
1 2 2 1 1 2
d f f p ¼ f ð pÞ df p þ f ð pÞ df p :
Similarly, for every f 1 ; f 2 ; f 3 in Cp1 ðMÞ; we have

1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2 1 2 3
d f f f p ¼ f ð pÞ f ð pÞ df p þ f ð pÞ f ð pÞ df p þ f ð pÞ f ð pÞ df p ;
etc. If we recollect our previous results, we get the following theorem.


of M: Let f ; g 2 Cp1 ðMÞ: Then,
1. ðdðf þ gÞÞp ¼ ðdf Þp þ ðdgÞp ;
2. ðdðtf ÞÞp ¼ tððdf Þp Þ; for every real t;
3. ðdðf gÞÞp ¼ ðgðpÞÞðdf Þp þ ðf ðpÞÞðdgÞp :
Proof Proofs have already been supplied. h

of M: Let f 1 ; f 2 ; f 3 2 Cp1 ðMÞ: Let G be an open neighborhood of
ðf 1 ðpÞ; f 2 ðpÞ; f 3 ðpÞÞ in R3 : Let F : G ! R be a smooth function. Then, there exists
a unique ½f in F p ðMÞ; where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ; such that for every x in dom f ;

f ð xÞ ¼ F f 1 ð xÞ; f 2 ð xÞ; f 3 ð xÞ :
Also

½f ¼ ðD1 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ; f 3 ð pÞ f 1 þ ðD2 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ; f 3 ð pÞ f 2

þ ðD3 F Þ f 1 ð pÞ; f 2 ð pÞ; f 3 ð pÞ f 3 :
Proof Its proof is quite similar to the proof of Theorem 2.42, etc. h
Theorem 2.47 Let M be a 2-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p be an element of
M: Let ðU; uU Þ be an admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U: Let u1 ; u2
be the component functions of uU : Then,
1. u1 ; u2 are in Cp1 ðMÞ;
2. ½u1 ; ½u2 are linearly independent in the real linear space Tp ðMÞ;
3. for every ½f in Tp ðMÞ; where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ;

½f ¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ u1 þ D2 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ u2 :
In other words,
! ! ! !
o o
ðdf Þp ¼ ½f du 1
þ ½f du2 :
ou1 p
p ou2 p
p
4. f½u1 ; ½u2 g is a basis of the real linear space Tp ðMÞ;

5. dimðTp ðMÞÞ ¼ 2:
84 2 Tangent Spaces
Fig. 2.2 Cotangent space
Proof
1. This fact has been shown earlier.
2. In 1, we have seen that u1 is in Cp1 ðMÞ: Since u1 is in Cp1 ðMÞ, the C 1 -germ ½f
is in F p ðMÞ; and hence, ½u1 ð¼ ½u1 þ Hp Þ is in the cotangent space Tp of M
at p: Similarly, ½u2 ð¼ ½u2 þ Hp Þ is in the cotangent space Tp of M at p (see
Fig. 2.2).
We have to show that ½u1 ; ½u2 are linearly independent. For this purpose, let
a1 ½u1 þ a2 ½u2 ¼ 0; where a1 ; a2 are real numbers. We have to show that a1 ¼
0; and a2 ¼ 0. Since 0 ¼ a1 ½u1 þ a2 ½u2 ¼ ½a1 u1 þ ½a2 u2 ¼
½a1 u þ a2 u ; ½a1 u þ a2 u is in Hp ; and hence, by the definition of Hp ;
1 2 1 2
c; ½a1 u1 þ a2 u2 ¼ 0 for every c in Cp ðMÞ. Therefore, for every c in Cp ðMÞ,
0¼ c; a1 u1 þ a2 u2 ¼ c; a1 u1 þ a2 u2 ¼ c; a1 u1 þ a2 u2
dð u1 c Þ ð t Þ dðu2 cÞðtÞ
¼ a1 c; u1 þ a2 c; u2 ¼ a1 þa2 ;
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
that is,
dð u1 c Þ ð t Þ dð u2 c Þ ð t Þ
a1 þa2 ¼ 0. . .ð Þ
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
for every c in Cp ðMÞ.

c1 : R ! R 2
as follows: For every t in R;

c1 ðtÞ u1 ð pÞ þ t; u2 ð pÞ :
Clearly, c1 is a smooth function.

Here, c1 is continuous, c1 ð0Þ ¼ ðu1 ðpÞ þ 0; u2 ðpÞÞ ¼ ðu1 ðpÞ; u2 ðpÞÞ ¼ uU ðpÞ;
and uU ðUÞ is an open neighborhood of uU ðpÞ; so there exists e [ 0 such that for
every t in the open interval ðe; eÞ; we have c1 ðtÞ is in uU ðUÞ; and hence,
ðuU Þ1 ðc1 ðtÞÞ is in U:
c : ðe; eÞ ! M
as follows: For every t in ðe; eÞ;

cðtÞ ðuU Þ1 ðc1 ðtÞÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 c1 ðtÞ:
We shall try to see that c is in Cp ðMÞ. By the definition of Cp ðMÞ; we must prove
that
1. cð0Þ ¼ p;
2. c is a parametrized curve in the manifold M; that is, c : ðe; eÞ ! M is a smooth
map from ðe; eÞ to M; that is, c is C 1 at every point p of ðe; eÞ:
For 1: Here, LHS ¼ cð0Þ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðc1 ð0ÞÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðu1 ðpÞ þ 0; u2 ðpÞÞ ¼
ðuU Þ1 ðu1 ðpÞ; u2 ðpÞÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðuU ðpÞÞ ¼ p ¼ RHS:
For 2: For this purpose, let us take any t0 in ðe; eÞ: We have to show that
c : ðe; eÞ ! M is C1 at t0 :
We want to apply Theorem 2.2. Since t0 is in ðe; eÞ, by the definition of
c; cðt0 Þð¼ ðuU Þ1 ðc1 ðt0 ÞÞÞ is in U; and hence, ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coordi-
nate chart of M satisfying cðt0 Þ 2 U: Since uU c ¼ uU ððuU Þ1 c1 Þ ¼
ðuU ðuU Þ1 Þ c1 ¼ c1 ; and c1 is a smooth function, uU c is a smooth func-
tion. Since c : ðe; eÞ ! M; t0 is in ðe; eÞ; ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate
chart of M satisfying cðt0 Þ 2 U; and uU c is a smooth function so, by Theorem
2.2, c is C 1 at t0 in ðe; eÞ: This proves 2. Thus, we have shown that c is in
Cp ðMÞ. Hence, from ð Þ;

d u1 ðuU Þ1 c1 ðtÞ d u2 ðuU Þ1 c1 ðtÞ
0 ¼ a1 þa2
dt dt
t¼0 t¼0
¼ a1 þa2
dt dt
t¼0
2
t¼0
3
h i d ðu1 ð pÞ þ tÞ
¼ a1 D 1 u ðuU Þ
1 1
ðc1 ð0ÞÞ D 2 u ðuU Þ
1 1
ðc1 ð0ÞÞ 4 dt 5
d ðu2 ð pÞÞ
dt t¼0
86 2 Tangent Spaces
2 3
h i d ðu1 ð pÞ þ tÞ
þ a2 D1 u2 ðuU Þ 1
ðc1 ð0ÞÞ D2 u2 ðuU Þ 1
ðc1 ð0ÞÞ 4 dt 5
d 2
dt ðu ð pÞÞ t¼0
h i 1
1 1
¼ a1 D1 u1 ðuU Þ ðc1 ð0ÞÞ D2 u1 ðuU Þ ðc1 ð0ÞÞ
0
h i 1
1 1
þ a2 D1 u ðuU Þ
2
ðc1 ð0ÞÞ D 2 u ð uU Þ
2
ðc1 ð0ÞÞ
0

¼ a1 D1 u1 ðuU Þ1 ðc1 ð0ÞÞ þ a2 D1 u2 ðuU Þ1 ðc1 ð0ÞÞ

¼ a1 D1 u1 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ þ a2 D1 u2 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ ¼ a1 ð1Þ þ a2 ð0Þ ¼ a1 :
Thus, a1 ¼ 0: Similarly, a2 ¼ 0: Thus, we have shown that ½u1 ; ½u2 are lin-
early independent. This proves 2.
3. Let us take any ½f ; where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ:
We have to find reals a1 ; a2 such that ½f ¼ a1 ½u1 þ a2 ½u2 : Since f is in

Cp1 ðMÞ so, by the definition of Cp1 ðMÞ; f is a real-valued function whose dom f is
an open neighborhood of p in M; and

is C1 at the point uU ðpÞ in R2 : Here, uU ððdom f Þ \ UÞ is an open neighborhood of

uU ðpÞð¼ ðu1 ðpÞ; u2 ðpÞÞÞ: Since ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ : uU ððdom f Þ \ UÞ ! R is C1 at the
point uU ðpÞ in R2 , for some open neighborhood Gð uU ððdom f Þ \ UÞ R2 Þ of
uU ðpÞ; ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ is smooth on G: For every x in ðdom f Þ \ U; we have

f ð xÞ ¼ f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð xÞÞ ¼ f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð xÞ; u2 ð xÞ :
Now, we want to apply Theorem 2.42. Since, for every x in ðdom f Þ \ U;

f ð xÞ ¼ f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð xÞ; u2 ð xÞ ; u1 ; u2 2 Cp1 ðM Þ;
G is an open neighborhood of ðu1 ðpÞ; u2 ðpÞÞð¼ uU ðpÞÞ in R2 ; and

ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ : G ! R is a smooth function so, by Theorem 2.42,

This proves 3.
4. From 2,3, we find that f½u1 ; ½u2 g is a basis of the real linear space Tp ðMÞ:
This proves 4.
5. From 4, f½u1 ; ½u2 g is a basis of the real linear space Tp ðMÞ; and the number of
elements in the basis is 2; so the dimension of Tp ðMÞ is 2: This proves 5. h
As above, we can prove the following theorem.
of M: Let ðU; uU Þ be an admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U: Let us
define m functions
u1 : U ! R; . . .; um : U ! R

uU ð xÞ u1 ð xÞ; . . .; um ð xÞ :
Then,
1. u1 ; . . .; um are in Cp1 ðMÞ:
2. ½u1 ; . . .; ½um are linearly independent in the real linear space Tp ðMÞ:
3. For every ½f in Tp ðMÞ; where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ;

½f ¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; . . .; um ð pÞ u1 þ

þ Dm f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; . . .; um ð pÞ ½um :
In other words,
! ! ! !
o o
ðdf Þp ¼ ½f du 1
þ þ ½f ðdum Þp :
ou1 p
p oum p
4. f½u1 ; . . .; ½um g is a basis of the real linear space Tp ðMÞ:

5. dimðTp ðMÞÞ ¼ m:

Let ðU; uU Þ be an admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U:
The basis f½u1 ; . . .; ½um g of the cotangent space Tp ðMÞ of M at p; as defined
in Theorem 2.48, is called the natural basis of Tp ðMÞ determined by ðU; uU Þ:
Let c be in Cp ðMÞ. Let ½f ¼ ½g ; where f ; g are in Cp1 ðMÞ: We shall show that
c; ½f ¼ c; ½g : Since ½f ¼ ½g ; ½f g ¼ ½f ½g 2 Hp ; and hence,
88 2 Tangent Spaces
0¼ c; ½ f ½g ¼ c; ½ f c; ½g
or,
c; ½ f ¼ c; ½g :
This shows that the following definition is unambiguous.

Let c be in Cp ðMÞ. Let ½f be in Tp ðMÞ; where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ: By c; ½f ; we
mean c; ½f :
of M: Let us define a relation over Cp ðMÞ as follows: for every c; c0 in Cp ðMÞ; by
c c0 ; we shall mean that for every ½f in Tp ðMÞ; c; ½f ¼ c0 ; ½f :
Then, is an equivalence relation over Cp ðMÞ:
Proof Here, we must prove:
1. c c for every c in Cp ðMÞ;
2. if c c0 then c0 c;
3. if c c0 and c0 c00 , then c c00 :
For 1: Let us take any c in Cp ðMÞ: We have to prove that c c: For this purpose,
let us take any ½f in Tp ðMÞ; where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ: Since
c; ½f ¼ c; ½f , by the definition of ; c c: This proves 1.
For 2: Let c c0 . We have to prove that c0 c; that is, c0 ; ½f ¼ c; ½f
for every ½f in Tp ðMÞ; where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ: For this purpose, let us take any ½f
in Tp ðMÞ; where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ: Since c c0 , by the definition of ; c; ½f ¼
0 0
c ; ½f ; and hence, c ; ½f ¼ c; ½f : This proves 2.
For 3: Let c c0 , and c0 c00 . We have to prove that c c00 ; that is,
c; ½f ¼ c00 ; ½f for every ½f in Tp ðMÞ; where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ: For
this purpose, let us take any ½f in Tp ðMÞ; where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ: Since c c0 ,
by the definition of ; c; ½f ¼ c0 ; ½f : Since c0 c00 , by the defi-
0 00
nition of ; c ; ½f ¼ c ; ½f : Since c; ½f ¼ c0 ; ½f
0 00 00
and c ; ½f ¼ c ; ½f ; c; ½f ¼ c ; ½f : This proves 3.
Thus, we have shown that is an equivalence relation over Cp ðMÞ: h
We have seen that the relation ; as defined in Theorem 2.50, is an equivalence
relation over Cp ðMÞ: For any c in Cp ðMÞ; the equivalence class of c is denoted by
½c: Thus, for any c in Cp ðMÞ;

½c c0 : c0 2 Cp ðM Þ and c0 c :
We shall denote the quotient set Cp ðMÞ= by Cp ðMÞ (or, simply, Cp ). Thus,

Cp ðM Þ ½c : c 2 Cp ðM Þ :
Intuitively, in Cp ðMÞ, we will not distinguish between c0 and c whenever c0 c:

Let ½f be in Tp ðMÞ; where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ: Let ½c ¼ ½c0 ; where c; c0 are in Cp ðMÞ:
We shall show that c; ½f ¼ c0 ; ½f : Since ½c ¼ ½c0 ; c c0 ; and hence,
by Theorem 2.22,
c; ½ f ¼ c0 ; ½ f :
This shows that the following definition is unambiguous.

Let ½f be in Tp ðMÞ; where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ: Let c be in Cp ðMÞ. By h½c; ½f i; we
mean c; ½f : Thus,
dð f c Þ ð t Þ
h½c; ½ f i ¼ c; ½ f ¼ c; ½ f ¼
dt t¼0
f ðcð0 þ tÞÞ f ðcð0ÞÞ
¼ lim ;
t!0 t
which is a real number.

M: Let ðU; uU Þ be an admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U: Let c be
in Cp ðMÞ. Let us define 2 functions
u1 : U ! R; u2 : U ! R

(In short, u1 ; u2 are the component functions of uU :) Then, for every ½f in

Tp ðMÞ; where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ;

d 1
h½c; ½ f i ¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ u c ðt Þ
dt
d
t¼0

1
þ D2 f ðuU Þ u ð pÞ; u ð pÞ
1 2
u c ðt Þ
2
:
dt t¼0
90 2 Tangent Spaces
In other words,
! ! ! !
o d 1 o d 2
h½c; ½ f i ¼ ½f u c ðt Þ þ ½f u c ðt Þ ;
ou1 p dt t¼0 ou2 p dt t¼0
or
! !
o d 1
h½c; ½ f i ¼ ½f u c ðt Þ
ou1 dt
p
! ! t¼0
o d 2
þ ½ f u c ð t Þ :
ou2 p dt t¼0
Proof Since c is in Cp ðMÞ, by the definition of Cp ðMÞ, there exists a real number
d [ 0 such that c is defined on the open interval ðd; dÞ; cð0Þ ¼ p; and c is a
smooth map from ðd; dÞ to M: Also, c is continuous at 0: Since c is continuous at
0; U is an open neighborhood of pð¼ cð0ÞÞ, there exists e [ 0 such that e\d; and
for every t in the open interval ðe; eÞ we have cðtÞ 2 U: So, for every t in ðe; eÞ;

ðuU cÞðtÞ ¼ uU ðcðtÞÞ ¼ u1 ðcðtÞÞ; u2 ðcðtÞÞ ¼ u1 c ðtÞ; u2 c ðtÞ :
Thus, in the open neighborhood ðe; eÞ of 0, the component functions of uU c

are u1 c; and u2 c: Also,

ðuU cÞð0Þ ¼ uU ðcð0ÞÞ ¼ uU ð pÞ ¼ u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ :
Now
dð f c Þ ð t Þ
LHS ¼ h½c; ½ f i ¼ c; ½ f ¼ c; ½ f ¼
dt
t¼0
1
d f ðuU Þ uU c ðtÞ
¼ jt¼0
dt
d f ðuU Þ1 ðuU cÞ ðtÞ
¼
dt
h t¼0
i
1
¼ D1 f ðuU Þ ð ð u U c Þ ð 0Þ Þ D2 f ðuU Þ1 ðuU cÞð0Þ
2 3
d ð u1 c Þ ð t Þ
4 dt 5
dt t¼0
h i
¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 ðu1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞÞ D2 f ðuU Þ1 ðu1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞÞ
2 3
4 dt 5
dt

t¼0

1 d 1
¼ D1 f ðuU Þ u ð pÞ; u ð pÞ
1 2
u c ðt Þ
dt

d
t¼0

þ D2 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ u2 c ðtÞ ¼ RHS:
dt t¼0
h
2.6 Tangent Space as a Dual Space
Note 2.53 Here, we will digress slightly from the current topic. Let V be any real
linear space. Let V be the collection of all linear functionals of V: We know that
V is also a real linear space under pointwise vector addition, and pointwise scalar
multiplication operations. V is called the dual space of V: Let n be the dimension
of V: Let fe1 ; . . .; en g be a basis of V: Let us define a function e1 : V ! R as
follows: For every real t1 ; . . .; tn

e1 t1 e1 þ þ tn en ¼ t1 :
Clearly, e1 is in V : Similarly, we define function e2 : V ! R as follows: For every

real t1 ; . . .; tn

e2 t1 e1 þ þ tn en ¼ t2 ;
etc. We shall try to show that fe1 ; . . .; en g constitutes a basis of V : For this
purpose, we must prove
1. e1 ; . . .; en are linearly independent, that is, t1 e1 þ þ tn e1 ¼ 0 implies
t1 ¼ 0; . . .; tn ¼ 0:
2. fe1 ; . . .; en g generates V ; that is, for every f in V ; there exist reals t1 ; . . .; tn
such that t1 e1 þ þ tn en ¼ f :
For 1: Let t1 e1 þ þ tn e1 ¼ 0: So,

0 ¼ 0 e1 ¼ t1 e1 þ þ tn e1 e1 ¼ t1 e1 e1 þ þ tn en e1
¼ t1 1 þ t2 0 þ þ tn 0 ¼ t1 :
Hence, t1 ¼ 0: Similarly, t2 ¼ 0; . . .; tn ¼ 0:
92 2 Tangent Spaces
For 2: Let us take any f in V : We shall show that ðf ðe1 ÞÞe1 þ þ

ðf ðen ÞÞen ¼ f . For this purpose, it is enough to prove that
1
f e e1 þ þ ðf ðen ÞÞen ðe1 Þ ¼ f e1 ; . . .; f e1 e1 þ þ ðf ðen ÞÞen ðen Þ ¼ f ðen Þ:
Here,
1
LHS ¼ f e e1 þ þ ðf ðen ÞÞen ðe1 Þ ¼ f e1 e1 ðe1 Þ þ þ ðf ðen ÞÞen ðe1 Þ

¼ f e1 1 þ f e2 0 þ þ ðf ðen ÞÞ 0 ¼ f e1 ¼ RHS;
etc. Thus, we have shown that fe1 ; . . .; en g constitutes a basis of V : The basis
fe1 ; . . .; en g of the dual space V is called the dual basis of the basis fe1 ; . . .; en g:
Observe that
1. ej ðei Þ ¼ dij :
2. dimðV Þ ¼ n ¼ dimðVÞ:
Now, let us consider the mapping m : V ! V defined as follows: For every real
t1 ; . . .; tn

m t1 e1 þ þ tn en ¼ t1 e1 þ þ tn en :
We shall show that m is an isomorphism from V onto V : For this purpose, we

must prove
1. m is 1–1
2. m is onto.
3. mðsx þ tyÞ ¼ sðmðxÞÞ þ tðmðyÞÞ; for every real s; t; and for every x; y in V:
For 1: Let mðxÞ ¼ mðyÞ: We have to prove that x ¼ y: Let x ¼ s1 e1 þ þ sn en ;
and y ¼ t1 e1 þ þ tn en . Now, we have

s 1 e1 þ þ s n en ¼ m s 1 e1 þ þ s n en ¼ mð xÞ ¼ mð yÞ ¼ m t 1 e1 þ þ t n en
¼ t 1 e1 þ þ t n en ;
and hence, s1 ¼ t1 ; . . .; sn ¼ tn : Since s1 ¼ t1 ; . . .; sn ¼ tn ; x ¼ s1 e1 þ þ

sn en ¼ t1 e1 þ þ tn en ¼ y: This proves 1.
For 2: For this purpose, let us take any f in V : We have to find an element in V
whose m-image is f : Since f is in V ; and fe1 ; . . .; en g constitutes a basis of V ;
there exist reals t1 ; . . .; tn such that
2.6 Tangent Space as a Dual Space 93
t1 e1 þ þ tn en ¼ f :
Now

m t1 e1 þ þ tn en ¼ t1 e1 þ þ tn en ¼ f ;
where t1 e1 þ þ tn en is in V: This proves 2.

For 3: Let us take any x s1 e1 þ þ sn en ; and y t1 e1 þ þ tn en : Let us
take any reals s; t: Now

LHS ¼ mðsx þ tyÞ ¼ m s s1 e1 þ þ sn en þ t t1 e1 þ þ tn en

¼ m ðss1 þ tt1 Þe1 þ þ ðssn þ ttn Þen ¼ ðss1 þ tt1 Þe1 þ þ ðssn þ ttn Þen

¼ s s1 e1 þ þ sn en þ t t1 e1 þ þ tn en ¼ s m s1 e1 þ þ sn en
1
þ t m t1 e þ þ tn en
¼ sðmðxÞÞ þ tðmð yÞÞ ¼ RHS:
Thus, we have shown that m is an isomorphism from V onto V : Hence, V and V

are isomorphic real linear spaces.

We will denote the dual space of the real linear space Tp ðMÞ by T p ðMÞ: Thus,
T p ðMÞ is the collection of all linear functionals defined on Tp ðMÞ: It is known that
T p ðMÞ is a real linear space. Now, let ðU; uU Þ be an admissible coordinate chart of
M satisfying p 2 U:
Let us define m functions
u1 : U ! R; . . .; um : U ! R

uU ð xÞ u1 ð xÞ; . . .; um ð xÞ :
By Theorem 2.48, f½u1 ; . . .; ½um g is a basis of the real linear space Tp ðMÞ:
Let us define the function ½u1 : Tp ðMÞ ! R as follows: For every real
t1 ; . . .; tm ;

½u1 t1 u1 þ þ tm ½um t1 :
It is easy to see that ½u1 is in T p ðMÞ:

As above, we define ½u2 : Tp ðMÞ ! R as follows: For every real t1 ; . . .; tm ;
94 2 Tangent Spaces

½u2 t1 u1 þ þ tm ½um t2 ;
etc. We know that f½u1 ; . . .; ½um g constitutes a basis of the dual space T p ðMÞ of
Tp ðMÞ. f½u1 ; . . .; ½um g is called the dual basis of the basis f½u1 ; . . .; ½um g
Clearly,

½ ui uj ¼ dij ;
where dij denotes the Kronecker delta symbol. In other words,

½ ui du j p
¼ dij :
Also,

dim T p ðM Þ ¼ dim Tp ðM Þ ¼ m:

M: Let c be in Cp ðMÞ. Let us define a function
½c : Tp ðM Þ ! R;
as follows: For every ½f in Tp ðMÞ; where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ;
½c ð½ f Þ h½c; ½ f i:
Then, ½c is a linear functional on the real linear space Tp ðMÞ; that is,
f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg is a subset of the dual space T p ðMÞ of Tp ðMÞ:
For every real a; b; and for every ½f ; ½g in Tp ðMÞ; where f ; g are in Cp1 ðMÞ;
½c ða½ f þb½g Þ ¼ að½c ð½ f ÞÞ þ bð½c ð½g ÞÞ:
LHS ¼ ½c ða½ f þb½g Þ ¼ ½c ð½af þ½bg Þ ¼ ½c ð½af þ bg Þ ¼ h½c; ½af þ bg i
¼ c; ½af þ bg ¼ c; ½af þ bg ¼ c; ½af þ ½bg ¼ c; a½ f þ b½g
¼ a c; ½ f þ b c; ½g ¼ a c; ½ f þb c; ½g ¼ ha½c; ½ f i þ bh½c; ½g i
¼ að½c ð½ f ÞÞ þ bð½c ð½g ÞÞ ¼ RHS: h
h
M: Let ðU; uU Þ be an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M such that p is in U:
Let u1 ; u2 be the component functions of uU : Let T be a linear functional of Tp ðMÞ:

Let
c1 : R ! R 2
be the function defined as follows: For every t in R;

1 2
c1 ð t Þ T u t; T u t þ uU ð pÞ:
Then
1. ðuU Þ1 c1 is in Cp ðMÞ
2. for every f in Cp1 ðMÞ;
h i
T ð½ f Þ ¼ h ðuU Þ1 c1 ; ½ f i:
Proof
1: Clearly, c1 is a smooth function. Here, c1 is continuous, c1 ð0Þ ¼
ððTð½u1 ÞÞ 0; ðTð½u2 ÞÞ 0Þ þ uU ðpÞ ¼ uU ðpÞ; and uU ðUÞ is an open
neighborhood of uU ðpÞ; so there exists e [ 0 such that for every t in the open
interval ðe; eÞ; we have c1 ðtÞ in uU ðUÞ; and hence, ðuU Þ1 ðc1 ðtÞÞ is in U:
c : ðe; eÞ ! M
as follows: For every t in ðe; eÞ;

cðtÞ ðuU Þ1 ðc1 ðtÞÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 c1 ðtÞ:
So,
c ¼ ðuU Þ1 c1 :
We shall try to see that c is in Cp ðMÞ: By the definition of Cp ðMÞ; we must prove
that
1. cð0Þ ¼ p;
2. c is a parametrized curve in the manifold M; that is, c : ðe; eÞ ! M is a smooth
map from ðe; eÞ to M; that is, c is C 1 at every point of ðe; eÞ:
96 2 Tangent Spaces
For 1: Here LHS ¼ cð0Þ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðc1 ð0ÞÞ ¼ ðuU Þ1 ðuU ðpÞÞ ¼ p ¼ RHS:
This proves 1.
For 2: For this purpose, let us take any t0 in ðe; eÞ: We have to show that
c : ðe; eÞ ! M is C 1 at t0 : We want to apply Theorem 2.2. Since t0 is in
ðe; eÞ, by the definition of c; cðt0 Þð¼ ðuU Þ1 ðc1 ðt0 ÞÞÞ is in U; and hence,
ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying cðt0 Þ 2 U: Since
uU c ¼ uU ððuU Þ1 c1 Þ ¼ ðuU ðuU Þ1 Þ c1 ¼ c1 ; and c1 is a smooth
function, uU c is a smooth function. Since c : ðe; eÞ ! M; t0 is in ðe; eÞ;
ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying cðt0 Þ 2 U; and uU c
is a smooth function, by Theorem 2.2, c is C 1 at t0 in ðe; eÞ: This proves 2.
Thus, we have shown that c is in Cp ðMÞ. This proves 1.
2: Since ½f is in Tp ðMÞ so, by Theorem 2.47,

½f ¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ u1 þ D2 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ u2 ;
and hence,
1 1 2 1
LHS ¼ T f ¼ T D1 f uU u p ;u p u
1 1 2 2
þ D2 f uU u p ;u p u
1 1 2 1
¼ D1 f uU u p ;u p T u
1 1 2 2
þ D2 f uU u p ;u p T u :
Next, by Theorem 2.52,

Dh i E
RHS ¼ ðuU Þ1 c1 ; ½ f ¼ h½c; ½ f i

1 d 1
¼ D1 f ðuU Þ u ð pÞ; u ð pÞ
1 2
u c ðtÞ
dt
d
t¼0

þ D2 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ u2 c ð t Þ :
dt t¼0
Now, it remains to be proved that

d u1 ðuU Þ1 c1 ðtÞ
¼ T u1 ;
dt
t¼0
and

¼ T u2 :
dt
t¼0
Here,

LHS ¼ ¼
dt dt
t¼0
2 t¼0
3
h i d ððT ð½u1 ÞÞt þ u1 ð pÞÞ

¼ D1 u1 ðuU Þ1 ðc1 ð0ÞÞ D 2 u ð uU Þ 1 1
ðc1 ð0ÞÞ 4 dt 5
d ððT ð½u2 ÞÞt þ u2 ð pÞÞ
dt t¼0
h i T ð½u1 Þ
1 1
¼ D1 u ðuU Þ
1
ðc1 ð0ÞÞ D 2 u ð uU Þ
1
ðc1 ð0ÞÞ
T ð½u2 Þ

1
¼ D1 u1 ðuU Þ ðuU ð pÞÞ T u1 þ D2 u1 ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ T u2
1
¼ ð1Þ T u1 þ ð0Þ T u2 ¼ T u ¼ RHS:
Similarly,

¼ T u2 : h
dt
t¼0
h
M: Let T be a linear functional on Tp ðMÞ: Then, there exists c in Cp ðMÞ such that
for every ½f in Tp ðMÞ;
T ð½ f Þ ¼ h½c; ½ f i:
Proof Since M is a 2-dimensional smooth manifold, and p is in M; there exists an

admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M such that p is in U: Let us define 2
functions
u1 : U ! R; u2 : U ! R

Let
c1 : R ! R 2
98 2 Tangent Spaces
be the function defined as follows: for every t in R;

1 2
c1 ð t Þ T u t; T u t þ uU ð pÞ:
Then, by Lemma 2.55, ðuU Þ1 c1 is in Cp ðMÞ and for every ½f in Tp ðMÞ;
h i
T ð½ f Þ ¼ h ðuU Þ1 c1 ; ½ f i: h
h
M: For every c in Cp ðMÞ we define a function
as follows: For every ½f in Tp ðMÞ; where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ;
½c ð½ f Þ h½c; ½ f i:
Then, the mapping ½c 7! ½c is a 1–1 mapping from f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg onto
T p ðMÞ:
1. ½c 7! ½c is a well-defined mapping from f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg to T p ðMÞ;
2. if ½c ¼ ½c0 , where c; c0 2 Cp ðMÞ, then ½c ¼ ½c0 ;
3. for every T in T p ðMÞ; there exists c in Cp ðMÞ such that ½c ¼ T:
For 1: Let ½c ¼ ½c0 ; that is, c c0 : We have to show that ½c ¼ ½c0 ; that is, for
every ½f in Tp ðMÞ; ½c ð½f Þ ¼ ½c0 ð½f Þ: For this purpose, let us take any
½f in Tp ðMÞ: Since c c0 ; and ½f is in Tp ðMÞ, by the definition of ;
c; ½f ¼ c0 ; ½f : Now
LHS ¼ ½c ð½ f Þ ¼ h½c; ½ f i ¼ c; ½ f ¼ c0 ; ½ f ¼ h½c0 ; ½ f i

¼ ½c0 ð½ f Þ ¼ RHS:
So ½c 7! ½c is a well-defined mapping.

Next, by Theorem 2.54, ½c is in T p ðMÞ for every c in Cp ðMÞ. This proves 1.
For 2: Let ½c ¼ ½c0 , where c; c0 2 Cp ðMÞ: We have to prove that ½c ¼ ½c0 ;
that is, c c0 ; that is, for every ½f in Tp ðMÞ; c; ½f ¼ c0 ; ½f : For
this purpose, let us take any ½f in Tp ðMÞ: We have to show that
c; ½ f ¼ c0 ; ½ f :
Since ½c ¼ ½c0 , ½c : Tp ðMÞ ! R; ½c0 : Tp ðMÞ ! R; and ½f is in Tp ðMÞ;
LHS ¼ c; ½ f ¼ h½c; ½ f i ¼ ½c ð½ f Þ ¼ ½c0 ð½ f Þ ¼ h½c0 ; ½ f i

¼ c0 ; ½ f ¼ RHS:
For 3: Let us take any T in T p ðMÞ: Since T is in T p ðMÞ; and T p ðMÞ is dual
space of the real linear space Tp ðMÞ; T is a linear functional on Tp ðMÞ; and
hence, by Theorem 2.56, there exists c in Cp ðMÞ such that for every ½f in
Tp ðMÞ;
T ð½ f Þ ¼ h½c; ½ f i:
Since, for every ½f in Tp ðMÞ; we have Tð½f Þ ¼ h½c; ½f i ¼ ½c ð½f Þ;

T ¼ ½c : This proves 3. h
Similarly, we can prove the following theorem.

of M. For every c in Cp ðMÞ, we define a function
as follows: For every ½f in Tp ðMÞ, where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ,
½c ð½ f Þ h½c; ½ f i:
Then, the mapping ½c 7! ½c is a 1–1 mapping from f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg onto
T p ðMÞ:
M. Let g be the mapping ½c 7! ½c from f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg to T p ðMÞ; as defined in
Theorem 2.58. By Theorem 2.58, g is a 1–1 mapping from f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg onto
T p ðMÞ; and hence, g1 is a 1–1 mapping from T p ðMÞ onto f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg:
Define vector addition, and scalar multiplication over the set f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg
as follows: For every c; c0 in Cp ðMÞ; and for every real t,
½c þ ½c0 ¼ g1 ðgð½cÞ þ gð½c0 ÞÞ;

100 2 Tangent Spaces
and
t½c ¼ g1 ðtðgð½cÞÞÞ:
Since T p ðMÞ is a real linear space, and g is a 1–1 mapping from

f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg onto T p ðMÞ; f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg is also a real linear space.
Clearly, g : ½c 7! ½c is an isomorphism from real linear space f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg
onto real linear space T p ðMÞ: Thus, we have the following formulae:
gð½c þ ½c0 Þ ¼ gð½cÞ þ gð½c0 Þ
and
gðt½cÞ ¼ tðgð½cÞÞ:
In other words,
ð½c þ ½c0 Þ ¼ ð½cÞ þð½c0 Þ
and
ðt½cÞ ¼ tð½cÞ ;
because g is the mapping ½c 7! ½c from f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg to T p ðMÞ, as defined in
Theorem 2.58.
Since g : ½c 7! ½c is an isomorphism from real linear space f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg
onto real linear space T p ðMÞ, g1 : ½c 7! ½c is also an isomorphism. Also,

dim ½c : c 2 Cp ðM Þ ¼ dim T p ðM Þ :
Further, since dimðT p ðMÞÞ ¼ dimðTp ðMÞÞ ¼ ðthe dimension of the manifoldÞ,
so

dim ½c : c 2 Cp ðM Þ ¼ ðthe dimension of the manifoldÞ:
It follows that the real linear space f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg is isomorphic to Rm :

M. Let ðU; uU Þ be an admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U: Let
c : ðd; dÞ ! M; and c0 : ðd0 ; d0 Þ ! M be in Cp ðMÞ; where d [ 0; and d0 [ 0:
Then, ½c ¼ ½c0 if and only if
dðuU cÞðtÞ dðuU c0 ÞðtÞ

¼ :
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
In other words, c c0 if and only if c c0 ; that is, ½c ¼ c: And hence,

½c : c 2 Cp ðM Þ ¼ Tp M:
Proof of “only if” part: Let ½c ¼ ½c0 . Since ½c ¼ ½c0 , c c0 : Let us define 2
functions
u1 : U ! R; u2 : U ! R
as follows: For every x in U,

By Theorem 2.48, ½u1 ; ½u2 are in Tp ðMÞ: Since c c0 ; and ½u1 ; ½u2 are
in Tp ðMÞ, by the definition of , c; ½u1 ¼ c0 ; ½u1 ; and
c; ½u2 ¼ c0 ; ½u2 : Now
dðuU cÞðtÞ dð u U ð c ð t Þ Þ Þ dðu1 ðcðtÞÞ; u2 ðcðtÞÞÞ

LHS ¼ ¼ ¼
1
dðu ðcðtÞÞÞ dðu ðcðtÞÞÞ
2
dððu cÞðtÞÞ dððu cÞðtÞÞ
1 2
¼ ; ¼ ;
dt dt t¼0 dt dt t¼0

dððu cÞðtÞÞ
1
dððu cÞðtÞÞ
2
¼ ; ¼ c; u 1
; c; u 2
dt t¼0 dt t¼0

0 1 0
dð ð u1 c 0 Þ ð t Þ Þ dððu2 c0 ÞðtÞÞ
¼ c; u ; c; u 2
¼ ;
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
0 0
1 0 2 0

dððu c ÞðtÞÞ dððu c ÞðtÞÞ
1 2
dðu ðc ðtÞÞÞ dðu ðc ðtÞÞÞ
¼ ; ¼ ;
dt dt t¼0 dt dt t¼0
dðu1 ðc0 ðtÞÞ; u2 ðc0 ðtÞÞÞ dðuU ðc0 ðtÞÞÞ dðuU c0 ÞðtÞ
¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ RHS:
Proof of “if” part Let

¼ :
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
We have to show that ½c ¼ ½c0 , that is, c c0 ; that is, for every ½f in Tp ðMÞ;
c; ½f ¼ c0 ; ½f : For this purpose, let us take any ½f in Tp ðMÞ: We
have to show that c; ½f ¼ c0 ; ½f : Now, since

dððu1 cÞðtÞÞ dððu2 cÞðtÞÞ
c; u1 ; c; u2 ¼ ;
dt t¼0 dt t¼0

dððu1 cÞðtÞÞ dððu2 cÞðtÞÞ
¼ ;
dt dt t¼0
1
dðu ðcðtÞÞÞ dðu ðcðtÞÞÞ
2
dðu1 ðcðtÞÞ; u2 ðcðtÞÞÞ
¼ ; ¼
dt dt t¼0 dt t¼0
dðuU ðcðtÞÞÞ
¼
dt t¼0
¼ ¼
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
dðuU ðc0 ðtÞÞÞ dðu1 ðc0 ðtÞÞ; u2 ðc0 ðtÞÞÞ
¼ ¼
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
1 0
dðu ðc ðtÞÞÞ dðu2 ðc0 ðtÞÞÞ
¼ ;
dt dt t¼0

dððu c ÞðtÞÞ dððu2 c0 ÞðtÞÞ
1 0
¼ ;
dt dt t¼0

dððu1 c0 ÞðtÞÞ dððu2 c0 ÞðtÞÞ
¼ ;
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
0 1
¼ c; u ; c0 ; u2 ;
so,
c; u1 ¼ c 0 ; u1 and c; u2 ¼ c 0 ; u2 :
Since ½f in Tp ðMÞ, by Theorem 2.48,

Now,
LHS ¼ c; ½ f

¼ c; D1 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ u1 þ D2 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ u2



¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ c; u1 þ D2 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ c; u2

¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ c 0 ; u1 þ D2 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ c 0 ; u2

¼ c0 ; D1 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ u1 þ D2 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ u2


¼ c0 ; ½ f ¼ RHS:
h
Note 2.60 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p be an element of

M. Since f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg ¼ Tp M; and f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg is a real linear space,
Tp M is a real linear space. Since g : ½c 7! ½c is an isomorphism from real linear
space f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg onto real linear space T p ðMÞ, f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg and
T p ðMÞ are isomorphic, and hence, Tp M and T p ðMÞ are isomorphic.
The real linear space Tp M is called the tangent space of M at p; and the elements of
Tp M are called tangent vectors at p:
M. Then, the mapping ð½c; ½f Þ 7! h½c; ½f i from the real linear space Tp ðMÞ
Tp ðMÞ to R is bilinear, that is, linear in each variable.
Proof Let ðU; uU Þ be an admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U: We
have to show that
1. For every ½c in f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg; for every ½f ; ½g in Tp ðMÞ, and for every
real s; t,
h½c; s½ f þt½g i ¼ sh½c; ½ f i þ th½c; ½g i:
2. For every c; c0 in Cp ðMÞ; for every ½f in Tp ðMÞ;
h½c þ ½c0 ; ½ f i ¼ h½c; ½ f i þ h½c0 ; ½ f i:
3. For every ½f in Tp ðMÞ; for every c in Cp ðMÞ, and for every real s,
hs½c; ½ f i ¼ sh½c; ½ f i:
For 1: LHS ¼ h½c; s½f þ t½g i ¼ h½c; ½sf þ ½tg i

¼ h½c; ½sf þ tg i ¼ c; ½sf þ tg
¼ s c; ½ f þ t c; ½g ¼ s c; ½ f þt c; ½g
¼ sh½c; ½ f i þ th½c; ½g i
¼ RHS:
For 2: Let us take any c; c0 in Cp ðMÞ: Let us take any ½f in Tp ðMÞ: We have to
show that h½c þ ½c0 ; ½f i ¼ h½c; ½f i þ h½c0 ; ½f i:
LHS ¼ h½c þ ½c0 ; ½f i ¼ h½c00 ; ½f i where ½c00 ½c þ ½c0 for some c00 in Cp ðMÞ:
Since ½c00 ½c þ ½c0 ; ð½c00 Þ ¼ ð½c þ ½c0 Þ ¼ ð½cÞ þ ð½c0 Þ ; and hence,

h½c00 ; ½ f i ¼ ð½c00 Þ ð½ f Þ ¼ ð½cÞ þð½c0 Þ ð½ f Þ

¼ ðð½cÞ Þð½ f Þ þ ð½c0 Þ ð½ f Þ ¼ h½c; ½ f i þ h½c0 ; ½ f i:
Thus, we have shown that h½c þ ½c0 ; ½f i ¼ h½c; ½f i þ ½c0 ; ½f : This proves 2.
For 3: Let us take any ½f in Tp ðMÞ: Let us take any c in Cp ðMÞ; and any real s:
We have to show that hs½c; ½f i ¼ sh½c; ½f i:
LHS ¼ hs½c; ½f i ¼ h½c0 ; ½f i where ½c0 s½c for some c0 in Cp ðMÞ:
Since ½c0 ¼ s½c; ð½c0 Þ ¼ ðs½cÞ ¼ sðð½cÞ Þ; and hence,
h½c0 ; ½ f i ¼ ð½c0 Þ ð½ f Þ ¼ ðsðð½cÞ ÞÞð½ f Þ ¼ sððð½cÞ Þð½ f ÞÞ

¼ sh½c; ½ f i:
Thus, we have shown that hs½c; ½f i ¼ sh½c; ½f i. This proves 3. h

of M. Then, the mapping ð½c; ½f Þ 7! h½c; ½f i from the real linear space
Tp ðMÞ Tp ðMÞ to R is bilinear, that is, linear in each variable.
Proof Its proof is quite similar to that of Theorem 2.61, etc. h
Definition Let M be a 2-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p be an element of
M. Let ðU; uU Þ be an admissible coordinate chart of M such that p is in U. Let u1 ; u2
be the component functions of uU . Let us define the function U 1 : Tp ðMÞ ! R as
follows: For every real t1 ; t2 ;

U 1 t1 u1 þt2 u2 t1 :
Clearly, U 1 is a linear functional on Tp ðMÞ; and hence, U 1 is in T p ðMÞ. Let us

define the function U 2 : Tp ðMÞ ! R as follows: For every real t1 ; t2 ,

U 2 t1 u1 þt2 u2 t2 :
Clearly, U 2 is a linear functional on Tp ðMÞ; and hence, U 2 is in T p ðMÞ:

Since g : ½c 7! ½c is an isomorphism from real linear space f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg
onto real linear space T p ðMÞ; and f½c : c 2 Cp ðMÞg ¼ Tp ðMÞ; g : ½c 7! ½c is an
isomorphism from tangent space Tp ðMÞ onto real linear space T p ðMÞ, and hence,
there exists a unique ½k1 in Tp ðMÞ such that ½k1 ¼ U 1 :
Similarly, there exists a unique ½k2 in Tp ðMÞ such that ½k2 ¼ U 2 : We know that
fU 1 ; U 2 g is a basis of the dual space T p ðMÞ of Tp ðMÞ: Further, since ½k1 ¼ U 1 ;
and ½k2 ¼ U 2 ; f½k1 ; ½k2 g is a basis of T p ðMÞ: Also,

h½ki ; u j i ¼ ½ki u j ¼ dij :
Since f½k1 ; ½k2 g is a basis of T p ðMÞ; and g : ½c 7! ½c is an isomorphism

from tangent space Tp ðMÞ onto T p ðMÞ, f½k1 ; ½k2 g is a basis of Tp ðMÞ.
Here, we say that f½k1 ; ½k2 g is the natural basis of the tangent space Tp ðMÞ
under local coordinate system ðui Þ: Similar definitions can be supplied for a 3-
dimensional smooth manifold, etc.
In continuation with the above discussion for 2-dimensional smooth manifold M,

let us note that for every ½f in Tp ðMÞ;
h½k1 ; ðdf Þp i ¼ h½k1 ; ½ f i

¼ h½k1 ; D1 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ u1

þ D2 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ u2 i

¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ h½k1 ; u1 i

þ D2 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ h½k1 ; u2 i

¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ ð1Þ

þ D2 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ ð0Þ

¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ :
Thus, for every ½f in Tp ðMÞ;

!
o
h½k1 ; ðdf Þp i ¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ ¼ ½ f :
ou1 p
So
!
o
h½k1 ; ðdf Þp i ¼ ½ f :
ou1 p
Similarly, we have
!
o
h½k2 ; ðdf Þp i ¼ ½ f :
ou2 p
So, for every i ¼ 1; 2; and for every ½f in F p ðMÞ;

!
o
h½ki ; ½ f i ¼ ½ f :
oui p
Hence, when there is no confusion, we denote ½ki by ouo i jp :

Further, since f½k1 ; ½k2 g is the natural basis of the tangent space Tp ðMÞ under
local coordinate system ðui Þ; fouo1 jp ; ouo2 jp g is the natural basis of the tangent space
Tp ðMÞ under local coordinate system ðui Þ. Thus, for every ½f in F p ðMÞ;
!
o o
h i ; ðdf Þp i ¼ ½ f :
ou p oui p
Also, we have
o
h i ; du j p i ¼ dij :
ou p

M. Let ðU; uU Þ be an admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U. Let c be in
Cp ðMÞ. Let u1 ; u2 be the component functions of uU . Then,

d 1 d 2
u c ðt Þ ; u c ðt Þ
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
are the components of the tangent vector ½c at p, with respect to the natural basis
( )
o o
;
ou1 p ou2 p
of the tangent space Tp ðMÞ under local coordinate system ðui Þ.

Proof Let us take any ½f in Tp ðMÞ; where f is in Cp1 ðMÞ: Since

d 1
½c ð½ f Þ ¼ h½c; ½ f i ¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ u c ðt Þ
dt
d t¼0

1
þ D 2 f ðuU Þ u ð pÞ; u ð pÞ
1 2
u c ðt Þ
2
dt
t¼0

d 1 d 2
¼ h½k1 ; ðdf Þp i u c ðt Þ þh½k2 ; ðdf Þp i u c ðt Þ
dt dt
t¼0
t¼0
d 1 d 2
¼ u c ðt Þ h½k1 ; ½ f i þ u c ðt Þ h½k2 ; ½ f i
dt dt
t¼0 t¼0
d 1 d 2
¼ u c ðt Þ ð½k1 ð½ f ÞÞ þ u c ðt Þ ð½k2 ð½ f ÞÞ
dt dt
t¼0
t¼0

d 1 d 2
¼ u c ðt Þ ½k1 ð½ f Þ þ u c ðt Þ ½k2 ð½ f Þ
dt dt
t¼0 t¼0
d 1 d 2
¼ u c ðt Þ ½k1 ð½ f Þ þ u c ðt Þ ½k2 ð½ f Þ
dt dt
t¼0 t¼0
d 1 d 2
¼ u c ðt Þ ½k1 þ u c ðt Þ ½k2 ð½ f Þ
dt dt
t¼0 t¼0
d 1 d 2
¼ u c ðt Þ ½k1 þ u c ðt Þ ½k2 ð½ f Þ;
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
so

d 1 d 2
½c ¼ u c ðt Þ ½ k1 þ u c ðt Þ ½ k2 :
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
Further, since

d 1 d 2
gð½cÞ ¼ ½c ¼ u c ðt Þ ½ k1 þ u c ðt Þ ½k2
dt dt
t¼0

t¼0
d 1 d 2
¼g u c ðt Þ ½ k1 þ u c ðt Þ ½ k2 ;
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
and g is a 1–1 mapping from Tp ðMÞ onto T p ðMÞ;

d 1 d 2
½ c ¼ u c ðt Þ ½ k1 þ u c ðtÞ ½ k2
dt dt

t¼0
! t¼0
!
d 1 o d 2 o
¼ u c ðt Þ þ u c ðtÞ :
dt t¼0 ou1 p dt t¼0 ou2 p
Further, since f½k1 ; ½k2 g is a basis of the tangent space Tp ðMÞ, that is,
( ! !)
o o
;
ou1 p ou2 p
is a basis of the tangent space Tp ðMÞ,

d 1 d 2
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
are the components of the tangent vector ½c at p, with respect to the natural basis.h
Note 2.64 As above, for m-dimensional smooth manifold M, we get the formula:
! !
d 1 o d m o
½ c ¼ u c ðt Þ þ þ ð u cÞ ð t Þ :
dt t¼0 ou1 p dt t¼0 oum p
Further, since f½k1 ; . . .; ½km g is a basis of the tangent space Tp ðMÞ; that is,
( ! !)
o o
; . . .;
ou1 p oum p
is a basis of the tangent space Tp ðMÞ,

d 1 d m
u c ðt Þ ; . . .; ðu cÞðtÞ
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
are the components of the tangent vector ½c at p, with respect to the natural basis.
Note 2.65 When there is no confusion, we generally avoid writing the lower index
p of the tangent vectors, cotangent vectors, etc.
of M. Let ðdf Þp ; ðdgÞp be in Tp ; where f ; g are in Cp1 . Let X be in Tp M. Let s; t be
any real numbers. Then,
1. hX; ðdðsf þ tgÞÞp i ¼ s hX; ðdf Þp i þ t hX; ðdgÞp i;
2. hX; ðdðf gÞÞp i ¼ f ðpÞ hX; ðdgÞp i þ gðpÞ hX; ðdf Þp i:
Proof
1: By Theorem 2.45, hX; ðdðsf þ tgÞÞp i ¼ hX; s ððdf Þp Þ þ t ððdgÞp Þi: Further,
since the mapping ð½c; ½f Þ 7! h½c; ½f i from the real linear space Tp Tp to
R is linear in the second variable, hX; s ððdf Þp Þ þ t ððdgÞp Þi ¼ s hX; ðdf Þp þ
t X; ðdgÞp i; and hence,
hX; ðd ðsf þ tgÞÞp i ¼ s hX; ðdf Þp þt X; ðdgÞp i:
This proves 1.
2: By Theorem 2.45, hX; ðdðf gÞÞp i ¼ hX; ðgðpÞÞðdf Þp þ ðf ðpÞÞðdgÞp i: Further,
since the mapping ð½c; ½f Þ 7! h½c; ½f i from the real linear space Tp Tp to
R is linear in the second variable, hX; ðgðpÞÞðdf Þp þ ðf ðpÞÞðdgÞp i ¼ ðgðpÞÞ
hX; ðdf Þp i þ ðf ðpÞÞ hX; ðdgÞp i; and hence,
hX; ðd ðf gÞÞp i ¼ ðgð pÞÞ hX; ðdf Þp i þ ðf ð pÞÞ hX; ðdgÞp i:
This proves 2. h
2.7 Contravariant Vectors and Covariant Vectors

M. Let ðdf Þp be in Tp , where f is in Cp1 . Let X be in Tp M: By Xf, we mean hX; ðdf Þp i;
and is called the directional derivative of the function f along the tangent vector X.
2.7 Contravariant Vectors and Covariant Vectors 109
Now, the Theorem 2.66 can be restated as follows:

of M. Let X be in Tp M: Then, for every f ; g in Cp1 ; and for every real s; t;
1. Xðsf þ tgÞ ¼ s ðXf Þ þ t ðXgÞ;
2. Xðf gÞ ¼ f ðpÞ Xðf Þ þ gðpÞ XðgÞ:

M. Let ½c be in Tp M, where c is in c 2 Cp ðMÞ. Let ðU; uU Þ; ðU 0 ; u0U Þ be two
admissible coordinate charts of M satisfying p 2 U, and p 2 U 0 . Let u1 ; u2 be the
component functions of uU . Let u01 ; u02 be the component functions of u0U . Then,
01 01
d 01 ou d 1 ou d 2
u c ðt Þ ¼ u c ðt Þ þ u c ðt Þ ;
dt t¼0 ou1 dt t¼0 ou2 dt t¼0
where
!
ou01 01 1
o
D 1 u ð u Þ u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ ¼ u01 ;
ou1 U
ou1 p
and
!
ou01 01 1
o
D 2 u ð u Þ u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ ¼ u01 :
ou2 U
ou2 p
Proof Here,

d 1 d 2
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
( )
o o
;
ou1 p ou2 p
of the tangent space Tp M under local coordinate system ðui Þ. Also,

d 01 d 02
dt t¼0 dt t¼0
( )
o o
;
ou01 p ou02 p
of the tangent space Tp M under local coordinate system ðu0i Þ. Since c is in Cp ðMÞ,
cð0Þ ¼ p. We have to prove that
01 01
d 01 ou d 1 ou d 2
u c ðt Þ ¼ u c ð t Þ þ u c ð t Þ :

d 01 d 0 1
LHS ¼ u c ðt Þ ¼ uU c ðt Þ
dt dt

t¼0
1
t¼0
d 0 1
¼ uU ðu U Þ uU c ðt Þ
dt
1 t¼0
d 0 1
¼ uU ðu U Þ ðuU cÞ ðt Þ
dt
1 t¼0
d 1
¼ u0U ðuU Þ ðuU cÞ ð t Þ
dt
1
t¼0
1
0 1 0 1
¼ D 1 uU ðu U Þ ððu U c Þð0 ÞÞ D 2 u U ðuU Þ ððuU cÞð0ÞÞ
2 3
d ðu c Þ1 ðt Þ
6 dt U
7
4 t¼0 5
d ðu c Þ2 ðt Þ
dt U
1
t¼0
1
1
¼ D1 u0U ðuU Þ ðuU ðcð0ÞÞÞ D2 u0U ðuU Þ1 ðuU ðcð0ÞÞÞ
2 3
d ðu c Þ1 ðt Þ
6 dt U
7
4 t¼0 5
d ðu c Þ2 ðt Þ
dt U
1
t¼0
1
1
¼ 0
D 1 uU ðu U Þ ðu U ð p ÞÞ D2 u0U ðuU Þ1 ðu U ð p ÞÞ
2 3
d ðu c Þ1 ðt Þ
6 dt U
7
4 t¼0 5
d ðu c Þ2 ðt Þ
dt U
1
t¼0
1
1
¼ 0
D 1 uU ðu U Þ ðu U ð p ÞÞ D2 u0U ðuU Þ1 ðu U ð p ÞÞ
2 3
d ð u Þ 1
c ð t Þ
6 dt U
7
4 t¼0 5
d ð u Þ 2
c ð t Þ
dt U
t¼0
1 1
¼ D1 u0U ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ D2 u0U ðuU Þ1 ðu U ð p ÞÞ
2 3
d ðu U Þ1 ðc ðt ÞÞ
6 dt 7
4 t¼0 5
d ð u Þ 2
ð c ð t Þ Þ
dt U
1
t¼0
1
1
¼ 0
D 1 u U ðu U Þ ðuU ð pÞÞ D2 u0U ðuU Þ1 ðu U ð p ÞÞ
2 3
d ððu1 ÞðcðtÞÞÞ
6 dt 7
4 t¼0 5
d ððu2 ÞðcðtÞÞÞ
dt
1
t¼0
1
1
¼ 0
D 1 u U ðu U Þ ðuU ð pÞÞ D2 u0U ðuU Þ1 ðu U ð p ÞÞ
2 3
d ðu1 cÞðtÞ
6 dt t¼0 7
4 5
d ðu2 cÞðtÞ
dt
t¼0
1 1
¼ D1 u0U ðuU Þ1 ðu1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞÞ D2 u0U ðuU Þ1 ðu1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞÞ
2 3
d ðu1 cÞðtÞ
6 dt 7
4 t¼0 5
d ðu2 cÞðtÞ
dt
t¼0
1
0 1 d 1
¼ D 1 u U ðu U Þ u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ u c ðt Þ
dt
1
t¼0
1 d
þ D2 u0U ðuU Þ u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ u 2 c ðt Þ :
dt t¼0
01
ou01 d 1 ou d 2
RHS ¼ u c ð t Þ þ u c ð t Þ
ou1 dt ou2 dt
d t¼0
t¼0

01 1
¼ D1 u ðuU Þ u ð pÞ; u ð pÞ
1 2
u c ðt Þ
1
dt
t¼0
01 1 d 2
þ D2 u ðuU Þ u ð pÞ; u ð pÞ
1 2
u c ðt Þ
dt
1
t¼0
0 1 d 1
¼ D1 uU ðuU Þ u ð pÞ; u ð pÞ
1 2
u c ðt Þ
dt
1
t¼0
1 d
þ D2 u0U ðuU Þ u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ u2 c ð t Þ :
dt t¼0
Hence, LHS ¼ RHS. h

Note 2.69 Similarly, under the same conditions as in theorem 34, we get
02 02
d 02 ou d 1 ou d 2
u c ðt Þ ¼ u c ðt Þ þ u c ðt Þ :
In short, we write
0i 0i
d 0i ou d 1 ou d 2
u c ðt Þ ¼ u c ðt Þ þ u c ð t Þ ;
or
2 0i
X
d 0i ou d
u c ðt Þ ¼ u j c ðt Þ ;
dt t¼0 j¼1
ou j dt t¼0
and we say that tangent vectors are contravariant vectors.
Similar results can be obtained for 3-dimensional smooth manifold, etc.

M. Let ðdf Þp be in Tp , where f is in Cp1 . Let ðU; uU Þ; ðU 0 ; u0U Þ be two admissible
coordinate charts of M satisfying p 2 U; p 2 U 0 . Let u1 ; u2 be the component
functions of uU : Let u01 ; u02 be the component functions of u0U . Then,
2
of ou1 of ou of
¼ þ ;
ou01 ou01 ou1 ou01 ou2
where
!
of o
1
D1 f u0U u01 ð pÞ; u02 ð pÞ ¼ ½ f ;
ou01 ou01 p
!
of o
1
D1 f ðu Þ u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ ¼ ½ f ;
ou 1 U
ou1 p
!
of o
1
D2 f ðu Þ u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ ¼ ½ f :
ou2 U
ou1 p
Proof By Theorem 2.48,

of of
D1 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ ; D2 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ
ou1 p ou p
2
are the components of the cotangent vector ðdf Þp at p, with respect to the natural
basis fðdu1 Þp ; ðdu2 Þp g of the cotangent space Tp under local coordinate system ðui Þ.
Also,

of 1 of 1 01
D1 f u0U u01 ð pÞ; u02 ð pÞ ; D2 f u0U u ð pÞ; u02 ð pÞ
ou01 p ou02 p
are the components of the cotangent vector ðdf Þp at p, with respect to the natural
basis fðdu01 Þp ; ðdu02 Þp g of the cotangent space Tp under local coordinate system
ðu0i Þ. We have to prove that
2
of ou1 of ou of
¼ þ :
of
1
LHS ¼ 01
¼ D1 f u0U u01 ð pÞ; u02 ð pÞ
ou

1
¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 uU u0U u01 ð pÞ; u02 ð pÞ
1 01
¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 uU u0U u ð pÞ; u02 ð pÞ
¼ 1st column of the matrix product
h 1 01
D1 f ðuU Þ1 uU u0U u ð pÞ; u02 ð pÞ
1 01 i
D2 f ðuU Þ1 uU u0U u ð pÞ; u02 ð pÞ
2
12
3
0 1 1 01 02
0 1 1 01 02
6 D 1 u U u U ðu ð p Þ; u ð pÞ Þ D 2 u U u U ðu ð pÞ; u ð p ÞÞ 7
6 7
6 2 7
4 0 1 2 01 02

0 1 01 02
5
D 1 uU uU ðu ð pÞ; u ð pÞÞ D2 u U u U ðu ð pÞ; u ð pÞÞ
1 01
¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 uU u0U u ð pÞ; u02 ð pÞ

1 1 01
D1 uU u0U u ð pÞ; u02 ð pÞ
1 01
þ D2 f ðuU Þ1 uU u0U u ð pÞ; u02 ð pÞ

1 2 01
D1 uU u0U u ð pÞ; u02 ð pÞ

1 0 1 1 0
¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 uU u0U uU ð p Þ D1 uU u0U uU ð pÞ

1 0 1 2 0
þ D2 f ðuU Þ1 uU u0U uU ð pÞ D1 uU u0U uU ð pÞ
1 1 1

0

¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 uU u0U u0U ð pÞ D1 uU u0U uU ð pÞ
1 1 2

0

þ D2 f ðuU Þ1 uU u0U u0U ð pÞ D1 uU u0U uU ð pÞ
1 1

0

1
¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 uU u0U u0U ð pÞ D1 uU u0U uU ð pÞ
1 2

0

1
þ D2 f ðuU Þ1 uU u0U u0U ð pÞ D1 uU u0U u U ð pÞ
1 1

0

¼ D1 f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ D1 uU u0U uU ð pÞ
1 2

0

þ D2 f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ D1 uU u0U u U ð pÞ

1 1 0
¼ D1 uU u0U u U ð pÞ D1 f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ

1 2 0
þ D1 uU u0U u U ð pÞ D2 f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ :
2
ou1 of ou of
RHS ¼ 01
þ 01
ou ou 1 ou ou2
1 01 of
¼ D1 u1 u0U u ð pÞ; u02 ð pÞ
ou1
of
1
þ D1 u2 u0U u01 ð pÞ; u02 ð pÞ
ou2
0 1 1 01 of
¼ D1 uU uU u ð pÞ; u02 ð pÞ
ou1

1 2 01 of
þ D1 uU u0U u ð pÞ; u02 ð pÞ
ou2

1 1 01
¼ D1 uU u0U u ð pÞ; u02 ð pÞ

D1 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ

0 1 2 01 02

þ D1 uU uU u ð pÞ; u ð pÞ

D2 f ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ

0 1 1 0
¼ D1 uU uU uU ð pÞ D1 f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ

0 1 2 0
þ D1 uU uU u U ð pÞ D2 f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ :
So, LHS = RHS. h

Note 2.71 Similarly, under the same conditions as in Theorem 2.70, we get
2
of ou1 of ou of
¼ þ :
In short, we write
X2
of ou j of
¼ ;
ou0i j¼1
ou0i ou j
and we say that cotangent vectors are covariant vectors.

Similar results can be obtained for 3-dimensional smooth manifold, etc.
Note 2.72 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, and N be an n-dimen-
sional smooth manifold. Let p be an element of M, and let F : M ! N be any
1
smooth map. Then, for every f in CFðpÞ ðNÞ, f F is in Cp1 ðMÞ.
1
Reason: Since f is in CFðpÞ ðNÞ, f is a real-valued function such that dom f is an
open neighborhood of FðpÞ in N. Since F : M ! N is a smooth map, and p is in M,
F : M ! N is continuous at p. Since F : M ! N is continuous at p, and dom f is an
open neighborhood of FðpÞ in N, F 1 ðdom f Þ is an open neighborhood of p in
M. Since domðf FÞ ¼ F 1 ðdom f Þ, and F 1 ðdom f Þ is an open neighborhood of
p in M, domðf FÞ is an open neighborhood of p in M. Now, it remains to be
proved that f F is C1 at p.
Since F : M ! N is a smooth map, and p is in M, F is C 1 at p. Since f is in
1
CFðpÞ ðNÞ, f is a real-valued function such that dom f is an open neighborhood of
FðpÞ in N, and f is C1 at FðpÞ in N. Since the F-image of domðf FÞ is contained
in dom f, F is C 1 at p, and f is C 1 at FðpÞ, the composite function f F is C1 at p.
Hence, f F is in Cp1 ðMÞ.
Theorem 2.73 Let M be any m-dimensional smooth manifold, and let N be any n-
dimensional smooth manifold. Let F : M ! N be any smooth map, and let p be in
M. Let
F : TF ð pÞ ! Tp
be the function defined as follows: For every ðdf ÞFðpÞ in TFðpÞ , where f is in
1
CFðpÞ ðNÞ,

F ðdf ÞF ð pÞ ¼ ðd ðf F ÞÞp :
Then, F is linear.
1
Proof For every f in CFðpÞ ðNÞ, from the above note, f F is in Cp1 ðMÞ, and hence,
1
ðdðf FÞÞp is in Tp . Since, for every f in CFðpÞ ðNÞ, F ððdf ÞFðpÞ Þ ð ðdðf FÞÞp Þ is
1
in Tp , F : TFðpÞ ! Tp is a function. Next, let us take any f ; g in CFðpÞ ðNÞ, and any
real s; t. We have to show that

F ðd ðsf þ tgÞÞF ð pÞ ¼ s F ðdf ÞF ð pÞ þ t F ðdgÞF ð pÞ :
On using Theorem 2.45, we have

LHS ¼ F ðd ðsf þ tgÞÞF ð pÞ ¼ ðd ððsf þ tgÞ F ÞÞp ¼ ðd ðððsf Þ F þ ðtgÞ F ÞÞÞp

¼ ðd ððsðf F Þ þ tðg F ÞÞÞÞp ¼ s ðd ðf F ÞÞp þ t ðd ðg F ÞÞp

¼ s F ðdf ÞF ð pÞ þ t F ðdgÞF ð pÞ ¼ RHS: h
h
Note 2.74 Let M be any m-dimensional smooth manifold, and N be any n-dimen-
sional smooth manifold. Let p be in M. Let F : M ! N be any smooth map. Fix any
c in Tp ðMÞ, where c is in Cp ðMÞ. As in Theorem 2.73, F : TFðpÞ ! Tp . So for every
1
ðdf ÞFðpÞ in TFðpÞ where f is in CFðpÞ ðNÞ, F ððdf ÞFðpÞ Þ is in Tp . Since F ððdf ÞFðpÞ Þ is in
Tp and, ½c is in Tp ðMÞ, h½c; F ððdf ÞFðpÞ Þi is a real number. We shall try to show that
the mapping ðdf ÞFðpÞ 7! h½c; F ððdf ÞFðpÞ Þi from real linear space TFðpÞ to R is linear,
1
that is, for every f ; g in CFðpÞ ðNÞ, and for every real s; t;

h½c; F s ðdf ÞF ð pÞ þ t ðdgÞF ð pÞ i ¼ sh½c; F ðdf ÞF ð pÞ i

þ th½c; F ðdgÞF ð pÞ i:
By Theorem 2.73,

LHS ¼ h½c; F s ðdf ÞF ð pÞ þ t ðdgÞF ð pÞ i

¼ h½c; s F ðdf ÞF ð pÞ þ t F ðdgÞF ð pÞ i:
Further, by Theorem 2.62,

h½c; s F ðdf ÞF ð pÞ þ t F ðdgÞF ð pÞ i

¼ sh½c; F ðdf ÞF ð pÞ i þ th½c; F ðdgÞF ð pÞ i ¼ RHS
so, LHS = RHS. So, ðdf ÞFðpÞ 7! h½c; F ððdf ÞFðpÞ Þi is a linear functional on the real
linear space TFðpÞ , and hence, the mapping ðdf ÞFðpÞ 7! h½c; F ððdf ÞFðpÞ Þi is a
member of T FðpÞ . Let us denote the mapping ðdf ÞFðpÞ 7! h½c; F ððdf ÞFðpÞ Þi by
b ð½cÞ. Thus, for every ½c in Tp ðMÞ, F
F b ð½cÞ is in T FðpÞ . Since F
b ð½cÞ is in T FðpÞ ,
b ð½cÞ; that is, for
there exists a unique F ð½cÞ in TFðpÞ ðNÞ such that ðF ð½cÞÞ ¼ F
1
every ðdf ÞFðpÞ in TFðpÞ where f is in CFðpÞ ðNÞ,

ðF ð½cÞÞ ðdf ÞF ð pÞ ¼ h½c; F ðdf ÞF ð pÞ i:
Since for every ½c in Tp ðMÞ, F ð½cÞ is a unique member of TFðpÞ ðNÞ,
F : Tp ðMÞ ! TFðpÞ ðNÞ:
2.8 Tangent Maps
Definition Let M be any m-dimensional smooth manifold, and N be any n-

dimensional smooth manifold. Let p be in M. Let F : M ! N be any smooth map.
Let p be in M. The mapping F : Tp ðMÞ ! TFðpÞ ðNÞ; as defined in the Note 2.74, is
called the tangent map induced by F.
1
We have seen that, for every ðdf ÞFðpÞ in TFðpÞ where f is in CFðpÞ ðNÞ, and for every
½c in Tp ðMÞ where c is in Cp ðMÞ,

ðF ð½cÞÞ ðdf ÞF ð pÞ ¼ h½c; F ðdf ÞF ð pÞ i:
Theorem 2.75 Let M be any m-dimensional smooth manifold, and let N be any n-
dimensional smooth manifold. Let F : M ! N be any smooth map, and let p be in
M. Then, the tangent map F : Tp ðMÞ ! TFðpÞ ðNÞ induced by F is linear.
Proof Let us take any ½c1 ; ½c2 in Tp ðMÞ, and any real s; t. We have to show that
F ðs½c1 þ t½c2 Þ ¼ sðF ð½c1 ÞÞ þ tðF ð½c2 ÞÞ:
We first try to prove that, for every ðdf ÞFðpÞ in TFðpÞ ;

ðF ðs½c1 þ t½c2 ÞÞ ðdf ÞF ð pÞ ¼ ðsðF ð½c1 ÞÞ þ tðF ð½c2 ÞÞÞ ðdf ÞF ð pÞ :

LHS ¼ ðF ðs½c1 þ t½c2 ÞÞ ðdf ÞF ð pÞ ¼ hs½c1 þ t½c2 ; F ðdf ÞF ð pÞ i

¼ sh½c1 ; F ðdf ÞF ð pÞ i þ th½c2 ; F ðdf ÞF ð pÞ i

¼ s ðF ð½c1 ÞÞ ðdf ÞF ð pÞ þ t ðF ð½c2 ÞÞ ðdf ÞF ð pÞ

¼ ðsððF ð½c1 ÞÞ ÞÞ ðdf ÞF ð pÞ þ ðtððF ð½c2 ÞÞ ÞÞ ðdf ÞF ð pÞ

¼ ðsððF ð½c1 ÞÞ Þ þ tððF ð½c2 ÞÞ ÞÞ ðdf ÞF ð pÞ

¼ ðsðF ð½c1 ÞÞ þ tðF ð½c2 ÞÞÞ ðdf ÞF ð pÞ ¼ RHS:
Hence, LHS = RHS. Thus, we have shown that, for every ðdf ÞFðpÞ in TFðpÞ ,

ðF ðs½c1 þ t½c2 ÞÞ ðdf ÞF ð pÞ ¼ ðsðF ð½c1 ÞÞ þ tðF ð½c2 ÞÞÞ ðdf ÞF ð pÞ :
Hence,
ðF ðs½c1 þ t½c2 ÞÞ ¼ ðsðF ð½c1 ÞÞ þ tðF ð½c2 ÞÞÞ :
Now, by the definition of η,
gðF ðs½c1 þ t½c2 ÞÞ ¼ ðF ðs½c1 þ t½c2 ÞÞ ¼ ðsðF ð½c1 ÞÞ þ tðF ð½c2 ÞÞÞ
¼ gðsðF ð½c1 ÞÞ þ tðF ð½c2 ÞÞÞ
so,
gðF ðs½c1 þ t½c2 ÞÞ ¼ gðsðF ð½c1 ÞÞ þ tðF ð½c2 ÞÞÞ:
Further, since η is 1–1,
F ðs½c1 þ t½c2 Þ ¼ sðF ð½c1 ÞÞ þ tðF ð½c2 ÞÞ: h

h
Note 2.76 Let M be any 2-dimensional smooth manifold, and N be any 3-
dimensional smooth manifold. Let p be in M. Let F : M ! N be any smooth map.
Let ðU; uU Þ be an admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U, and let
ðV; wV Þ be an admissible coordinate chart of N satisfying FðpÞ 2 V. Let u1 ; u2 be
the component functions of uU , and let v1 ; v2 ; v3 be the component functions of wV .
Since ðV; wV Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of N satisfying FðpÞ 2 V, and
v1 ; v2 ; v3 are the component functions of wV , fðdv1 ÞFðpÞ ; ðdv2 ÞFðpÞ ; ðdv3 ÞFðpÞ g is the
natural basis of the cotangent space TFðpÞ ðNÞ determined by ðV; wV Þ. Since ðU; uU Þ
is an admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U, and u1 ; u2 are the com-
ponent functions of uU ; fðdu1 Þp ; ðdu2 Þp g is the natural basis of the cotangent space
2.8 Tangent Maps 119
Tp ðMÞ determined by ðU; uU Þ. Since F : TFðpÞ ! Tp , and ðdv1 ÞFðpÞ ; ðdv2 ÞFðpÞ ;
ðdv3 ÞFðpÞ are in TFðpÞ , F ððdv1 ÞFðpÞ Þ; F ððdv2 ÞFðpÞ Þ; F ððdv3 ÞFðpÞ Þ are in Tp . Also, by
the definition of F ,

F dv1 F ð pÞ ¼ d v1 F p :
Next, by Theorem 2.48,

1
d v F p ¼ D1 v1 F ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ d u1 p

þ D2 v1 F ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ d u2 p

¼ D1 v1 F ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ d u1 p

þ D2 v1 F ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ d u2 p
1
1
¼ D1 wV F ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ d u p
1
2
þ D2 wV F ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ d u p
2
X 1
i
1
¼ Di wV F ðuU Þ u ð pÞ; u ð pÞ
1 2
d u p:
i¼1
Thus,
2
X 1
i
F dv1 F ð pÞ
¼ Di wV F ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ d u p:
i¼1
Similarly,
2
X 2
i
1
F dv 2
F ð pÞ
¼ Di wV F ðuU Þ u ð pÞ; u ð pÞ
1 2
d u p;
i¼1
and
2
X 3
i
F dv3 F ð pÞ
¼ Di wV F ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ d u p:
i¼1
In short, we write
X2 a
F ðdva ÞF ð pÞ ¼ Di wV F ðuU Þ1 u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ d ui p
i¼1
or
X 2
a oF a i
F ðdv ÞF ð pÞ ¼ d u p;
i¼1
oui p
where
a a
oF 1
Di w F ðu Þ u1 ð pÞ; u2 ð pÞ :
ou p
i V U
If there is no confusion, we simply write
X
2
oF a
F ðdva Þ ¼ dui :
i¼1
oui
If M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, and N is an n-dimensional smooth

manifold, then as above, we get the formula: For every a ¼ 1; . . .; n;
X
m
oF a
F ðdva Þ ¼ dui :
i¼1
oui
Note 2.77 Let M be any m-dimensional smooth manifold, and N be any n-dimen-
sional smooth manifold. Let p be in M. Let F : M ! N be any smooth map. Let
ðU; uU Þ be an admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U, and let ðV; wV Þ be
an admissible coordinate chart of N satisfying FðpÞ 2 V. Let u1 ; . . .; um be the
component functions of uU , and let v1 ; . . .; vn be the component functions of wV .
For i ¼ 1; . . .; m, and for a ¼ 1; . . .; n, ouo i jp is in Tp ðMÞ, and ðdva ÞFðpÞ is in TFðpÞ .

So, by the definition of F ,
!! * +
o o
F ðdva ÞF ð pÞ ¼ ; F ðdva ÞF ð pÞ
oui p oui
p
* +
Xm
o oF a j
¼ ; d u p
oui j¼1 ou j p
p
Xm

oF a o
¼ ; d u j pi
j¼1
ou p ou p
j i
X oF a j oF a
m
¼ d ¼ :
j¼1
ou j p i oui p
Thus,
!!
o oF a
a
F ðdv ÞF ð pÞ ¼ :
oui p oui p
We want to prove that
!!
Xn
o oF b o
F ¼ j ;
oui p b¼1
oui p ovb F ð pÞ
1
that is, for every ðdf ÞFðpÞ in TFðpÞ , where f is in CFðpÞ ðNÞ,
!! !
Xn
o oF b o
F ðdf ÞF ð pÞ ¼ j ð df Þ F ð pÞ :
oui p b¼1
oui p ovb F ð pÞ
Here,
!!
o o
LHS ¼ F ðdf ÞF ð pÞ ¼ ; F ð df ÞF ð pÞ
oui p oui p
!
n
X
o 1 a
¼ i
;F Da f ðwV Þ v ð pÞ; . . .; v ð pÞ
1 n
ðdv ÞF ð pÞ
p a¼1
n
o X 1 a
¼ ; Da f ðwV Þ v ð pÞ; . . .; v ð pÞ F ðdv ÞF ð pÞ
1 n
oui p a¼1
n
X 1 o
a
¼ Da f ðwV Þ v ð pÞ; . . .; v ð pÞ
1 n
; F ðdv ÞF ð pÞ
a¼1
oui p
!! !
Xn
o
¼ Da f ðwV Þ1 v1 ð pÞ; . . .; vn ð pÞ F ð dv a
Þ F ð pÞ
a¼1
oui p
n
X oF a
¼ Da f ðwV Þ1 v1 ð pÞ; . . .; vn ð pÞ ;
a¼1
oui p
and
! !!
n
X
oF b o
RHS ¼ ðdf ÞF ð pÞ
b¼1
oui p ovb F ð pÞ
! !
Xn
oF b o
¼ ðdf ÞF ð pÞ
b¼1
oui p ovb F ð pÞ
!
Xn
oF b o
¼
b¼1
oui p ovb F ð pÞ
!!
n
X
1
Da f ðwV Þ v ð pÞ; . . .; v ð pÞ ðdva ÞF ð pÞ
1 n
a¼1
n
X n
X
oF b
¼ Da f ðwV Þ1 v1 ð pÞ; . . .; vn ð pÞ
b¼1
oui p a¼1
! !!
o
a
ðdv ÞF ð pÞ
ovb F ð pÞ
!
Xn Xn o
oF b 1 a
¼ Da f ðwV Þ v ð pÞ; . . .; v ð pÞ
1 n
; ðdv ÞF ð pÞ
b¼1
oui p a¼1 ovb F ð pÞ
!
Xn Xn a
oF b 1
¼ Da f ðwV Þ v ð pÞ; . . .; v ð pÞ db
1 n
b¼1
oui p a¼1
n
X oF b 1

¼ D b f ð w Þ v 1
ð p Þ; . . .; v n
ð p Þ
b¼1
oui p V

Xn
oF a
¼ Da f ðwV Þ1 v1 ð pÞ; . . .; vn ð pÞ :
a¼1
ou p
i
Hence, LHS = RHS. Thus, we have shown that

!! ! !
n
X
o oF b o
F ¼ :
oui p b¼1
oui p ovb F ð pÞ
Since, by the definition of η,

!! !! ! !
X n
o o oF b o
g F ¼ F ¼
oui p oui p b¼1
oui p ovb F ð pÞ
! ! !!
Xn Xn
oF b o oF b o
¼ g ¼ g
b¼1
ou i
p ov b
F ð pÞ b¼1
ou i
p ov b
F ð pÞ
so,
!! !!
n
X
o oF b o
g F ¼g :
oui p b¼1
oui p ovb F ð pÞ
Further, since η is 1–1,

! ! !
Xn n
X
o oF b o oF a o
F ¼ ¼
ou p
i
b¼1
ou p ovb
i
F ð pÞ a¼1
oui p ova F ð pÞ
In short, we write
X
o n
oF a o
F ¼ :
oui a¼1
oui ova
Note 2.78 Let M and N be any 3-dimensional smooth manifolds. Let p be in M. Let
F : M ! N be any smooth map. Let ðU; uU Þ be an admissible coordinate chart of
M satisfying p 2 U, and let ðV; wV Þ be an admissible coordinate chart of N satis-
fying FðpÞ 2 V. Let u1 ; u2 ; u3 be the component functions of uU , and let v1 ; v2 ; v3
be the component functions of wV . Here,
( )
o o o
; ;
ou1 p ou2 p ou3 p
is the natural basis of the tangent space Tp ðMÞ under local coordinate system ðui Þ, and
( )
o o o
; 2 ; 3
ov1 F ð pÞ ov F ð pÞ ov F ð pÞ
is the natural basis of the tangent space TFðpÞ ðNÞ under local coordinate system ðvi Þ.
Also, by Theorem 2.75, the tangent map F is a linear transformation from linear
space Tp ðMÞ to linear space TFðpÞ ðNÞ. From the above note,
! !
X3
o oF j o
F ¼ :
oui p j¼1
oui p ov j F ð pÞ
So the matrix representation of F* under the natural bases

( ) ( )
o o o o o o
; ; and ; 2 ; 3
ou1 p ou2 p ou3 p ov1 F ð pÞ ov F ð pÞ ov F ð pÞ
is
2 3
oF 1 oF 1 oF 1
6 ou p ou2 ou3
7
1
6 oF 2 2 p 2 p 7
6 ou1 oF oF 7 ;
6 ou2 ou3 7
4 3 p 3 p 3 p 5
oF oF oF
ou1 p ou2 p ou3 p
33
1 j
where ðoF
j
oui Þp stands for ðDi ððwV ðF ðuU Þ ÞÞ ÞÞðu ðpÞ; u ðpÞ; u ðpÞÞ:
1 2 2
Further, the linear transformation F : Tp ðMÞ ! TFðpÞ ðNÞ is an isomorphism if

and only if
2 3
oF 1 oF 1 oF 1
6 ou p ou2 ou3
7
1
6 oF 2 2 p 2 p 7
det6
6 ou1 p
oF
ou2
oF
ou3
7 6¼ 0:
7
4 3 3 p 3 p 5
oF oF oF
ou1 p ou2 p ou3 p
Note 2.79 Let E be an open subset of R3 . Let F : E ! R3 . Let p be in E. By Example

1.6, E is a smooth manifold with the standard differentiable structure of E. Here,
differentiable structure on E contains fðE; IdE Þg. Similarly, R3 is a smooth manifold
with the standard differentiable structure of R3 . Here, differentiable structure on R3
contains fðR3 ; IdR3 Þg. Now, let F : E ! R3 be a smooth function. From the Note
2.78, the tangent map F induced by F is an isomorphism if and only if
2 3
oF 1 oF 1 oF 1
6 ou p ou2 ou3
7
1
6 oF 2 2 p 2 p 7
det6
6 ou1 p
oF
ou2
oF
ou3
7 6¼ 0;
7
4 3 3 p 3 p 5
oF oF oF
ou1 p ou2 p ou3 p
where
j j
oF 1
¼ Di i R 3 F ð i E Þ ðiE ð pÞÞ ¼ Di F j ðiE ð pÞÞ ¼ Di F j ð pÞ:
ou p
i
Thus, F* is an isomorphism if and only if

2 3
ðD1 F 1 Þð pÞ ðD2 F 1 Þð pÞ ðD3 F 1 Þð pÞ
det4 ðD1 F 2 Þð pÞ ðD2 F 2 Þð pÞ ðD3 F 2 Þð pÞ 5 6¼ 0:
ðD1 F 3 Þð pÞ ðD2 F 3 Þð pÞ ðD3 F 3 Þð pÞ
Chapter 3
Multivariable Differential Calculus
In the very definition of smooth manifold, there is a statement like “…for every
point p in the topological space M there exist an open neighborhood U of p, an open
subset V of Euclidean space Rn ; and a homeomorphism u from U onto V …”. This
phrase clearly indicates that homeomorphism u can act as a messenger in carrying
out the well-developed multivariable differential calculus of Rn into the realm of
unornamented topological space M. So the role played by multivariable differential
calculus in the development of the theory of smooth manifolds is paramount. Many
theorems of multivariable differential calculus are migrated into manifolds like their
generalizations. Although most students are familiar with multivariable differential
calculus from their early courses, but the exact form of theorems we need here are
generally missing from their collection of theorems. So this is somewhat long
chapter on multivariable differential calculus that is pertinent here for a good
understanding of smooth manifolds.
3.1 Linear Transformations
Definition The set of all linear transformations from Rn to Rm is denoted by

LðRn ; Rm Þ: By LðRn Þ, we mean LðRn ; Rn Þ: Thus, LðRn Þ denotes the set of all linear
transformations from Rn to Rn .
We know that LðRn ; Rm Þ is a real linear space under pointwise vector addition
and pointwise scalar multiplication.
Definition Let A be in LðRn ; Rm Þ and B be in LðRm ; Rk Þ: By the product BA, we
mean the mapping
BA : Rn ! Rk
defined as follows: For every x in Rn ;
ðBAÞðxÞ BðAðxÞÞ:

126 3 Multivariable Differential Calculus
It is easy to see that BA is a linear transformation from Rn to Rk ; and hence, BA

is in LðRn ; Rk Þ:
Note 3.1 Let A be in LðR3 ; R2 Þ: Let (t1, t2, t3) be any member of R3 satisfying
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
|(t1, t2, t3)| ≤ 1. Since jt1 j ¼ ðt1 Þ2 ðt1 Þ2 þ ðt2 Þ2 þ ðt3 Þ2 ¼ jðt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þj 1; so
jt1 j 1: Similarly, jt2 j 1; and jt3 j 1: Further, since A is a linear transformation
from R3 to R2 ;
jAððt1 ; t2 ; t3 ÞÞj ¼ jAðt1 ð1; 0; 0Þ þ t2 ð0; 1; 0Þ þ t3 ð0; 0; 1ÞÞj

¼ jt1 ðAðð1; 0; 0ÞÞÞ þ t2 ðAðð0; 1; 0ÞÞÞ þ t3 ðAðð0; 0; 1ÞÞÞj
jt1 ðAðð1; 0; 0ÞÞÞj þ jt2 ðAðð0; 1; 0ÞÞÞj þ jt3 ðAðð0; 0; 1ÞÞÞj
¼ jt1 jjAðð1; 0; 0ÞÞj þ jt2 jjAðð0; 1; 0ÞÞj þ jt3 jjAðð0; 0; 1ÞÞj
1 jAðð1; 0; 0ÞÞj þ 1 jAðð0; 1; 0ÞÞj þ 1 jAðð0; 0; 1ÞÞj
¼ jAðð1; 0; 0ÞÞj þ jAðð0; 1; 0ÞÞj þ jAðð0; 0; 1ÞÞj:
Thus, we have seen that for every (t1, t2, t3) in R3 satisfying jðt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þj 1; we
have
jAððt1 ; t2 ; t3 ÞÞj ðjAðð1; 0; 0ÞÞj þ jAðð0; 1; 0ÞÞj þ jAðð0; 0; 1ÞÞjÞ:
So, ðjAðð1; 0; 0ÞÞj þ jAðð0; 1; 0ÞÞj þ jAðð0; 0; 1ÞÞjÞ is an upper bound of the set

jAððt1 ; t2 ; t3 ÞÞj : ðt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þ is in R3 ; and jðt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þj 1 :
Thus, fjAððt1 ; t2 ; t3 ÞÞj : ðt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þ is in R3 ; and jðt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þj 1g is a nonempty

bounded above set of real numbers, and hence,

sup jAððt1 ; t2 ; t3 ÞÞj : ðt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þ is in R3 ; and jðt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þj 1
exists. Further, we have seen that

sup jAððt1 ; t2 ; t3 ÞÞj : ðt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þ is in R3 ; and jðt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þj 1
ðjAðð1; 0; 0ÞÞj þ jAðð0; 1; 0ÞÞj þ jAðð0; 0; 1ÞÞjÞ:
Similarly, if A is in LðRn ; Rm Þ; then supfjAðxÞj : x is in Rn ; and jxj 1g exists,

and
supfjAðxÞj : x is in Rn ; and j xj 1g ðjAðð1; . . .; 0ÞÞj þ þ jAðð0; . . .; 1ÞÞjÞ:

3.1 Linear Transformations 127
Definition Let A be in LðRn ; Rm Þ: By kAk, we mean the real number
supfjAðxÞj : x is in Rn ; and j xj 1g:
kAk is called the norm of A.
From the above discussion, we find that for every A in LðRn ; Rm Þ;
k Ak ðjAðð1; . . .; 0ÞÞj þ þ jAðð0; . . .; 1ÞÞjÞ:
Theorem 3.2
1. If A is in LðRn ; Rm Þ; then for every x in Rn ;
jAðxÞj k Akj xj:
2. If A is in LðRn ; Rm Þ; then the mapping
A : Rn ! Rm
is uniformly continuous.
3. If A, B are in LðRn ; Rm Þ; then
kA þ Bk k Ak þ kBk:
4. If A is in LðRn ; Rm Þ; and t is a real number, then
ktAk ¼ jtjk Ak:
5. If, for every A, B in LðRn ; Rm Þ;
dðA; BÞ kA Bk;
then LðRn ; Rm Þ is a metric space with the metric d.

6. The mapping A 7! kAk from LðRn ; Rm Þ to R is continuous.
7. If A is in LðRn ; Rm Þ; and B is in LðRm ; Rk Þ; then
kBAk kBkk Ak:
Proof
1: Let A be in LðRn ; Rm Þ: Let x be in Rn :
Case I: when x = 0
jAðxÞj ¼ jAð0Þj ¼ j0j ¼ 0 0 ¼ k Ak0 ¼ k Akj0j ¼ k Akj xj:
Case II: when x ≠ 0. Since x ≠ 0, jxj is a nonzero real number, and hence, jxj
1
is a real number. Also, jjxj

1
xj ¼ jjxj
1
jjxj ¼ jxj
1
jxj ¼ 1 1: It follows that
jAðjxj
1
xÞj is a member of the set fjAðyÞj : y is in Rn ; and jyj 1g; and hence,
from the definition of kAk , jAðjxj
1
xÞj kAk. Now, since

1 1 1 1
jAðxÞj ¼ jAðxÞj ¼ ðAðxÞÞ ¼ A x k Ak;
j xj j xj j xj j xj
jAðxÞj k Akj xj:
Thus, we see that in all cases, jAðxÞj kAkjxj: This proves 1.

2: Let us take ɛ > 0.
e
Case I: when kAk 6¼ 0. For any x, y in Rn satisfying jx yj\ kAk ; we have

e
jAðxÞ AðyÞj ¼ jAðx yÞj k Akjx yj\k Ak ¼ e:
k Ak
Case II: when kAk ¼ 0. For any x, y in Rn satisfying jx yj\1; we have
jAðxÞ AðyÞj ¼ jAðx yÞj k Akjx yj ¼ 0 jx yj ¼ 0\e:
Thus, we see that in all cases, for every ɛ > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that for
every x, y in Rn satisfying jx yj\d; we have jAðxÞ AðyÞj\e: So, by the
definition of uniform continuity, A is uniformly continuous. This proves 2.
3: Let A, B be in LðRn ; Rm Þ: Let us take any x in Rn satisfying jxj 1: Now,
jðA þ BÞðxÞj ¼ jAðxÞ þ BðxÞj jAðxÞj þ jBðxÞj k Akj xj þ jBðxÞj k Akj xj

þ kBkj xj
¼ ðk Ak þ kBkÞj xj ðk Ak þ kBkÞ 1 ¼ k Ak þ kBk:
So, kAk þ kBk is an upper bound of the set fjðA þ BÞðxÞj : x is in

Rn ; and jxj 1g; and hence,
kA þ Bk ¼ supfjðA þ BÞðxÞj : x is in Rn ; and j xj 1g k Ak þ kBk:
This proves 3.
4: Let A be in LðRn ; Rm Þ; and let t be a real number. Let us take any x in Rn

satisfying jxj 1: Now,
jðtAÞðxÞj ¼ jtðAðxÞÞj ¼ jtjjAðxÞj jtjðk Akj xjÞ ¼ ðjtjk AkÞj xj ðjtjk AkÞ 1
¼ jtjk Ak:
So, jtjkAk is an upper bound of the set fjðtAÞðxÞj : x is in Rn ; and jxj 1g; and
hence,
ktAk ¼ supfjðtAÞðxÞj : x is in Rn ; and j xj 1g jtjk Ak:
So, for every real t,

ktAk jtjk Ak ðÞ:
Case I: when t 6¼ 0. Since t 6¼ 0; 1

t is a real number, and hence, by ðÞ;

1 1 1
k Ak ¼ ðtAÞ

ktAk ¼ ktAk:
t t jt j
Thus, jtjkAk ktAk: Hence, by (*),
ktAk ¼ jtjk Ak:
Case II: when t = 0. Here,
ktAk ¼ k0Ak ¼ k0k ¼ supfj0ðxÞj : x is in Rn ; and j xj 1g ¼ supfj0jg

¼ supf0g ¼ 0 ¼ 0 k Ak
¼ j0jk Ak ¼ jtjk Ak:
Thus, we see that in all cases,
ktAk ¼ jtjk Ak:
This proves 4.
5: Here, we must prove
i. For every A in LðRn ; Rm Þ;
kA Ak ¼ 0:
ii. For every A, B in LðRn ; Rm Þ; if kA Bk ¼ 0, then A = B.

iii. For every A, B in LðRn ; Rm Þ;
kA Bk ¼ kB Ak:
iv. for every A, B, C in LðRn ; Rm Þ;
kA Bk kA C k þ kC Bk:
For i: kA Ak ¼ k0k ¼ supfj0ðxÞj : x is in Rn ; and jxj 1g ¼ supfj0jg ¼

supf0g ¼ 0:
For ii: Let kA Bk ¼ 0: Let us take any x in Rn : We have to prove that
AðxÞ ¼ BðxÞ: Since 0 jðA BÞðxÞj kA Bkjxj ¼ 0 jxj ¼ 0; |(A − B)
(x)| = 0, and hence, A(x) − B(x) = (A − B)(x) = 0. Thus, A(x) = B(x).
For iii: By 4,
LHS ¼ kA Bk ¼ kð1ÞðB AÞk ¼ j1jkðB AÞk ¼ 1 kB Ak

¼ kB Ak ¼ RHS:
For iv: By 3,
kA Bk ¼ kðA CÞ þ ðC BÞk kA C k þ kC Bk:
This completes the proof of iv.

6: Let us take any A in LðRn ; Rm Þ: We have to prove that the mapping A 7! kAk is
continuous. For this purpose, let us take any ɛ > 0. Let us take any B in
LðRn ; Rm Þ satisfying kB Ak\e: We have to prove that jkBk kAkj\e:
Since kBk ¼ kðB AÞ þ Ak kB Ak þ kAk; kBk kAk kB Ak: Simi-
larly, ðkBk kAkÞ ¼ kAk kBk kA Bk ¼ kB Ak: Hence,
jkBk k Akj ¼ maxfkBk k Ak; ðkBk k AkÞg kB Ak\e:
This proves 6.
7: Let us take any A in LðRn ; Rm Þ and B in LðRm ; Rk Þ: Let us take any x in Rn
satisfying jxj 1: Since
jðBAÞðxÞj ¼ jBðAðxÞÞj kBkjAðxÞj kBk ðk Akj xjÞ

¼ ðkBkk AkÞj xj kBkk Ak 1 ¼ kBkk Ak;
kBAk ¼ supfjðBAÞðxÞj : x is in Rn ; and j xj 1g kBkk Ak:
This proves 7. h
Theorem 3.3 Let X be the set of all invertible (i.e., 1–1 and onto) members of
LðRn Þ:
1. If A is in X; then kA1 k is nonzero.
2. If A is in X, then the open sphere Sð1=kA1 kÞ ðAÞ is contained in X; that is, if A is in
X, B is in LðRn Þ; and kB Ak\ kA11 k, then B is in X.
3. X is an open subset of LðRn Þ:
4. The mapping A 7! A1 from X to X is continuous.
Proof
1: Let us take any A in X: We claim that kA1 k is nonzero. If not, otherwise, let
kA1 k ¼ 0: We have to arrive at a contradiction. Since A is in X, by the definition
of X; A−1 exists and A−1 is in X: Also, AA−1 = I, where I denotes the identity
transformation from Rn to Rn : For every x in Rn ; 0 jA1 ðxÞj kA1 kjxj ¼ 0
jxj ¼ 0; so jA1 ðxÞj ¼ 0; and hence, A−1(x) = 0. Therefore,
ð1; 0; . . .; 0Þ ¼ Iðð1; 0; . . .; 0ÞÞ ¼ ðAA1 Þðð1; 0; . . .; 0ÞÞ

¼ A A1 ðð1; 0; . . .; 0ÞÞ
¼ Aðð0; 0; . . .; 0ÞÞ ¼ ð0; 0; . . .; 0Þ;
and hence, 1 = 0, a contradiction. So, our claim is true, that is, kA1 k is
nonzero. This proves 1.
2: Let A be in X; and let B be in LðRn Þ: Since A is in X, by 1, kA1 k is nonzero,
and hence, kA11 k is a real number. Also, by the definition of norm kk, kA11 k is a
positive real number. Let
1
kB Ak\ 1 :
kA k
We have to show that B is in X; that is, B : Rn ! Rn is 1–1 and onto.

1–1ness: Let B(x) = B(y). We have to prove that x = y, that is, x y ¼ 0. If not,
otherwise, let x y 6¼ 0. We have to arrive at a contradiction. Since x y 6¼ 0,
0\jx yj: Since B(x) = B(y), and B is a linear transformation,
0 ¼ BðxÞ BðyÞ ¼ Bðx yÞ. Hence,

jx yj ¼ A1 A ðx yÞ ¼ A1 ðAðx yÞÞ A1 jAðx yÞj

¼ A1 jAðx yÞ 0j

¼ A1 jAðx yÞ Bðx yÞj

¼ A1 jðA BÞðx yÞj A1 ðkA Bkjx yjÞ

¼ A1 kA Bk jx yj

1
¼ A1 kB Ak jx yj\ A1 1 jx yj ¼ jx yj:
kA k
Thus, jx yj\jx yj; which gives a contradiction. This proves that B is 1–1.
Ontoness: Let us take any y in Rn : Since B : Rn ! Rn is 1–1, B
((1, 0, …, 0)), …, B((0, …, 0, 1)) are n distinct elements of Rn : Now, we shall
show that B((1, 0, …, 0)), …, B((0, …, 0, 1)) are linearly independent. For this
purpose, let t1(B((1, 0, …, 0))) + ⋯ + tn(B((0, …, 0, 1))) = 0. We have to show
that t1 = 0, …, tn = 0. Here,
Bðð0; . . .; 0ÞÞ ¼ ð0; . . .; 0Þ ¼ 0 ¼ t1 ðBðð1; 0; . . .; 0ÞÞÞ þ

þ tn ðBðð0; . . .; 0; 1ÞÞÞ
¼ Bðt1 ð1; 0; . . .; 0ÞÞ þ þ Bðtn ð0; . . .; 0; 1ÞÞ
¼ Bððt1 ; 0; . . .; 0ÞÞ þ þ Bðð0; . . .; 0; tn ÞÞ
¼ Bððt1 ; 0; . . .; 0Þ þ þ ð0; . . .; 0; tn ÞÞ ¼ Bððt1 ; . . .; tn ÞÞ;
and B is 1–1, so (0,…, 0) = (t1,…, tn), and hence, t1 = 0,…, tn = 0. Thus, B

((1, 0,…, 0)),…, B((0,…, 0, 1)) constitute a basis of the n-dimensional real
linear space Rn : Since B((1, 0,…, 0)),…, B((0, …, 0, 1)) constitute a basis of
space Rn ; and y is in Rn ; there exist real numbers s1, …, sn such that
y ¼ s1 ðBðð1; 0; . . .; 0ÞÞÞ þ þ sn ðBðð0; . . .; 0; 1ÞÞÞ

¼ Bðs1 ð1; 0; . . .; 0ÞÞ þ þ Bðsn ð0; . . .; 0; 1ÞÞ
¼ Bððs1 ; . . .; sn ÞÞ:
Thus, B((s1, …, sn)) = y, where (s1, …, sn) is in Rn : This proves that B is onto.
This proves 2.
3: Let us take any A in X. Since A is in X, by 1, kA1 k is nonzero. Now by 2, the
open sphere fB : B 2 LðRn Þ; and kB Ak\ kA11 kg is contained in X. Hence, by
the definition of open set, X is an open subset of LðRn Þ: This proves 3.
4: Let us take any A in X. We have to prove that the mapping B 7! B1 is
continuous at A Since A is in X, by 1, kA1 k is nonzero. If B is in LðRn Þ
satisfying kB Ak\ kA11 k ; then by 2, B is in X, and hence, B−1 exists. Now, it
is enough to prove that limB!A kB1 A1 k exists, and its value is 0. Here,
1
B A1 ¼ A1 A B1 A1 BB1 ¼ A1 AB1 A1 BB1

¼ A1 AB1 BB1 ¼ A1 ðA BÞB1 A1 kA BkB1

¼ A1 kA Bk sup B1 ðxÞ : x is in Rn ; and j xj 1
or,
1
B A1 A1 kA Bk
1
sup B ðxÞ : x is in Rn ; and j xj 1 ðÞ:
Observe that for any x in Rn satisfying jxj 1, we have

1
B ðxÞ ¼ A1 A B1 ðxÞ ¼ A1 A B1 ðxÞ A1 A B1 ðxÞ

¼ A1 ðA BÞ B1 ðxÞ þ x A1 ðA BÞ B1 ðxÞ þ j xj

A1 kA BkB1 ðxÞ þ j xj A1 kB AkB1 ðxÞ þ 1
so,
1
B ðxÞ 1 A1 kB Ak A1 :
Further, since kB Ak\ kA11 k,

1
1 A
B ðxÞ :
1 kA1 kkB Ak
Hence,
1
A
sup B1 ðxÞ : x is in Rn and j xj 1 :
1 kA1 kkB Ak
Now, from (*),

1
1 A 1 kB AkA1
B A1 A1 kB Ak
¼ A
1 kA1 kkB Ak 1 kA1 kkB Ak

1 1
¼ A 1 þ :
1 kA1 kkB Ak
Thus, if kB Ak\ kA11 k, then

1 1 1

0 B A1
A 1 þ :
1 kA1 kkB Ak
By Theorem 3.2, the mapping B 7! kBk from X to R is continuous, so

limB!A kB Ak ¼ 0: Also,

1 1 1 1

lim A 1 þ
¼ A 1 þ
B!A 1 kA1 kkB Ak 1 kA1 k 0
1
¼ A ð1 þ 1Þ ¼ 0:
Since, for every B satisfying kB Ak\ kA11 k, we have

1
0 B1 A1 A1 1 þ ;
1 kA1 kkB Ak
and

1
lim A1 1 þ 1
¼0
B!A 1 kA kkB Ak
so, limB!A kB1 A1 k exists, and its value is 0. This shows that the mapping
B 7! B1 from X to X is continuous at A. This proves 4. h
Definition Let {e1, e2, e3} be any basis of real linear space R3 ; and let {f1, f2} be
any basis of real linear space R2 : Let A be in LðR3 ; R2 Þ: Let
Aðe1 Þ a11 f1 þ a21 f2 ;

Aðe2 Þ a12 f1 þ a22 f2 ;
Aðe3 Þ a13 f1 þ a23 f2 :
The matrix
a11 a12 a13

a21 a22 a23 23
is denoted by [A].
Similar definition can be supplied for A in LðRn ; Rm Þ:
Theorem 3.4 Let M be the collection of all 2 × 3 matrices with real entries. Let
{e1, e2, e3} be a basis of real linear space R3 ; and let {f1, f2} be a basis of real
linear space R2 : Then, the mapping A 7! ½A from LðR3 ; R2 Þ to M is 1–1 and onto.
Proof 1–1ness: Let [A] = [B], where
a11 a12 a13 b11 b12 b13

½ A and ½B :
a21 a22 a23 23
b21 b22 b23 23
We have to prove that the mappings A : R3 ! R2 and B : R3 ! R2 are equal,

that is, for every t1e1 + t2e2 + t3e3 in R3 ;
Aðt1 e1 þ t2 e2 þ t3 e3 Þ ¼ Bðt1 e1 þ t2 e2 þ t3 e3 Þ:
For this purpose, let us take any t1e1 + t2e2 + t3e3 in R3 : Since [A] = [B], aij = bij
for every i = 1, 2, and for every j = 1, 2, 3. Further,
a11 a12 a13 b11 b12 b13

½ A ¼ and ½B ¼
a21 a22 a23 23
b21 b22 b23 23
so A(e1) = a11f1 + a21f2 = b11f1 + b21f2 = B(e1). Similarly, A(e2) = B(e2) and A
(e3) = B(e3).
So,
LHS ¼ Aðt1 e1 þ t2 e2 þ t3 e3 Þ ¼ t1 ðAðe1 ÞÞ þ t2 ðAðe2 ÞÞ þ t3 ðAðe3 ÞÞ

¼ t1 ðBðe1 ÞÞ þ t2 ðBðe2 ÞÞt3 ðBðe3 ÞÞ ¼ Bðt1 e1 þ t2 e2 þ t3 e3 Þ ¼ RHS:
This proves that A 7! ½A is 1–1.

Ontoness: Let us take any 2 × 3 matrix
a11 a12 a13

:
a21 a22 a23 23
Let us define a function A : R3 ! R2 as follows: For every t1e1 + t2e2 + t3e3 in

R ;
3
Aðt1 e1 þ t2 e2 þ t3 e3 Þ t1 ða11 f1 þ a21 f2 Þ þ t2 ða12 f1 þ a22 f2 Þ þ t3 ða13 f1 þ a23 f2 Þ:
We shall show that A is in LðR3 ; R2 Þ: For this purpose, let us take any
x ≡ s1e1 + s2e2 + s3e3, y ≡ t1e1 + t2e2 + t3e3, and any real number t. We have to
prove that
1. Aðx þ yÞ ¼ AðxÞ þ AðyÞ;
2. AðtxÞ ¼ tðAðxÞÞ:
For 1: LHS ¼ Aðx þ yÞ ¼ Aððs1 e1 þ s2 e2 þ s3 e3 Þ þ ðt1 e1 þ t2 e2 þ t3 e3 ÞÞ
¼ Aððs1 þ t1 Þe1 þ ðs2 þ t2 Þe2 þ ðs3 þ t3 Þe3 Þ
¼ ðs1 þ t1 Þða11 f1 þ a21 f2 Þ þ ðs2 þ t2 Þða12 f1 þ a22 f2 Þ
þ ðs3 þ t3 Þða13 f1 þ a23 f2 Þ:
and
RHS ¼ AðxÞ þ AðyÞ ¼ Aðs1 e1 þ s2 e2 þ s3 e3 Þ þ Aðt1 e1 þ t2 e2 þ t3 e3 Þ

¼ s1 ða11 f1 þ a21 f2 Þ þ s2 ða12 f1 þ a22 f2 Þ þ s3 ða13 f1 þ a23 f2 Þ
þ t1 ða11 f1 þ a21 f2 Þ þ t2 ða12 f1 þ a22 f2 Þ þ t3 ða13 f1 þ a23 f2 Þ
¼ ðs1 þ t1 Þða11 f1 þ a21 f2 Þ þ ðs2 þ t2 Þða12 f1 þ a22 f2 Þ
þ ðs3 þ t3 Þða13 f1 þ a23 f2 Þ:
So, LHS = RHS. This proves 1.

For 2: LHS ¼ AðtxÞ

¼ Aðtðs1 e1 þ s2 e2 þ s3 e3 ÞÞ ¼ Aððts1 Þe1 þ ðts2 Þe2 þ ðts3 Þe3 Þ
¼ ðts1 Þða11 f1 þ a21 f2 Þ þ ðts2 Þða12 f1 þ a22 f2 Þ þ ðts3 Þða13 f1 þ a23 f2 Þ
¼ ðts1 a11 þ ts2 a12 þ ts3 a13 Þf1 þ ðts1 a21 þ ts2 a22 þ ts3 a23 Þf2
¼ tðs1 a11 þ s2 a12 þ s3 a13 Þf1 þ tðs1 a21 þ s2 a22 þ s3 a23 Þf2
¼ ts1 ða11 f1 þ a21 f2 Þ þ ts2 ða12 f1 þ a22 f2 Þ þ ts3 ða13 f1 þ a23 f2 Þ
¼ tðs1 ða11 f1 þ a21 f2 Þ þ s2 ða12 f1 þ a22 f2 Þ þ s3 ða13 f1 þ a23 f2 ÞÞ:
and
RHS ¼ tðAðxÞÞ ¼ tðAðs1 e1 þ s2 e2 þ s3 e3 ÞÞ

¼ tðs1 ða11 f1 þ a21 f2 Þ þ s2 ða12 f1 þ a22 f2 Þ þ s3 ða13 f1 þ a23 f2 ÞÞ:
So, LHS = RHS. This proves 2.

Finally, it remains to prove that
a11 a12 a13

½ A ¼ :
a21 a22 a23
Since
Aðe1 Þ ¼ Að1e1 þ 0e2 þ 0e3 Þ
¼ 1ða11 f1 þ a21 f2 Þ þ 0ða12 f1 þ a22 f2 Þ þ 0ða13 f1 þ a23 f2 Þ;
Aðe1 Þ ¼ a11 f1 þ a21 f2 :
Similarly,
Aðe2 Þ ¼ a12 f1 þ a22 f2 ;
Aðe3 Þ ¼ a13 f1 þ a23 f2 :
Hence,
a11 a12 a13
½ A ¼ :
a21 a22 a23 h
h
Note 3.5 The result similar to Theorem 3.4 can be proved as above for LðR ; R Þ: n m
Theorem 3.6 Let {e1, e2, e3, e4} be any basis of real linear space R4 ; let {f1, f2, f3}
be any basis of real linear space R3 ; and let {g1, g2} be any basis of real linear
space R2 : Let A be in LðR4 ; R3 Þ; and let B be in LðR3 ; R2 Þ: Then,
½BA ¼ ½B½ A:
Proof Here, A is in LðR4 ; R3 Þ and B is in LðR3 ; R2 Þ; so their product BA (i.e., the

composite B ∘ A) is in LðR4 ; R2 Þ; and hence, LHSð¼ ½BAÞ is a 2 × 4 matrix. Since
A is in LðR4 ; R3 Þ; [A] is a 3 × 4 matrix. Since B is in LðR3 ; R2 Þ; [B] is a 2 × 3
matrix. Since [B] is a 2 × 3 matrix, and [A] is a 3 × 4 matrix, RHSð¼ ½B½AÞ is a
2 × 4 matrix. So, matrices in LHS and RHS have the same order. Let
2 3
a11 a12 a13 a14
½ A ¼ 4 a21 a22 a23 a24 5
a31 a32 a33 a34 34
and
b11 b12 b13

½B ¼ :
b21 b22 b23 23
Hence,
ðBAÞðe1 Þ ¼ BðAðe1 ÞÞ ¼ Bða11 f1 þ a21 f2 þ a31 f3 Þ ¼ a11 ðBðf1 ÞÞ þ a21 ðBðf2 ÞÞ þ a31 ðBðf3 ÞÞ
¼ a11 ðb11 g1 þ b21 g2 Þ þ a21 ðb12 g1 þ b22 g2 Þ þ a31 ðb13 g1 þ b23 g2 Þ
¼ ða11 b11 þ a21 b12 þ a31 b13 Þg1 þ ða11 b21 þ a21 b22 þ a31 b23 Þg2 :
So the first column of [BA] is
a11 b11 þ a21 b12 þ a31 b13

a11 b21 þ a21 b22 þ a31 b23
Now,
2 3
a11 a12 a13 a14
b11 b12 b13 6 7
½B½ A ¼ 4 a21 a22 a23 a24 5
b21 b22 b23 23
a31 a32 a33 a34 34
b11 a11 þ b12 a21 þ b13 a31
¼
b21 a11 þ b22 a21 þ b23 a31 24
a11 b11 þ a21 b12 þ a31 b13
¼
a11 b21 þ a21 b22 þ a31 b23 24
Hence, first column of [BA] is the same as the first column of [B][A]. Similarly,
second column of [BA] is the same as the second column of [B][A], third column of
[BA] is the same as the third column of [B][A], and fourth column of [BA] is the
same as the fourth column of [B][A]. This shows that [BA] = [B][A]. h
Note 3.7 The result similar to Theorem 3.6 can be proved as above for A in
LðRn ; Rm Þ and B in LðRm ; Rp Þ:
Note 3.8 Let A be in LðR3 ; R2 Þ: Let
a11 a12 a13

½ A ¼
a21 a22 a23 23
relative to the basis {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} of R3 and the basis {(1, 0), (0, 1)}
of R2 : Let (t1, t2, t3) be any member of R3 satisfying jðt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þj 1: Since A is a
linear transformation from R3 to R2 ;
Aððt1 ; t2 ; t3 ÞÞ ¼ Aðt1 ð1; 0; 0Þ þ t2 ð0; 1; 0Þ þ t3 ð0; 0; 1ÞÞ

¼ t1 ðAðð1; 0; 0ÞÞÞ þ t2 ðAðð0; 1; 0ÞÞÞ þ t3 ðAðð0; 0; 1ÞÞÞ
¼ t1 ða11 ; a21 Þ þ t2 ða12 ; a22 Þ þ t3 ða13 ; a23 Þ
¼ ðt1 a11 þ t2 a12 þ t3 a13 ; t1 a21 þ t2 a22 þ t3 a23 Þ
¼ ððt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þ ða11 ; a12 ; a13 Þ; ðt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þ ða21 ; a22 ; a23 ÞÞ;
and hence,
jAððt1 ; t2 ; t3 ÞÞj ¼ jððt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þ ða11 ; a12 ; a13 Þ; ðt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þ ða21 ; a22 ; a23 ÞÞj
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
¼ jðt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þ ða11 ; a12 ; a13 Þj2 þjðt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þ ða21 ; a22 ; a23 Þj2
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ðjðt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þjjða11 ; a12 ; a13 ÞjÞ2 þðjðt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þjjða21 ; a22 ; a23 ÞjÞ2
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð1jða11 ; a12 ; a13 ÞjÞ2 þð1jða21 ; a22 ; a23 ÞjÞ2
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
¼ jða11 ; a12 ; a13 Þj2 þjða21 ; a22 ; a23 Þj2
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
¼ ða11 Þ2 þða12 Þ2 þða13 Þ2 þða21 Þ2 þða22 Þ2 þða23 Þ2 :
This shows that
k Ak ¼ supfjAððt1 ; t2 ; t3 ÞÞj : ðt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þ is in Rn ; and jðt1 ; t2 ; t3 Þj 1g

vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
!
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi u
uX 3 X 2
2 2 2
ða11 Þ þða12 Þ þða13 Þ þða21 Þ þða22 Þ þða23 Þ ¼ 2 2 2 t aij
2
:
j¼1 i¼1
Conclusion: If A is in LðR3 ; R2 Þ and
a11 a12 a13

½ A ¼
a21 a22 a23 23
of R2 ; then
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
!
u 3
uX X 2
k Ak t
2
aij :
j¼1 i¼1
The result similar to this conclusion can be proved as above for Rn in place of R3
and Rm in place of R2 :
Theorem 3.9 Let X be a metric space. Let s be the 1–1, onto function A 7! ½A of
Theorem 3.4, relative to the basis {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} of R3 and the basis
{(1, 0), (0, 1)} of R2 : If, for i = 1, 2, and j = 1, 2, 3, each aij : X ! R is
continuous, then the mapping

a11 ðxÞ a12 ðxÞ a13 ðxÞ
x 7! s1
a21 ðxÞ a22 ðxÞ a23 ðxÞ 23
from X to LðR3 ; R2 Þ is also continuous.

Proof Let us observe that for every x, y in X,

1 a11 ðxÞ a12 ðxÞ a13 ðxÞ a11 ðyÞ a12 ðyÞ a13 ðyÞ
s s 1

a21 ðxÞ a22 ðxÞ a23 ðxÞ a21 ðyÞ a22 ðyÞ a23 ðyÞ
¼ Ax Ay ;
where

Ax s1 2 L R3 ; R2 ;

1 a11 ðyÞ a12 ðyÞ a13 ðyÞ
Ay s 2 L R3 ; R2 :
a21 ðyÞ a22 ðyÞ a23 ðyÞ
Since

Ax ¼ s1 ;

½Ax ¼ sðAx Þ ¼ ;
and hence,
Ax ðð1; 0; 0ÞÞ ¼ ða11 ðxÞÞð1; 0Þ þ ða21 ðxÞÞð0; 1Þ ¼ ða11 ðxÞ; a21 ðxÞÞ;
Ax ðð0; 1; 0ÞÞ ¼ ða12 ðxÞÞð1; 0Þ þ ða22 ðxÞÞð0; 1Þ ¼ ða12 ðxÞ; a22 ðxÞÞ;
Ax ðð0; 0; 1ÞÞ ¼ ða13 ðxÞÞð1; 0Þ þ ða23 ðxÞÞð0; 1Þ ¼ ða13 ðxÞ; a23 ðxÞÞ:
Similarly,
Ay ðð1; 0; 0ÞÞ ¼ ða11 ðyÞ; a21 ðyÞÞ;

Ay ðð0; 1; 0ÞÞ ¼ ða12 ðyÞ; a22 ðyÞÞ;
Ay ðð0; 0; 1ÞÞ ¼ ða13 ðyÞ; a23 ðyÞÞ:
Since Ax is in LðR3 ; R2 Þ; and Ay is in LðR3 ; R2 Þ; Ax − Ay is in LðR3 ; R2 Þ; and

hence, by Note 3.1,

Ax Ay Ax Ay ðð1; 0; 0ÞÞ þ Ax Ay ðð0; 1; 0ÞÞ

þ Ax Ay ðð0; 0; 1ÞÞ

¼ Ax ðð1; 0; 0ÞÞ Ay ðð1; 0; 0ÞÞ þ Ax ðð0; 1; 0ÞÞ Ay ðð0; 1; 0ÞÞ

þ Ax ðð0; 0; 1ÞÞ Ay ðð0; 0; 1ÞÞ
¼ jðða11 ðxÞ; a21 ðxÞÞ ða11 ðyÞ; a21 ðyÞÞÞj
þ jðða12 ðxÞ; a22 ðxÞÞ ða12 ðyÞ; a22 ðyÞÞÞj
þ jðða13 ðxÞ; a23 ðxÞÞ ða13 ðyÞ; a23 ðyÞÞÞj
¼ jða11 ðxÞ a11 ðyÞ; a21 ðxÞ a21 ðyÞÞj
þ jða12 ðxÞ a12 ðyÞ; a22 ðxÞ a22 ðyÞÞj
þ jða13 ðxÞ a13 ðyÞ; a23 ðxÞ a23 ðyÞÞj
ðja11 ðxÞ a11 ðyÞj þ ja21 ðxÞ a21 ðyÞjÞ
þ ðja12 ðxÞ a12 ðyÞj þ ja22 ðxÞ a22 ðyÞjÞ
þ ðja13 ðxÞ a13 ðyÞj þ ja23 ðxÞ a23 ðyÞjÞ:
Thus, for every x, y in X,

s s1
ðja11 ðxÞ a11 ðyÞj þ ja21 ðxÞ a21 ðyÞjÞ
þ ðja12 ðxÞ a12 ðyÞj þ ja22 ðxÞ a22 ðyÞjÞ
þ ðja13 ðxÞ a13 ðyÞj þ ja23 ðxÞ a23 ðyÞjÞ ðÞ:
Now, let us fix any x in X.

It is enough to prove that the function

1 a11 ðxÞ a12 ðxÞ a13 ðxÞ
x 7! s
a21 ðxÞ a22 ðxÞ a23 ðxÞ 23
from X to LðR3 ; R2 Þ is continuous at x. For this purpose, let us take any ɛ > 0. Since
each aij : X ! R is continuous at x, there exists δ > 0 such that for every y in the
open neighborhood Bδ(x) of x, we have jaij ðxÞ aij ðyÞj\ 6e ðfor every i ¼ 1;
2; and j ¼ 1; 2; 3Þ: Hence, for every y in the open neighborhood Bδ(x) of x, we have
from (*),

s s1
ðja11 ðxÞ a11 ðyÞj þ ja21 ðxÞ a21 ðyÞjÞþ_ ðja12 ðxÞ a12 ðyÞj þ ja22 ðxÞ a22 ðyÞjÞ
e e e e e e
þ ðja13 ðxÞ a13 ðyÞj þ ja23 ðxÞ a23 ðyÞjÞ \ þ þ þ þ þ ¼ e: h
6 6 6 6 6 6
h
Note 3.10 The result similar to Theorem 3.9 can be proved as above for R in place n
of R3 and Rm in place of R2 :
3.2 Differentiation
Theorem 3.11 Let E be an open subset of R3 : Let f : E ! R2 : Let f1 : E !

R; f2 : E ! R be the component functions of f, that is, f(h) = (f1(h), f2(h)) for every
h in E. Let x be in E.
If there exist A and B in LðR3 ; R2 Þ such that

1
lim ððf1 ðx þ hÞ; f2 ðx þ hÞÞ ðf1 ðxÞ; f2 ðxÞÞ AðhÞÞ ¼ 0;
h!0 jhj
and

1
lim ððf1 ðx þ hÞ; f2 ðx þ hÞÞ ðf1 ðxÞ; f2 ðxÞÞ BðhÞÞ ¼ 0;
h!0 j hj
then A = B.
Proof We have to prove that A = B, that is, for every h in R3 ; AðhÞ BðhÞ ¼ 0:
For this purpose, let us take any h* ≡ (h1, h2, h3) in R3 :
It is sufficient to prove that |(A − B)(h*)| = 0.
Case I: when h ¼ 0
LHS ¼ jðA BÞðh Þj ¼ jðA BÞð0Þj ¼ j0j ¼ 0 ¼ RHS:
Case II: when h* ≠ 0

Since limh!0 ðjhj
1
ððf1 ðx þ hÞ; f2 ðx þ hÞÞ ðf1 ðxÞ; f2 ðxÞÞ AðhÞÞÞ ¼ 0; t 7! th is a
continuous function, and h* ≠ 0, and hence,

1
lim ððf1 ðx þ th Þ; f2 ðx þ th ÞÞ ðf1 ðxÞ; f2 ðxÞÞ Aðth ÞÞ ¼ 0:
t!0 jth j
Similarly,

1
lim ððf1 ðx þ th Þ; f2 ðx þ th ÞÞ ðf1 ðxÞ; f2 ðxÞÞ Bðth ÞÞ ¼ 0:
t!0 jth j
Hence,

1
lim ððf1 ðx þ th Þ; f2 ðx þ th ÞÞ ðf1 ðxÞ; f2 ðxÞÞ Aðth ÞÞ
t!0 jth j

1
ððf1 ðx þ th Þ; f2 ðx þ th ÞÞ ðf1 ðxÞ; f2 ðxÞÞ Bðth ÞÞ
jth j
exists, and its value is 0 ð¼ 0 0Þ: Further, since jh j [ 0;

1
0 ¼ lim ððf1 ðx þ th Þ; f2 ðx þ th ÞÞ ðf1 ðxÞ; f2 ðxÞÞ Aðth ÞÞ
t!0 jth j

1
ððf1 ðx þ th Þ; f2 ðx þ th ÞÞ ðf1 ðxÞ; f2 ðxÞÞ Bðth ÞÞ
jth j

1
¼ lim ðBðth Þ Aðth ÞÞ
t!0 jth j

1 1
¼ lim ðtðBðh ÞÞ tðAðh ÞÞÞ ¼ lim tðBðh Þ Aðh ÞÞ
t!0 jth j t!0 jth j

1 1
¼ lim tððB AÞðh ÞÞ ¼ lim tððB AÞðh ÞÞ :
t!0 jth j t!0 jt jjh j
Since limt!0 ðjtjjh1 j tððB AÞðh ÞÞÞ ¼ 0;

1 1 1
0 ¼ lim
t ð ð B A Þ ðh
Þ Þ ¼ lim jðB AÞðh Þj ¼ jðB AÞðh Þj:
t!0 jtjjh j t!0 jh j jh j
Since jh1 j jðB AÞðh Þj ¼ 0, LHS ¼ jðA BÞðh Þj ¼ jðB AÞðh Þj ¼ 0 ¼ RHS:
Thus, we have shown that in all cases, LHS = RHS. h
3.2 Differentiation 143
Note 3.12 The result similar to Theorem 3.11 can be proved as above for Rn in
place of R3 and Rm in place of R2 : According to Theorem 3.11, if there exists A in
LðR3 ; R2 Þ such that

1
h!0 jhj
then such an A is unique.

Definition Let E be an open subset of R3 : Let f : E ! R2 : Let f1 : E ! R; f2 :
E ! R be the component functions of f, that is, f ðhÞ ¼ ðf1 ðhÞ; f2 ðhÞÞ for every h in
E. Let x be in E.
If there exists A in LðR3 ; R2 Þ such that

1
h!0 jhj
then we say that f is differentiable at x, and we write
f 0 ðxÞ ¼ A:
Here, f 0 ðxÞ is called the differential of f at x, or the total derivative of f at x. It is

also denoted by Df(x).
In short, f 0 ðxÞ ¼ A means limh!0 ðjhj 1
ðf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞ AðhÞÞÞ ¼ 0:
If f is differentiable at every point of E, then we say that f is differentiable on E.
Similar definition can be supplied for Rn in place of R3 and Rm in place of R2 :
Theorem 3.13 Let E be an open subset of Rn : Let f : E ! Rm : Let x be in E. Let A
be in LðRn ; Rm Þ:
f 0 ðxÞ ¼ A if and only if there exists a function r : fh : x þ h 2 Eg ! Rm such
that
(i) rð0Þ ¼ 0;
(ii) f ðx þ hÞ ¼ f ðxÞ þ AðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞ for every h in fh : x þ h 2 Eg;
(iii) r is continuous at 0.
Proof of “if” part
Suppose that there exists a function r : fh : x þ h 2 Eg ! Rm such that
(i) rð0Þ ¼ 0;
(ii) f(x + h) = f(x) + A(h) + |h|(r(h)) for every h in fh : x þ h 2 Eg;
We have to show that f 0 ðxÞ ¼ A, that is,

1
lim ðf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞ AðhÞÞ ¼ 0:
h!0 jhj
Since r is continuous at 0,

1
RHS ¼ 0 ¼ rð0Þ ¼ lim rðhÞ ¼ lim ðf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞ AðhÞÞ ¼ LHS:
h!0 h!0 jhj
Proof of “only if” part

Let f 0 ðxÞ ¼ A, that is,

1
lim ðf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞ AðhÞÞ ¼ 0 ðÞ:
h!0 jhj
Let us define r : fh : x þ h 2 Eg ! Rm as follows: For every h in

fh : x þ h 2 Eg;
jhj ðf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞ AðhÞÞ; if h 6¼ 0

1
rðhÞ :
0; if h ¼ 0
Clearly, r(0) = 0. Also, it is clear that for every h in fh : x þ h 2 Eg;

f ðx þ hÞ ¼ f ðxÞ þ AðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞ. By (*),

1
lim rðhÞ ¼ lim ðf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞ AðhÞÞ ¼ 0 ¼ rð0Þ;
h!0 h!0 jhj
and hence, r is continuous at 0. h

R; f2 : E ! R be the component functions of f, that is, f(h) = (f1(h), f2(h)) for every
h in E. Let x be in E. Let A 2 LðR3 ; R2 Þ; where
a11 a12 a13

½ A ¼
a21 a22 a23 23
of R2 : f 0 ðxÞ ¼ A if and only if

1
lim ðf1 ðx þ hÞ f1 ðxÞ ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þ ða11 ; a12 ; a13 ÞÞ ¼ 0;
ðh1 ;h2 ;h3 Þh!0 jhj

1
lim ðf2 ðx þ hÞ f2 ðxÞ ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þ ða21 ; a22 ; a23 ÞÞ ¼ 0:
Proof
f 0 ðxÞ ¼ A means

1
ð0; 0Þ ¼ 0 ¼ lim ðf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞ AðhÞÞ
h!0 jhj

1
¼ lim ððf1 ðx þ hÞ; f2 ðx þ hÞÞ ðf1 ðxÞ; f2 ðxÞÞ AðhÞÞ :
Since
AðhÞ ¼ Aððh1 ; h2 ; h3 ÞÞ
¼ h1 ðAðð1; 0; 0ÞÞÞ þ h2 ðAðð0; 1; 0ÞÞÞ þ h3 ðAðð0; 0; 1ÞÞÞ
¼ h1 ða11 ; a21 Þ þ h2 ða12 ; a22 Þ þ h3 ða13 ; a23 Þ
¼ ðh1 a11 þ h2 a12 þ h3 a13 ; h1 a21 þ h2 a22 þ h3 a23 Þ
¼ ððh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þ ða11 ; a12 ; a13 Þ; ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þ ða21 ; a22 ; a23 ÞÞ;
f 0 ðxÞ ¼ A if and only if

1
ð0; 0Þ ¼ lim ððf1 ðx þ hÞ; f2 ðx þ hÞÞ ðf1 ðxÞ; f2 ðxÞÞÞ
ðh1 ;h2 ;h3 Þh!0 j hj

ððh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þ ða11 ; a12 ; a13 Þ; ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þ ða21 ; a22 ; a23 ÞÞ

1
¼ lim ðf1 ðx þ hÞ f1 ðxÞ ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þ ða11 ; a12 ; a13 ÞÞ;

1
ðf2 ðx þ hÞ f2 ðxÞ ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þ ða21 ; a22 ; a23 ÞÞ
j hj

1
¼ lim ðf1 ðx þ hÞ f1 ðxÞ ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þ ða11 ; a12 ; a13 ÞÞ;

1
lim ðf2 ðx þ hÞ f2 ðxÞ ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þ ða21 ; a22 ; a23 ÞÞ :
Thus, f 0 ðxÞ ¼ A if and only if
1
lim ðf1 ðx þ hÞ f1 ðxÞ ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þ ða11 ; a12 ; a13 ÞÞ ¼ 0;
1
lim ðf2 ðx þ hÞ f2 ðxÞ ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þ ða21 ; a22 ; a23 ÞÞ ¼ 0: h
h
Note 3.15 The result similar to Theorem 3.14 can be proved as above for R in n
place of R3 and Rm in place of R2 :

Theorem 3.16 Let E be an open subset of Rn : Let f : E ! Rm : Let x be in E.

If f is differentiable at x, then f is continuous at x.
Proof Let f be differentiable at x.
We have to prove that f is continuous at x, that is, limh!0 ðf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞÞ ¼ 0:
For this purpose, let us take any ɛ > 0.
Since f is differentiable at x, there exists a linear transformation A from Rn to Rm
such that 0 ¼ limh!0 ðjhj 1
ðf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞ AðhÞÞÞ; and hence, there exists δ > 0
such that for every h in fh : x þ h 2 Eg satisfying 0\jhj\d, we have

1 1 e
jf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞ AðhÞj ¼ ðf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞ AðhÞÞ 0\ :

j hj j hj 2
Case I: when kAk 6¼ 0

e
Now, if h is in fh : x þ h 2 Eg satisfying 0\jhj\minf1; 2kAk ; dg, then

1
jðf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞÞ 0j ¼ jhj ðf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞ AðhÞÞ þ AðhÞ
jhj

1
jhj ðf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞ AðhÞÞ þ jAðhÞj
j hj

1
jhj ðf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞ AðhÞÞ þ k Akjhj
j hj

1
1 ðf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞ AðhÞÞ þ k Akjhj
jhj
e e
\1 þ k Ak ¼ e:
2 2k Ak
So, f is continuous at x.
Case II: when kAk ¼ 0
Here, kAk ¼ 0, so A = 0. Now, if h is in fh : x þ h 2 Eg satisfying
0\jhj\minf1; dg, then

1
jðf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞÞ 0j ¼ jhj ðf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞ 0ðhÞÞ
jhj

1
¼ j hj jðf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞ 0ðhÞÞj
j hj

1 e
1 jðf ðx þ hÞ f ðxÞ AðhÞÞj \1 \e:
j hj 2
So, f is continuous at x.
Thus, we see that in all cases, f is continuous at x. h
Note 3.17 If A 2 LðRn ; Rm Þ, then A is differentiable on Rn ; and for every x in

Rn ; A0 ðxÞ ¼ A:
Reason: Let us take any x in Rn : Since

1
limh!0 ðAðx þ hÞ AðxÞ AðhÞÞ
j hj

1
¼ limh!0 ððAðxÞ þ AðhÞÞ AðxÞ AðhÞÞ
j hj
¼ limh!0 ð0Þ ¼ 0; A0 ðxÞ ¼ A:
Further, since A is differentiable on Rn , by Theorem 3.16, A is continuous on Rn :

Theorem 3.18 Let E be an open subset of Rn : Let x be in E. Let f : E ! Rm be
differentiable at x. Let G be an open subset of Rm ; and G contains the range of f. Let
g : G ! Rp be differentiable at f ðxÞ:
Then,
1. the composite function ðg f Þ : E ! Rp is differentiable at x,
2. ðg f Þ0 ðxÞ ¼ ðg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞðf 0 ðxÞÞ:
Proof Here, f : E ! Rm is differentiable at x, so by Theorem 3.13, there exists a

function r : fh : x þ h 2 Eg ! Rm such that
(i) rð0Þ ¼ 0;
(ii) f ðx þ hÞ ¼ f ðxÞ þ ðf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞ for every h in fh : x þ h 2 Eg;
Here, g : G ! Rp is differentiable at f ðxÞ, so by Theorem 3.17, there exists a
function s : fk : f ðxÞ þ k 2 Gg ! Rp such that
(i′) sð0Þ ¼ 0;
(ii′) gðf ðxÞ þ kÞ ¼ gðf ðxÞÞ þ ðg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞðkÞ þ jkjðsðkÞÞ for every k in fk : f ðxÞþ
k 2 Gg;
(iii′) s is continuous at 0.
We have to show that the composite function ðg f Þ : E ! Rp is differentiable
at x, and ðg f Þ0 ðxÞ ¼ ðg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞðf 0 ðxÞÞ: By Theorem 3.13, it is enough to find a
function t : fh : x þ h 2 Eg ! Rp such that
(I) tð0Þ ¼ 0;
(II) ðg f Þðx þ hÞ ¼ ðg f ÞðxÞ þ ððg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞðf 0 ðxÞÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðtðhÞÞ for every
h in fh : x þ h 2 Eg;
(III) t is continuous at 0.
Here, for every h in fh : x þ h 2 E g;
ðg f Þðx þ hÞ ¼ gðf ðx þ hÞÞ

¼ gðf ðxÞ þ ðf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞÞ
¼ gðf ðxÞ þ ððf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞÞÞ
¼ gðf ðxÞÞ þ ðg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞððf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞÞ
þ jðf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞjðsððf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞÞÞ
¼ gðf ðxÞÞ þ ðg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞððf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞÞ
þ ðg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞðjhjðrðhÞÞÞ þ jðf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞjðsððf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞÞÞ
¼ ðg f ÞðxÞ þ ððg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞÞðhÞ þ jhjððg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞðrðhÞÞÞ
þ jðf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞjðsððf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞÞÞ
¼ ðg f ÞðxÞ þ ððg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞðf 0 ðxÞÞÞðhÞ

1
þ jhj ðg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞðrðhÞÞ þ jðf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞjðsððf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞÞÞ :
j hj
So, for every h in fh : x þ h 2 Eg,
ðg f Þðx þ hÞ ¼ ðg f ÞðxÞ þ ððg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞðf 0 ðxÞÞÞðhÞ

þ jhjððg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞðrðhÞÞ
1
þ jðf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞjðsððf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞÞÞÞ:
jhj
Now, let us define the function t : fh : x þ h 2 Eg ! Rp as follows: For every

h in fh : x þ h 2 Eg;
ðg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞðrðhÞÞ þ j1hj jðf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞjðsððf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞÞÞ; if h 6¼ 0

tðhÞ :
0; if h ¼ 0
It suffices to prove that t is continuous at 0, that is,
lim tðhÞ ¼ 0:
h!0
For this purpose, let us take any e [ 0:

Since ðg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞðrðhÞÞ ¼ ððg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞ rÞðhÞ; the linear transformation g0 ðf ðxÞÞ is
continuous, and r is continuous at 0, the mapping h 7! ðg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞðrðhÞÞ is contin-
uous at 0. Hence, limh!0 ðg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞðrðhÞÞ ¼ ðg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞðrð0ÞÞ ¼ ðg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞð0Þ ¼ 0:
It follows that there exists d1 [ 0 such that for every h in fh : x þ h 2 Eg satisfying
0\jhj\d1 , we have
e
jðg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞðrðhÞÞj\ :
2
Since, for every nonzero h in fh : x þ h 2 Eg, we have

1 1
jðf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞj ðjðf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞj þ jjhjðrðhÞÞjÞ
j hj j hj
1 1
¼ ðjðf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞj þ jhjjrðhÞjÞ ðkf 0 ðxÞkjhj þ jhjjrðhÞjÞ ¼ kf 0 ðxÞk þ jrðhÞj:
j hj j hj
Since limh!0 rðhÞ ¼ 0; there exists d2 [ 0 such that for every h in

fh : x þ h 2 Eg satisfying 0\jhj\d2 , we have
jrðhÞj\1:
So, for every nonzero h in fh : x þ h 2 Eg satisfying 0\jhj\d2 ; we have

1
jðf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞj jjf 0 ðxÞjj þ 1:
j hj
Since limh!0 rðhÞ ¼ 0; and limk!0 sðkÞ ¼ 0; limh!0 sððf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞÞ ¼
sððf 0 ðxÞÞð0Þ þ j0jðrð0ÞÞÞ ¼ sð0 þ 0Þ ¼ sð0Þ ¼ 0; and hence, there exists d3 [ 0
such that for every h in fh : x þ h 2 Eg satisfying 0\jhj\d3 , we have
jsððf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞÞj\ 2ðkf 0 ðxÞkþ1Þ
e
:
Hence, for every h in fh : x þ h 2 Eg satisfying 0\jhj\minfd1 ; d2 ; d3 g, we
have

1
jðf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞjðsððf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞÞÞ
jhj
1
¼ jðf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞjjsððf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞÞj
jhj
e e
ðkf 0 ðxÞk þ 1Þjsððf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞÞj\ðkf 0 ðxÞk þ 1Þ ¼ :
2ðkf 0 ðxÞk þ 1Þ 2
Further,

1
jtðhÞ 0j ¼ jtðhÞj ¼ ðg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞðrðhÞÞ þ jðf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞj
j hj
ðsððf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞÞÞj jðg0 ðf ðxÞÞÞðrðhÞÞj

1 e e
þ jðf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞjðsððf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ þ jhjðrðhÞÞÞÞ\ þ ¼ e:
j hj 2 2
This proves that limh!0 tðhÞ ¼ 0: h
Note 3.19 Theorem 3.18 is known as the chain rule of derivative.

R; f2 : E ! R be the component functions of f, that is, f ðhÞ ¼ ðf1 ðhÞ; f2 ðhÞÞ for
every h in E. Let x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ be in E. Let f be differentiable at x.
Then, all the partial derivatives ðD1 f1 ÞðxÞ; ðD2 f1 ÞðxÞ; ðD3 f1 ÞðxÞ; ðD1 f2 ÞðxÞ; ðD2 f2 Þ
ðxÞ; ðD3 f2 ÞðxÞ exist.
Also,
ðf 0 ðxÞÞðð1; 0; 0ÞÞ ¼ ððD1 f1 ÞðxÞ; ðD1 f2 ÞðxÞÞ;

and for every h in R3 ;
ðf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ ¼ ðððrf1 ÞðxÞÞ h; ððrf2 ÞðxÞÞ hÞ;
where
ðrf1 ÞðxÞ ððD1 f1 ÞðxÞ; ðD2 f1 ÞðxÞ; ðD3 f1 ÞðxÞÞ;
ðrf2 ÞðxÞ ððD1 f2 ÞðxÞ; ðD2 f2 ÞðxÞ; ðD3 f2 ÞðxÞÞ:
(Here, ðrf1 ÞðxÞ is called the gradient of f1 ; etc.)

Proof Since f is differentiable at x, f 0 ðxÞ is in LðR3 ; R2 Þ: Let
a11 a12 a13

½f 0 ðxÞ ¼
a21 a22 a23 23
relative to the basis fð1; 0; 0Þ; ð0; 1; 0Þ; ð0; 0; 1Þg of R3 and the basis fð1; 0Þ; ð0; 1Þg
of R2 : By Theorem 3.14,

1
Hence,

1
lim ðf1 ððx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ þ ð0; t; 0ÞÞ f1 ððx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ð0; t; 0Þ ða11 ; a12 ; a13 ÞÞ ¼0
t!0 jð0; t; 0Þj
or,

1
lim ðf1 ððx1 ; x2 þ t; x3 ÞÞ f1 ððx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ta12 Þ ¼ 0
t!0 jtj
or,

1
lim ðf1 ððx1 ; x2 þ t; x3 ÞÞ f1 ððx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ta12 Þ ¼ 0
t!0 t
or,

1
lim ðf1 ððx1 ; x2 þ t; x3 ÞÞ f1 ððx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞÞ a12 ¼ 0
t!0 t
or,
f1 ððx1 ; x2 þ t; x3 ÞÞ f1 ððx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ
ðD2 f1 ÞðxÞ ¼ lim ¼ a12 :
t!0 t
It follows that ðD2 f1 ÞðxÞ exists, and its value is a12 :

Similarly, all ðDj fi ÞðxÞ exist, and ðDj fi ÞðxÞ ¼ aij . Hence,
ðD1 f1 ÞðxÞ ðD2 f1 ÞðxÞ ðD3 f1 ÞðxÞ

½f 0 ðxÞ ¼
ðD1 f2 ÞðxÞ ðD2 f2 ÞðxÞ ðD3 f2 ÞðxÞ 23
of R2 : Also,
ðf 0 ðxÞÞðð0; 0; 1ÞÞ ¼ ððD3 f1 ÞðxÞ; ðD3 f2 ÞðxÞÞ:
Also, for every h in R3 ;
LHS ¼ ðf 0 ðxÞÞðhÞ ¼ ðf 0 ðxÞÞððh1 ; h2 ; h3 ÞÞ

¼ ðf 0 ðxÞÞðh1 ð1; 0; 0Þ þ h2 ð0; 1; 0Þ þ h3 ð0; 0; 1ÞÞ
¼ h1 ððD1 f1 ÞðxÞ; ðD1 f2 ÞðxÞÞ þ h2 ððD2 f1 ÞðxÞ; ðD2 f2 ÞðxÞÞ
þ h3 ððD3 f1 ÞðxÞ; ðD3 f2 ÞðxÞÞ
¼ ðh1 ððD1 f1 ÞðxÞÞ þ h2 ððD2 f1 ÞðxÞÞ þ h3 ððD3 f1 ÞðxÞÞ; h1 ððD1 f2 ÞðxÞÞ
þ h2 ððD2 f2 ÞðxÞÞ þ h3 ððD3 f2 ÞðxÞÞÞ
¼ ðððD1 f1 ÞðxÞ; ðD2 f1 ÞðxÞ; ðD3 f1 ÞðxÞÞ ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þ;
ððD1 f2 ÞðxÞ; ðD2 f2 ÞðxÞ; ðD3 f2 ÞðxÞÞ ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 ÞÞ
¼ ðððrf1 ÞðxÞÞ ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þ; ððrf2 ÞðxÞÞ ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 ÞÞ
¼ ðððrf1 ÞðxÞÞ h; ððrf2 ÞðxÞÞ hÞ ¼ RHS:
h

R; f2 : E ! R be the component functions of f, that is, f ðhÞ ¼ ðf1 ðhÞ; f2 ðhÞÞ for
every h in E. Let x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ be in E. Let f be differentiable at x. Let u
ðu1 ; u2 ; u3 Þ be a unit vector in R3 : Then,
ðDu f1 ÞðxÞ ¼ u ððrf1 ÞðxÞÞ;

ðDu f2 ÞðxÞ ¼ u ððrf2 ÞðxÞÞ;
where
f1 ððx1 þ tu1 ; x2 þ tu2 ; x3 þ tu3 ÞÞ f1 ððx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ

ðDu f1 ÞðxÞ lim ;
t!0 t
ðDu f2 ÞðxÞ lim :
t!0 t
(Here, ðDu f1 ÞðxÞ is called the directional derivative of f1 in the direction of u, etc.)
Proof Since f is differentiable at x; f 0 ðxÞ is in LðR3 ; R2 Þ: Let
a11 a12 a13

½f 0 ðxÞ ¼
a21 a22 a23 23
of R2 : By Theorem 3.14,

1
Hence,

1
lim ðf1 ððx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ þ tðu1 ; u2 ; u3 ÞÞ f1 ððx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ
t!0 j t ð u1 ; u2 ; u3 Þ j

ðtðu1 ; u2 ; u3 ÞÞ ða11 ; a12 ; a13 ÞÞ ¼ 0
or,

1
lim ðf1 ððx1 þ tu1 ; x2 þ tu2 ; x3 þ tu3 ÞÞ f1 ððx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ
t!0 jtjjðu1 ; u2 ; u3 Þj

tððu1 ; u2 ; u3 Þ ða11 ; a12 ; a13 ÞÞÞ ¼ 0
or,

1
t!0 jt j 1

tððu1 ; u2 ; u3 Þ ða11 ; a12 ; a13 ÞÞÞ ¼ 0
or,

1
t!0 t

tððu1 ; u2 ; u3 Þ ða11 ; a12 ; a13 ÞÞÞ ¼ 0
or,

lim
t!0 t

ððu1 ; u2 ; u3 Þ ða11 ; a12 ; a13 ÞÞ ¼ 0
or,
ðDu f1 ÞðxÞ ¼ lim
t!0 t
¼ ðu1 ; u2 ; u3 Þ ððD1 f1 ÞðxÞ; ðD2 f1 ÞðxÞ; ðD3 f1 ÞðxÞÞ
¼ ðu1 ; u2 ; u3 Þ ððrf1 ÞðxÞÞ ¼ u ððrf1 ÞðxÞÞ
Thus,
ðDu f1 ÞðxÞ ¼ u ððrf1 ÞðxÞÞ:
Similarly,
ðDu f2 ÞðxÞ ¼ u ððrf2 ÞðxÞÞ: h
h
Theorem 3.24 Let E be an open subset of Rn : Let f : E ! R: Let x ðx1 ; . . .; xn Þ
be in E Let f be differentiable at x. Then,
0 1
maxfðDu f ÞðxÞ : u 2 Rn and juj ¼ 1g ¼ @D f AðxÞ:
1
jðrf ÞðxÞj
ððrf ÞðxÞÞ
(In short, if f is differentiable at x, then the maximum value of the directional

derivative of f at x is obtained in the direction of the gradient of f at x.)
Proof Let u ðu1 ; . . .; un Þ be any unit vector in Rn : We have to prove that
0 1
ðDu f ÞðxÞ @D f AðxÞ:
1
jðrf ÞðxÞj
ððrf ÞðxÞÞ
By Theorem 3.22, ðDu f ÞðxÞ ¼ u ððrf ÞðxÞÞ: Hence,
ðDu f ÞðxÞ jðDu f ÞðxÞj ¼ ju ððrf ÞðxÞÞj jujjðrf ÞðxÞj

1
¼ 1 jðrf ÞðxÞj ¼ jðrf ÞðxÞj ¼ jðrf ÞðxÞj2
jðrf ÞðxÞj
1
¼ ðððrf ÞðxÞÞ ððrf ÞðxÞÞÞ
jðrf ÞðxÞj

1
¼ ððrf ÞðxÞÞ ððrf ÞðxÞÞ
jðrf ÞðxÞj
0 1
¼ @D f AðxÞ:
1
jðrf ÞðxÞj
ððrf ÞðxÞÞ
Hence,
0 1
ðDu f ÞðxÞ @D f AðxÞ:
1
jðrf ÞðxÞj
ððrf ÞðxÞÞ
h
Theorem 3.25 Let a\b: Let c : ða; bÞ ! R2 be any function differentiable on the
open interval ða; bÞ: Let G be an open subset of R2 ; and G contains the range of c:
Let f : G ! R be differentiable on G Then, for every t in the open interval ða; bÞ;

0 d
ðf cÞ ðtÞ ¼ ððrf ÞðcðtÞÞÞ cðtÞ :
dt
Proof Let c1 : ða; bÞ ! R; c2 : ða; bÞ ! R be the component functions of c; that

is, cðtÞ ¼ ðc1 ðtÞ; c2 ðtÞÞ for every t in ða; bÞ: Let us take any t in the open interval
ða; bÞ. By the chain rule of derivative, we have
ðf cÞ0 ðtÞ ¼ ðf 0 ðcðtÞÞÞðc0 ðtÞÞ:
Hence,

ðf cÞ0 ðtÞ ¼ ½ðf 0 ðcðtÞÞÞðc0 ðtÞÞ ¼ ½ðf 0 ðcðtÞÞÞ½ðc0 ðtÞÞ
2d 3
c1 ðtÞ
6 7
¼ ½ ðD1 f ÞðcðtÞÞ ðD2 f ÞðcðtÞÞ 12 4 dt 5
d
c ðtÞ
dt 2 21

d d
¼ ððD1 f ÞðcðtÞÞÞ c ðtÞ þ ððD2 f ÞðcðtÞÞÞ c ðtÞ :
dt 1 dt 2
So,

0 d d
LHS ¼ ðf cÞ ðtÞ ¼ ððD1 f ÞðcðtÞÞÞ c ðtÞ þ ððD2 f ÞðcðtÞÞÞ c ðtÞ
dt 1 dt 2

d d
¼ ððD1 f ÞðcðtÞÞ; ðD2 f ÞðcðtÞÞÞ c ðtÞ; c2 ðtÞ
dt 1 dt
d
¼ ððD1 f ÞðcðtÞÞ; ðD2 f ÞðcðtÞÞÞ ðc1 ðtÞ; c2 ðtÞÞ
dt

d
¼ ððD1 f ÞðcðtÞÞ; ðD2 f ÞðcðtÞÞÞ cðtÞ
dt

d
¼ ððrf ÞðcðtÞÞÞ cðtÞ ¼ RHS:
dt
h
Note 3.26 The result similar to Theorem 3.25 can be proved as above for R in m
place of R2 :
Note 3.27 Let a be in Rn : The function t 7! ta from R to Rn is denoted by a,
provided that there is no confusion. Here,
kak ¼ supfjtaj : t 2 R and jtj 1g ¼ supfjtjjaj : t 2 R and jtj 1g jaj ¼ j1aj

supfjtaj : t 2 R and jtj 1g ¼ kak:
This shows that

kak ¼ jaj:
Theorem 3.28 Let E be an open convex subset of R3 : Let f : E ! R2 be differen-

tiable on E. Let the set fkf 0 ðxÞk : x 2 Eg be bounded above. Then, for every a, b in E,
jf ðbÞ f ðaÞj jb ajðsupfkf 0 ðxÞk : x 2 E gÞ
Proof First of all, we shall prove the following lemma. h

Lemma 3.29 Let a\b: Let f : ½a; b ! Rn be any continuous function. If f is
differentiable on ða; bÞ; then there exists a real number t in ða; bÞ such that
jf ðbÞ f ðaÞj ðb aÞjf 0 ðtÞj:
Proof of Lemma
Case I: when f ðaÞ ¼ f ðbÞ. The lemma is trivial in this case.
Case II: when f ðaÞ 6¼ f ðbÞ. Since f ðaÞ 6¼ f ðbÞ; 0\jf ðbÞ f ðaÞj; and hence,
jf ðbÞf ðaÞj ðf ðbÞ f ðaÞÞ is in R : Put c jf ðbÞf ðaÞj ðf ðbÞ f ðaÞÞ: Clearly, jcj ¼ 1:
1 n 1

g : ½a; b ! R
as follows: For every x in ½a; b;
gðxÞ c ðf ðxÞÞ:
Now, we want to apply Lagrange’s mean value theorem on g. Since f : ½a; b !

Rn is continuous, g : ½a; b ! R is continuous. Since f : ½a; b ! Rn is differen-
tiable on ða; bÞ; g : ½a; b ! R is differentiable on ða; bÞ; and for every x in ða; bÞ;
g0 ðxÞ ¼ c ðf 0 ðxÞÞ:
Hence, by the Lagrange’s mean value theorem, there exists a real number t in
ða; bÞ such that

1
jf ðbÞ f ðaÞj ¼ ðf ðbÞ f ðaÞÞ ðf ðbÞ f ðaÞÞ ¼ c ðf ðbÞ f ðaÞÞ
jf ðbÞ f ðaÞj
¼ c ðf ðbÞÞ c ðf ðaÞÞ ¼ gðbÞ gðaÞ ¼ ðb aÞg0 ðtÞ ¼ ðb aÞðc ðf 0 ðtÞÞÞ
¼ c ððb aÞðf 0 ðtÞÞÞ jc ððb aÞðf 0 ðtÞÞÞj jcjjðb aÞðf 0 ðtÞÞj
¼ 1jðb aÞðf 0 ðtÞÞj ¼ ðb aÞjf 0 ðtÞj:
Thus, there exists a real number t in ða; bÞ such that
jf ðbÞ f ðaÞj ðb aÞjf 0 ðtÞj:

h
Proof of the main theorem Let us take any a ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ; b ðb1 ; b2 ; b3 Þ in
E. Let us take a nonzero element c ðc1 ; c2 Þ in R2 : Let f1 ; f2 be the component
functions of f. Let us define a function
c : ½0; 1 ! R3
as follows: For every t in the closed interval ½0; 1;
cðtÞ ð1 tÞa þ tb:
Clearly, c is continuous on [0,1]. Also, it is clear that c is differentiable on the

open interval (0,1), and for every t in (0,1),
c0 ðtÞ ¼ b a:
Since E is convex, a and b are in E, the range of c is contained in E. Since

c : ½0; 1 ! R3 ; the range of c is contained in E, and f : E ! R2 ; the composite
function f c is defined on ½0; 1:
We want to apply Lemma 3.29 on f c: Since f : E ! R2 is differentiable on E,

f is continuous on E. Since c is continuous on ½0; 1; the range of c is contained in E,
and f is continuous on E, f c is continuous on [0, 1]. Since c is differentiable on
the open interval ð0; 1Þ; the range of c is contained in E, and f : E ! R2 is dif-
ferentiable on E, by Theorem 3.18, the composite function ðf cÞ : ½0; 1 ! R2 is
differentiable on the open interval ð0; 1Þ; and for every x in ð0; 1Þ;
ðf cÞ0 ðxÞ ¼ ðf 0 ðcðxÞÞÞðc0 ðxÞÞ:
Hence, by Lemma 3.29 and Theorem 3.2, there exists a real number t in ð0; 1Þ
such that
jf ðbÞ f ðaÞj ¼ jf ðcð1ÞÞ f ðcð0ÞÞj ¼ jðf cÞð1Þ ðf cÞð0Þj

ð1 0Þðf cÞ0 ðtÞ

¼ ðf cÞ0 ðtÞ ¼ ðf cÞ0 ðtÞ
¼ kðf 0 ðcðtÞÞÞðc0 ðtÞÞk kf 0 ðcðtÞÞkkc0 ðtÞk
¼ kf 0 ðcðtÞÞkkb ak ¼ kf 0 ðcðtÞÞkjb aj
¼ jb ajkf 0 ðcðtÞÞk jb ajðsupfkf 0 ðxÞk : x 2 E gÞ:
Thus,
jf ðbÞ f ðaÞj jb ajðsupfkf 0 ðxÞk : x 2 E gÞ:

h

R; f2 : E ! R be the component functions of f, that is, f ðxÞ ¼ ðf1 ðxÞ; f2 ðxÞÞ for
every x in E. If f : E ! R2 is differentiable on E, and the mapping x 7! f 0 ðxÞ from
Eð R3 Þ to the metric space LðR3 ; R2 Þ is continuous, then f is C1 function (i.e., for
i = 1, 2, and j = 1, 2, 3, each function Dj fi : E ! R exists and is continuous).
Proof Let us take any x in E. Since x is in E, and f : E ! R2 is differentiable on E,
f is differentiable at x. Since f is differentiable at x, by Theorem 3.20, all the partial
derivatives ðDj fi ÞðxÞ exist. This shows that each Dj fi : E ! R is a function for i = 1,
2, and j = 1, 2, 3. Now, we shall try to prove that D1 f2 : E ! R is continuous. For
this purpose, let us fix any x in E.
Let us take any e [ 0: Since the mapping x 7! f 0 ðxÞ from E ð R3 Þ to the metric
space LðR3 ; R2 Þ is continuous, there exists d [ 0 such that for every y in E satis-
fying jy xj\d, we have kf 0 ðyÞ f 0 ðxÞk\e:
Let us take any y in E satisfying jy xj\d: It is enough to prove that
jðD1 f2 ÞðyÞ ðD1 f2 ÞðxÞj\e: Since
½f 0 ðyÞ f 0 ðxÞ ¼ ½f 0 ðyÞ ½f 0 ðxÞ

ðD1 f1 ÞðyÞ ðD2 f1 ÞðyÞ ðD3 f1 ÞðyÞ
¼
ðD1 f2 ÞðyÞ ðD2 f2 ÞðyÞ ðD3 f1 ÞðyÞ 23

ðD1 f1 ÞðyÞ ðD1 f1 ÞðxÞ ðD2 f1 ÞðyÞ ðD2 f1 ÞðxÞ ðD3 f1 ÞðyÞ ðD3 f1 ÞðxÞ
¼ ;
ðD1 f2 ÞðyÞ ðD1 f2 ÞðxÞ ðD2 f2 ÞðyÞ ðD2 f2 ÞðxÞ ðD3 f1 ÞðyÞ ðD3 f1 ÞðxÞ 23
so
jðD1 f2 ÞðyÞ ðD1 f2 ÞðxÞj jððD1 f1 ÞðyÞ ðD1 f1 ÞðxÞ; ðD1 f2 ÞðyÞ ðD1 f2 ÞðxÞÞj
¼ jðf 0 ðyÞ f 0 ðxÞÞðð1; 0; 0ÞÞj

sup jðf 0 ðyÞ f 0 ðxÞÞðtÞj : t 2 R3 ; jtj 1
¼ kf 0 ðyÞ f 0 ðxÞk\e:
Hence,
jðD1 f2 ÞðyÞ ðD1 f2 ÞðxÞj\e:
This proves that D1 f2 : E ! R is continuous. Similarly, all other partial deriv-

atives are continuous. Hence, f is a C1 function. h
every x in E. If f is a C1 function (i.e., for i ¼ 1; 2; and j ¼ 1; 2; 3; each function
Dj fi : E ! R exists and is continuous), then f : E ! R2 is differentiable on E:
Proof Let us take any a ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ in E. We have to prove that f : E ! R2 is
differentiable at a. By Theorem 3.14, it is enough to prove that
1
(i) lim ðf1 ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ
ðh1 ;h2 ;h3 Þh!0 jðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þj
þ ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 ÞÞ f1 ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þ
!
ððD1 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ; ðD2 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ; ðD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞÞÞ ¼ 0;
and

1
lim ðf2 ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ
(ii) ðh1 ;h2 ;h3 Þh!0 jðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þj
þ ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 ÞÞ f2 ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þ

ððD1 f2 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ; ðD2 f2 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ; ðD3 f2 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞÞÞ ¼ 0:
For (i): We have to prove that

1
0¼ lim ðf1 ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ þ ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 ÞÞ f1 ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ
ðh1 ;h2 ;h3 Þh!0 jðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þj

ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þ ððD1 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ; ðD2 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ; ðD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞÞÞ ;
that is,

1
0¼ lim ðf1 ðða1 þ h1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ f1 ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ
ðh1 ;h2 ;h3 Þh!0 jðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þj

ðh1 ððD1 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞÞ þ h2 ððD2 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞÞ þ h3 ððD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞÞÞÞ
For this purpose, let us take any e [ 0:

Since D1 f1 : E ! R; D2 f1 : E ! R; D3 f1 : E ! R are continuous at
ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ; there exists d [ 0 such that for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in E satisfying
jðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þj\d ; we have

Dj f1 ððx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ Dj f1 ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ\ e ðj ¼ 1; 2; 3Þ ðÞ
3
Since ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ is in E, and E is an open subset of R3 ; we can find d [ 0 such

that 0\d\d and the Cartesian product K ½a1 d; a1 þ d
½a2 d; a2 þ d ½a3 d; a3 þ d E:
Let us fix any h ðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þ such that jðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þj\d: Since
jh1 j jðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þj\d; d\h1 \d; or a1 d\a1 þ h1 \a1 þ d; or a1 þ h1 2
½a1 d; a1 þ d: Similarly, a2 þ h2 2 ½a2 d; a2 þ d; and a3 þ h3 2 ½a3 d; a3 þ
d: Since a1 ; a1 þ h1 2 ½a1 d; a1 þ d; and for every t in ½a1 d; a1 þ d; ðt; a2 þ
h2 ; a3 þ h3 Þ 2 ½a1 d; a1 þ d ½a2 d; a2 þ d ½a3 d; a3 þ d E; we can
define a function
g1 : ½a1 d; a1 þ d ! R
as follows: For every t in ½a1 d; a1 þ d;
g1 ðtÞ ¼ f1 ððt; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ:
Now, we want to apply Lagrange’s mean value theorem on g1. For fixed t0 in
½a1 d; a1 þ d; we have
g1 ðt0 þ tÞ g1 ðt0 Þ f1 ðt0 þ t; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 Þ f1 ððt0 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ

lim ¼ lim
t!0 t t!0 t
¼ ðD1 f1 Þððt0 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ:
Since
limt!0 g1 ðt0 þtÞg
t
1 ðt0 Þ
¼ ðD1 f1 Þððt0 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ; ðt0 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 Þ is in E,
and D1 f1 : E ! R exists, g1 is differentiable at t0. Further,
g0 ðt0 Þ ¼ ðD1 f1 Þððt0 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ:
Since g1 is differentiable at t0, g1 is continuous at t0.

Thus, we see that g1 : ½a1 d; a1 þ d ! R is continuous and differentiable on
½a1 d; a1 þ d: Hence, by the Lagrange’s mean value theorem, there exists a real
number c1 lying between a1 þ h1 and a1 such that
f1 ðða1 þ h1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ f1 ðða1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ
¼ g1 ð a1 þ h1 Þ g1 ð a1 Þ
¼ ðða1 þ h1 Þ a1 Þg0 ðc1 Þ ¼ h1 ðg0 ðc1 ÞÞ
¼ h1 ððD1 f1 Þððc1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞÞ:
Thus, we see that there exists a real number c1 lying between a1 þ h1 and a1
such that
f1 ðða1 þ h1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ ¼ f1 ðða1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ
þ h1 ððD1 f1 Þððc1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞÞ:
Similarly, there exists a real number c2 lying between a2 þ h2 and a2 such that
f1 ðða1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ ¼ f1 ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ þ h2 ððD2 f1 Þðða1 ; c2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞÞ:
Again, there exists a real number c3 lying between a3 þ h3 and a3 such that
f1 ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ ¼ f1 ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ þ h3 ððD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; c3 ÞÞÞ:
On adding the last three equations, we get
f1 ðða1 þ h1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ f1 ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ
¼ h1 ð ð D 1 f 1 Þ ð ð c 1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 Þ Þ Þ
þ h2 ððD2 f1 Þðða1 ; c2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞÞ þ h3 ððD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; c3 ÞÞÞ
or,
f1 qðða1 þ h1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ f1 ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞðh1 ððD1 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞÞ

þ h2 ððD2 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞÞ þ h3 ððD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞÞÞ
¼ ðh1 ððD1 f1 Þððc1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞÞ þ h2 ððD2 f1 Þðða1 ; c2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞÞ
þ h3 ððD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; c3 ÞÞÞÞ ðh1 ððD1 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞÞ
þ h2 ððD2 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞÞ þ h3 ððD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞÞÞ
¼ h1 ððD1 f1 Þððc1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ ðD1 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞÞ
þ h2 ððD2 f1 Þðða1 ; c2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ ðD2 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞÞ
þ h3 ððD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; c3 ÞÞ ðD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞÞ:
So,

1
¼ ðf1 ðða1 þ h1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ f1 ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ
jðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þj


1
¼ ðh1 ððD1 f1 Þððc1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ ðD1 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞÞ
jðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þj
þ h2 ððD2 f1 Þðða1 ; c2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ ðD2 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞÞ

þ h3 ððD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; c3 ÞÞ ðD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞÞÞ
jh1 j
jðD1 f1 Þððc1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ ðD1 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞj
jðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þj
jh2 j
þ jðD2 f1 Þðða1 ; c2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ ðD2 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞj
jðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þj
jh3 j
þ jðD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; c3 ÞÞ ðD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞj
jðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þj
¼ jðD1 f1 Þððc1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ ðD1 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞj
þ jðD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; c3 ÞÞ ðD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞj:
Since c1 lies between a1 þ h1 and a1, ðc1 a1 Þ2 ðh1 Þ2 , and hence,
jðc1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 Þ ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þj ¼ jðc1 a1 ; h2 ; h3 Þj

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
¼ ðc1 a1 Þ2 þðh2 Þ2 þðh3 Þ2 ðh1 Þ2 þðh2 Þ2 þðh3 Þ2
¼ jðh1 ; h2 ; h3 Þ ð0; 0; 0Þj\d\d :
Since
jðc1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 Þ ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þj\d , by ðÞ;
e
jðD1 f1 Þððc1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ ðD1 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞj\ :
3
Similarly,
e
jðD2 f1 Þðða1 ; c2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ ðD2 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞj\ ;
3
and
e
jðD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; c3 ÞÞ ðD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞj\ :
3
Hence,

1

jðh ; h ; h Þj ðf1 ðða1 þ h1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ f1 ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ
1 2 3

jðD1 f1 Þððc1 ; a2 þ h2 ; a3 þ h3 ÞÞ ðD1 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞj

þ jðD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; c3 ÞÞ ðD3 f1 Þðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞj
e e e
\ þ þ ¼ e:
3 3 3
This proves (i). Similarly, (ii) is proved. h

every x in E. f is a C1 function (i.e., for i ¼ 1; 2; and j ¼ 1; 2; 3; each function
Dj fi : E ! R exists and is continuous), if and only if f : E ! R2 is differentiable on
E and f 0 : E ! LðR3 ; R2 Þ is continuous.
Proof By using Theorems 3.31 and 3.32, we find that the only part that remains to
be proved is the following:
if f is a C1 function, then the mapping f 0 : E ! LðR3 ; R2 Þ is continuous.
For this purpose, let us take any x in E. We have to prove that f 0 is continuous at x.
Let us take any e [ 0: Since, for i ¼ 1; 2; and j ¼ 1; 2; 3; each function Dj fi :
E ! R is continuous at x, there exists a real number d [ 0 such that for every y in
E satisfying jy xj\d; we have
e
Dj fi ðyÞ Dj fi ðxÞ\ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ðfor every i ¼ 1; 2; and j ¼ 1; 2; 3Þ:
23
Now, let us take any y in E satisfying jy xj\d: It is enough to prove that

kf 0 ðyÞ f 0 ðxÞk\e:
Here,

½f 0 ðxÞ ¼ ;
and
ðD1 f1 ÞðyÞ ðD2 f1 ÞðyÞ ðD3 f1 ÞðyÞ

½f 0 ðyÞ ¼ ;
ðD1 f2 ÞðyÞ ðD2 f2 ÞðyÞ ðD3 f3 ÞðyÞ 23
so
ðD1 f1 ÞðyÞ ðD1 f1 ÞðxÞ ðD2 f1 ÞðyÞ ðD2 f1 ÞðxÞ ðD3 f1 ÞðyÞ ðD3 f1 ÞðxÞ
½f 0 ðyÞ f 0 ðxÞ ¼ ;
ðD1 f2 ÞðyÞ ðD1 f2 ÞðxÞ ðD2 f2 ÞðyÞ ðD2 f2 ÞðxÞ ðD3 f3 ÞðyÞ ðD3 f3 ÞðxÞ 23
and hence,
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
!ffi v ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u 3 u 3 2 2 !
uX X 2 2 uX X e
0 0
kf ðyÞ f ðxÞk t Dj fi ðyÞ Dj fi ðxÞ \ t pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ e:
j¼1 i¼1 j¼1 i¼1 23
h
3.3 Inverse Function Theorem
Theorem 3.35 Let X be a complete metric space, with metric d. Let f : X ! X be

any function. Let c be a real number such that 0\c\1; and for every x, y in X,
d ðf ðxÞ; f ðyÞÞ cðd ðx; yÞÞ:
Then, there exists a unique x in X such that f ðxÞ ¼ x:

Proof Existence: Let us take any a in X. Since a is in X, and f : X ! X; f ðaÞ is in
X. Similarly, f ðf ðaÞÞ is in X, f ðf ðf ðaÞÞÞ is in X, etc. Thus, we get a sequence
fa; f ðaÞ; f ðf ðaÞÞ; f ðf ðf ðaÞÞÞ; . . .g
in X. Put a0 a; a1 f ðaÞ; a2 f ðf ðaÞÞ; a3 f ðf ðf ðaÞÞÞ; etc. Here, fa0 ; a1 ;

a2 ; a3 ; . . .g is a sequence in X. Also, f ðan Þ ¼ anþ1 : Let us observe that by using the
given condition,
d ðf ðaÞ; f ðf ðaÞÞÞ cðd ða; f ðaÞÞÞ:
Also,
d ðf ðf ðaÞÞ; f ðf ðf ðaÞÞÞÞ cðd ðf ðaÞ; f ðf ðaÞÞÞÞ cðcðd ða; f ðaÞÞÞÞ ¼ c2 ðd ða; f ðaÞÞÞ;
so
d ðf ðf ðaÞÞ; f ðf ðf ðaÞÞÞÞ c2 ðd ða; f ðaÞÞÞ:
Similarly,
d ðf ðf ðf ðaÞÞÞ; f ðf ðf ðf ðaÞÞÞÞÞ c3 ðd ða; f ðaÞÞÞ;
etc. Now,
d ðf ðf ðaÞÞ; f ðf ðf ðf ðf ðf ðaÞÞÞÞÞÞÞ cðd ðf ðaÞ; f ðf ðf ðf ðf ðaÞÞÞÞÞÞÞ

cðcðd ða; f ðf ðf ðf ðaÞÞÞÞÞÞÞ ¼ c2 ðd ða; f ðf ðf ðf ðaÞÞÞÞÞÞ
c2 ðd ða; f ðaÞÞ þ d ðf ðaÞ; f ðf ðaÞÞÞ þ d ðf ðf ðaÞÞ; f ðf ðf ðaÞÞÞÞ
þd ðf ðf ðf ðaÞÞÞ; f ðf ðf ðf ðaÞÞÞÞÞÞ
c2 d ða; f ðaÞÞ þ cðd ða; f ðaÞÞÞ þ c2 ðd ða; f ðaÞÞÞ þ c3 ðd ða; f ðaÞÞÞ
¼ c2 1 þ c þ c2 þ c3 ðd ða; f ðaÞÞÞ c2 1 þ c þ c2 þ c3 þ c4 þ ðd ða; f ðaÞÞÞ

1
¼ c2 ðd ða; f ðaÞÞÞ:
1c
Thus, we have seen that

1
d ðf ðf ðaÞÞ; f ðf ðf ðf ðf ðf ðaÞÞÞÞÞÞÞ c2 ðd ða; f ðaÞÞÞ:
1c
Similarly,

1
d ðf ðf ðf ðaÞÞÞ; f ðf ðf ðf ðf ðf ðf ðaÞÞÞÞÞÞÞÞ c3 ðd ða; f ðaÞÞÞ;
1c
etc. Thus, dða2 ; a6 Þ ð1c

1
Þðdða; f ðaÞÞÞc2 ; dða3 ; a7 Þ ð1c
1
Þðdða; f ðaÞÞÞc3 ; etc.
We shall try to prove that the sequence fa0 ; a1 ; a2 ; a3 ; . . .g is Cauchy. For this
purpose, let us take e [ 0: Since 0\c\1; limn!1 cn ¼ 0; and hence,
limn!1 ð1c
1
Þðdða; f ðaÞÞÞcn ¼ 0: Therefore, there exists a positive integer N such
3.3 Inverse Function Theorem 165
that for every n N; we have jð1c

1
Þðdða; f ðaÞÞÞcn 0j\e: Hence, m n N
implies

1 1
d ð an ; am Þ
ðd ða; f ðaÞÞÞc ¼
n
ðd ða; f ðaÞÞÞc 0\e:
n
1c 1c
This proves that fa0 ; a1 ; a2 ; a3 ; . . .g is Cauchy in X. Since fa0 ; a1 ; a2 ; a3 ; . . .g is

Cauchy in X, and X is a complete metric space, there exists an element b in X such
that
lim an ¼ b:
n!1
Now, we shall try to show that the function f : X ! X is continuous at b. For

this purpose, let us take any e [ 0: Now, let us take any y in X satisfying dðy; bÞ\e.
We have to show that dðf ðyÞ; f ðbÞÞ\e. Here, by using the given conditions, we
have
d ðf ðyÞ; f ðbÞÞ cðd ðy; bÞÞ\cðeÞ\1e ¼ e:
This proves that the function f : X ! X is continuous at b. Since f : X ! X is

continuous at b, and limn!1 an ¼ b; limn!1 f ðan Þ ¼ f ðbÞ: Hence, f ðbÞ ¼
limn!1 f ðan Þ ¼ limn!1 anþ1 ¼ limn!1 an ¼ b: Thus, f ðbÞ ¼ b: This proves the
existence part of the theorem.
Uniqueness: If not, otherwise, suppose that there exist x, y in X such that x 6¼
y; f ðxÞ ¼ x; and f ðyÞ ¼ y: We have to arrive at a contradiction. From the given
condition, we have
0 6¼ d ðx; yÞ ¼ d ðf ðxÞ; f ðyÞÞ cðd ðx; yÞÞ:
This implies that 1 c; which contradicts the supposition. h

Theorem 3.36 Let E be an open subset of R3 : Let f : E ! R3 : Let a be in E. If
(i) f is a C1 function,
(ii) f 0 ðaÞ is invertible,
then there exists a connected open neighborhood U of a such that
1. U is contained in E,
2. f is 1–1 on U (i.e., if x and y are in U, and f ðxÞ ¼ f ðyÞ; then x = y),
3. f(U) is connected and open in R3 ;
4. the 1–1 function f−1 from f(U) onto U is a C1 function,
5. if f is a C2 function, then f−1 from f(U) onto U is a C2 function, etc.
Proof Let f1 : E ! R; f2 : E ! R; f3 : E ! R be the component functions of f,

that is, f ðxÞ ¼ ðf1 ðxÞ; f2 ðxÞ; f3 ðxÞÞ for every x in E. Let a ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ: Let X be
the set of all invertible (i.e., 1–1 and onto) members of LðR3 Þ: Since f 0 ðaÞ is
invertible, f 0 ðaÞ is in X Since f 0 ðaÞ is in X, by Theorem 3.3, the open sphere
S 1 ðf 0 ðaÞÞ;
kðf 0 ðaÞÞ1 k
with center f 0 ðaÞ and radius
1
;
ðf ðaÞÞ1
0
is contained in X
Since f is a C1 function, by Theorem 3.33, f 0 : E ! LðR3 Þ is continuous. Since
f 0 : E ! LðR3 Þ is continuous at a, and
S 1 ðf 0 ðaÞÞ
2 kðf 0 ðaÞÞ1 k
is an open neighborhood of f 0 ðaÞ in X, there exists a real number r > 0 such that the
open sphere Sr ðaÞ is contained in E, and for every x in Sr ðaÞ; we have f 0 ðxÞ in
S 1 ðf 0 ðaÞÞ:
2 kðf 0 ðaÞÞ1 k
For every x in Sr ðaÞ; we have f 0 ðxÞ in
S 1 ðf 0 ðaÞÞ;
2 kðf 0 ðaÞÞ1 k
so
1
kf 0 ðxÞ f 0 ðaÞk\
2 ðf ðaÞÞ1
0
or,

1 1 1
I ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ¼ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ I ¼ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ I

1 1
¼ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ

1 1
¼ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞ f 0 ðaÞÞ ¼ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞ f 0 ðaÞÞ

1 1
ðf 0 ðaÞÞ kf 0 ðxÞ f 0 ðaÞk\ :
2
Thus, we see that for every x in Sr ðaÞ; we have

1
1
I ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðÞ
2
For every k ðk1 ; k2 ; k3 Þ in R3 ; let us define a function
uk : Sr ðaÞ ! R3
as follows: For every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in Sr ðaÞ;

1
uk ðxÞ ¼ x ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðxÞÞ þ k:
Now, we shall try to show that for every x in Sr ðaÞ;

1
u0k ðxÞ ¼ I ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ:
Let
2 3
h i a11 a12 a13
1
ðf 0 ðaÞÞ 4 a21 a22 a23 5
a31 a32 a33 33
relative to the basis fð1; 0; 0Þ; ð0; 1; 0Þ; ð0; 0; 1Þg of R3 :

Since

1
uk ðxÞ ¼ x ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðxÞÞ þ k

1
¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ððf1 ðxÞ; f2 ðxÞ; f3 ðxÞÞÞ þ ðk1 ; k2 ; k3 Þ
¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ððf1 ðxÞÞða11 ; a21 ; a31 Þ þ ðf2 ðxÞÞða12 ; a22 ; a32 Þ
þ ðf3 ðxÞÞða13 ; a23 ; a33 ÞÞ þ ðk1 ; k2 ; k3 Þ
¼ ðx1 ða11 ðf1 ðxÞÞ þ a12 ðf2 ðxÞÞ þ a13 ðf3 ðxÞÞÞ þ k1 ; x2
ða21 ðf1 ðxÞÞ þ a22 ðf2 ðxÞÞ þ a23 ðf3 ðxÞÞÞ þ k2 ; x3
ða31 ðf1 ðxÞÞ þ a32 ðf2 ðxÞÞ þ a33 ðf3 ðxÞÞÞ þ k3 Þ
or,
uk ðxÞ ¼ ðx1 ða11 ðf1 ðxÞÞ þ a12 ðf2 ðxÞÞ þ a13 ðf3 ðxÞÞÞ þ k1 ; x2
ða21 ðf1 ðxÞÞ þ a22 ðf2 ðxÞÞ þ a23 ðf3 ðxÞÞÞ þ k2 ; x3
ða31 ðf1 ðxÞÞ þ a32 ðf2 ðxÞÞ þ a33 ðf3 ðxÞÞÞ þ k3 Þ
so,
u0k ðxÞ ðð1; 0; 0ÞÞ ¼ ðD1 ðx1 ða11 ðf1 ðxÞÞ þ a12 ðf2 ðxÞÞ þ a13 ðf3 ðxÞÞÞ þ k1 Þ;
D1 ðx2 ða21 ðf1 ðxÞÞ þ a22 ðf2 ðxÞÞ þ a23 ðf3 ðxÞÞÞ þ k2 Þ;
D1 ðx3 ða31 ðf1 ðxÞÞ þ a32 ðf2 ðxÞÞ þ a33 ðf3 ðxÞÞÞ þ k3 ÞÞ
¼ ð1 ða11 ððD1 f1 ÞðxÞÞ þ a12 ððD1 f2 ÞðxÞÞ þ a13 ððD1 f3 ÞðxÞÞÞ;
ða21 ððD1 f1 ÞðxÞÞ þ a22 ððD1 f2 ÞðxÞÞ þ a23 ððD1 f3 ÞðxÞÞÞ;
ða31 ððD1 f1 ÞðxÞÞ þ a32 ððD1 f2 ÞðxÞÞ þ a33 ððD1 f3 ÞðxÞÞÞÞ:
Also,

1 1
I ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðð1; 0; 0ÞÞ ¼ I ðð1; 0; 0ÞÞ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ððf 0 ðxÞÞðð1; 0; 0ÞÞÞ

1
¼ ð1; 0; 0Þ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ððD1 f1 ÞðxÞ; ðD1 f2 ÞðxÞ; ðD1 f3 ÞðxÞÞ

1
¼ ð1; 0; 0Þ ððD1 f1 ÞðxÞÞ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðð1; 0; 0ÞÞ

1 1
þ ððD1 f2 ÞðxÞÞ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðð0; 1; 0ÞÞ þ ððD1 f3 ÞðxÞÞ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðð0; 0; 1ÞÞ
¼ ð1; 0; 0Þ ðððD1 f1 ÞðxÞÞða11 ; a21 ; a31 Þ þ ððD1 f2 ÞðxÞÞða12 ; a22 ; a32 Þ
þ ððD1 f3 ÞðxÞÞða13 ; a23 ; a33 ÞÞ
¼ ð1 ða11 ððD1 f1 ÞðxÞÞ þ a12 ððD1 f2 ÞðxÞÞ þ a13 ððD1 f3 ÞðxÞÞÞ;
ða21 ððD1 f1 ÞðxÞÞ þ a22 ððD1 f2 ÞðxÞÞ þ a23 ððD1 f3 ÞðxÞÞÞ;
ða31 ððD1 f1 ÞðxÞÞ þ a32 ððD1 f2 ÞðxÞÞ þ a33 ððD1 f3 ÞðxÞÞÞÞ:
This shows that

1
ðuk 0 ðxÞÞðð1; 0; 0ÞÞ ¼ I ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðð1; 0; 0ÞÞ:
Similarly,

1
ðuk 0 ðxÞÞðð0; 1; 0ÞÞ ¼ I ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðð0; 1; 0ÞÞ;

1
ðuk 0 ðxÞÞðð0; 0; 1ÞÞ ¼ I ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðð0; 0; 1ÞÞ:
Hence, for every y in R3 ; we have

1
ðuk 0 ðxÞÞðyÞ ¼ I ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðyÞ:
This shows that for every x in Sr ðaÞ;

1
u0k ðxÞ ¼ I ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ;
and hence, by ðÞ;

1
kuk 0 ðxÞk :
2
Therefore, 12 is an upper bound of the set fkuk 0 ðxÞk : x 2 Sr ðaÞg; and hence,
fkuk 0 ðxÞk : x 2 Sr ðaÞg is bounded above.
Now, we want to apply Theorem 3.28. Since Sr ðaÞ is an open convex subset of
R ; uk : Sr ðaÞ ! R3 is differentiable on Sr ðaÞ; and the set fkuk 0 ðxÞk : x 2 Sr ðaÞg is
3
bounded above, for every x, y in Sr ðaÞ;

1
juk ðyÞ uk ðxÞj jy xj sup u0k ðxÞ : x 2 Sr ðaÞ jy xj :
2
Hence, for every k in R3 ; and for every x, y in Sr ðaÞ; we have

1
juk ðyÞ uk ðxÞj jy xj ðÞ:
2
Next, for every x, y in Sr ðaÞ; we have

1
jy xj ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðyÞ f ðxÞÞ

1 1
¼ jy xj ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðyÞÞ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðxÞÞ

1 1
ðy xÞ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðyÞÞ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðxÞÞ

1 1
¼ y ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðyÞÞ þ k x ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðxÞÞ þ k
1
¼ juk ðyÞ uk ðxÞj jy xj:
2
Hence, for every x, y in Sr ðaÞ; we have

1 1
jy xj ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðyÞ f ðxÞÞ ð Þ
2
For 1: We have seen that the open neighborhood Sr ðaÞ of a is contained in

E. We will take Sr ðaÞ for U. Since Sr ðaÞ is connected, U is connected.
For 2: We have to show that f is 1–1 on Sr ðaÞ: If not, otherwise, let f be not 1–1
on Sr ðaÞ: We have to arrive at a contradiction. Since f is not 1–1 on Sr ðaÞ; there
exist b and c in Sr ðaÞ such that b 6¼ c; and f ðbÞ ¼ f ðcÞ: So, from ð Þ;

1 1 1
0\ jc bj ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðcÞ f ðbÞÞ ¼ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðbÞ f ðbÞÞ
2
1
¼ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ð0Þ ¼ j0j ¼ 0;
which is a contradiction. Hence, f is 1–1 on Sr ðaÞ:

For 3: We have to show that f ðSr ðaÞÞ is an open subset of R3 and is connected.
Since Sr ðaÞ is connected, and f is continuous, f ðSr ðaÞÞ is connected. Now, we
want to show that f ðSr ðaÞÞ is an open subset of R3 : For this purpose, let us take
any f ðbÞ in f ðSr ðaÞÞ; where b is in Sr ðaÞ: We have to find a real number e [ 0
such that the sphere
S e ðf ðbÞÞ
2 kðf 0 ðaÞÞ1 k
is contained in f ðSr ðaÞÞ; that is, we have to find a real number e [ 0 such that if
e
jy f ðbÞj\
2 ðf ðaÞÞ1
0
then there exists x in R3 such that jx aj\r; and f ðx Þ ¼ y:

Since b is in Sr ðaÞ; we can find a real number e [ 0 such that Se ½b
fx : x 2 R3 and jx bj eg Sr ðaÞ: Next, let us take any y in R3 such that
e
jy f ðbÞj\ :
2 ðf ðaÞÞ1
0
Now, we will try to show that

uððf 0 ðaÞÞ1 ÞðyÞ : Se ½b ! Se ½b:
Observe that

1 1
uððf 0 ðaÞÞ1 ÞðyÞ ðbÞ b ¼ b ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðbÞÞ þ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðyÞ b

1 1 1
¼ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðyÞ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðbÞÞ ¼ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðy f ðbÞÞ
e e
1 1
ðf 0 ðaÞÞ jy f ðbÞj ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ¼ :

2 ðf ðaÞÞ
0 1 2
Thus,
e

uððf 0 ðaÞÞ1 ÞðyÞ ðbÞ b :
2
Next, let us take any z in Se ½b:

We have to prove that uððf 0 ðaÞÞ1 ÞðyÞ ðzÞ is in Se ½b; that is,

uððf 0 ðaÞÞ1 ÞðyÞ ðzÞ b e:
Since z is in Se ½b; jz bj e; and hence, by ðÞ;

uððf 0 ðaÞÞ1 ÞðyÞ ðzÞ b uððf 0 ðaÞÞ1 ÞðyÞ ðzÞ uððf 0 ðaÞÞ1 ÞðyÞ ðbÞ þ uððf 0 ðaÞÞ1 ÞðyÞ ðbÞ b

1
jz bj þ uððf 0 ðaÞÞ1 ÞðyÞ ðbÞ b
2
1 e
1
e þ uððf 0 ðaÞÞ1 ÞðyÞ ðbÞ b e þ ¼ e:
2 2 2
This proves that
uððf 0 ðaÞÞ1 ÞðyÞ : Se ½b ! Se ½b:
Since fx : x 2 R3 and jx bj eg is a closed subset of the complete metric

space R3 ; Se ½b is a complete metric space. Also, from ðÞ; for every s, t in Se ½b;
we have
1

uððf 0 ðaÞÞ1 ÞðyÞ ðsÞ uððf 0 ðaÞÞ1 ÞðyÞ ðtÞ js tj:
2
Hence, by Theorem 3.35, there exists a unique x in Se ½bð Sr ðaÞÞ such that
uððf 0 ðaÞÞ1 ÞðyÞ ðx Þ ¼ x : Hence, jx aj\r; and

1 1
x ¼ uððf 0 ðaÞÞ1 ÞðyÞ ðx Þ ¼ x ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðx ÞÞ þ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðyÞ:
Therefore,

1 1 1
ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ð0Þ ¼ 0 ¼ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðx ÞÞ þ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðyÞ

0 1
¼ ðf ðaÞÞ ðy f ðx ÞÞ:
Now, since ðf 0 ðaÞÞ1 is invertible, 0 ¼ y f ðx Þ; or f ðx Þ ¼ y: Thus, we have

shown that f ðSr ðaÞÞ is an open subset of R3 :
For 4: We first prove that the 1–1 function f−1 from f ðSr ðaÞÞ onto Sr ðaÞ is
differentiable at every point of f ðSr ðaÞÞ: For this purpose, let us take any f(x) in
f ðSr ðaÞÞ; where x is in Sr ðaÞ: Since f : E ! R3 is a C1 function, by Theorem
3.33, f is differentiable at every point of E. Since f is differentiable at every point
of E, and x is in Sr ðaÞ ð EÞ; f 0 ðxÞ exists. Observe that if t is in Sr ðaÞ; then
f 0 ðtÞ 2 S 1 ðf 0 ðaÞÞ S 1 ðf 0 ðaÞÞ X;

2 kðf 0 ðaÞÞ1 k kðf 0 ðaÞÞ1 k
and hence, ðf 0 ðtÞÞ1 exists. Thus, if t is in Sr ðaÞ; then

1
f 0 ðtÞ; ðf 0 ðtÞÞ 2 X: ð0 Þ
Since x is in Sr ðaÞ; from ð0 Þ; f 0 ðxÞ; ðf 0 ðxÞÞ1 exist. Now, we will try to prove that
f−1 is differentiable at f(x) and ðf 1 Þ0 ðf ðxÞÞ ¼ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ1 ; that is,

1 1
1

lim f ðf ðxÞ þ k Þ f 1 ðf ðxÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðkÞ ¼ 0;
k!0 jk j
that is,

1 1 1 0 1
lim f ðyÞ f ðf ðxÞÞ ðf ðxÞÞ ðy f ðxÞÞ ¼ 0;
y ! f ðxÞ jy f ðxÞj
y 2 f ðSr ðaÞÞ
that is,

1 1 1
lim f ðyÞ f 1 ðf ðxÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðy f ðxÞÞ ¼ 0;
y ! f ðxÞ jy f ðxÞj
y 2 f ðSr ðaÞÞ
that is,

1 1 1
lim f ðyÞ x ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðy f ðxÞÞ ¼ 0:
y ! f ðxÞ j y f ðxÞj
y 2 f ðSr ðaÞÞ
For this purpose, let us take a sequence ff ðan Þg in f ðSr ðaÞÞ such that each an is
in Sr ðaÞ; each f ðan Þ is different from f ðxÞ; and limn!1 f ðan Þ ¼ f ðxÞ: We have to
prove that

1 1 1
lim f ðf ðan ÞÞ x ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðf ðan Þ f ðxÞÞ ¼ 0;
n!1 jf ðan Þ f ðxÞj
that is,

1 1
lim an x ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðf ðan Þ f ðxÞÞ ¼ 0:
Since x and an are in Sr ðaÞ, from ð Þ;

1 1 1
jan xj ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðan Þ f ðxÞÞ ðf 0 ðaÞÞ jf ðan Þ f ðxÞj;
2
and hence,

1
0 jan xj 2ðf 0 ðaÞÞ jf ðan Þ f ðxÞj ðn ¼ 1; 2; 3; Þ:
This, together with limn!1 f ðan Þ ¼ f ðxÞ; implies that limn!1 jan xj ¼ 0:
Thus,
lim an ¼ x:
n!1
Since each f ðan Þ is different from f ðxÞ; x 6¼ an : Since f 0 ðxÞ exists, each an is in
Sr ðaÞ; x is in Sr ðaÞ; each an is different from x, and limn!1 an ¼ x;
1
lim jf ðan Þ f ðxÞ ððf 0 ðxÞÞðan xÞÞj ¼ 0:
n!1 jan xj
Since each an 6¼ x; jan xj 6¼ 0: Also, each jf ðan Þ f ðxÞj 6¼ 0: It follows that

for every positive integer n,
1
1 1
2ðf 0 ðaÞÞ :
jf ðan Þ f ðxÞj j an x j
Now, for every positive integer n, we have

1 1
an x ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðf ðan Þ f ðxÞÞ
jf ðan Þ f ðxÞj
1
1 1
2ðf 0 ðaÞÞ an x ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðf ðan Þ f ðxÞÞ
jan xj
1
1 1 1
2ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðan xÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðf ðan Þ f ðxÞÞ
jan xj
1
1 0 1 1
2ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðxÞÞ ððf 0 ðxÞÞðan xÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðf ðan Þ f ðxÞÞ
jan xj
1
1 0 1
2ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðxÞÞ ðððf 0 ðxÞÞðan xÞÞ ðf ðan Þ f ðxÞÞÞ
jan xj
1
1 0 1
2ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf ðxÞÞ jððf 0 ðxÞÞðan xÞÞ ðf ðan Þ f ðxÞÞj
jan xj
1
0 1 0 1
¼ 2ðf ðaÞÞ ðf ðxÞÞ jf ðan Þ f ðxÞ ððf 0 ðxÞÞðan xÞÞj :
jan xj
Since

1 1
0 an x ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðf ðan Þ f ðxÞÞ
jf ðan Þ f ðxÞj
1
1 1
2ðf 0 ðaÞÞ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ jf ðan Þ f ðxÞ ððf 0 ðxÞÞðan xÞÞj ;
jan xj
and
1
lim jf ðan Þ f ðxÞ ððf 0 ðxÞÞðan xÞÞj ¼ 0;
n!1 jan xj
so,

1 1
lim an x ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ðf ðan Þ f ðxÞÞ ¼ 0:
This proves that f−1 is differentiable at f(x) and

0 1
f 1 ðf ðxÞÞ ¼ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ð00 Þ
for every x in Sr ðaÞ: Hence, f−1 is differentiable on the open subset f ðSr ðaÞÞ of R3 :
Since f−1 is differentiable on the open subset f ðSr ðaÞÞ of R3 ; f−1 is continuous on
the open subset f ðSr ðaÞÞ of R3 : Now, we want to prove that the mapping ðf 1 Þ0 :
f ðSr ðaÞÞ ! LðR3 Þ is continuous. Let us take any y in f ðSr ðaÞÞ: Since y is in
f ðSr ðaÞÞ; there exists x in Sr ðaÞ; such that f ðxÞ ¼ y: Since f ðxÞ ¼ y 2 f ðSr ðaÞÞ;
f 1 ðyÞ ¼ x: Since x is in Sr ðaÞ, by ð00 Þ;
0 0 1 1
f 1 ðyÞ ¼ f 1 ðf ðxÞÞ ¼ ðf 0 ðxÞÞ ¼ f 0 f 1 ðyÞ :
Hence, for every y in f ðSr ðaÞÞ;

0 1
f 1 ðyÞ ¼ f 0 f 1 ðyÞ :
We have seen that y 7! f 1 ðyÞ is differentiable on f ðSr ðaÞÞ; so y 7! f 1 ðyÞ is a

continuous function from f ðSr ðaÞÞ to Sr ðaÞ: Since f is a C1 function on E, by
Theorem 3.33, x 7! f 0 ðxÞ is continuous on E. Since y 7! f 1 ðyÞ is a continuous
function from f ðSr ðaÞÞ to Sr ðaÞ; and x 7! f 0 ðxÞ is continuous on Eð Sr ðaÞÞ; by ð0 Þ;
their composite function y 7! f 0 ðf 1 ðyÞÞ is continuous from f ðSr ðaÞÞ to X: Since
y 7! f 0 ðf 1 ðyÞÞ is continuous from f ðSr ðaÞÞ to X, and by Theorem 3.3, the mapping
A 7! A1 from X to X is continuous, their composite function y 7! ðf 0 ðf 1 ðyÞÞÞ1 is
continuous from f ðSr ðaÞÞ to X. Since y 7! ðf 0 ðf 1 ðyÞÞÞ1 is continuous from
f ðSr ðaÞÞ to X, and ðf 0 ðf 1 ðyÞÞÞ1 ¼ ðf 1 Þ0 ðyÞ; the function y 7! ðf 1 Þ0 ðyÞ is con-
tinuous from f ðSr ðaÞÞ to X, and hence, by Theorem 3.33, f−1 is a C1 function on the
open subset f ðSr ðaÞÞ of R3 :
For 5: Let f be a C2 function. Let g1 : f ðSr ðaÞÞ ! R; g2 : f ðSr ðaÞÞ ! R; g3 :
f ðSr ðaÞÞ ! R be the component functions of f−1 that is, f 1 ðxÞ ¼
ðg1 ðxÞ; g2 ðxÞ; g3 ðxÞÞ for every x in f ðSr ðaÞÞ: We have to prove that f−1 from
f ðSr ðaÞÞ onto Sr ðaÞ is a C2 function, that is, each of the nine second-order partial
derivatives Djk ðgi Þ : f ðSr ðaÞÞ ! R exists and is continuous. Let us take any y in
f ðSr ðaÞÞ: We will try to show that ðD12 ðg3 ÞÞðyÞ exists. Since y is in f ðSr ðaÞÞ;
0 1
f 1 ðyÞ ¼ f 0 f 1 ðyÞ ;
or,
0

f 1 ðyÞ f 0 f 1 ðyÞ ¼ I;
and hence, by Theorem 3.6,

2 3
1 0 0 h i h i
6 7 0 0
40 1 05 ¼ ½I ¼ f 1 ðyÞ f 0 f 1 ðyÞ ¼ f 1 ðyÞ f 0 f 1 ðyÞ
0 0 1 33
2 3
ðD1 ðg1 ÞÞðyÞ ðD2 ðg1 ÞÞðyÞ ðD3 ðg1 ÞÞðyÞ
6 7
¼ 4 ðD1 ðg2 ÞÞðyÞ ðD2 ðg2 ÞÞðyÞ ðD3 ðg2 ÞÞðyÞ 5
ðD1 ðg3 ÞÞðyÞ ðD2 ðg3 ÞÞðyÞ ðD3 ðg3 ÞÞðyÞ 33
2 3
ðD1 ðf1 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD2 ðf1 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD3 ðf1 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ
6 7
4 ðD1 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD2 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD3 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ 5 :
1 1 1
ð D 1 ðf 3 ÞÞ ðf ðyÞÞ ðD2 ðf3 ÞÞðf ðyÞÞ ðD3 ðf3 ÞÞðf ðyÞÞ 33
This shows that

2 3
ðD1 ðg1 ÞÞðyÞ ðD2 ðg1 ÞÞðyÞ ðD3 ðg1 ÞÞðyÞ
4 ðD1 ðg2 ÞÞðyÞ ðD2 ðg2 ÞÞðyÞ ðD3 ðg2 ÞÞðyÞ 5
ðD1 ðg3 ÞÞðyÞ ðD2 ðg3 ÞÞðyÞ ðD3 ðg3 ÞÞðyÞ 33
2 31
¼ 4 ðD1 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD2 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD3 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ 5 :
Hence,
1
ðD2 ðg3 ÞÞðyÞ ¼
ð D
1 1 ð f Þ Þ ð f 1
ðyÞ Þ ð D2 1 ðf
ðf ÞÞ 1
ðyÞÞ ðD3 ðf1 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ



ðD1 ðf1 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD2 ðf1 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ



ðD ðf ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD ðf ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ
¼ 1
1 3
1
2 3
1
:

ðD1 ðf1 ÞÞðf ðyÞÞ ðD2 ðf1 ÞÞðf ðyÞÞ ðD3 ðf1 ÞÞðf ðyÞÞ
1 1 1

Now, since f is a C2 function, each of the nine second-order partial derivatives

Djk ðfi Þ : Sr ðaÞ ! R of f1 exists, and for every y in f ðSr ðaÞÞ; we have
0 1

B ðD1 ðf1 ÞÞðf ðyÞÞ ðD2 ðf1 ÞÞðf ðyÞÞ
1 1 C
B C
B ðD1 ðf3 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD2 ðf3 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ C num
ðD12 ðg3 ÞÞðyÞ ¼ D1 B C
B ðD ðf ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD ðf ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD ðf ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ C ¼ denom ;

B 1 1 C
@ ðD ðf ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD ðf ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD ðf ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ A
2 1 3 1
1 2 2 2 3 2
where

num D1





0 1

B C
@D1 ðD1 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD2 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD3 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ A

1 1 1

ðD11 ðf1 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD2 ðf1 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD1 ðf1 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD12 ðf1 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ
¼ þ
ðD11 ðf3 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD2 ðf3 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD1 ðf3 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD12 ðf3 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ





0

B
@ ðD11 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD2 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD3 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ



þ ðD1 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD12 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD3 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ

1

C
ðD1 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD2 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD13 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ A;

and

ðD1 ðf1 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD2 ðf1 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD3 ðf1 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ 2

denom ðD1 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD2 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ ðD3 ðf2 ÞÞðf 1 ðyÞÞ :
It follows that ðD12 ðg3 ÞÞðyÞ exists. So D12 ðg3 Þ : f ðSr ðaÞÞ ! R:
Next, since each of the nine second-order partial derivatives Djk ðfi Þ : Sr ðaÞ ! R
of fi is continuous, and f−1is continuous on f ðSr ðaÞÞ; by the above formula for num
and denom, we find that num and denom are continuous functions on f ðSr ðaÞÞ; and
num Þ is continuous on f ðS ðaÞÞ:
hence, D12 ðg3 Þð¼ denom r
Similarly, all the other Djk ðgi Þ : f ðSr ðaÞÞ ! R are continuous. This proves that
f−1 from f(U) onto U is a C2 function, etc. h
place of R3 : This theorem is known as the inverse function theorem.
Theorem 3.38 Let E be an open subset of Rn : Let f : E ! Rn be a function. If
1. f is a C1 function,
2. f 0 ðaÞ is invertible for every a in E,
then f is an open mapping (i.e., f-image of every open subset of E in an open set).
Proof Let us take any open subset G of E. We have to prove that f(G) is an open
set. For this purpose, let us take any f(a) in f(G) where a is in G. Since a 2 G E,
by the given assumption, f 0 ðaÞ is invertible. Now, by the inverse function theorem,
there exists an open neighborhood U of a such that U is contained in G and f(U) is
open in R3 : Since a 2 U G; f ðaÞ 2 f ðUÞ f ðGÞ: Since f ðaÞ 2 f ðUÞ; and f(U) is
open in R3 ; f(U) is an open neighborhood of f(a). Since f(U) is an open neigh-
borhood of f(a) and f ðUÞ f ðGÞ; f(a) is an interior point of f(G), and hence, f(G) is
an open set. h
3.4 Implicit Function Theorem
Definition Let a ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ 2 R3 ; b ðb1 ; b2 Þ 2 R2 : By the ordered pair ða; bÞ,

we mean ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 Þ: Clearly, if a 2 R3 ; b 2 R2 , then ða; bÞ 2 R3þ2 : Let
A 2 LðR3þ2 ; R3 Þ: By Ax , we mean the function
Ax : R3 ! R3
defined as follows: For every ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ in R3 ;

Ax ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ Aða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; 0; 0Þ:
We shall show that Ax 2 LðR3 ; R3 Þ: We must prove

(i) Ax ða þ bÞ ¼ Ax ðaÞ þ Ax ðbÞ for every a, b in R3 ;
(ii) Ax ðtaÞ ¼ tðAx ðaÞÞ for every a in R3 and for every real t.
For (i): Let us take any a ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ; b ðb1 ; b2 ; b3 Þ in R3 :
LHS ¼ Ax ða þ bÞ ¼ Ax ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ þ ðb1 ; b2 ; b3 ÞÞ

¼ Ax ðða1 þ b1 ; a2 þ b2 ; a3 þ b3 ÞÞ
¼ Aðða1 þ b1 ; a2 þ b2 ; a3 þ b3 ; 0; 0ÞÞ
¼ Aðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; 0; 0Þ þ ðb1 ; b2 ; b3 ; 0; 0ÞÞ
¼ Aðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; 0; 0ÞÞ þ Aððb1 ; b2 ; b3 ; 0; 0ÞÞ
¼ Ax ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ þ Ax ððb1 ; b2 ; b3 ÞÞ
¼ Ax ðaÞ þ Ax ðbÞ ¼ RHS:
For (ii): Let us take any a ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ in R3 and any real t.
LHS ¼ Ax ðtaÞ ¼ Ax ðtða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ ¼ Ax ððta1 ; ta2 ; ta3 ÞÞ

¼ Aððta1 ; ta2 ; ta3 ; 0; 0ÞÞ ¼ Aðtða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; 0; 0ÞÞ
¼ tðAðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; 0; 0ÞÞÞ ¼ tðAx ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞÞ
¼ tðAx ðaÞÞ ¼ RHS:
Thus, we have shown that if A 2 LðR3þ2 ; R3 Þ, then Ax 2 LðR3 ; R3 Þ:

Again, by Ay, we mean the function
Ay : R2 ! R3
defined as follows: For every ða1 ; a2 Þ in R2 ;
Ay ðaÞ Að0; 0; 0; a1 ; a2 Þ:
We shall show that Ay 2 LðR2 ; R3 Þ: We must prove

(i) Ay ða þ bÞ ¼ Ay ðaÞ þ Ay ðbÞ for every a, b in R2 ;
(ii) Ay ðtaÞ ¼ tðAy ðaÞÞ for every a in R2 and for every real t.
3.4 Implicit Function Theorem 179
For (i): Let us take any a ða1 ; a2 Þ; b ðb1 ; b2 Þ in R2 :
LHS ¼ Ay ða þ bÞ ¼ Ay ðða1 ; a2 Þ þ ðb1 ; b2 ÞÞ ¼ Ay ðða1 þ b1 ; a2 þ b2 ÞÞ

¼ Aðð0; 0; 0; a1 þ b1 ; a2 þ b2 ÞÞ ¼ Aðð0; 0; 0; a1 ; a2 Þ þ ð0; 0; 0; b1 ; b2 ÞÞ
¼ Aðð0; 0; 0; a1 ; a2 ÞÞ þ Aðð0; 0; 0; b1 ; b2 ÞÞ ¼ Ay ðða1 ; a2 ÞÞ þ Ay ððb1 ; b2 ÞÞ
¼ Ay ðaÞ þ Ay ðbÞ ¼ RHS:
For (ii): Let us take any a ða1 ; a2 Þ in R2 and any real t.
LHS ¼ Ay ðtaÞ ¼ Ay ðtða1 ; a2 ÞÞ ¼ Ay ððta1 ; ta2 ÞÞ

¼ Aðð0; 0; 0; ta1 ; ta2 ÞÞ ¼ Aðtð0; 0; 0; a1 ; a2 ÞÞ
¼ tðAðð0; 0; 0; a1 ; a2 ÞÞÞ ¼ t Ay ðða1 ; a2 ÞÞ
¼ t Ay ðaÞ ¼ RHS:
Thus, we have shown that if A 2 LðR3þ2 ; R3 Þ, then Ay 2 LðR2 ; R3 Þ:

Now, we will try to prove that for every a in R3 ; and for every b in R2 ;
Aðða; bÞÞ ¼ Ax ðaÞ þ Ay ðbÞ ðÞ:
For this purpose, let a ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ 2 R3 and b ðb1 ; b2 Þ 2 R2 :
LHS ¼ Aðða; bÞÞ ¼ Aðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 ÞÞ ¼ Aðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; 0; 0Þ þ ð0; 0; 0; b1 ; b2 ÞÞ

¼ Aðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; 0; 0ÞÞ þ Aðð0; 0; 0; b1 ; b2 ÞÞ
¼ Ax ðða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ þ Ay ððb1 ; b2 ÞÞ ¼ Ax ðaÞ þ Ay ðbÞ ¼ RHS:
Note 3.39 Similar notations and results as above can be supplied for Rn in place of
R3 and Rm in place of R2 :
Note 3.40 Let A 2 LðR3þ2 ; R3 Þ; and let
2 3
a11 a12 a13 a14 a15
½ A ¼ 4 a21 a22 a23 a24 a25 5 :
a31 a32 a33 a34 a35 35
So,
Ax ðð1; 0; 0ÞÞ ¼ Aðð1; 0; 0; 0; 0ÞÞ ¼ ða11 ; a21 ; a31 Þ;

Ax ðð0; 1; 0ÞÞ ¼ Aðð0; 1; 0; 0; 0ÞÞ ¼ ða12 ; a22 ; a32 Þ;
Ax ðð0; 0; 1ÞÞ ¼ Aðð0; 0; 1; 0; 0ÞÞ ¼ ða13 ; a23 ; a33 Þ:
Hence,
2 3
a11 a12 a13
½Ax ¼ 4 a21 a22 a23 5 :
a31 a32 a33 33
Next,
Ay ðð1; 0ÞÞ ¼ Aðð0; 0; 0; 1; 0ÞÞ ¼ ða14 ; a24 ; a34 Þ;

Ay ðð0; 1ÞÞ ¼ Aðð0; 0; 0; 0; 1ÞÞ ¼ ða15 ; a25 ; a35 Þ:
Hence,
2 3
a14 a15
Ay ¼ 4 a24 a25 5 :
a34 a35 32
Conclusion: If A 2 LðR3þ2 ; R3 Þ; and

2 3
a11 a12 a13 a14 a15
½ A ¼ 4 a21 a22 a23 a24 a25 5 ;
a31 a32 a33 a34 a35 35
then
2 3 2 3
a11 a12 a13 a14 a15
½Ax ¼ 4 a21 a22 a23 5 and Ay ¼ 4 a24 a25 5 :
a31 a32 a33 33 a34 a35 32
Also, if Ax is invertible, then with the usual meaning of symbols,

2 31 2 3T 2 3
h i a11 a12 a13
1
A11 A12 A13
1
A11 A21 A31
ðAx Þ 1
¼ 4 a21 a22 a23 5 ¼ 4 A21 A22 A23 5 ¼ 4 A12 A22 A32 5;
D D
a31 a32 a33 A31 A32 A33 A13 A23 A33
and hence,
1
ðAx Þ1 ðð1; 0; 0ÞÞ ¼ ðA11 ; A12 ; A13 Þ;
D
1
ðAx Þ1 ðð0; 1; 0ÞÞ ¼ ðA21 ; A22 ; A23 Þ;
D
1
ðAx Þ1 ðð0; 0; 1ÞÞ ¼ ðA31 ; A32 ; A33 Þ:
D
Conclusion: If A 2 LðR3þ2 ; R3 Þ; Ax is invertible, and

2 3
a11 a12 a13 a14 a15
½ A ¼ 4 a21 a22 a23 a24 a25 5 ;
a31 a32 a33 a34 a35 35
then
1
ðAx Þ1 ðð1; 0; 0ÞÞ ¼ ðA11 ; A12 ; A13 Þ;
D
1
ðAx Þ1 ðð0; 1; 0ÞÞ ¼ ðA21 ; A22 ; A23 Þ;
D
1
ðAx Þ1 ðð0; 0; 1ÞÞ ¼ ðA31 ; A32 ; A33 Þ:
D
Theorem 3.41 Let A 2 LðR3þ2 ; R3 Þ: If Ax is invertible, then for every k in R2 ;

there exists a unique h in R3 ; such that Aðh; kÞ ¼ 0: The value of h is
ðððAx Þ1 ÞðAy ðkÞÞÞ:
Proof Existence: Let us take any k in R2 : Since k is in R2 ; and Ay : R2 ! R3 ;
Ay ðkÞ is in R3 : Since Ay ðkÞ is in R3 ; Ax : R3 ! R3 ; and Ax is invertible,
ðððAx Þ1 ÞðAy ðkÞÞÞ is in R3 . Also, from the formula ðÞ,

A ðAx Þ1 Ay ðkÞ ; k ¼ Ax ðAx Þ1 Ay ðkÞ þ Ay ðkÞ

¼ Ax ðAx Þ1 Ay ðkÞ þ Ay ðkÞ

¼ Ax ðAx Þ1 Ay ðkÞ þ Ay ðkÞ
¼ Ay ðkÞ þ Ay ðkÞ ¼ 0:
Uniqueness: If not, otherwise, let there exist k in R2 ; h in R3 ; and h1 in R3 such

that h 6¼ h1 ; Aððh; kÞÞ ¼ 0; and Aððh1 ; kÞÞ ¼ 0: We have to arrive at a contradiction.
Since
0 ¼ Aððh; kÞÞ ¼ Ax ðhÞ þ Ay ðkÞ;
and Ax is invertible,

0 ¼ ðAx Þ1 ð0Þ ¼ ðAx Þ1 Ax ðhÞ þ Ay ðkÞ

¼ ðAx Þ1 ðAx ðhÞÞ þ ðAx Þ1 Ay ðkÞ

¼ ðAx Þ1 Ax ðhÞ þ ðAx Þ1 Ay ðkÞ ¼ IðhÞ þ ðAx Þ1 Ay ðkÞ

¼ h þ ðAx Þ1 Ay ðkÞ :
It follows that

h¼ ðAx Þ1 Ay ðkÞ :
Similarly,

h1 ¼ ðAx Þ1 Ay ðkÞ ;
which contradicts the assumption h 6¼ h1 : Further, we have shown that for a given
k, the value of h is ðððAx Þ1 ÞðAy ðkÞÞÞ: h
Theorem 3.43 Let E be an open subset of R3þ2 : Let f : E ! R3 : Let a 2 R3 ; b 2
R2 ; and ða; bÞ 2 E: If
(i) f is a C 1 function,
(ii) ðf 0 ðða; bÞÞÞx is invertible,
(iii) f ðða; bÞÞ ¼ 0;
then there exist an open neighborhood Uð EÞ of ða; bÞ in R3þ2 ; an open neigh-
borhood W of b in R2 ; and a function
g : W ! R3
such that
1. for every y in W, ðgðyÞ; yÞ 2 U;
2. for every y in W, f ððgðyÞ; yÞÞ ¼ 0;
3. gðbÞ ¼ a;
4. g is a C 1 function,
5. for every y in W, g0 ðy Þ ¼ ððf 0 ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞx Þ1 ðf 0 ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞy
6. g0 ðbÞ ¼ ððf 0 ðða; bÞÞÞx Þ1 ðf 0 ðða; bÞÞÞy
7. if f is a C 2 function, then g is a C 2 function, etc.
Proof Let f1 : E ! R; f2 : E ! R; f3 : E ! R, be the component functions of f,

that is, f ððx; yÞÞ ¼ ðf1 ððx; yÞÞ; f2 ððx; yÞÞ; f3 ððx; yÞÞÞ for every ðx; yÞ in Eð R3þ2 Þ:
F : E ! R3þ2
as follows: For every ðx; yÞ in E, where x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ is in R3 and y ðy1 ; y2 Þ is

in R2 ;
F ððx; yÞÞ ðf ððx; yÞÞ; yÞ ¼ ððf1 ððx; yÞÞ; f2 ððx; yÞÞ; f3 ððx; yÞÞÞ; ðy1 ; y2 ÞÞ
¼ ðf1 ððx; yÞÞ; f2 ððx; yÞÞ; f3 ððx; yÞÞ; y1 ; y2 Þ:
Clearly, the component functions of F are
ðx; yÞ 7! f1 ððx; yÞÞ; ðx; yÞ 7! f2 ððx; yÞÞ; ðx; yÞ 7! f3 ððx; yÞÞ; ðx; yÞ 7! y1 ;
ðx; yÞ 7! y2
from E to R:
We want to apply the inverse function theorem on F. For this purpose, we first
prove
(a) F is a C1 function,
(b) F 0 ðða; bÞÞ is invertible.
For (a): Since f is a C 1 function, for i ¼ 1; 2; 3 and j ¼ 1; 2; 3; 4; 5ð¼ 3 þ 2Þ,
each function Dj fi : E ! R exists and is continuous. Also, ðx; yÞ 7! y1 and
ðx; yÞ 7! y2 are smooth functions. This shows that F is a C1 function.
For (b): Here,
det½F 0 ðða; bÞÞ

2 3
ðD1 f1 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD2 f1 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD3 f1 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD4 f1 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD5 f1 Þðða; bÞÞ
6 ðD1 f2 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD2 f2 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD3 f2 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD4 f2 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD5 f2 Þðða; bÞÞ 7
6 7
6 7
¼ det6 ðD1 f3 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD2 f3 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD3 f3 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD4 f3 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD5 f3 Þðða; bÞÞ 7
6 7
40 0 0 1 0 5
0 0 0 0 1
2 3 55
ðD1 f1 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD2 f1 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD3 f1 Þðða; bÞÞ
6 7
¼ det4 ðD1 f2 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD2 f2 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD3 f2 Þðða; bÞÞ 5:
Since ðf 0 ðða; bÞÞÞ 2 LðR3þ2 ; R3 Þ; ðf 0 ðða; bÞÞÞx : R3 ! R3 :

Also,
ðf 0 ðða; bÞÞÞx ðð1; 0; 0ÞÞ ¼ ðf 0 ðða; bÞÞÞðð1; 0; 0; 0; 0ÞÞ

¼ ððD1 f1 Þðða; bÞÞ; ðD1 f2 Þðða; bÞÞ; ðD1 f3 Þðða; bÞÞÞ;
and

so,
2 3
ðf 0 ðða; bÞÞÞx ¼ 4 ðD1 f2 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD2 f2 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD3 f2 Þðða; bÞÞ 5:
Next, since ðf 0 ðða; bÞÞÞx is invertible,

2 3
0 ðD1 f1 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD2 f1 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD3 f1 Þðða; bÞÞ
0 6¼ det ðf ðða; bÞÞÞx ¼ det4 ðD1 f2 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD2 f2 Þðða; bÞÞ ðD3 f2 Þðða; bÞÞ 5
¼ det½F 0 ðða; bÞÞ:
Since det½F 0 ðða; bÞÞ 6¼ 0; so F 0 ðða; bÞÞ is invertible. Since f is a C1 function,

2 3
ðD1 f1 Þððx; yÞÞ ðD2 f1 Þððx; yÞÞ ðD3 f1 Þððx; yÞÞ
ðx; yÞ 7! det4 ðD1 f2 Þððx; yÞÞ ðD2 f2 Þððx; yÞÞ ðD3 f2 Þððx; yÞÞ 5
ðD1 f3 Þððx; yÞÞ ðD2 f3 Þððx; yÞÞ ðD3 f3 Þððx; yÞÞ
is continuous. Further, since det½ðf 0 ðða; bÞÞÞx is nonzero, there exists a neighborhood
U of ða; bÞ such that det½ðf 0 ððx; yÞÞÞx is nonzero for every ðx; yÞ in U : It follows that
ðf 0 ððx; yÞÞÞx is invertible for every ðx; yÞ in U : Now, by the inverse function theorem
and Theorem 3.38, there exists an open neighborhood U of ða; bÞ such that
(1) U is contained in E,
(2) F is 1–1 on U,
(3) FðUÞ is open in R3þ2 ;
(4) the 1–1 function F 1 from FðUÞ onto U is a C 1 function,
(5) U is contained in U :
Put

W y : y 2 R2 and for some x in R3 ðx ; yÞ 2 U; f ððx ; yÞÞ ¼ 0 :
Since ða; bÞ 2 U; and f ðða; bÞÞ ¼ 0; b 2 W: Let us observe that

W ¼ y : y 2 R2 and for some x in R3 ; ðx ; yÞ 2 U; f ððx ; yÞÞ ¼ 0

¼ y : y 2 R2 and ð0; yÞ ¼ ðf ðx ; y Þ; y Þ for some ðx ; y Þ in U

¼ y : y 2 R2 and ð0; yÞ ¼ F ððx ; y ÞÞ for some ðx ; y Þ in U

¼ y : y 2 R2 and ð0; yÞ 2 FðUÞ :
Thus,

W ¼ y : y 2 R2 and ð0; yÞ 2 FðUÞ :
Now, we will show that W is an open subset of R2 : For this purpose, let us take
any y0 2 W: Since y0 2 W, ð0; y0 Þ 2 FðUÞ: Since ð0; y0 Þ 2 FðUÞ; and FðUÞ is
open in R3þ2 ; there exist open neighborhood V1 of 0 in R3 and open neighborhood

V2 of y0 in R2 such that V1 V2 FðUÞ. Since 0 2 V1 ; and V1 V2 FðUÞ;
f0g V2 V1 V2 FðUÞ; and hence, ð0; yÞ 2 FðUÞ for every y in V2 : It fol-
lows that V2 W: Since V2 W; and V2 is an open neighborhood of y0 ; y0 is an
interior point of W. Hence, W is an open subset of R2 : Since W is an open subset of
R2 ; and b 2 W; W is an open neighborhood of b in R2 : Now, we will try to prove
that if y 2 W; then there exists a unique x in R such that
ðx ; yÞ 2 U; f ððx ; yÞÞ ¼ 0:
For this purpose, let us take any y 2 W: The existence of x is clear from the
definition of W.
Uniqueness: If not, otherwise, let there exist x ; x in R3 such that ðx ; yÞ 2
U; f ððx ; yÞÞ ¼ 0; ðx ; yÞ 2 U; f ððx ; yÞÞ ¼ 0; x 6¼ x : We have to arrive at a
contradiction. Here, x 6¼ x ; so ðx ; yÞ 6¼ ðx ; yÞ: Since ðx ; yÞ 6¼ ðx ; yÞ; ðx ; yÞ 2
U; ðx ; yÞ 2 U; and F is 1–1 on U, ð0; yÞ ¼ ðf ðx ; yÞ; yÞ ¼ Fððx ; yÞÞ 6¼
Fððx ; yÞÞ ¼ ðf ððx ; yÞÞ; yÞ ¼ ð0; yÞ: Thus, ð0; yÞ 6¼ ð0; yÞ; which is a contradiction.
Thus, we have shown that if y 2 W, then there exists a unique x in R3 such that
ðx ; yÞ 2 U; f ððx ; yÞÞ ¼ 0:
Let us denote x by gðyÞ: Thus, g : W ! R3 such that for every y in W,

ðgðyÞ; yÞ 2 U; f ððgðyÞ; yÞÞ ¼ 0:
This proves 1, 2.
Further, since b 2 W; ðgðbÞ; bÞ 2 U; and f ðða; bÞÞ ¼ 0 ¼ f ððgðbÞ; bÞÞ: Since
f ðða; bÞÞ ¼ f ððgðbÞ; bÞÞ; Fðða; bÞÞ ¼ ðf ðða; bÞÞ; bÞ ¼ ðf ððgðbÞ; bÞÞ; bÞ ¼ FððgðbÞ; bÞÞ:
Since Fðða; bÞÞ ¼ FððgðbÞ; bÞÞ; ða; bÞ 2 U; ðgðbÞ; bÞ 2 U; and F is 1–1 on U,
ða; bÞ ¼ ðgðbÞ; bÞ; and hence, gðbÞ ¼ a:
This proves 3.
4: Let g1 : W ! R; g2 : W ! R; g3 : W ! R be the component functions of
g, that is, gððy1 ; y2 ÞÞ ¼ ðg1 ððy1 ; y2 ÞÞ; g2 ððy1 ; y2 ÞÞ; g3 ððy1 ; y2 ÞÞÞ for every ðy1 ; y2 Þ in
Wð R2 Þ: Let
h1 : FðUÞ ! R; h2 : FðUÞ ! R; h3 : FðUÞ ! R; h4 : FðUÞ ! R; h5 : FðUÞ

!R
be the component functions of F 1 ; that is,
F 1 ððx; yÞÞ ¼ ðh1 ððx; yÞÞ; h2 ððx; yÞÞ; h3 ððx; yÞÞ; h4 ððx; yÞÞ; h5 ððx; yÞÞÞ
for every ðx; yÞ in FðUÞð R3þ2 Þ:

Since the function F 1 from FðUÞ onto U is C 1 , each of the 25 first-order partial
derivatives Dj hi : FðUÞ ! R exists and is continuous. We have to prove that g is a
C 1 function, that is, each of the six first-order partial derivatives Dj gi : W ! R

exists and is continuous. Here, we will try to prove that D2 g1 : W ! R exists. For
this purpose, let us fix any y ðy1 ; y2 Þ in W. We will try to prove that
g ððy ;y þtÞÞg ððy ;y ÞÞ
ðD2 g1 Þððy1 ; y2 ÞÞ exists, that is, limt!0 1 1 2 t 1 1 2 exists.
Since y is in W, ðgðy Þ; y Þ 2 U; 0 ¼ f ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞ; and hence,
ð0; y Þ ¼ ðf ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞ; y Þ ¼ F ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞ 2 FðUÞ:
Since ð0; y Þ 2 FðUÞ; and D5 h1 : FðUÞ ! R exists, ðD5 h1 Þðð0; y ÞÞ exists.
Since F 1 is a 1–1 function from FðUÞ onto U, and for every ðx; yÞ in U, where
x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ is in R3 and y ðy1 ; y2 Þ is in R2 ;
Fððx; yÞÞ ¼ ðf ððx; yÞÞ; yÞ;
ðx; yÞ ¼ F 1 ððf ððx; yÞÞ; yÞÞ:
Further, since for every y ðy1 ; y2 Þ in W, we have ðgðyÞ; yÞ 2 U;

0 ¼ f ððgðyÞ; yÞÞ;
ðg1 ððy1 ; y2 ÞÞ; g2 ððy1 ; y2 ÞÞ; g3 ððy1 ; y2 ÞÞ; y1 ; y2 Þ

¼ ððg1 ððy1 ; y2 ÞÞ; g2 ððy1 ; y2 ÞÞ; g3 ððy1 ; y2 ÞÞÞ; ðy1 ; y2 ÞÞ
¼ ðgðyÞ; yÞ ¼ F 1 ððf ððgðyÞ; yÞÞ; yÞÞ ¼ F 1 ðð0; yÞÞ
¼ ðh1 ðð0; yÞÞ; h2 ðð0; yÞÞ; h3 ðð0; yÞÞ; h4 ðð0; yÞÞ; h5 ðð0; yÞÞÞ:
Hence, for every y ðy1 ; y2 Þ in W,

g1 ððy1 ; y2 ÞÞ ¼ h1 ðð0; yÞÞ ¼ h1 ðð0; 0; 0; y1 ; y2 ÞÞ:
Now,
g1 y1 ; y2 þ t g1 y1 ; y2 h1 0; 0; 0; y1 ; y2 þ t h1 0; 0; 0; y1 ; y2

lim ¼ lim
t!0 t t!0 t
¼ ðD5 h1 Þ ð0; 0; 0Þ; y1 ; y2 ¼ ðD5 h1 Þðð0; y ÞÞ:
This proves that D2 g1 : W ! R exists. We have seen that for every y in W,
g1 y1 ; y2 þ t g1 y1 ; y2

ðD2 g1 Þððy ÞÞ ¼ lim ¼ ðD5 h1 Þðð0; y ÞÞ:
t!0 t
Further, since y 7! ð0; y Þ and ðx; yÞ 7! ðD5 h1 Þððx; yÞÞ are continuous functions,
their composite function y 7! ðD5 h1 Þðð0; y ÞÞð¼ ðD2 g1 Þððy ÞÞÞ is continuous.
Thus, we have shown that D2 g1 : W ! R exists and is continuous. Similarly, all
other Dj gi : W ! R exist and are continuous.
This proves 4.
5: Let us fix any y ðy1 ; y2 Þ in W. Since y ¼ ðy1 ; y2 Þ is in W, ðgðy Þ; y Þ 2
U; f ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞ ¼ 0: Let us define a function
hy : W ! R3þ2
as follows: For every y ðy1 ; y2 Þ in W,
hy ðyÞ ðgðyÞ; yÞ ¼ ðg1 ððy1 ; y2 ÞÞ; g2 ððy1 ; y2 ÞÞ; g3 ððy1 ; y2 ÞÞ; y1 ; y2 Þ:
If y is in W, then ðgðyÞ; yÞ 2 U; f ððgðyÞ; yÞÞ ¼ 0: Hence, hy : W ! Uð EÞ:

Here, component functions of hy are y 7! g1 ðyÞ; y 7! g2 ðyÞ; y 7! g3 ðyÞ; y 7! y1 ;
y 7! y2 : Since g is a C 1 function, y 7! g1 ðyÞ; y 7! g2 ðyÞ; y 7! g3 ðyÞ are continuously
differentiable functions. Further, y 7! y1 ; y 7! y2 are smooth functions. Thus, we see
that all component functions of hy are continuously differentiable functions, and
hence, hy is a C 1 function on W. Since hy is a C 1 function on W, and y is in W, hy
is differentiable at y : Since f is a C 1 function on E, and hy ðy Þ ¼ ðgðy Þ; y Þ 2
U E; f is differentiable at hy ðy Þ: For every y in W, we have ðgðyÞ; yÞ 2 U; and
f hy ðyÞ ¼ f ððgðyÞ; yÞÞ ¼ 0:
Let us take any y in W. Since hy is a C 1 function on W, and y is in W, hy is

differentiable at y. Since y is in W, hy : W ! Uð EÞ; hy ðyÞ is in E. Since hy ðyÞ
is in E, and f is a C 1 function, f is differentiable at hy ðyÞ: Now, since y is in W, f is
differentiable at hy ðyÞ; and hy is differentiable at y, by the chain rule of derivative,

0 0
ðf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞ hy ðyÞ ¼ f 0 hy ðyÞ hy ðyÞ ¼ 0:
Hence,

0
ð0; 0; 0Þ ¼ 0ðð1; 0ÞÞ ¼ ðf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞ hy ðyÞ ðð1; 0ÞÞ

0
¼ ðf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞ hy ðyÞ ðð1; 0ÞÞ
¼ ðf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞðððD1 g1 ÞðyÞ; ðD1 g2 ÞðyÞ; ðD1 g3 ÞðyÞ; 1; 0ÞÞ
¼ ððD1 g1 ÞðyÞÞððf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞðð1; 0; 0; 0; 0ÞÞÞ
þ ððD1 g2 ÞðyÞÞððf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞðð0; 1; 0; 0; 0ÞÞÞ
þ ððD1 g3 ÞðyÞÞððf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞðð0; 0; 1; 0; 0ÞÞÞ
þ 1ðf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞðð0; 0; 0; 1; 0ÞÞ þ 0
¼ ððD1 g1 ÞðyÞÞððD1 f1 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ; ðD1 f2 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ; ðD1 f3 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞ
þ ððD1 g2 ÞðyÞÞððD2 f1 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ; ðD2 f2 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ; ðD2 f3 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞ
þ ððD4 f1 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ; ðD4 f2 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ; ðD4 f3 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞ
or,
ð0; 0; 0Þ ¼ ððD1 g1 ÞðyÞÞððD1 f1 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ; ðD1 f2 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ; ðD1 f3 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞ
þ ððD4 f1 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ; ðD4 f2 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ; ðD4 f3 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞ:
So, for every i ¼ 1; 2; 3; and for every y in W,
0 ¼ ððD1 g1 ÞðyÞÞððD1 fi ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞ þ ððD1 g2 ÞðyÞÞððD2 fi ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞ

þ ððD1 g3 ÞðyÞÞððD3 fi ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞ þ ðD4 fi ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ:
Now, since y is in W, for every i ¼ 1; 2; 3;
0 ¼ ððD1 g1 Þðy ÞÞððD1 fi Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞ þ ððD1 g2 Þðy ÞÞððD2 fi Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞ
þ ððD1 g3 Þðy ÞÞððD3 fi Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞ þ ðD4 fi Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞ ðÞ:
Next, we will prove that

1
g0 ðy Þ ¼ ðf 0 ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞx ðf 0 ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞy
that is,
ðf 0 ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞx ðg0 ðy ÞÞ ¼ ðf 0 ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞy
that is,
(i) ðððf 0 ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞx Þðg0 ðy ÞÞÞðð1; 0ÞÞ ¼ ððf 0 ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞy Þðð1; 0ÞÞ;
and
(ii) ðððf 0 ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞx Þðg0 ðy ÞÞÞðð0; 1ÞÞ ¼ ððf 0 ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞy Þðð0; 1ÞÞ:
For (i):
LHS ¼ ðf 0 ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞx ðg0 ðy ÞÞ ðð1; 0ÞÞ ¼ ðf 0 ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞx ððg0 ðy ÞÞðð1; 0ÞÞÞ
¼ ðf 0 ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞx ðððD1 g1 Þðy Þ; ðD1 g2 Þðy Þ; ðD1 g3 Þðy ÞÞÞ
¼ ðf 0 ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞðððD1 g1 Þðy Þ; ðD1 g2 Þðy Þ; ðD1 g3 Þðy Þ; 0; 0ÞÞ
¼ ððD1 g1 Þðy ÞÞððD1 f1 Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞ; ðD1 f2 Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞ; ðD1 f3 Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞ
þ ððD1 g2 Þðy ÞÞððD2 f1 Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞ; ðD2 f2 Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞ; ðD2 f3 Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞ
þ ððD1 g3 Þðy ÞÞððD3 f1 Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞ; ðD3 f2 Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞ; ðD3 f3 Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞ
¼ ððD4 f1 Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞ; ðD4 f2 Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞ; ðD4 f3 Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞ;
by ðÞ: Now,

RHS ¼ ðf 0 ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞy ðð1; 0ÞÞ ¼ ðf 0 ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞy ðð1; 0ÞÞ
¼ ððf 0 ððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞðð0; 0; 01; 0ÞÞÞ
¼ ððD4 f1 Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞ; ðD4 f2 Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞ; ðD4 f3 Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞ
¼ ððD4 f1 Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞ; ðD4 f2 Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞ; ðD4 f3 Þððgðy Þ; y ÞÞÞ:
This proves (i). Similarly, (ii) holds.

This proves 5.
6: Since b 2 W; and gðbÞ ¼ a; by 5,
1 1
g0 ðbÞ ¼ ðf 0 ððgðbÞ; bÞÞÞx ðf 0 ððgðbÞ; bÞÞÞy ¼ ðf 0 ðða; bÞÞÞx ðf 0 ðða; bÞÞÞy :
This proves 6.
7: Let f be a C2 function. We have to prove that g : W ! R3 is a C 2 function,
that is, each of the 12 second-order partial derivatives Djk gi : W ! R exists and is
continuous. We will try to prove that D12 g3 : W ! R exists and is continuous. Let
us take any y in W.
By 5,
1
g0 ðyÞ ¼ ðf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞx ðf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞy
so,
ððD1 g1 ÞðyÞ; ðD1 g2 ÞðyÞ; ðD1 g3 ÞðyÞÞ ¼ ðg0 ðyÞÞðð1; 0ÞÞ

1
¼ ðf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞx ðf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞy ðð1; 0ÞÞ

1
¼ ðf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞx ðf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞy ðð1; 0ÞÞ

1
¼ ðf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞx ððf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞðð0; 0; 0; 1; 0ÞÞÞ

1
¼ ðf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞx ððD4 f1 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ; ðD4 f2 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ; ðD4 f3 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞ

1
¼ ððD4 f1 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞ ðf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞx ð1; 0; 0Þ

1
ððD4 f2 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞ ðf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞx ð0; 1; 0Þ

1
ððD4 f3 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞ ðf 0 ððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞx ð0; 0; 1Þ
1 1
¼ ððD4 f1 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞ ðA11 ; A12 ; A13 Þ ððD4 f2 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞ ðA21 ; A22 ; A23 Þ
D D
1
ððD4 f3 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞ ðA31 ; A32 ; A33 Þ;
D
where

ðD1 f1 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ ðD2 f1 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ ðD3 f1 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ

D ðD1 f2 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ ðD2 f2 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ ðD3 f2 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ ;
ðD1 f3 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ ðD2 f3 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ ðD3 f3 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ
and Aij denotes the cofactor of ðDj fi ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞ in the above determinant. Hence,
1
ðD1 g3 ÞðyÞ ¼ ðððD4 f1 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞA13 þ ððD4 f2 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞA23 þ ððD4 f3 ÞððgðyÞ; yÞÞÞA33 Þ:
D
Now, since f is a C 2 function, and g is a C 1 function, the second-order partial

derivative ðD12 g3 ÞðyÞ exists and is continuous. Similarly, all other ðDjk gi ÞðyÞ exist
and are continuous. This proves that g is a C 2 function. h
place of R3 and Rm in place of R2 : This theorem is known as the implicit function
theorem. As above, we can prove the following theorem:
Theorem 3.45 Let E be an open subset of R3þ2 : Let f : E ! R2 : Let a 2 R3 ; b 2
R2 ; and ða; bÞ 2 E: If
(i) f is a C 1 function,
(ii) ðf 0 ðða; bÞÞÞy is invertible,
(iii) f ðða; bÞÞ ¼ 0;
then there exist an open neighborhood Uð EÞ of ða; bÞ in R3þ2 ; an open
neighborhood W of a in R3 ; and a function
g : W ! R2
such that
1. for every x in W, ðx; gðxÞÞ 2 U;
2. for every x in W, f ðx; gðxÞÞ ¼ 0;
3. gðaÞ ¼ b;
4. g is a C 1 function,
5. for every x in W, g0 ðx Þ ¼ ððf 0 ððx ; gðx ÞÞÞÞy Þ1 ðf 0 ððx ; gðx ÞÞÞÞx
6. g0 ðaÞ ¼ ððf 0 ðða; bÞÞÞy Þ1 ðf 0 ðða; bÞÞÞx
7. if f is a C 2 function, then g is a C 2 function, etc.
3.5 Constant Rank Theorem (Easy Version) 191
3.5 Constant Rank Theorem (Easy Version)
Definition Let i1 : Rm ! Rm Rn be the function defined as follows: For every

x in Rm
i1 ðxÞ ðx; 0Þ:
Here, i1 is called the first injection of factor into product. Similarly, by the
second injection i2 of factor into product, we mean the function i2 : Rn ! Rm Rn
defined as follows: For every y in Rn
i2 ðyÞ ð0; yÞ:
Let p1 : Rm Rn ! Rm be the function defined as follows: For every x in Rm

and for every y in Rn
p1 ðx; yÞ x:
Here, p1 is called the first projection from product onto factor. Similarly, by the
second projection p2 from product onto factor, we mean the function p2 :
Rm Rn ! Rn defined as follows: For every x in Rm and for every y in Rn
p2 ðx; yÞ y:
Theorem 3.46 Let U be an open neighborhood of ða; bÞð ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 ÞÞ in

R3 R2 : Let f : U ! R2 be a smooth function. Let f ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 Þ ¼ ð0; 0Þ: If
ðf 0 ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 ÞÞ i2 : R2 ! R2
is a linear isomorphism, then

1. there exists a local diffeomorphism u at ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 Þ in R3 R2 such that
f u ¼ p2 :
(i.e., there exist an open neighborhood V of ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ in R3 ; an open neigh-
borhood W of ðb1 ; b2 Þ in R2 ; an open neighborhood U1 of ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 Þ in
R3 R2 ; and a function u : U1 ! V W such that V W U; u is a diffe-
omorphism, and for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; y1 ; y2 Þ in U1 ; f ðuðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ;
y1 ; y2 ÞÞ ¼ ðy1 ; y2 Þ:)
2. there exist an open neighborhood W1 of ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ in R3 ; an open neighbor-
hood W2 of ðb1 ; b2 Þ in R2 , and a smooth function ðg1 ; g2 Þ g : W1 ! R2 such
that
(a) for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in W1 ; ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ 2 U;
(b) for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in W1 ; f ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼ ð0; 0Þ;
(c) g is unique, (i.e., if ðh1 ; h2 Þ h : W1 ! R2 is a smooth function such that

for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in W1 ; ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; h1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; h2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ 2 U; and
f ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; h1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; h2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼ ð0; 0Þ; then g ¼ h:)
(d) if a : W1 ! f 1 ð0; 0Þ is the function defined such that for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
in W1
aðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ;
then
(i) aðW1 Þ is an open neighborhood of ða; bÞ in f 1 ð0; 0Þ;
(ii) a is a homeomorphism from W1 onto aðW1 Þ;
(iii) a ¼ u s1 and a1 ¼ p1 on their common domain,
(iv) a; a1 are smooth functions.
Proof Let f ðf1 ; f2 Þ: Since ðf 0 ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 ÞÞ i2 : R2 ! R2 is an isomor-

phism, and for every ðy1 ; y2 Þ in R2 ;
ððf 0 ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 ÞÞ i2 Þðy1 ; y2 Þ ¼ ðf 0 ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 ÞÞði2 ðy1 ; y2 ÞÞ

¼ ðf 0 ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 ÞÞð0; 0; 0; y1 ; y2 Þ
2 3
0
6 7
60 7
ðD1 f1 Þða; bÞðD2 f1 Þða; bÞðD3 f1 Þða; bÞðD4 f1 Þða; bÞðD5 f1 Þða; bÞ 6 7
¼ 60 7
ðD1 f2 Þða; bÞðD2 f2 Þða; bÞðD3 f2 Þða; bÞðD4 f2 Þða; bÞðD5 f2 Þða; bÞ 6 6 7
7
4 y1 5
y2
ððD4 f1 Þða; bÞÞy1 þ ððD5 f1 Þða; bÞÞy2 ðD4 f1 Þða; bÞðD5 f1 Þða; bÞ y1
¼ ¼ ;
ððD4 f2 Þða; bÞÞy1 þ ððD5 f2 Þða; bÞÞy2 ðD4 f2 Þða; bÞðD5 f2 Þða; bÞ y2
it follows that
ðD4 f1 Þða; bÞ ðD5 f1 Þða; bÞ

det 6¼ 0:
Let us define a function w : U ! R3 R2 as follows: For every ðx; yÞ in

U where x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ is in R3 and y ðy1 ; y2 Þ is in R2 ;
wðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; y1 ; y2 Þ ¼ wðx; yÞ ðx; f ðx; yÞÞ

¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; f1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; y1 ; y2 Þ; f2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; y1 ; y2 ÞÞ:
Now, since f : U ! R2 is a smooth function, w : U ! R3 R2 is also a smooth

function. Further, since
2 3
1000 0
6 7
60 1 0 0 0 7
6 7
0 6
detðw ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 ÞÞ ¼ det6 0 0 1 0 0 7
7
6 7
4 0 0 0 ðD4 f1 Þða; bÞ ðD5 f1 Þða; bÞ 5
0 0 0 ðD4 f2 Þða; bÞ ðD5 f2 Þða; bÞ
¼ det
is nonzero, w0 ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 Þ is invertible. Hence, by the inverse function theo-

rem, there exist an open neighborhood V of ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ in R3 ; an open neighbor-
hood W of ðb1 ; b2 Þ in R2 ; and an open subset U1 of R3 R2 such that V W U
and w acts as a diffeomorphism from V W onto U1 : Hence, w1 : U1 ! V W
is a diffeomorphism. Put u w1 : Clearly, u : U1 ! V W is a diffeomorphism.
Now, for every x in V, and for every y in W, we have
ðp2 wÞðx; yÞ ¼ p2 ðwðx; yÞÞ ¼ p2 ððx; f ðx; yÞÞÞ ¼ f ðx; yÞ:
So, p2 w ¼ f ; and hence, f u ¼ ðp2 wÞ u ¼ p2 ðw uÞ ¼ p2

ðw w1 Þ ¼ p2 :
This proves 1.
Since ðf 0 ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 ÞÞ i2 : R2 ! R2 is an isomorphism,
h i
det ðf 0 ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 ÞÞy ¼ det 6¼ 0;
and hence, ðf 0 ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 ÞÞy is invertible. Now, by the implicit function the-
orem, there exist an open neighborhood W1 of ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ in R3 ; an open neigh-
borhood W2 of ðb1 ; b2 Þ in R2 , and a smooth function ðg1 ; g2 Þ g : W1 ! R2 such
that W1 W2 U and for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in W1 ;
ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ 2 W1 W2 ;
and
f ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼ ð0; 0Þ:
This proves 2(a) and 2(b).

Next, let h : W1 ! R2 be a smooth function such that for every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
in W1 ; ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; h1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; h2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ 2 U; and f ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; h1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ;
h2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼ ð0; 0Þ; where h ðh1 ; h2 Þ: We have to prove that g ¼ h; that is, for
every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in W1 ;
gðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ hðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ:
Since
ðf1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ; f2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞÞ

¼ f ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼ ð0; 0Þ
so,
wðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ

¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; f1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ;
f2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞÞ
¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; 0; 0Þ;
and hence,
ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼ w1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; 0; 0Þ ¼ uðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; 0; 0Þ
for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in W1 : Similarly,
ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; h1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; h2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼ uðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; 0; 0Þ
for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in W1 : It follows that for every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in W1 ,
ðx; gðxÞÞ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ

¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; h1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; h2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼ ðx; hðxÞÞ:
Hence, g ¼ h:
This proves 2(c).
(d) (i): For every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in W1 ; f ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼
ð0; 0Þ; so
aðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ 2 f 1 ð0; 0Þ:
Hence, a : W1 ! f 1 ð0; 0Þ is a function. Since ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ is in W1 ;
aða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ ¼ ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; g1 ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ; g2 ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ÞÞ ¼ uða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; 0; 0Þ:

Further, since
wða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 Þ ¼ ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; f1 ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 Þ; f2 ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 ÞÞ

¼ ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; 0; 0Þ
so
ða; bÞ ¼ ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; b1 ; b2 Þ ¼ uða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; 0; 0Þ ¼ aða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ 2 aðW1 Þ:
Now, we want to show that aðW1 Þ is an open set.

Let us observe that
aðW1 Þ ¼ u W1 R2 \ f 1 ð0; 0Þ:
(Reason: For this purpose, let us take any aðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 2 LHS; where ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
is in W1 : Here,
aðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼ uðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; 0; 0Þ

2 u W1 R 2 :
Also, since f ðaðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼ f ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼ ð0; 0Þ;

aðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 2 f 1 ð0; 0Þ: It follows that aðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 2 uðW1 R2 Þ \ f 1 ð0; 0Þ ¼
RHS: Hence, LHS RHS:
Next, let us take any ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; y1 ; y2 Þ 2 RHS ¼ uðW1 R2 Þ \ f 1 ð0; 0Þ: We
have to prove that ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; y1 ; y2 Þ 2 aðW1 Þ. Since ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; y1 ; y2 Þ 2
uðW1 R2 Þ \ f 1 ð0; 0Þ; ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; y1 ; y2 Þ 2 U; ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; y1 ; y2 Þ 2 V W;
ðf1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; y1 ; y2 Þ; f2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; y1 ; y2 ÞÞ ¼ f ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; y1 ; y2 Þ ¼ ð0; 0Þ;
and there exists ðw1 ; w2 ; w3 ; t1 ; t2 Þ 2 W1 R2 such that uðw1 ; w2 ; w3 ; t1 ; t2 Þ ¼

ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; y1 ; y2 Þ: Thus,
ðw1 ; w2 ; w3 ; t1 ; t2 Þ ¼ wðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; y1 ; y2 Þ
¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; f1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; y1 ; y2 Þ; f2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; y1 ; y2 ÞÞ
¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; 0; 0Þ:
Hence, ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðw1 ; w2 ; w3 Þ 2 W1 :Also
ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; y1 ; y2 Þ ¼ uðw1 ; w2 ; w3 ; t1 ; t2 Þ ¼ uðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; 0; 0Þ

¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼ aðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 2 aðW1 Þ:
This proves that aðW1 Þ ¼ uðW1 R2 Þ \ f 1 ð0; 0Þ:)

Since W1 is an open subset of R3 ; W1 R2 is an open subset of R3 R2 :

Further, since u : U1 ! V W is a diffeomorphism, and W1 R2 is an open
subset of R3 R2 ; uðW1 R2 Þ is an open subset of R3 R2 ; and hence,
aðW1 Þð¼ uðW1 R2 Þ \ f 1 ð0; 0ÞÞ is open in f 1 ð0; 0Þ: This proves (d)(i).
(d)(ii): Here, we must prove that
(A) a : W1 ! aðW1 Þ is 1–1,
(B) a is continuous,
(C) a1 : aðW1 Þ ! W1 is continuous. For (A): Let aðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ aðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ:
We have to prove that ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ: Since
ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼ aðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ aðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ

¼ ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ; g1 ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ; g2 ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ÞÞ;
ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ:
For (B): Since g : W1 ! R2 is a smooth function, and
a : ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 7! ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ;
each of the component functions of a is continuous, and hence, a is continuous.

For (C): Since for every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 2 W1 ;
a1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ

¼ p1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ;
and p1 is continuous, a1 is continuous. This proves (d)(ii).

(d)(iii) Since for every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 2 W1 ;
aðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ uðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; 0; 0Þ ¼ uðs1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼ ðu s1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ;
a ¼ u s1 : Next, since
a1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ

¼ p1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; g1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; g2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ;
a1 ¼ p1 on their common domain. This proves (d)(iii).

(iv) Since u and s1 are smooth functions, their composite u s1 ð¼ aÞ is smooth,
and hence, a is smooth. Since p1 ð¼ a1 Þ is smooth, a1 is smooth. h
Theorem 3.47 Let U be an open neighborhood of ða; bÞ in Rm Rp : Let f : U !
Rp be a smooth function. Let f ða; bÞ ¼ 0: If
ðf 0 ða; bÞÞ i2 : Rp ! Rp
is a linear isomorphism, then

1. there exists a local diffeomorphism u at ða; bÞ in Rm Rp such that f u ¼ p2 :

(i.e., there exist an open neighborhood V of a in Rm ; an open neighborhood W
of b in Rp ; an open neighborhood U1 of ða; bÞ in Rm Rp ; and a function
u : U1 ! V W such that V W U; u is a diffeomorphism, and for every
ðx; yÞ in U1 ; f ðuðx; yÞÞ ¼ y:)
2. there exist an open neighborhood W1 of a in Rm ; an open neighborhood W2 of b
in Rp , and a smooth function g : W1 ! Rp such that
(a) for every x in W1 ; ðx; gðxÞÞ 2 U;
(b) for every x in W1 ; f ðx; gðxÞÞ ¼ 0;
(c) g is unique, (i.e., if h : W1 ! Rp is a smooth function such that for every x
in W1 ; ðx; hðxÞÞ 2 U; and f ðx; hðxÞÞ ¼ 0; then g ¼ h:)
(d) if a : W1 ! f 1 ð0Þ is the function defined such that for every x in W1
aðxÞ ðx; gðxÞÞ;
then
(i) aðW1 Þ is an open neighborhood of ða; bÞ in f 1 ð0Þ;
(iii) a ¼ u s1 and a1 ¼ p1 on their common domain,
(iv) a; a1 are smooth functions.

Theorem 3.48 Let f : Rm Rp ! Rp be a smooth function. Let a be in Rm and b
be in Rp : Let f ða; bÞ ¼ 0: If for every ðx; yÞ in f 1 ð0Þ; the rank of linear trans-
formation f 0 ðx; yÞ is p, then f 1 ð0Þ is a smooth manifold of dimension m.
Proof Since f : Rm Rp ! Rp is a smooth function, f is a continuous function.
Since f : Rm Rp ! Rp is a continuous function, and {0} is a closed subset of Rp ;
f 1 ð0Þ is closed subset of Rm Rp : Since Rm Rp is homeomorphic to Rmþp ; and
Rmþp is Hausdorff and second countable space, Rm Rp is Hausdorff and second
countable. Since Rm Rp is Hausdorff and second countable, and f 1 ð0Þ is a
subspace of Rm Rp ; f 1 ð0Þ is Hausdorff and second countable.
Let us take any ða; bÞ in f 1 ð0Þ: Since ða; bÞ is in f 1 ð0Þ; f ða; bÞ ¼ 0: By
assumption, the rank of linear transformation f 0 ða; bÞ : Rm Rp ! Rp is p, and
hence, ðf 0 ða; bÞÞ i2 : Rp ! Rp is a linear isomorphism. Now, by Theorem 3.47,
there exist an open neighborhood W1 of a in Rm and a function a : W1 ! f 1 ð0Þ
such that
(i) aðW1 Þ is an open neighborhood of ða; bÞ in f 1 ð0Þ;
(iii) a; a1 are smooth functions.
Hence, aðW1 Þ is an open neighborhood of ða; bÞ in f 1 ð0Þ; and a1 : aðW1 Þ ! W1 is

a diffeomorphism. This shows that f 1 ð0Þ is a smooth manifold of dimension m. h
Definition Let N be a smooth manifold of dimension m þ p: Let M N: If for
every x in M, there exists an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ in N satisfying
x 2 U such that
uU ðU \ M Þ ¼ ðuU ðUÞÞ \ ðRm f0gÞ
then we say that M is a smooth m-submanifold of N.

Theorem 3.49 Let N be a smooth manifold of dimension m þ p: Let M N: If M is
a smooth m-submanifold of N, then M is a smooth manifold of dimension m.
Proof Let us take any a in M. Since a is in M, and M is a smooth m-submanifold of
N, there exists an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ in N satisfying a 2 U; and
uU ðU \ M Þ ¼ ðuU ðUÞÞ \ ðRm f0gÞ:
Since a is in M, and a 2 U; a is in U \ M. Since U is open in N, and M N;

U \ M is open in M. Since a is in U \ M; and U \ M is open in M, U \ M is an
open neighborhood of a in M. Since ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart in
the m þ p-dimensional smooth manifold N, uU ðUÞ is open in Rmþp ðffi ðRm
Rp Þ ðRm f0gÞÞ; and hence, uU ðU \ MÞð¼ ðuU ðUÞÞ\ ðRm f0gÞÞ is open in
Rm ðffi ðRm f0gÞÞ: Since ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart in N, uU is
1–1, and hence, the restriction uU jU\M of uU to U \ M; is 1–1.
Thus, the restriction uU jU\M of uU to U \ M is a 1–1 mapping from the open
neighborhood U \ M of a in M onto the open set uU ðU \ MÞ of Rm :
Since ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart in N, uU is continuous, and hence,
the restriction uU jU\M of uU to U \ M is continuous. Since ðU; uU Þ is an admissible
coordinate chart in N, ðuU Þ1 : uU ðUÞ ! U is continuous, and hence, the restriction
ððuU Þ1 ÞjuU ðU\MÞ of ðuU Þ1 to uU ðU \ MÞð¼ ðuU ðUÞÞ \ ðRm f0gÞÞ is contin-
uous. Further, since ðuU jU\M Þ1 ¼ ððuU Þ1 ÞjuU ðU\MÞ ; it follows that the inverse
function ðuU jU\M Þ1 is continuous.
Thus, the ordered pair ðU \ M; uU jU\M Þ is a coordinate chart of M satisfying a 2
M: Next, let ðU \ M; uU jU\M Þ and ðV \ M; wV jV\M Þ be two coordinate charts of M,
where ðU; uU Þ and ðV; wV Þ are admissible coordinate charts in N, and ðU \ MÞ \
ðV \ MÞ is nonempty. We have to prove that ðwV jV\M Þ ðuU jU\M Þ1 is smooth.
Since ðU; uU Þand ðV; wV Þ are admissible coordinate charts in N, wV ðuU Þ1 is
smooth, and hence, ðwV jV\M Þ ðuU jU\M Þ1 ð¼ ðwV ðuU Þ1 Þ jðU\MÞ\ðV\MÞ Þ is
smooth. Hence, M is a smooth manifold of dimension m. h
3.6 Smooth Bump Functions 199
3.6 Smooth Bump Functions
Theorem 3.50 Let e [ 0: Let a be in R3 : Let Be ðaÞ fx : x 2 R3 ; jx aj\eg:

Then, there exists a function h : R3 ! ½0; 1 such that
1. h is smooth,
2. h is onto,
3. for every x in Be ðaÞ; hðxÞ [ 0;
4. for every x in fx : x 2 R3 ; jx aj\ 2e g; hðxÞ ¼ 1;
5. for every x 62 Be ðaÞ; hðxÞ ¼ 0:
Proof Let us define a function f : R ! R as follows: For every x in R;
e x
1
if 0\x;
f ðxÞ
0 if x 0:
Thus, f ðxÞ is positive if and only if x is positive, and f ðxÞ is never negative. We
shall first try to prove by induction (a): For every x [ 0; and for every nonnegative
integer k, the kth derivative f ðkÞ ðxÞ is of the form ðp2k ð1xÞÞex for some polynomial
1
p2k ðyÞ of degree 2k in y. Let us denote the statement, f ðkÞ ðxÞ is of the form p2k ð1xÞex
1
for some polynomial p2k ðyÞ of degree 2k in y, by PðkÞ: We must prove

1. P(1) holds,
2. if P(k) holds, then Pðk þ 1Þ holds.
For 1: Pð1Þ means f 0 ðxÞ is of the form p2 ð1xÞex for some polynomial p2 ðyÞ of
1
degree 2 in y. From the given definition of f,

1 1 1 1
f 0 ðxÞ ¼ 2 ex ¼ p2 e x;
x x
where p2 ðyÞ y2 : Here, p2 ðyÞ is a polynomial of degree 2 in y. This proves 1.

For 2: Let PðkÞ be true, that is, f ðkÞ ðxÞ is of the form p2k ð1xÞex for some polynomial
1
p2k ðyÞ of degree 2k in y. We have to prove that Pðk þ 1Þ is true, that is, f ðkþ1Þ ðxÞ is
of the form p2kþ2 ð1xÞex for some polynomial p2kþ2 ðyÞ of degree 2k þ 2 in y. Here,
1
0
d d 1 1
f ðkþ1Þ ðxÞ ¼ f ðkÞ ðxÞ ¼ f ðkÞ ðxÞ ¼ p2k e x
dx dx x

1 1 1 1 1x 1
¼ p02k e x þ p
2k e
x x2 x x2

1 1 1 1
¼ p2k p02k e x 2
x x x

1 1
¼ q2kþ2 e x;
x
where q2kþ2 ðyÞ ðp2k ðyÞ p02k ðyÞÞy2 ; which is a polynomial of degree 2k þ 2
in y. This proves 2.
Hence, by the principle of mathematical induction, PðkÞ is true for every positive
integer k. This proves (a). Now, we shall try to prove (b): f is C1 on R and that
f ðkÞ ð0Þ ¼ 0 for all k 0: Here, for x\0; f 0 ðxÞ ¼ 0; and for 0\x; f 0 ðxÞ ¼ ddx ex ¼
1
1 1x
x2 e : Next,
f ð0 eÞ f ð0Þ f ðeÞ 0 f ðeÞ 0

lim ¼ lim ¼ lim ¼ lim ¼ 0;
e!0 e e!0 e e!0 e e!0 e
e[0 e[0 e[0 e[0
and
f ð0 þ eÞ f ð0Þ f ðeÞ 0
lim ¼ lim
e!0 e e!0 e
e[0 e[0
e e
1
f ðeÞ
¼ lim ¼ lim
e!0 e e!0 e
e[0 e[0
t 1
¼ lim ¼ lim ¼ 0:
t!1 et t!1 et
Hence,
f ð0 þ hÞ f ð0Þ
lim ¼ 0;
h!0 h
that is, f 0 ð0Þ ¼ 0: Thus,
0 if x 0;
f 0 ðxÞ ¼ 1 1x
x2 e if 0\x:
Here, for x\0; f 00 ðxÞ ¼ 0; and for 0\x;

d 0 d 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1
f 00 ðxÞ ¼ f ðxÞ ¼ e x ¼ e x þ e x ¼ þ e x:
dx dx x2 x3 x2 x2 x3 x4
Now,
f 0 ð0 eÞ f 0 ð0Þ f 0 ðeÞ 0 f 0 ðeÞ 0
lim ¼ lim ¼ lim ¼ lim
e!0 e e!0 e e!0 e e!0 e
e[0 e[0 e[0 e[0
¼ 0;
and
1 1e
f 0 ð0 þ eÞ f 0 ð0Þ f 0 ðeÞ 0 f 0 ðeÞ e2 e 1 t3 3t2
lim ¼ lim ¼ lim ¼ lim ¼ lim 1 ¼ lim t ¼ lim
e!0 e e!0 e e!0 e e!0 e e ! 0 e ee
3 t!1 e t!1 et
e[0 e[0 e[0 e[0 e[0
3 2t 321
¼ lim ¼ lim ¼ 0:
t!1 et t!1 et
Hence,
f 0 ð0 þ hÞ f 0 ð0Þ
lim ¼ 0;
h!0 h

0 if x 0;
f 00 ðxÞ ¼ 2
þ x14 ex
1
x3 if 0\x:
Here, for x\0 f 000 ðxÞ ¼ 0 and for 0\x;

d d 2 1 1 6 4 1 1 1 2 1
f 000 ðxÞ ¼ f 00 ðxÞ ¼ þ e x ¼ þ e x þ e x þ
dx
dx x3 x4 x4 x5 x2 x3 x4
6 6 1
¼ 4 þ 5 þ 6 e x :
1
x x x
Now,
f 00 ð0 eÞ f 00 ð0Þ f 00 ðeÞ 0 f 00 ðeÞ 0

e!0 e e!0 e e!0 e e!0 e
e[0 e[0 e[0 e[0
¼ 0;
and
2
f 00 ð0 þ eÞ f 00 ð0Þ f 00 ðeÞ 0 f 00 ðeÞ þ e14 e e
1
e3
e!0 e e!0 e e!0 e e!0 e
e[0 e[0 e[0 e[0

2 1 1 2t4 þ t5 5!
¼ lim þ 1 ¼ lim ¼ lim t ¼ 0:
e!0 e 4 e ee t!1
5 et t!1 e
e[0
Hence,
f 00 ð0 þ hÞ f 00 ð0Þ
lim ¼ 0;
h!0 h
0 if x 0;
f 000 ðxÞ ¼
þ 6 þ x16 ex
1
6
x4 x5
if 0\x:
Similarly, f ð4Þ ð0Þ ¼ 0; f 5 ð0Þ ¼ 0; etc. This completes the proof of (b). Thus,
f : R ! R is a smooth function.
Now, let us define a function g : R3 ! R as follows: For every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
in R3 ;

f e2 ðx1 Þ2 þðx2 Þ2 þðx3 Þ2
gðxÞ :
f e2 ðx1 Þ2 þðx2 Þ2 þðx3 Þ2 þ f ðx1 Þ2 þðx2 Þ2 þðx3 Þ2 14 e2
Clearly, in the expression for gðxÞ, the denominator

1
2 2 2 2 2 2
f e ð x1 Þ þ ð x2 Þ þ ð x3 Þ
2
þ f ð x1 Þ þ ð x2 Þ þ ð x3 Þ e 2
4
is nonzero, and hence, g : R3 ! R is a well-defined function. Since 0 f ; it is clear

that 0 g 1: Further, since f is C1 on R; g is C 1 on R: Next, let us observe that if
x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ satisfies

e2 ðx1 Þ2 þðx2 Þ2 þðx3 Þ2 0; then f e2 ðx1 Þ2 þðx2 Þ2 þðx3 Þ2 ¼ 0;
and hence,
0 1
gðxÞ@¼ A is 0:
For every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ satisfying

1 1
ðx1 Þ2 þðx2 Þ2 þðx3 Þ2 e2 0; f ðx1 Þ2 þðx2 Þ2 þðx3 Þ2 e2 ¼ 0;
4 4
and hence,
0
gð x Þ @ ¼
1
f e 2 ð x1 Þ 2 þ ð x2 Þ 2 þ ð x3 Þ 2
¼ A is 1:
f e2 ðx1 Þ2 þðx2 Þ2 þðx3 Þ2 þ 0
Finally, for every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ satisfying ðx1 Þ2 þ ðx2 Þ2 þ ðx3 Þ2 \e2 ; we have
e ððx1 Þ2 þ ðx2 Þ2 þ ðx3 Þ2 Þ is positive, and hence, f ðe2 ððx1 Þ2 þ ðx2 Þ2 þ ðx3 Þ2 ÞÞ
2
is positive. Thus, for every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ satisfying ðx1 Þ2 þ ðx2 Þ2 þ ðx3 Þ2 \e2 ;
0 1
gðxÞ@¼ A
is positive. Since g : R3 ! ½0; 1; and g is C 1 on R; g is continuous. Since g :

R3 ! ½0; 1 is continuous, g assumes 0, and g assumes 1, g assumes all values of
½0; 1: Hence, g : R3 ! ½0; 1 is onto. Thus, we have seen that g is a smooth
function from R3 onto ½0; 1 such that for every x in R3 ;
8
<1 if j xj 2e ;
gðxÞ ¼ 0 if e j xj;
:
positive if j xj\e:
Next, let us define a function h : R3 ! ½0; 1 as follows: For every x in R3 ;

hðxÞ gðx aÞ:
1. Since g is a smooth function, and x 7! ðx aÞ is a smooth function, their

composite h : x 7! gðx aÞ is also a smooth function.
2. Since x 7! ðx aÞ is a function from R3 onto R3 ; and g from R3 onto ½0; 1; their
composite h : x 7! gðx aÞ is onto.
3. If x is in Be ðaÞ, then jx aj\e; and hence, hðxÞð¼ gðx aÞÞ is positive.
4. For every x in fx : x 2 R3 ; jx aj\ 2e g, we have jx aj\ 2e ; and therefore,
hðxÞ ¼ gðx aÞ ¼ 1:
5. For every x 62 Be ðaÞ; we have e jx aj; and hence, hðxÞ ¼ gðx aÞ ¼ 0: h
Note 3.51 We shall try to prove that there exists a smooth function h : R ! R
such that
1. hðtÞ ¼ 1 if t 1;
2. 0\hðtÞ\1 if 1\t\2;
3. hðtÞ ¼ 0 if 2 t:
In the proof of Theorem 3.50, we have seen that the function f : R ! R is defined
as follows: For every t in R;
e t
1
if 0\t
f ðtÞ
0 if t 0;
is smooth. Now, let us define the function h : R ! R as follows: For every t in R;

f ð2 t Þ
hðtÞ :
f ð2 tÞ þ f ðt 1Þ
If t 1; then 1 t; and hence, 1 2 t: If t 1; then t 1 0; and hence,

f ðt 1Þ ¼ 0: Thus, for t 1;
e2t
1
hðtÞ ¼ ¼ 1:
e2t þ 0
1
If 2 t; then 2 t 0; and hence, f ð2 tÞ ¼ 0: If 2 t; then 1 t 1: Thus,

for 2 t;
0
hðtÞ ¼ ¼ 0:
0 þ et1
1
If 1\t\2; then 0\t 1; and hence,
0\et1 ¼ f ðt 1Þ:
1
If 1\t\2; then 0\2 t; and hence, 0\e2t ¼ f ð2 tÞ: It follows that for
1
1\t\2;
e2t
1
hðtÞ ¼ 2 ð0; 1Þ:

e2t þ et1
1 1
It remains to show that h is smooth. Since f is smooth, and t 7! 2 t is smooth,

their composite t 7! f ð2 tÞ is smooth. Similarly, t 7! f ðt 1Þ is smooth. This
shows that
f ð2 t Þ
t 7! ð¼ hðtÞÞ
f ð2 tÞ þ f ðt 1Þ
is smooth, and hence, h is smooth. h
Here, we observe that

1. hðtÞ ¼ 1 if and only if t 1;
2. hðtÞ ¼ 0 if and only if 2 t;
3. 0\hðtÞ\1 if and only if 1\t\2:
Note 3.52 We shall try to prove that there exists a function H : R3 ! ½0; 1 such
that
1. H is smooth,
2. HðxÞ ¼ 1; if x is in the closed ball B1 ½0ð¼ fx : x 2 R3 ; jxj 1gÞ;
3. the closure ðH 1 ðð0; 1ÞÞ of H 1 ðð0; 1Þ is equal to the closed ball
B2 ½0ð¼ fx : x 2 R3 ; jxj 2gÞ:
Let us define the function H : R3 ! ½0; 1 as follows: For every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
in R3 ;
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
HðxÞ h ðx1 Þ2 þðx2 Þ2 þðx3 Þ2 ;
where h denotes the function as defined in Note 3.51.
For 1: Since x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 7! ð ðx1 Þ2 þ ðx2 Þ2 þ ðx3 Þ2 Þ is a smooth function
over R3 fð0; 0; 0Þg; and h : R ! ½0; 1 is a smooth function, their com-
posite x 7! hð ðx1 Þ2 þ ðx2 Þ2 þ ðx3 Þ2 Þð¼ HðxÞÞ is a smooth function from
R3 fð0; 0; 0Þg to ½0; 1: It remains to show that ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 7! h

ð ðx1 Þ2 þ ðx2 Þ2 þ ðx3 Þ2 Þ is smooth at ð0; 0; 0Þ: Here,
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 2 2
h ð0 þ tÞ þð0Þ þ ð0Þ h ð0Þ2 þ ð0Þ2 þ ð0Þ2
lim
t!0 t
t[0
hðtÞ hð0Þ 11
¼ lim ¼ lim ¼ lim 0 ¼ 0;
t!0 t t!0 t t!0
t[0 t[0 t[0
and
2 2 2
h ð0 tÞ þð0Þ þ ð0Þ h ð0Þ2 þ ð0Þ2 þ ð0Þ2
lim
t!0 t
t[0
hðtÞ hð0Þ 11
¼ lim ¼ lim ¼ lim 0 ¼ 0:
t!0 t t ! 0 t t!0
t[0 t[0 t[0
Since
h ð0 þ tÞ2 þð0Þ2 þ ð0Þ2 h ð0Þ2 þ ð0Þ2 þ ð0Þ2
lim ¼0
t!0 t
t[0 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 2 2
h ð0 tÞ þð0Þ þ ð0Þ h ð0Þ2 þ ð0Þ2 þ ð0Þ2
¼ lim ;
t!0 t
t[0
ðD1 HÞð0; 0; 0Þ exists, and its value is 0. Also, for ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 6¼ ð0; 0; 0Þ;
1
ðD1 H Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ h0 ðx1 Þ2 þðx2 Þ2 þðx3 Þ2 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð2x1 þ 0 þ 0Þ
2 ðx1 Þ þðx2 Þ2 þðx3 Þ2
2
x1
¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi h0 ðx1 Þ2 þðx2 Þ2 þðx3 Þ2 :
2 2 2
ðx1 Þ þðx2 Þ þðx3 Þ
Thus,
8 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
< pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 0
x1
h ðx1 Þ2 þðx2 Þ2 þðx3 Þ2 if ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 6¼ ð0; 0; 0Þ
ðD1 H Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðx1 Þ2 þðx2 Þ2 þðx3 Þ2
:
0 if ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ð0; 0; 0Þ:
Now, we want to show that D1 H is continuous at ð0; 0; 0Þ:

We recall that the smooth function h : R ! R is defined as follows: For every
t in R;
f ð2 t Þ e x
1
if 0\x;
hðtÞ ¼ : Also f ðxÞ and f 0 ðxÞ
f ð 2 t Þ þ f ð t 1Þ 0 if x 0;
0 if x 0;
¼ 1 1x
x 2 e if 0\x:
So
ðf 0 ð2 tÞÞð1Þðf ð2 tÞ þ f ðt 1ÞÞ ðf ð2 tÞÞðf 0 ð2 tÞ þ f 0 ðt 1ÞÞ

h0 ðtÞ ¼ ;
ð f ð 2 t Þ þ f ð t 1Þ Þ 2
and hence,
ðf 0 ð2 0ÞÞð1Þðf ð2 0Þ þ f ð0 1ÞÞ ðf ð2 0ÞÞðf 0 ð2 0Þ þ f 0 ð0 1ÞÞ
h0 ð0Þ ¼
ðf ð2 0Þ þ f ð0 1ÞÞ2
ðf ð2ÞÞð1Þðf ð2Þ þ f ð1ÞÞ ðf ð2ÞÞðf 0 ð2Þ þ f 0 ð1ÞÞ
0
¼
ðf ð2Þ þ f ð1ÞÞ2
ðf ð2ÞÞð1Þðf ð2Þ þ 0Þ ðf ð2ÞÞðf 0 ð2Þ þ 0Þ
0
0
¼ ¼ ¼ 0:
ðf ð2Þ þ 0Þ2 1 2
e2
Thus, h0 ð0Þ ¼ 0: Since for ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 6¼ ð0; 0; 0Þ; we have

x1
0 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1;
2 2 2
ðx1 Þ þðx2 Þ þðx3 Þ
and h0 ð0Þ ¼ 0;
lim ðD1 H Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
ðx1 ;x2 ;x3 Þ!ð0;0;0Þ
x1
¼ lim qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi h0 ðx1 Þ2 þðx2 Þ2 þðx3 Þ2 ¼ 0 ¼ ðD1 H Þð0; 0; 0Þ:
ðx1 ;x2 ;x3 Þ!ð0;0;0Þ
ðx1 Þ þðx2 Þ2 þðx3 Þ2
2
This shows that D1 H is continuous at ð0; 0; 0Þ: Similarly, D2 H is continuous at

ð0; 0; 0Þ; and D3 H is continuous at ð0; 0; 0Þ: Similarly, higher partial derivatives of
H exist at ð0; 0; 0Þ: This shows that H is smooth.
For 2: Let us take any x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ satisfying jxj 1: So
HðxÞ ¼ hð ðx1 Þ2 þ ðx2 Þ2 þ ðx3 Þ2 Þ ¼ hðjxjÞ ¼ 1:
For 3: Let us take any a ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ in ðH 1 ðð0; 1ÞÞ : We have to show that
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ða1 Þ2 þ ða2 Þ2 þ ða3 Þ2 2: If not, otherwise, let 2\ ða1 Þ2 þ ða2 Þ2 þ ða3 Þ2 :
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
We have to arrive at a contradiction. Since 2\ ða1 Þ2 þ ða2 Þ2 þ ða3 Þ2 ¼ jaj;
there exists a real number e [ 0 such that the open ball Be ðaÞ contains no point of
B2 ½0: Since Be ðaÞ is an open neighborhood of a, and a is in ðH 1 ðð0; 1ÞÞ ; there
exists b in H 1 ðð0; 1Þ such that b is in Be ðaÞ: Since b is in H 1 ðð0; 1Þ; hðjbjÞ ¼
HðbÞ 2 ð0; 1: Since hðjbjÞ 2 ð0; 1; and hðtÞ ¼ 0 if and only if 2 t; jbj\2; and
hence, b is in B2 ½0: Since b is in B2 ½0; and Be ðaÞ contains no point of B2 ½0; b is
not in Be ðaÞ; a contradiction. Thus, we have shown that ðH 1 ðð0; 1ÞÞ B2 ½0:
It remains to prove that B2 ½0 ðH 1 ðð0; 1ÞÞ : Let us take any a in B2 ½0: We
have to prove that a 2 ðH 1 ðð0; 1ÞÞ : Since a is in B2 ½0; jaj 2:
Case I: when jaj\2. Since jaj\2; and hðtÞ ¼ 0 if and only if 2 t;
0\hðjajÞ ¼ HðaÞ 1; and hence, a 2 H 1 ðð0; 1Þ ðH 1 ðð0; 1ÞÞ : Hence,
a 2 ðH 1 ðð0; 1ÞÞ :
Case II: when jaj ¼ 2. For every positive integer n [ 1;

1
lim 1 a ¼ a;
n!1 2n
and

1 1 a ¼ 1 1 jaj ¼ 1 1 2 ¼ 2 1 2 ð1; 2Þ:
2n 2n 2n n
Since

1 1 a 2 ð1; 2Þ;
2n

1 1
H 1
a ¼h 1 a 2 ð0; 1Þ ð0; 1;
2n 2n
and hence,

1
1 a 2 H 1 ðð0; 1Þ:
2n
Since, for every positive integer, n [ 1;

1
1 a 2 H 1 ðð0; 1Þ;
2n
and

1
lim 1 a ¼ a; so a 2 H 1 ðð0; 1Þ :
n!1 2n
Thus, we see that in all cases, a 2 ðH 1 ðð0; 1ÞÞ : h
As above, we can show that there exists a function H : Rn ! ½0; 1 such that
1. H is smooth,
2. HðxÞ ¼ 1; if x is in the closed ball B1 ½0ð¼ fx : x 2 Rn ; jxj 1gÞ;
3. the closure ðH 1 ðð0; 1ÞÞ of H 1 ðð0; 1Þ is equal to the closed ball
B2 ½0ð¼ fx : x 2 Rn ; jxj 2gÞ:
Definition Let h : R ! R be a smooth function. If

1. hðtÞ ¼ 1 if t 1;
2. 0\hðtÞ\1 if 1\t\2;
3. hðtÞ ¼ 0 if 2 t;
then we say that h is a cutoff function. By Note 3.51, there exists a cutoff function.
Definition Let X be a topological space. Let f : X 7! R be any function. The clo-

sure ðf 1 ðR f0gÞÞ of f 1 ðR f0gÞ is called the support of f and is denoted by
supp f : By f is compactly supported, we mean that supp f is a compact set. By the
note 3.52, there exists a function H : Rn ! ½0; 1 such that
1. H is smooth,
2. HðxÞ ¼ 1; if x is in the closed ball B1 ½0;
3. supp H ¼ B2 ½0:
Definition Let X be a topological space. Let f : X 7! R be any function. Let S be

any nonempty subset of X. If supp f is contained in S, then we say that f is sup-
ported in S.
Definition Let H : Rn ! ½0; 1 be a function. Let F be a closed subset of Rn ; and
let G be an open subset of Rn : If
1. H is smooth,
2. HðxÞ ¼ 1; if x is in F,
3. H is supported in G,
Fig. 3.1 F and K are disjoint
then we say that H is a smooth bump function corresponding to closed set F and
open set G. By Note 3.52, there exists a smooth bump function corresponding to
closed set B1 ½0 and open set B3 ð0Þ:
Theorem 3.53 Let F be a nonempty closed subset of R3 ; and let K be a nonempty

compact subset of R3 : If F and K are disjoint, then there exists a function r :
R3 ! ½0; 1 such that
1. r is smooth,
2. for every x in F; rðxÞ ¼ 0;
3. for every x in K; rðxÞ ¼ 1;
4. r is onto.
Proof Since F and K are disjoint, K F c where F c denotes the complement of

F. Since F is a closed subset of R3 ; F c is an open set. Let us take any x in K. Since
x 2 K F c ; x 2 F c : Since x 2 F c ; and F c is an open set, there exists a real number
dx [ 0 such that x 2 B12dx ðxÞ F c : It follows that the collection fB12dx ðxÞ : x 2 Kg is
an open cover of K. Further, since K is compact, there exist finite many
x1 ; x2 ; . . .; xn in K such that K is contained in B12dx ðx1 Þ [ B12dx ðx2 Þ [ [ B12dxn ðxn Þ:
1 2
Since (see Fig. 3.1)
B12dx ðx1 Þ F c ; B12dx ðx2 Þ F c ; . . .; B12dxn ðxn Þ Fc;

1 2
ðB12dx ðx1 Þ [ B12dx ðx2 Þ [ [ B12dxn ðxn ÞÞ F c : Now, for every i ¼ 1; 2; . . .; n; by

1 2
Theorem 3.50, there exist functions hi : R3 ! ½0; 1 such that
1. hi is smooth,
2. hi is onto,
3. for every x in B12dx ðxi Þ; hi ðxÞ [ 0;
i
4. for every x in fx : x 2 R3 ; jx xi j\ 12 dxi g; hi ðxÞ ¼ 1;

6 B12dx ðxi Þ; hi ðxÞ ¼ 0:
5. for every x 2
i
Now, let us define a function r : R3 ! ½0; 1 as follows: For every x in R3 ;
rðxÞ 1 ðð1 h1 ðxÞÞð1 h2 ðxÞÞ ð1 hn ðxÞÞÞ:
Since 0 h1 1, for every x in R3 ; 0 1 h1 ðxÞ 1: Similarly, for every x in

R ; 0 1 h2 ðxÞ 1; . . .; 0 1 hn ðxÞ 1: Hence, for every x in R3 ;
3
0 ð1 h1 ðxÞÞð1 h2 ðxÞÞ ð1 hn ðxÞÞ 1: It follows that for every x in R3 ;

0 1 ðð1 h1 ðxÞÞð1 h2 ðxÞÞ ð1 hn ðxÞÞÞ 1: Thus, we have shown that r :
R3 ! ½0; 1 is a well-defined function.
1. Since each hi is smooth, r : x 7! 1 ðð1 h1 ðxÞÞð1 h2 ðxÞÞ ð1 hn ðxÞÞÞ is
smooth.
2. Let us take any x in F. Since x is in F, and
ðB12dx ðx1 Þ [ B12dx ðx2 Þ [ [ B12dxn ðxn ÞÞ F c ; x 62 ðB12dx ðx1 Þ [ B12dx ðx2 Þ [ [
1 2 1 2
B12dxn ðxn ÞÞ; and hence, for every i ¼ 1; 2; . . .; n; we have x 62 B12dx ðxi Þ: Thus,
i
rðxÞ ¼ 1 ðð1 0Þð1 0Þ ð1 0ÞÞ ¼ 0:
3. Let us take any x in K. Since x is in K, and K is contained in B12dx ðx1 Þ [
1
B12dx ðx2 Þ [ [ B12dxn ðxn Þ; there exists j 2 f1; 2; . . .; ng such that x 2 B12dx ðxj Þ:
2 j
For simplicity, let us take 1 for j. Now, since x 2 B12dx ðx1 Þ; h1 ðxÞ ¼ 1; and
1
hence, rðxÞ ¼ 1 ðð1 1Þð1 h2 ðxÞÞ ð1 hn ðxÞÞÞ ¼ 1:
4. Since F is nonempty, there exists a in F. Hence, rðaÞ ¼ 0: Thus, the function r
assumes 0. Similarly, r assumes 1. Since r : R3 ! ½0; 1; and r is smooth, r is
continuous. Since r : R3 ! ½0; 1 is continuous, r assumes 0, and r assumes 1,
r assumes all values of ½0; 1: Hence, r : R3 ! ½0; 1 is onto. h
place of R3 :
Theorem 3.55 Let a be in R3 : Let U be an open neighborhood of a in R3 : Let
f : U ! R be any function. If f is smooth, then there exist an open neighborhood V
of a and a function F : R3 ! R such that
1. V is contained in U,
2. for every x in V, FðxÞ ¼ f ðxÞ;
3. for every x 62 U; FðxÞ ¼ 0;
4. F is smooth.
Proof Since U is an open neighborhood of a, there exists a real number e [ 0 such

that Be ðaÞ U: Since Be=3 ½að fx : x 2 R3 ; jx aj 3e gÞ is a closed and bounded
subset of R3 ; Be=3 ½a is compact. Since Be=3 ½a Be=2 ðaÞ; Be=3 ½a and R3 Be=2 ðaÞ
are disjoint sets. Since Be=2 ðaÞ is an open set, R3 Be=2 ðaÞ is a closed set. Now, by
Theorem 3.53, there exists a function r : R3 ! ½0; 1 such that
1. r is smooth,
2. for every x in R3 Be=2 ðaÞ; rðxÞ ¼ 0;
3. for every x in Be=3 ½a; rðxÞ ¼ 1;
4. r is onto.
Let us take Be=3 ðaÞ for V. Let us define a function F : R3 ! R as follows: For
every x in R3 ;
f ðxÞrðxÞ if x 2 U;
FðxÞ
0 if x 62 U:
1. Since V ¼ Be=3 ðaÞ Be ðaÞ U; V is contained in U.

2. For every x in V, we have x 2 V ¼ Be=3 ðaÞ Be=3 ½a Be ðaÞ U; and hence,
FðxÞ ¼ f ðxÞrðxÞ ¼ f ðxÞ1 ¼ f ðxÞ:
3. Let us take any x 62 U: Hence, by the definition of F, we have FðxÞ ¼ 0:
4. Since f and r both are smooth on the open set U, their product x 7! f ðxÞrðxÞ is
smooth on U. Further, for x 2 U, we have FðxÞ ¼ f ðxÞrðxÞ; so F is smooth over
U. Since for every x in U Be=2 ðaÞ; we have FðxÞ ¼ f ðxÞrðxÞ ¼ f ðxÞ0 ¼ 0:
Hence, by 3, for every x in R3 Be=2 ðaÞ; FðxÞ ¼ 0: This shows that F is smooth
over the open set R3 Be=2 ½a: Since F is smooth over the open set U, and F is
smooth over the open set R3 Be=2 ½a; F is smooth over the open set U [
ðR3 Be=2 ½aÞð¼ R3 Þ: Thus, F : R3 ! R is a smooth function. h
place of R3 :
3.7 The Constant Rank Theorem in Rn
Theorem 3.57 Let A0 be an open neighborhood of ð0; 0; 0Þ in R3 : Let B0 be an

open subset of R4 : Let F : A0 ! B0 be a function. If
(i) F is a C2 function,
(ii) for every x in A0 ; the linear transformation F 0 ðxÞ has rank 2,
(iii) Fð0; 0; 0Þ ¼ ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ;
then there exist an open neighborhood A of ð0; 0; 0Þ in R3 ; an open neighborhood B
of ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ in R4 ; an open subset U of R3 ; an open subset V of R4 ; a function
G : A ! U; and a function H : B ! V such that
3.7 The Constant Rank Theorem in Rn 213
1. A is contained in A0 ; and B is contained in B0 ;

2. G is a C 2 diffeomorphism (i.e., G is 1–1 onto, G is a C 2 function, and G1 is a
C 2 function),
3. H is a C2 diffeomorphism,
4. FðAÞ B;
5. For every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in U, ðH F G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ:
Proof Let F ðF1 ; F2 ; F3 ; F4 Þ: Since ð0; 0; 0Þ is in A0 ; the linear transformation

F 0 ð0; 0; 0Þ has rank 2. Hence,
2 3
ðD1 F1 Þð0; 0; 0Þ ðD2 F1 Þð0; 0; 0Þ ðD3 F1 Þð0; 0; 0Þ
6 ðD1 F2 Þð0; 0; 0Þ ðD2 F2 Þð0; 0; 0Þ ðD3 F2 Þð0; 0; 0Þ 7
6
rank4 7 ¼ 2:
ðD1 F3 Þð0; 0; 0Þ ðD2 F3 Þð0; 0; 0Þ ðD3 F3 Þð0; 0; 0Þ 5
This shows that there exists a nonzero 2 2 minor determinant of

2 3
6 7:
For simplicity, let
ðD1 F1 Þð0; 0; 0Þ ðD2 F1 Þð0; 0; 0Þ

det 6¼ 0:
ðD1 F2 Þð0; 0; 0Þ ðD2 F2 Þð0; 0; 0Þ
Now, let us define a function G : A0 ! R3 as follows: For every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in

A0 ;
Gðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðF1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; F2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; x3 Þ:
Since ðF1 ; F2 ; F3 ; F4 Þ F : A0 ! B0 R4 is a C 2 function, each Fi : A0 ! R

is a C 2 function, and hence, each component function of G is C2 : This shows that
G is a C2 function. Also, for every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in A0 ;
2 3
ðD1 F1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ðD2 F1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ðD3 F1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
G0 ðxÞ ¼ 4 ðD1 F2 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ðD2 F2 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ðD3 F2 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 5:
0 0 1
Hence,
2 3
6 7
detðG0 ð0; 0; 0ÞÞ ¼ det4 ðD1 F2 Þð0; 0; 0Þ ðD2 F2 Þð0; 0; 0Þ ðD3 F2 Þð0; 0; 0Þ 5
0 0 1
ðD1 F1 Þð0; 0; 0Þ ðD2 F1 Þð0; 0; 0Þ
¼ det 6¼ 0:
ðD1 F2 Þð0; 0; 0Þ ðD2 F2 Þð0; 0; 0Þ
Since detðG0 ð0; 0; 0ÞÞ is nonzero, G0 ð0; 0; 0Þ is invertible. Now, we can apply the
inverse function theorem on G : A0 ! R3 : There exists an open neighborhood A1
of ð0; 0; 0Þ such that
1. A1 is contained in A0 ;
2. G is 1–1 on A1 (i.e., if x and y are in A1 ; and GðxÞ ¼ GðyÞ; then x ¼ y),
3. GðA1 Þ is open in R3 ;
4. the 1–1 function G1 from GðA1 Þ onto A1 is a C 2 function.
Now, since ðF1 ð0; 0; 0Þ; F2 ð0; 0; 0Þ; F3 ð0; 0; 0Þ; F4 ð0; 0; 0ÞÞ ¼ Fð0; 0; 0Þ ¼
ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ; each Fi ð0; 0; 0Þ ¼ 0: Next, since ð0; 0; 0Þ is in A0 ; and G : A0 ! R3 ;
Gð0; 0; 0Þ ¼ ðF1 ð0; 0; 0Þ; F2 ð0; 0; 0Þ; 0Þ ¼ ð0; 0; 0Þ: Thus, Gð0; 0; 0Þ ¼ ð0; 0; 0Þ:
Since G is 1–1 on A1 ; Gð0; 0; 0Þ ¼ ð0; 0; 0Þ; and ð0; 0; 0Þ is in A1 ; G1 ð0; 0; 0Þ ¼
ð0; 0; 0Þ: Now, ðF G1 Þð0; 0; 0Þ ¼ FðG1 ð0; 0; 0ÞÞ ¼ Fð0; 0; 0Þ ¼ ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ:
Thus, ðF G1 Þð0; 0; 0Þ ¼ ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ: Since A1 is contained in A0 ; and F : A0 ! B0 ;
ðF G1 ÞðGðA1 ÞÞ ¼ FðA1 Þ B0 : Thus, F G1 : GðA1 Þ ! B0 . For every
ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in GðA1 Þ, there exists ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ in A1 such that ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼
Gðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ ¼ ðF1 ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ; F2 ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ; y3 Þ. Further, since G is 1–1 on A1 ;
F G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ F G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ F ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ

¼ ðF1 ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ; F2 ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ; F3 ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ; F4 ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ÞÞ
¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; F3 ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ; F4 ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ÞÞ
¼ x1 ; x2 ; F3 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ; F4 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
¼ x1 ; x2 ; F3 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; F4 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ :
Thus, for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in GðA1 Þ;
F G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ x1 ; x2 ; F3 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; F4 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ :

Hence, for every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in GðA1 Þ;

2 3
1 0 0
0 60 1 0 7
F G1 6
ðxÞ ¼ 4 7:
ðD1 ðF3 G1 ÞÞðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ðD2 ðF3 G1 ÞÞðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ðD3 ðF3 G1 ÞÞðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 5
ðD1 ðF4 G1 ÞÞðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ðD2 ðF4 G1 ÞÞðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 1
ðD3 ðF4 G ÞÞðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
Also, for every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in GðA1 Þ;

2 3
100
4 0 1 0 5 ¼ I 0 ðxÞ ¼ G G1 0 ðxÞ ¼ G0 G1 ðxÞ 0
G1 ðxÞ ;
001
so
2 3
100
0
0 6¼ 1 ¼ det4 0 1 0 5 ¼ det G0 G1 ðxÞ G1 ðxÞ
001
0
¼ det G0 G1 ðxÞ det G1 ðxÞ :
It follows that detððG1 Þ0 ðxÞÞ 6¼ 0; and hence, ðG1 Þ0 ðxÞ is invertible for every
x in GðA1 Þ: Since for every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in GðA1 Þ; ðF G1 Þ0 ðxÞ ¼
ðF 0 ðG1 ðxÞÞÞ ððG1 Þ0 ðxÞÞ; and ðG1 Þ0 ðxÞ is invertible,
2 3
1 0 0
60 7
6 1 0 7
rank6 7
4 ðD1 ðF3 G ÞÞðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ðD2 ðF3 G ÞÞðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ðD3 ðF3 G ÞÞðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 5
1 1 1
ðD1 ðF4 G1 ÞÞðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ðD2 ðF4 G1 ÞÞðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ðD3 ðF4 G1 ÞÞðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
0
0

¼ rank F G1 ðxÞ ¼ rank F 0 G1 ðxÞ G1 ðxÞ ¼ rank F 0 G1 ðxÞ ¼ 2:
Thus, for every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in GðA1 Þ;
D3 F3 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
2 3
1 0 0
6 7
¼ det4 0 1 0 5 ¼ 0;
1 1 1
ðD1 ðF3 G ÞÞðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ðD2 ðF3 G ÞÞðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ðD3 ðF3 G ÞÞðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
and
D3 F4 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
2 3
1 0 0
6 7
¼ det4 0 1 0 5 ¼ 0:
1 1 1
ðD1 ðF4 G ÞÞðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ðD2 ðF4 G ÞÞðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ðD3 ðF4 G ÞÞðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
It follows that for every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in GðA1 Þ; F3 G1 and F4 G1 are
functions of x1 ; x2 only.
Since Gð0; 0; 0Þ ¼ ð0; 0; 0Þ; A1 is an open neighborhood of ð0; 0; 0Þ; and GðA1 Þ
is open in R3 ; GðA1 Þ is an open neighborhood of ð0; 0; 0Þ; and hence, GðA1 Þ R is
an open neighborhood of ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ in R4 : Let us define a function T : GðA1 Þ
R ! R4 as follows: For every ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ; y4 Þ in GðA1 Þ R;
T ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ; y4 Þ y1 ; y2 ; y3 þ F3 G1 ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ; y4 þ F4 G1 ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ :
Here, each component function of T is C2 ; so T is a C 2 function, and hence, T is

continuous. Here,
F1 G1 ð0; 0; 0Þ; F2 G1 ð0; 0; 0Þ; F3 G1 ð0; 0; 0Þ; F4 G1 ð0; 0; 0Þ
¼ F1 G1 ð0; 0; 0Þ ; F2 G1 ð0; 0; 0Þ ; F3 G1 ð0; 0; 0Þ ; F4 G1 ð0; 0; 0Þ
¼ F G1 ð0; 0; 0Þ ¼ F G1 ð0; 0; 0Þ ¼ ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ;
so
T ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ ¼ 0; 0; 0 þ F3 G1 ð0; 0; 0Þ; 0 þ F4 G1 ð0; 0; 0Þ

¼ 0; 0; F3 G1 ð0; 0; 0Þ; F4 G1 ð0; 0; 0Þ ¼ ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ:
Since T : GðA1 Þ R ! R4 is continuous, Tð0; 0; 0; 0Þ ¼ ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ; and B0 be

an open neighborhood of ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ in R4 , there exists an open neighborhood V1 of
ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ such that V1 is contained in GðA1 Þ R; and TðV1 Þ is contained in B0 :
Now, for every y ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ; y4 Þ in V1 ;
T 0 ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ; y4 Þ
2
1 0
60
6 1
¼6
4 D1 ðy3 þ ðF3 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ÞÞ D2 ðy3 þ ðF3 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ÞÞ
D1 ðy4 þ ðF4 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ÞÞ D2 ðy4 þ ðF4 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ÞÞ
3
0 0
7
0 0 7
7
D3 ðy3 þ ðF3 1
G Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ÞÞ D4 ðy3 þ ðF3 G Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ÞÞ 5
1
D3 ðy4 þ ðF4 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ÞÞ D4 ðy4 þ ðF4 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ÞÞ

2
1 0
60
6 1
¼6
4 0 þ D1 ðF3 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ 0 þ D2 ðF3 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ
0 þ D1 ðF3 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ 0 þ D2 ðF4 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ
3
0 0
7
0 0 7
7
1
1 þ D3 ðF3 G Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ 0 5
0 þ D3 ðF4 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ 1 þ D4 ðF4 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ
2
1 0
60
6 1
¼6
4 D1 ðF3 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ D2 ðF3 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ
D1 ðF3 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ D2 ðF4 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ
3
0 0
7
0 0 7
7
1
1 þ D3 ðF3 G Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ 0 5
D3 ðF4 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ 1 þ D4 ðF4 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ
2 3
1 0 0 0
60 7
6 1 0 0 7
¼6 7
4 D1 ðF3 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ D2 ðF3 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ 1 þ 0 0 5
D1 ðF3 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ D2 ðF4 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ 0 1þ0
2 3
1 0 0 0
60 0 07
6 1 7
¼6 7
4 D1 ðF3 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ D2 ðF3 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ 1 05
D1 ðF3 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ D2 ðF4 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ 0 1
Hence, for every y ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ; y4 Þ in V1 ;

2 3
1 0 0 0
60 1 0 07
detðT ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ; y4 ÞÞ ¼ det6
0
4 D1 ðF3 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ
7 ¼ 1 6¼ 0:
D2 ðF3 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ 1 05
D1 ðF3 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ D2 ðF4 G1 Þðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ 0 1
Since for every y ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ; y4 Þ in V1 ; detðT 0 ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ; y4 ÞÞ is nonzero,

T ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ; y4 Þ is invertible, and hence, T 0 ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ is invertible. Now, we can
0
apply the inverse function theorem on T : V1 ! R4 : There exists an open neigh-

borhood V of ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ such that
1. V is contained in V1 ;
2. T is 1–1 on V (i.e., if x and y are in V, and TðxÞ ¼ TðyÞ; then x ¼ y),
3. TðVÞ is open in R4 ;
4. the 1–1 function T 1 from TðVÞ onto V is a C 2 function.
Here, ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ is in V, and Tð0; 0; 0; 0Þ ¼ ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ; so ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ is in TðVÞ:

Further, since TðVÞ is open in R4 ; TðVÞ is an open neighborhood of ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ in
R4 : Since G1 is a C 2 function from GðA1 Þ onto A1 ; A1 is contained in A0 ; and
F : A0 ! B0 is a C2 function, their composite function F G1 GðA1 Þ ! B0 is C 2 :
Since GðA1 Þ is an open neighborhood of ð0; 0; 0Þ; ð0; 0; 0Þ is in GðA1 Þ: Since
ð0; 0; 0Þ is in GðA1 Þ; and F G1 : GðA1 Þ ! B0 is C 2 ; F G1 : GðA1 Þ ! B0 is
continuous at ð0; 0; 0Þ: Since F G1 : GðA1 Þ ! B0 is continuous at ð0; 0; 0Þ;
ðF G1 Þð0; 0; 0Þ ¼ ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ; and TðVÞ is an open neighborhood of
Tð0; 0; 0; 0Þð¼ ð0; 0; 0; 0ÞÞ; there exists an open neighborhood U of ð0; 0; 0Þ such
that U is contained in GðA1 Þ and ðF G1 ÞðUÞ is contained in TðVÞ:
Now, let us take the 1–1 function T 1 from TðVÞ onto V for H, the open set
TðVÞ for B, and G1 ðUÞ for A. It remains to prove the following:
(i) A is an open neighborhood of ð0; 0; 0Þ;
(ii) B is an open neighborhood of ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ;
(iii) U is an open subset of R3 ;
(iv) V is an open subset of R4 ;
(v) G : A ! U is 1–1,
(vi) G : A ! U is onto,
(vii) G : A ! U is C 2 ;
(viii) G1 : U ! A is C 2 ;
(ix) H : B ! V is 1–1,
(x) H : B ! V is onto,
(xi) H : B ! V is C 2 ;
(xii) H 1 : V ! B is C2 ;
(xiii) A is contained in A0 ;
(xiv) B is contained in B0 ;
(xv) FðAÞ B
(xvi) For every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in U, ðH F G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ:
For (i): Since G : A1 ! GðA1 Þ is a C 2 function, and ð0; 0; 0Þ is in A1 ; G : A1 !
GðA1 Þ is continuous at ð0; 0; 0Þ: Since G is 1–1 on A1 ; G : A1 ! GðA1 Þ is
continuous at ð0; 0; 0Þ; and U is an open neighborhood of Gð0; 0; 0Þð¼ ð0; 0; 0ÞÞ
such that U is contained in the open set GðA1 Þ; G1 ðUÞ is an open neighborhood
of ð0; 0; 0Þ and is contained in A1 : Thus, A is an open neighborhood of ð0; 0; 0Þ:
For (ii): Since TðVÞ is an open neighborhood of ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ in R4 ; and B stands
for TðVÞ; B is an open neighborhood of ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ in R4 :
For (iii): This has been shown above.
For (iv): This has been shown above.
For (v): Since U is contained in GðA1 Þ; and G is 1–1 on A1 ; G1 ðUÞ is contained
in A1 : Since G is 1–1 on A1 ; G1 ðUÞ is contained in A1 ; and A stands for
G1 ðUÞ; G : A ! U is 1–1.
For (vi): Since G : A ! U is 1–1, GðAÞ ¼ GðG1 ðUÞÞ ¼ U: So G : A ! U is
onto.
For (vii): Since G is C2 on A0 ; and A ¼ G1 ðUÞ A1 A0 , G is C2 on A.

For (viii): Since G1 ðUÞ A1 ; and G is 1–1 on A1 ; U GðA1 Þ: Since U
GðA1 Þ; and the function G1 from GðA1 Þ onto A1 is a C 2 function, G1 : U !
G1 ðUÞ is C2 ; that is, G1 : U ! A is C2 .
For (ix): Since T is 1–1 on V, T 1 : TðVÞ ! V is a 1–1 function. Since H stands
for the function T 1 and B stands for TðVÞ; H : B ! V is 1–1.
For (x): Since T is 1–1 on V, T 1 : TðVÞ ! V is onto, and hence, H : B ! V is
onto.
For (xi): Since the function T 1 from TðVÞ onto V is a C 2 function, H : B ! V
is C 2 .
For (xii): Since T : GðA1 Þ R ! R4 is a C2 function, and V is an open subset
of the open set GðA1 Þ R; T : V ! TðVÞ is a C 2 function, and hence, H 1 :
V ! B is C 2 .
For (xiii): Since U is contained in GðA1 Þ; and G is 1–1 on A1 ; G1 ðUÞ is
contained in A1 ð A0 Þ and hence, A is contained in A0 .
For (xiv): Since V is contained in V1 ; and TðV1 Þ is contained in B0 ; TðVÞ is
contained in B0 ; and hence, B is contained in B0 .
For (xv): Here, FðAÞ ¼ FðG1 ðUÞÞ ¼ ðF G1 ÞðUÞ TðVÞ ¼ B: Thus,
FðAÞ B.
For (xvi): Let us take any x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in U. Since ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ is in U,
ðx1 ; x2 ; ðF3 G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; ðF4 G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼ ðF G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 2
ðF G1 ÞðUÞ TðVÞ. Next, since T : V ! TðVÞ is 1–1 onto,
H F G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ H F G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ

¼ H x1 ; x2 ; F3 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; F4 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
¼ T 1 x1 ; x2 ; F3 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; F4 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ :
It remains to prove that
T 1 x1 ; x2 ; F3 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; F4 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ:
Let T 1 ðx1 ; x2 ; ðF3 G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; ðF4 G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼ ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ; y4 Þ

2 V V1 GðA1 Þ R:
It follows that ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ 2 GðA1 Þ: Since ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ 2 GðA1 Þ; and ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
2 U GðA1 Þ;
x1 ; x2 ; F3 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; F4 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ T ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ; y4 Þ

¼ y1 ; y2 ; y3 þ F3 G1 ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ; y4 þ F4 G1 ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ :
Hence,
y1 ¼ x1 ; y2 ¼ x2 ; F3 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ y3 þ F3 G1 ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ;
and
F4 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ y4 þ F4 G1 ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ:
It follows that
F3 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ y3 þ F3 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; y3 Þ;
and
F4 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ y4 þ F4 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; y3 Þ:
Since ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ 2 GðA1 Þ; y1 ¼ x1 ; y2 ¼ x2 ; ðx1 ; x2 ; y3 Þ 2 GðA1 Þ: Since for

every ðn; g; 1Þ in GðA1 Þ; F3 G1 is a function of n; g only, and
ðx1 ; x2 ; y3 Þ; ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 2 GðA1 Þ; ðF3 G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; y3 Þ ¼ ðF3 G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ:
Since ðF3 G Þðx1 ; x2 ; y3 Þ ¼ ðF3 G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; and ðF3 G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼
1
y3 þ ðF3 G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; y3 Þ; y3 ¼ 0: Since for every ðn; g; 1Þ in GðA1 Þ; F4 G1 is a

function of n; g only, and ðx1 ; x2 ; y3 Þ; ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 2 GðA1 Þ; ðF4 G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; y3 Þ ¼
ðF4 G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ:
Now, since ðF4 G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; y3 Þ ¼ ðF4 G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; and ðF4 G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
¼ y4 þ ðF4 G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; y3 Þ; y4 ¼ 0:Since y3 ¼ 0; y4 ¼ 0; y1 ¼ x1 ; y2 ¼ x2 ; and
T 1 ðx1 ; x2 ; ðF3 G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; ðF4 G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ÞÞ ¼ ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 ; y4 Þ;
T 1 x1 ; x2 ; F3 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ; F4 G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ: h
Theorem 3.58 Let A0 be an open neighborhood of ð0; 0; 0Þ in R3 : Let B0 be an

open neighborhood of b ðb1 ; b2 ; b3 ; b4 Þ in R4 : Let F : A0 ! B0 be a function. If
(ii) for every x in A0 ; the linear transformation F 0 ðxÞ has rank 2,
(iii) Fð0; 0; 0Þ ¼ b;
then there exist an open neighborhood A of ð0; 0; 0Þ in R3 ; an open neighborhood B
of b in R4 ; an open subset U of R3 ; an open subset V of R4 ; a function G : A ! U;
and a function H : B ! V such that
2. G is a C 2 diffeomorphism (i.e., G is 1–1 onto, G is a C 2 function, and G1 is a
C 2 function),
4. FðAÞ B;
Proof Put A^ 0 A0 ; and B ^ 0 B0 b: Let us define a function F ^:A^0 ! B^ 0 as

follows: For every x in A^ 0 (since x is in A
^ 0 ð¼ A0 Þ; x is in A0 ; and hence, FðxÞ is
defined.)
^
FðxÞ FðxÞ b ¼ ðTb F ÞðxÞ;
where Tb : y 7! ðy bÞ is a translation. Thus, F ^ ¼ Tb F: Hence, Tb F ^ ¼ F:

^ 0; 0Þ ¼ Fð0; 0; 0Þ b ¼ b b ¼ ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ: Thus, Fð0;
Also, Fð0; ^ 0; 0Þ ¼ ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ:
Since A0 is an open neighborhood of ð0; 0; 0Þ; A ^ 0 ð¼ A0 Þ is an open neighborhood
of 0. Since B0 is an open neighborhood of b, B ^ 0 ð¼ B0 bÞ is an open neighbor-
hood of 0. Since F is a C 2 function, and Tb is a C 2 function, their composite
Tb Fð¼ FÞ ^ is a C 2 function. Thus, F ^ is a C 2 function. For every x in A ^0; F^ 0 ðxÞ ¼
0 0 0 0 0
ðTb FÞ ðxÞ ¼ ððTb Þ ðFðxÞÞÞ ðF ðxÞÞ ¼ I4 ðF ðxÞÞ ¼ F ðxÞ: Thus, for every
x in A^0; F ^ 0 ; then x is in A0 ; and hence, F
^ 0 ðxÞ ¼ F 0 ðxÞ: If x is in A ^ 0 ðxÞð¼ F 0 ðxÞÞ has
rank 2.
Thus, we see that all the conditions of Theorem 3.57 are satisfied for
^
F:A ^0 ! B ^ 0 . Hence, by Theorem 3.57, there exist an open neighborhood A ^ of
ð0; 0; 0Þ in R ; an open neighborhood B
3 ^ of ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ in R ; an open subset U
4 ^ of
^ ^ ^ ^
R ; an open subset V of R ; a function G : A ! U, and a function H : B ! V such
3 4 ^ ^ ^
that
1. ^ is contained in A
A ^ 0 ; and B ^ is contained in B
^0;
2. ^ 2 ^
G is a C diffeomorphism (i.e., G is 1–1 onto, G ^ is a C2 function, and G ^ 1 is a
2
C function),
^ is a C2 diffeomorphism,
3. H
^
4. FðAÞ^ ^
B;
^ ðH
5. For every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in U; ^ F^ G ^ 1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ:
^ BB
Put A A; ^ þ b; U U;
^ and V V:
^ Let us define a function G : A ! U
^
as follows: For every x in A, GðxÞ GðxÞ: Let us define a function H : B ! V as
^ bÞ ¼ ðH
follows: For every y in B, HðyÞ Hðy ^ Tb ÞðyÞ: Hence, G ¼ G;^ and
^ ^ 1
H ¼ H Tb : Further, H ¼ H ðTb Þ ¼ H Tb :
It remains to prove the following:
(i) A is an open neighborhood of ð0; 0; 0Þ;
(ii) B is an open neighborhood of b,
(v) G : A ! U is 1–1,
(vii) G : A ! U is C 2 ;
(viii) G1 : U ! A is C 2 ;
(ix) H : B ! V is 1–1,
(xi) H : B ! V is C 2 ;
(xii) H 1 : V ! B is C2 ;
(xv) FðAÞ B;
For (i): Since A ^ is an open neighborhood of ð0; 0; 0Þ; Að¼ AÞ ^ is an open
neighborhood of ð0; 0; 0Þ.
For (ii): Since B^ is an open neighborhood of 0, Bð¼ B ^ þ bÞ is an open neigh-
borhood of b.
For (iii): Since U^ is an open subset of R3 ; Uð¼ UÞ ^ is an open subset of R3 .
^ ^
For (iv): Since V is an open subset of R ; Vð¼ VÞ is an open subset of R4 .
4
For (v): Since G ^ :A ^!U ^ is 1–1, G^ ¼ G; A ¼ A;^ and U ¼ U; ^ G : A ! U is

1–1.
For (vi): Since G ^ :A ^!U ^ is onto, G ¼ G; ^ and U ¼ U;
^ A ¼ A; ^ G : A ! U is
onto.
For (vii): Since G^ is C2 ; and G ¼ G; ^ G is C2 .
For (viii): Since G ^ 1 is C 2 ; and G ¼ G;
^ G1 is C 2 .
^ ^ ^
For (ix): Since H : B ! V is 1–1, and Tb : B ^þb!B ^ is 1–1, ðH ¼ÞH ^ Tb :
^ þ bð¼ BÞ ! Vð¼
B ^ VÞ is 1–1. Hence, H : B ! V is 1–1.
^ ^
For (x): Since H : B ! V ^ is onto, and Tb : B ^þb!B ^ is onto, ðH ¼ÞH ^ Tb :
^ þ bð¼ BÞ ! Vð¼
B ^ VÞ is onto. Hence, H : B ! V is onto.
For (xi): Since H ^ :B ^!V ^ is C2, and Tb : B ^þb!B ^ isC 2 ; ðH ¼ÞH ^ Tb :
^ ^
B þ bð¼ BÞ ! Vð¼ VÞ is C . Hence, H : B ! V is C .
2 2
For (xii): Here H 1 ¼ ðH ^ Tb Þ1 ¼ ðTb Þ1 H ^ 1 ¼ Tb H ^ 1 : Since H

^ 1 :
^
Vð¼ VÞ ! B ^ is C 2 ; and the translation Tb : B ^!B ^ þ bð¼ BÞ is C 2 ; their
1
composite ðH ¼ÞTb H ^ : V ! B is C ; and hence, H 1 : V ! B is C2.
1 2
^ is contained in A
For (xiii): Since A ^0; A
^ ¼ A; and A^ 0 ¼ A0 ; A is contained in A0.
^ ^ ^
For (xiv): Since B is contained in B0 ; B ¼ B b; and B ^ 0 ¼ B0 b; B − b is
contained in B0 b; and hence, B is contained in B0.
For (xv): Let us take any x in A. We have to prove that F(x) is in B. Here, x is in
A, and A ¼ A, ^ so x is in A:
^ Since x is in A;
^ and Fð ^
^ AÞ ^ ¼ B b; FðxÞ b ¼
B
^
FðxÞ 2 B b; and hence, FðxÞ is in B.
For (xvi): Let us take any x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in U. We have to show that

ðH F G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ:
LHS ¼ H F G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ H Tb F^ G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ

¼ ðH Tb Þ F^ G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ H
^ F ^ 1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
^ G
¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ ¼ RHS: h
Theorem 3.59 Let A0 be an open neighborhood of a ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ in R3 : Let B0 be

an open neighborhood of b ðb1 ; b2 ; b3 ; b4 Þ in R4 : Let F : A0 ! B0 be a function.
If
(ii) for every x in A0, the linear transformation F 0 ðxÞ has rank 2,
(iii) FðaÞ ¼ b;
then there exist an open neighborhood A of a in R3 ; an open neighborhood B of b
in R4 ; an open subset U of R3 ; an open subset V of R4 ; a function G : A ! U; and
a function H : B ! V such that
1. A is contained in A0, and B is contained in B0,
2. G is a C2 diffeomorphism (i.e., G is 1–1 onto, G is a C2 function, and G−1 is a C2
function),
4. FðAÞ B;
Proof Put A^ 0 A0 a; and B ^ 0 B0 : Let us define a function F ^:A ^0 ! B^ 0 as

^ 0 (since x is in A
follows: For every x in A ^ 0 ¼ A0 a; x þ a is in A0, and hence,
Fðx þ aÞ is defined.)
^
FðxÞ Fðx þ aÞ ¼ ðF Ta ÞðxÞ;
where Ta : x 7! ðx þ aÞ is a translation. Thus, F ^ ¼ F Ta : Hence, F^ Ta ¼ F:

^ ^
Also, Fð0; 0; 0Þ ¼ FðaÞ ¼ b: Thus, Fð0; 0; 0Þ ¼ b: Since A0 is an open neighbor-
hood of a, A ^ 0 ð¼ A0 aÞ is an open neighborhood of 0. Since B0 is an open
neighborhood of b, B ^ 0 ð¼ B0 Þ is an open neighborhood of b. Since F is a C2
function, and Ta is a C2 function, their composite F Ta ð¼ FÞ ^ is a C2 function.
Thus, F^ is a C function. For every x in A
2 ^0;
^ 0 ðxÞ ¼ ðF Ta Þ0 ðxÞ ¼ ðF 0 ðTa ðxÞÞÞ

F ðTa Þ0 ðxÞ ¼ ðF 0 ðx þ aÞÞ I3 ¼ F 0 ðx þ aÞ:
^0, F
Thus, for every x in A ^ 0 ; then x þ a is in A0, and
^ 0 ðxÞ ¼ F 0 ðxÞ: If x is in A
^ 0 0
hence, F ðxÞð¼ F ðx þ aÞÞ has rank 2. Thus, we see that all the conditions of
Theorem 3.58 are satisfied for F ^0 ! B

^ :A ^ 0 : Hence, by Theorem 3.58, there exist an
^
open neighborhood A of (0, 0, 0) in R ; an open neighborhood B
3 ^ of b in R4 ; an
^ of R ; an open subset V
open subset U 3 ^ of R ; a function G
4 ^ :A^ ! U;
^ and a function
^ ^ ^
H : B ! V such that
^ is contained in A
1. A ^ 0 ; and B ^ is contained in B
^0;
^ is a C diffeomorphism (i.e., G
2. G 2 ^ is 1–1 onto, G^ is a C2 function, and G ^ 1 is a
2
C function),
^ is a C2 diffeomorphism,
3. H
^ AÞ
4. Fð ^ ^
B;
^ ðH
5. For every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in U; ^ F ^ G^ 1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ:
Put A A^ þ a; B B;
^ U U; ^ and V V:
^ Let us define a function G : A ! U
^
as follows: For every x in A, GðxÞ Gðx aÞ ¼ ðG ^ Ta ÞðxÞ: Let us define a
function H : B ! V as follows: For every y in B, HðyÞ HðyÞ:^ Hence, G ¼
^ Ta ; and H ¼ H:
G ^ Further, G^ ¼ G Ta :
It remains to prove the following:
(i) A is an open neighborhood of a,
(ii) B is an open neighborhood of b,
(v) G : A ! U is 1–1,
(vii) G : A ! U is C 2 ;
(viii) G1 : U ! A is C 2 ;
(ix) H : B ! V is 1–1,
(xi) H : B ! V is C 2 ;
(xii) H 1 : V ! B is C2 ;
(xv) FðAÞ B;
For (i): Since A^ is an open neighborhood of ð0; 0; 0Þ; Að¼ A^ þ aÞ is an open
neighborhood of a.
^ is an open neighborhood of b, Bð¼ BÞ
For (ii): Since B ^ is an open neighborhood
of b.
For (iii): Since U ^ is an open subset of R3 .
^ is an open subset of R3 ; Uð¼ UÞ
For (iv): Since V^ is an open subset of R ; Vð¼ VÞ
4 ^ is an open subset of R4 .
For (v): Since G ^ :A^!U ^ is 1–1, and Ta : A ^þa!A ^ is 1–1, G ^ Ta :
^
Aþa!U ^ is 1–1, and hence, G^ Ta : A ! U is 1–1.
For (vi): Since G ^ :A^!U ^ is onto, and Ta : A ^þa!A ^ is onto, G ^ Ta :
^ ^ ^
A þ a ! U is onto, and hence, G Ta : A ! U is onto.
For (vii): Since G ^ :A^!U ^ is C 2 ; and Ta : A ^þa!A ^ is C2 ; G ^ Ta :
^ ^ ^
A þ a ! U isC , and hence, G Ta : A ! U is C .
2 2
For (viii): Since G ^ 1 ¼ ðG Ta Þ1 ¼ Ta G1 ; G1 ¼ Ta G ^ 1 : Since

^ 1 : U
G ^ C2 ; and Ta : A
^ ! Ais ^!A ^ þ a is C 2 ; their composite G1 ¼ Ta
^ :U
G 1 ^ !A ^ þ a is C ; and hence, G1 : U ! A is C 2 .
2
For (ix): Since H ^ :B^!V ^ is 1–1, H ¼ H; ^ B ¼ B; ^ and V ¼ V; ^ H : B ! V is

1–1.
For (x): Since H ^ :B ^!V ^ is onto, H ¼ H; ^ B ¼ B; ^ and V ¼ V; ^ H : B ! V is
onto.
For (xi): Since H^ :B ^!V ^ is C 2 ; H ¼ H;^ B ¼ B; ^ and V ¼ V;^ H : B ! V is C 2 .
For (xii): Since H ^ !B
^ 1 : V ^ is C 2 ; H ¼ H; ^ B ¼ B; ^ and V ¼ V;^ H 1 : V ! B
2
is C .
^ A aÞ is contained in A
For (xiii): Since Að¼ ^ 0 ð¼ A0 aÞ; A is contained in A0.
^ ^
For (xiv): Since Bð¼ BÞ is contained in B0 ð¼ B0 Þ; B is contained in B0.
For (xv): Let us take any x in A. We have to prove that FðxÞ 2 B: Since x is in
A¼A ^ þ a; x a 2 A:^ Now, since Fð ^
^ AÞ ^ FðxÞ ¼ ðF
B; ^ Ta ÞðxÞ ¼ Fðx^ aÞ
^
2 B.
For (xvi): Let us take any x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in U. Now, since U ¼ U; ^ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ is
^ and hence,
in U;
1

LHS ¼ H F G1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ H^ ^
F Ta ^ Ta
G ð x1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
^
¼ H ^ Ta
F ^ 1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ H
Ta G ^ ^ 1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
^ G
F
¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ ¼ RHS:
h
Theorem 3.60 Let A0 be an open neighborhood of a ða1 ; a2 ; . . .; an Þ in Rn : Let

B0 be an open neighborhood of b ðb1 ; b2 ; . . .; bm Þ in Rm : Let F : A0 ! B0 be a
function. If
(i) F is a Cr function,
(ii) For every x in A0 ; the linear transformation F 0 ðxÞ has rank k;
(iii) FðaÞ ¼ b;
then there exist an open neighborhood A of a in Rn ; an open neighborhood B of b
in Rm ; an open subset U of Rn ; an open subset V of Rm ; a function G : A ! U; and
a function H : B ! V such that
2. G is a C r diffeomorphism (i.e., G is 1–1 onto, G is a Ck function, and G−1 is a
C k function),
3. H is a Ck diffeomorphism,
4. FðAÞ B;
5. For every x ðx1 ; x2 ; . . .; xn Þ in U, ðH F G1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; . . .; xn Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; . . .
xk ; 0; . . .; 0Þ:
|fflfflffl{zfflfflffl}
mk

Note 3.61 Theorem 3.60 is known as the constant rank theorem.
3.8 Taylor’s Theorem
Definition Let p 2 S Rn : If for every x in S, the line segment

½p; x fð1 kÞp þ kx : 0 k 1g S, then we say that S is star-shaped with
respect to point p.
Theorem 3.62 Let p 2 U R2 : Let U be star-shaped with respect to point p
ðp1 ; p2 Þ; and let U be an open set. Let f : U ! R be C1 on U. Then, there exist C 1
functions g1 ðxÞ; g2 ðxÞ on U such that
1. For every x ðx1 ; x2 Þ in U, f ðxÞ ¼ f ðpÞ þ ðg1 ðxÞÞðx1 p1 Þ þ ðg2 ðxÞÞðx2 p2 Þ;
2. g1 ðpÞ ¼ oxof1 ðpÞ and g2 ðpÞ ¼ ox
of
2 ðpÞ:
Proof Let us take any x in U and any t satisfying 0 t 1: Now, since U is star-
shaped with respect to point p, ð1 tÞp þ tx is in S, and hence, f ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ is a
real number. Here,
d d
f ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ ¼ f p1 þ t x1 p1 ; p2 þ t x2 p2
dt dt

of d 1
¼ ð ð1 t Þp þ tx Þ p þ t x 1
p 1
ox1 dt

of d 2
þ ð ð 1 t Þp þ tx Þ p þ t x 2
p 2
ox2 dt

of
¼ ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ x1 p1
ox1

of
þ ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ x2 p2 ;
ox2
3.8 Taylor’s Theorem 227
hence,

Z1of 2 Z
1 of
x 1 p1 ð ð 1 t Þp þ tx Þ dt þ x 2
p ðð 1 t Þp þ tx Þ dt
0
ox1 0
ox2

Z1 of of
¼ ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ x p þ1 1
ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ x p 2 2
dt
0
ox1 ox2
t¼1
¼ f ðð1 tÞp þ txÞjt¼0 ¼ f ðxÞ f ðpÞ:
Now,
f ðxÞ ¼ f ðpÞ þ x1 p1 ðg1 ðxÞÞ þ x2 p2 ðg2 ðxÞÞ;
where

Z1 of Z1 of
g1 ðxÞ ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ dt; and g2 ðxÞ ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ dt:
0
ox1 0
ox2
of
It remains to prove that g1 ; g2 are C1 on U, and gi ðpÞ ¼ ox i ðpÞði ¼ 1; 2Þ:
Here,

og1 o Z 1 of
¼ ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ dt
ox1 ox1 0 ox1

Z o of
¼ 0 1
ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ dt
ox1 ox1

Z o of 1
¼ 0 1
p þ t x p ;p þ t x p
1 1 2 2 2
dt
ox1 ox1

Z o of 1 oð p1 þ t ð x 1 p1 Þ Þ
¼ 10 p þ t x 1
p 1
; p 2
þ t x 2
p 2
ox1 ox1 ox1

o of 1 oð p þ t ð x 1 p1 Þ Þ
1
þ p þ t x 1
p 1
; p 2
þ t x 2
p 2
dt
ox2 ox1 ox2

Z o of 1
¼ 10 p þ t x 1 p1 ; p2 þ t x 2 p2 t
ox ox1
1

o of 1
þ p þ t x 1 p1 ; p2 þ t x 2 p2 0 dt
ox ox1
2
!!
Z o2 f
¼ 10 p1 þ t x 1 p1 ; p2 þ t x 2 p2 t dt
oðx1 Þ2
!
Z o2 f
¼ 0t1
ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ dt:
oð x 1 Þ 2
Thus,
!
og1 Z1 o2 f
¼ t ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ dt:
ox1 0 oðx1 Þ2
og1 o2 g
Similarly, ; ; etc. can be obtained. This proves that g1 is C 1 on U.
ox2 oðx1 Þ2
Similarly, g2 is C1 on U. Now,

Z1 of Z1 of of Z1
g1 ðpÞ ¼ ð ð 1 t Þp þ tpÞ dt ¼ ðpÞ dt ¼ ðpÞ dt
ox 1 ox 1 ox 1
0 0 0
of of
¼ ðpÞ 1 ¼ 1 ðpÞ:
ox 1 ox
of of
Thus, g1 ðpÞ ¼ ox 1 ðpÞ: Similarly, g2 ðpÞ ¼ ox2 ðpÞ: h
Note 3.63 The result similar to above is also valid for R ; R ; . . .:
3 4
Theorem 3.64 Prove that if f : R2 ! R is C 1 ; then there exist C1 functions

g11 ; g12 ; g22 on R2 such that

of of
f ðx; yÞ ¼ f ð0; 0Þ þ ð0; 0Þ x þ ð0; 0Þ y þ x2 g11 ðx; yÞ þ xyg12 ðx; yÞ
ox oy
þ y2 g22 ðx; yÞ:
Proof Here, f : R2 ! R is C 1 , by Theorem 3.62, there exist C1 functions

g1 ðx; yÞ; g2 ðx; yÞ on R2 such that for every ðx; yÞ in R2 ; f ðx; yÞ ¼ f ð0; 0Þ þ
ðg1 ðx; yÞÞðx 0Þ þ ðg2 ðx; yÞÞðy 0Þ ¼ f ð0; 0Þ þ xg1 ðx; yÞ þ yg2 ðx; yÞ and g1 ð0; 0Þ
¼ of of
ox ð0; 0Þ; g2 ð0; 0Þ ¼ oy ð0; 0Þ: Since g1 ðx; yÞ is a C
1
function, there exist C 1
functions g11 ðx; yÞ; g12 ðx; yÞ on R2 such that for everyðx; yÞ in R2 ; g1 ðx; yÞ ¼
of
g1 ð0; 0Þ þ ðg11 ðx; yÞÞðx 0Þ þ ðg12 ðx; yÞÞðy 0Þ ¼ ox ð0; 0Þ þ xg11 ðx; yÞ þ yg12 ðx; yÞ
og1 og1
and g11 ð0; 0Þ ¼ ð ox Þð0; 0Þ; g12 ð0; 0Þ ¼ oy ð0; 0Þ: Similarly, there exist C 1 func-
tions g21 ðx; yÞ; g22 ðx; yÞ on R2 such that for every ðx; yÞ in R2 ; g2 ðx; yÞ ¼
g2 ð0; 0Þ þ ðg21 ðx; yÞÞðx 0Þþ ðg22 ðx; yÞÞðy 0Þ ¼ of
oy ð0; 0Þ þ xg21 ðx; yÞ þ yg22 ðx; yÞ
and g21 ð0; 0Þ ¼ ðog og2
ox Þð0; 0Þ; g22 ð0; 0Þ ¼ oy ð0; 0Þ: Hence,
2
3.8 Taylor’s Theorem 229

of
f ðx; yÞ ¼ f ð0; 0Þ þ x ð0; 0Þ þ xg11 ðx; yÞ þ yg12 ðx; yÞ
ox

of
þy ð0; 0Þ þ xg21 ðx; yÞ þ yg22 ðx; yÞ
oy

of of
¼ f ð0; 0Þ þ ð0; 0Þ x þ ð0; 0Þ y
ox oy
þ ðg11 ðx; yÞÞx2 þ ðg12 ðx; yÞ þ g21 ðx; yÞÞxy þ ðg22 ðx; yÞÞy2 :
Since g12 ðx; yÞ; g21 ðx; yÞ are C1 functions, g12 ðx; yÞ þ g21 ðx; yÞ is also a C 1
function. h
Chapter 4
Topological Properties of Smooth
Manifolds
In real analysis, its deep theorems (like Lagrange’s mean value theorem, funda-
mental theorem of integral calculus, etc.) are quite difficult to prove without the help
of topological theorems (like Weierstrass theorem, Heine–Borel theorem, etc.) for
real line. Similar is the situation in complex analysis. Here, in the study of smooth
manifolds, in order to prove its deep rooted theorems, we will need its topological
properties vigorously. So, for smoothening later work, it is better to collect all the
results, to be needed in future, relating to topological properties of smooth mani-
folds at one place. This chapter aims at this end and is largely self-contained. The
pace of this chapter is moderate so that the topic is well assimilated.
4.1 Constant Rank Theorem
Theorem 4.1 Let E be an open subset of R3 . Let f : E ! R3 : Let a be in E. If

(i) f is a smooth function,
(ii) the determinant of the Jacobian matrix of f at a is nonzero, that is,
2 3
ðD1 f 1 ÞðaÞ ðD2 f 1 ÞðaÞ ðD3 f 1 ÞðaÞ
4
det ðD1 f 2 ÞðaÞ ðD2 f 2 ÞðaÞ ðD3 f 2 ÞðaÞ 5 6¼ 0;
ðD1 f 3 ÞðaÞ ðD2 f 3 ÞðaÞ ðD3 f 3 ÞðaÞ 33
where f 1 ; f 2 ; f 3 are the component functions of f, then there exists a connected

open neighborhood U of a such that
2. f ðUÞ is connected and open in R3 ;
3. f has a smooth inverse on f ðUÞ:

232 4 Topological Properties of Smooth Manifolds
Proof We want to apply Theorem 3.36. Since f is a smooth function, f is a C 1

function. Since
2 3
det4 ðD1 f 2 ÞðaÞ ðD2 f 2 ÞðaÞ ðD3 f 2 ÞðaÞ 5 6¼ 0;
ðD1 f 3 ÞðaÞ ðD2 f 3 ÞðaÞ ðD3 f 3 ÞðaÞ 33
2 31
4 ðD1 f 2 ÞðaÞ ðD2 f 2 ÞðaÞ ðD3 f 2 ÞðaÞ 5
exists, and hence, f 0 ðaÞ is invertible. Hence, by the Theorem 3.36, there exists a
connected open neighborhood U of a such that
2. f is 1–1 on U (that is, if x, y are in U, and f ðxÞ ¼ f ðyÞ; then x = y),
3. f ðUÞ is connected and open in R3 ;
4. the 1–1 function f 1 from f ðUÞ onto U is a C 1 function,
5. if f is a C2 function, then f 1 from f ðUÞ onto U is a C 2 function, etc.
By the conclusions 1, 2, 3, and 4, we find the f 1 is a C 1 function on f ðUÞ:
Now, it remains to prove that f 1 is smooth on f ðUÞ; that is, f 1 is a Cn function
for every n ¼ 2; 3; 4; . . .: Since f is a smooth function, f is a C 2 function, and
hence by conclusion 5, f 1 is a C 2 function. Again, since f is a smooth function,
f is a C 3 function, and hence by conclusion 5, f 1 is a C3 function, etc. Hence,
f 1 is smooth on f ðUÞ: h
Note 4.2 The result similar to Theorem 4.1 can be proved as above for Rn in place
of R3 :
Theorem 4.3 Let E be an open subset of R3 : Let f : E ! R3 : Let a be in E. If
(i) f is a smooth function,
(ii) the tangent map f of f at a is an isomorphism,
then there exists an open neighborhood U of a, and an open neighborhood V of
f ðaÞ such that the restriction of f to U is a diffeomorphism from U onto V.
Proof By the Note 2.77, the tangent map f of f at a is an isomorphism if and only if
2 3
det4 ðD1 f 2 ÞðaÞ ðD2 f 2 ÞðaÞ ðD3 f 2 ÞðaÞ 5 6¼ 0:
4.1 Constant Rank Theorem 233
This shows that we can apply Theorem 4.1. By Theorem 4.1, there exists an
open neighborhood U of a such that
2. f ðUÞ is open in R3 ;
3. f has a smooth inverse on f ðUÞ:
This shows that f ðUÞ is an open neighborhood of f ðaÞ such that the restriction of
f to U is a diffeomorphism from U onto f ðUÞ: h
of R3 :
Theorem 4.5 Let M and N be 3-dimensional smooth manifolds. Let f : M ! N:
Let p be in M. If
(i) f is a smooth map,
(ii) the tangent map f : Tp ðMÞ ! Tf ðpÞ ðNÞ is an isomorphism,
then there exists an open neighborhood U of p in M such that
1. V f ðUÞ is an open neighborhood of f ðpÞ in N,
2. the restriction of f to U is a diffeomorphism from U onto V.
Proof Here, p is in M, and f : M ! N; so f ðpÞ is in N. Since f ðpÞ is in N, and N is a

3-dimensional smooth manifold, there exists an admissible coordinate chart ðV; wV Þ
in N satisfying f ðpÞ 2 V: Since f : M ! N is a smooth map, f : M ! N is a
continuous map. Since f : M ! N is a continuous map, and V is an open neigh-
borhood of FðpÞ; there exists an open neighborhood U1 of p in M such that f ðU1 Þ is
contained in V. Here, p is in M, and M is a 3-dimensional smooth manifold, so there
exists an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ in M satisfying p 2 U: Since U and
U1 are open neighborhoods of p in M, their intersection U \ U1 is an open
neighborhood of p in M. Since uU is a homeomorphism from open set U onto open
set uU ðUÞ; and U \ U1 is an open set, uU ðU \ U1 Þ is an open set.
Here f : M ! N is a smooth map, ðuU Þ1 is a smooth map, and wV is a smooth
map, so their composite wV ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ is a smooth function on the open
neighborhood uU ðU \ U1 Þ of uU ðpÞ in R3 : We want to apply Theorem 4.1 on the
function wV ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ: Since the tangent map f : Tp ðMÞ ! Tf ðpÞ ðNÞ is an
isomorphism so, by the Note 2.77,
2 1 1
1 1
6 D 1 wV f ð u U Þ ð uU ð pÞ Þ D 2 w V f ð u U Þ ðuU ð pÞÞ
6
6 2 2
6
det6 D1 wV f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ D2 wV f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ
6
6
4 3 3
D1 wV f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ D2 wV f ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ
1 3
D3 wV f ðuU Þ1 ðu U ð p ÞÞ 7
7
2 7
1 7
D3 wV f ðuU Þ ðuU ð pÞÞ 7 6¼ 0;
7
3 7
1
5
D3 wV f ðuU Þ ðu U ð p ÞÞ
and hence, the determinant of the Jacobian matrix of wV ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ at uU ðpÞ is
nonzero. Hence, by Theorem 4.1, there exists an open neighborhood W of uU ðpÞ
such that
1. W is contained in uU ðU \ U1 Þ;
2. ðwV ðf ðuU Þ1 ÞÞðWÞ is open in R3 ;
3. wV ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ has a smooth inverse on ðwV ðf ðuU Þ1 ÞÞðWÞ:
Since W is contained in uU ðU \ U1 Þ; and uU is 1–1, ðuU Þ1 ðWÞ is contained in
U \ U1 : Since uU ðpÞ is in W, p is in ðuU Þ1 ðWÞ: Since uU is a homeomorphism,
and W is an open subset of open set uU ðUÞ; ðuU Þ1 ðWÞ is open. Thus, ðuU Þ1 ðWÞ
is an open neighborhood of p in M.
For 1: We have to prove that f ððuU Þ1 ðWÞÞ is open in N. Since ðwV ðf
ðuU Þ1 ÞÞðWÞ is open, and wV is a homeomorphism, ðwV Þ1 ððwV ðf ðuU Þ1 ÞÞ
ðWÞÞð¼ f ððuU Þ1 ðWÞÞÞ is open.
For 2: Since wV ðf ðuU Þ1 Þ is 1–1, ðwV Þ1 is 1–1 and uU is 1–1, their com-
posite ðwV Þ1 ðwV ðf ðuU Þ1 ÞÞ uU ð¼ f Þ is 1–1. Since f is 1–1, the function
f 1 exists. It remains to prove that f 1 is smooth. Since ðwV ðf ðuU Þ1 ÞÞ1
ð¼ uU f 1 ðwV Þ1 Þ is smooth, ðuU Þ1 is smooth, and wV is smooth, their
composite function ðuU Þ1 ðuU f 1 ðwV Þ1 Þ wV ð¼ f 1 Þ is smooth. h
of R3 :
Theorem 4.7 Let M be an m-dimensional differentiable manifold, N be an n-
dimensional smooth manifold, and F : N ! M be a smooth function. Let p be in N.
Let ðU; uU Þ be an admissible coordinate chart in N satisfying p 2 U; ðV; wV Þ be an
admissible coordinate chart in M satisfying FðpÞ 2 V; and FðUÞ V: Let ð U b;u Þ
b U
b ; ðV
be an admissible coordinate chart in N satisfying p 2 U b ; w Þ be an admissible
b
V
coordinate chart in M satisfying FðpÞ 2 V b ; and Fð U
bÞ V b : Then, the rank of
ðwV F ðuU Þ1 Þ0 ðuU ðpÞÞ and the rank of ðwb F ðu b Þ1 Þ0 ðu b ðpÞÞ are equal.
V U U
Proof Here,
1 0 1 0
wb F u b u b ð pÞ ¼ wb F ðuU Þ1 uU u b u b ð pÞ
V U U V U U
1 0
¼ wb ðwV Þ1 wV F ðuU Þ1 uU u b u b ð pÞ
V U U
1 0
V U U
0 1
V U U
0 1 1 0
wV F ðuU Þ1 uU u b u b ð pÞ uU u b u b ð pÞ
U U U U
0 1
V U U
0 1 0
wV F ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ uU u b u b ð pÞ
U U
0 0
1 1
¼ w b ðwV Þ ððwV F Þð pÞÞ wV F ðuU Þ ðuU ð pÞÞ
V
1 0
uU u b u b ð pÞ :
U U
Since wb ðwV Þ1 : wV ðV \ V b Þ ! w ðV \ V b Þ is a smooth function, and

V b
V
1 1 1 b
ðwb ðwV Þ Þ ¼ wV ðwb Þ : wb ðV \ V Þ ! wV ðV \ V b Þ is a smooth func-
V V V
b Þ ! w ðV \ V
tion, wb ðwV Þ1 : wV ðV \ V b Þ is a diffeomorphism, and hence
V b
V
1 0
ðwb ðwV Þ Þ ððwV FÞðpÞÞ is invertible. It follows that the rank of composite
V
0 0
wb ðwV Þ1 ððwV F Þð pÞÞ wV F ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ
V
and the rank of ððwV F ðuU Þ1 Þ0 ðuU ðpÞÞÞ are equal. Similarly the rank of
0 0
V
1 0
uU u b u b ð pÞ
U U
is equal to the rank of

0 0
wb ðwV Þ1 ððwV F Þð pÞÞ wV F ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ :
V
Hence, rank of
0 0
V
is equal to rank of ððwV F ðuU Þ1 Þ0 ðuU ðpÞÞÞ: h
In light of the above theorem, the following definition is well defined:

Definition Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, N be an n-dimensional
smooth manifold, and F : N ! M be a smooth function. Let p be in N. Since
F : N ! M is a smooth function, there exist an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ
in N satisfying p 2 U; and an admissible coordinate chart ðV; wV Þ in M satisfying
FðpÞ 2 V; such that FðUÞ V; and wV ðF ðuU Þ1 Þ : uU ðUÞ ! wV ðVÞ is C 1
at the point uU ðpÞ in R3 : Hence, the linear transformation ðwV F
ðuU Þ1 Þ0 ðuU ðpÞÞ from Rn to Rm exists. The rank of ðwV F ðuU Þ1 Þ0 ðuU ðpÞÞ is
called the rank of F at p. Since rankððwV F ðuU Þ1 Þ0 ðuU ðpÞÞÞ minfm; ng; the
rank of F at p is less than or equal to minfm; ng:
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional differentiable manifold, N be an n-dimen-
sional smooth manifold, and F : N ! M be a smooth function. Let k be any non-
negative integer. By F has rank k, we mean that k is the rank of F at every point of N.
Theorem 4.8 Let N be a 4-dimensional smooth manifold, M be a 3-dimensional
smooth manifold, F : M ! N be a smooth map, and 2 be the rank of F. Let p be in
M. Then, there exist admissible coordinate chart ðU ; uU Þ in M satisfying p 2 U ;
and admissible coordinate chart ðV ; wV Þ in N satisfying FðpÞ 2 V ; such that
FðU Þ V ; and for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in uU ðU Þ;

wV F ðuU Þ1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ:
Proof Since p is in M, and F : M ! N is a smooth map, there exist an admissible

coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ in M satisfying p 2 U; and an admissible coordinate chart
ðV; wV Þ in N satisfying FðpÞ 2 V such that FðUÞ V; and each of the 4 compo-
nent functions of the mapping

wV F ðuU Þ1 : uU ðU Þ ! wV ðV Þ
is C 1 at the point uU ðpÞ in R3 :

Now, we want to apply Theorem 3.59. Here, uU ðUÞ acts for A0 ; uU ðpÞ acts for
a, wV ðVÞ acts for B0, wV ðFðpÞÞ acts for b, wV ðF ðuU Þ1 Þ acts for F. Now, we
must verify the following conditions of the theorem:
1. uU ðUÞ is an open neighborhood of uU ðpÞ in R3 ;
2. wV ðVÞ is an open neighborhood of wV ðFðpÞÞ in R4 ;
3. wV ðF ðuU Þ1 Þ : uU ðUÞ ! wV ðVÞ is a C 1 function,
4. for every x in uU ðUÞ; the linear transformation ðwV ðF ðuU Þ1 ÞÞ0 ðxÞ has
rank 2,
5. ðwV ðF ðuU Þ1 ÞÞðuU ðpÞÞ ¼ wV ðFðpÞÞ:
For 1: Since ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart in M satisfying p 2 U;
uU ðUÞ is an open neighborhood of uU ðpÞ in R3 :
For 2: Since ðV; wV Þ is an admissible coordinate chart in N satisfying FðpÞ 2 V;
wV ðVÞ is an open neighborhood of wV ðFðpÞÞ in R4 :
For 3: Since F : M ! N is a smooth function, ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coor-
dinate chart in M satisfying p 2 U; and ðV; wV Þ an admissible coordinate chart
in N satisfying FðpÞ 2 V; wV ðF ðuU Þ1 Þ : uU ðUÞ ! wV ðVÞ is a C 1
function.
For 4: Let us take any uU ðqÞ in uU ðUÞ where q is in U. We have to prove that the
rank of ðwV F ðuU Þ1 Þ0 ðuU ðqÞÞ is 2. Since 2 is the rank of F : M ! N; and p is
in N, the rank of F at p is 2, and hence, the rank of ðwV F ðuU Þ1 Þ0 ðuU ðpÞÞ is 2.
For 5: Here, LHS ¼ ðwV ðF ðuU Þ1 ÞÞðuU ðpÞÞ ¼ ðwV FÞðpÞ ¼ wV ðFðpÞÞ ¼
RHS: Hence, by Theorem 3.59, there exists an open neighborhood A of uU ðpÞ in
R3 ; an open neighborhood B of ðwV FÞðpÞ in R4 ; an open subset U b of R3 ; an
open subset V b of R ; a function G
4 b :A!U b ; and a function H
b :B!V b such that
1. A is contained in uU ðUÞ; and B is contained in wV ðVÞ;

b is a C 1 diffeomorphism (that is, G
2. G b is 1–1 onto, G
b is a C 1 function, and
b 1 is a C1 function),
G
b is a C 1 diffeomorphism,
3. H
4. ðwV ðF ðuU Þ1 ÞÞðAÞ B;
5. For every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in U b ; ðH b 1 Þ
b ðwV ðF ðuU Þ1 ÞÞ G
ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ:
b uU for uU ; H
Now, let us take G b wV for wV ; ðuU Þ1 ðAÞ for U ; ðwV Þ1 ðBÞ

for V : It remains to prove:
(i) ðuU Þ1 ðAÞ is open in M,
b uU ÞððuU Þ1 ðAÞÞ is open in R3 ;
(ii) ð G
b uU : ðuU Þ1 ðAÞ ! ð G
(iii) G b uU ÞððuU Þ1 ðAÞÞ is a homeomorphism,
b uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart in M satisfying

(iv) ððuU Þ1 ðAÞ; G
1
p 2 ðuU Þ ðAÞ;
b wV Þ is an admissible coordinate chart in N satisfying
(v) ððwV Þ1 ðBÞ; H
1
FðpÞ 2 ðwV Þ ðBÞ;
(vi) for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in ð G b uU ÞððuU Þ1 ðAÞÞ; ðð H b
b wV Þ F ð G
1
uU Þ Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ;
(vii) FððuU Þ1 ðAÞÞ ðwV Þ1 ðBÞ:
For (i): Since A is an open neighborhood of uU ðpÞ in R3 ; A is contained in

uU ðUÞ; and ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart in M satisfying p 2 U;
ðuU Þ1 ðAÞ is open in M.
For (ii): Since Gb :A!U b is a diffeomorphism, G b :A!U b is a homeomor-
b 1 b
phism, and hence, ð G uU ÞððuU Þ ðAÞÞð¼ GðAÞÞ is open in R3 .
b :A!U
For (iii): Since G b is a C 1 diffeomorphism, G b :A!U b is a homeo-
1
morphism. Since uU : ðuU Þ ðAÞ ! A is a homeomorphism, and G b :A!U b is
a homeomorphism, G b uU : ðuU Þ ðAÞ ! ð G
1 b uU ÞððuU Þ ðAÞÞð¼ GðAÞ
1 b ¼U bÞ
is a homeomorphism.
For (iv): Let ðW; vW Þ be any admissible coordinate chart in M satisfying
W \ððuU Þ1 ðAÞÞ is nonempty.
Since A is an open neighborhood of uU ðpÞ; uU ðpÞ 2 A; and hence p 2 ðuU Þ1 ðAÞ:
Now, we have to prove that vW ð G b uU Þ1 ; and ð G
b uU Þ ðvW Þ1 are C1 :
Since ðW; vW Þ; ðU; uU Þ are admissible coordinate charts in M, vW ðuU Þ1 is
C1 : Now, since G b is a C1 diffeomorphism, G b 1 is C 1 , and hence, vW
ðGb uU Þ ð¼ ðvW ðuU Þ Þ G
1 1 b Þ is C : Similarly, ð G
1 1 b uU Þ ðvW Þ1 is C 1 :
For (v): Its proof is similar to that of (iv).

b uU ÞððuU Þ1 ðAÞÞ: We have to prove
For (vi): Let us take any ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in ð G
that
1
Hb wV F G b uU ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ:
b uU ÞððuU Þ1 ðAÞÞ ¼ GðAÞ

Since ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 2 ð G b b;
¼U
1
LHS ¼ b wV F G
H b uU ð x1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ

¼ Hb wV F ðuU Þ1 G b 1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ ¼ RHS:
For (vii): Since wV ððF ðuU Þ1 ÞðAÞÞ ¼ ðwV ðF ðuU Þ1 ÞÞðAÞ B; and wV
is 1–1, FððuU Þ1 ðAÞÞ ðwV Þ1 ðBÞ: h
Note 4.9 As in Theorem 4.8, we can prove the following result:

Let N be an n-dimensional smooth manifold, M be an m-dimensional smooth
manifold, F : M ! N be a smooth map, and r be the rank of F. Then, for every p in
M, there exist admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ in M satisfying p 2 U; and
admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ in N satisfying FðpÞ 2 V such that FðUÞ V;
and for every ðx1 ; . . .; xr ; xrþ1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uðUÞ;
0 1

w F u1 ðx1 ; . . .; xr ; xrþ1 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ @x1 ; . . .; xr ; 0; . . .; 0 A:
nr
This theorem is also known as the constant rank theorem.

Lemma 4.10 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let ðU; uU Þ be an admis-
sible coordinate chart of M. Let V be a nonempty open subset of U. Then, ðV; wV Þ is
an admissible coordinate chart of M, where wV denotes the restriction of uU on V.
1. V is open,
2. wV ðVÞ is open,
3. wV : V ! wV ðVÞ is 1–1 onto,
4. wV is continuous,
5. ðwV Þ1 is continuous,
6. if ðW; vW Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of M, then vW ðwV Þ1 :
wV ðW \ VÞ ! vW ðW \ VÞ is a smooth function,
7. if ðW; vW Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of M, then wV ðvW Þ1 :
vW ðW \ VÞ ! wV ðW \ VÞ is a smooth function.
For (1): It is given.

For (2): Since ðU; uU Þ is a coordinate chart of M, uU ðUÞ is open in R4 ; and
uU : U ! uU ðUÞ is an open mapping. Since uU : U ! uU ðUÞ is an open
mapping, and V is a nonempty open subset of U, uU ðVÞ is an open subset of the
open set uU ðUÞ; and hence, uU ðVÞ is an open set. Since uU ðVÞ is an open set,
and wV is the restriction of uU on V, wV ðVÞ is an open set.
For (3): Since ðU; uU Þ is a coordinate chart of M, uU : U ! uU ðUÞ is 1–1.
Since uU : U ! uU ðUÞ is 1–1, and wV is the restriction of φU on V, wV : V !
wV ðVÞ is 1–1. Further, clearly wV : V ! wV ðVÞ is onto.
For (4): Since ðU; uU Þ is a coordinate chart of M, uU : U ! uU ðUÞ is con-
tinuous, and hence, its restriction wV : V ! wV ðVÞ is continuous.
For (5): Since V is contained in U, uU ðVÞð¼ wV ðVÞÞ is contained in uU ðUÞ:

Since ðU; uU Þ is a coordinate chart of M, ðuU Þ1 : uU ðUÞ ! U is continuous,
and hence, its restriction ðuU Þ1 jwV ðVÞ ð¼ ðwV Þ1 Þ is continuous.
For (6): Let us take any admissible coordinate chart ðW; vW Þ of M.
We shall try to prove that vW ðwV Þ1 : wV ðW \ VÞ ! vW ðW \ VÞ is a smooth
function. Since ðW; vW Þ; and ðU; uU Þ are admissible coordinate charts of M, vW
ðuU Þ1 : uU ðW \ UÞ ! vW ðW \ UÞ is a smooth function. Since V is contained in
U, W \ U; is contained in W \ U; and hence, uU ðW \ VÞ is contained in uU ðW \ UÞ:
Since wV is the restriction of uU : U ! uU ðUÞ on V, and W \ V is contained in
V, wV ðW \ VÞ ¼ uU ðW \ VÞ: Since wV ðW \ VÞ ¼ uU ðW \ VÞ; and uU ðW \ VÞ
is contained in uU ðW \ UÞ; wV ðW \ VÞ is contained in uU ðW \ UÞ:
Since wV ðW \ VÞ is contained in uU ðW \ UÞ; and vW ðuU Þ1 : uU ðW \ UÞ !
vW ðW \ UÞ is a smooth function, the restriction of vW ðuU Þ1 to wV ðW \ VÞ is a
smooth function. If wV ðxÞ 2 wV ðW \ VÞ; where x 2 W \ Vð VÞ; then, ðvW
ðuU Þ1 ÞðwV ðxÞÞ ¼ ðvW ðuU Þ1 ÞðuU ðxÞÞ ¼ vW ðxÞ ¼ ðvW ðwV Þ1 ÞðwV ðxÞÞ:
It follows that the restriction of vW ðuU Þ1 to wV ðW \ VÞ; and vW ðwV Þ1 :
wV ðW \ VÞ ! vW ðW \ VÞ are the same functions. Since the restriction of vW
ðuU Þ1 to wV ðW \ VÞ; and vW ðwV Þ1 : wV ðW \ VÞ ! vW ðW \ VÞ are the same
functions, and the restriction of vW ðuU Þ1 to wV ðW \ VÞ is a smooth function,
vW ðwV Þ1 : wV ðW \ VÞ ! vW ðW \ VÞ is a smooth function.
For (7): Let us take any admissible coordinate chart ðW; vW Þ of M. We shall try
to prove that wV ðvW Þ1 : vW ðW \ VÞ ! wV ðW \ VÞ is a smooth function.
Since ðW; vW Þ; and ðU; uU Þ are admissible coordinate charts of M, uU
ðvW Þ1 : vW ðW \ UÞ ! uU ðW \ UÞ is a smooth function. Since V is contained in
U, W \ V is contained in W \ U; and hence, vW ðW \ VÞ is contained in
vW ðW \ UÞ: Since vW ðW \ VÞ is contained in vW ðW \ UÞ; and uU ðvW Þ1 :
vW ðW \ UÞ ! uU ðW \ UÞ is a smooth function, the restriction of uU ðvW Þ1 to
vW ðW \ VÞ is a smooth function. If vW ðxÞ 2 vW ðW \ VÞ; where x 2 W \ Vð VÞ;
then uU ðxÞ ¼ wV ðxÞ; and hence, ðuU ðvW Þ1 ÞðvW ðxÞÞ ¼ uU ðxÞ ¼ wV ðxÞ ¼
ðwV ðvW Þ1 ÞðvW ðxÞÞ:
It follows that restriction of uU ðvW Þ1 to vW ðW \ VÞ; and wV ðvW Þ1 :
vW ðW \ VÞ ! wV ðW \ VÞ are the same the functions. Since the restriction of uU
ðvW Þ1 to vW ðW \ VÞ; and the function wV ðvW Þ1 : vW ðW \ VÞ ! wV ðW \ VÞ
are the same, and the restriction of uU ðvW Þ1 to vW ðW \ VÞ is a smooth function,
wV ðvW Þ1 : vW ðW \ VÞ ! wV ðW \ VÞ is a smooth function. h
Lemma 4.11 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let ðU; uU Þ be an
admissible coordinate chart of M. Let G be a nonempty open subset of the open set
uU ðUÞð Rm Þ: Then ððuU Þ1 ðGÞ; wðuU Þ1 ðGÞ Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of
M, where wðuU Þ1 ðGÞ denotes the restriction of uU on ðuU Þ1 ðGÞ:
Proof Since ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of M, and G is a nonempty

open subset of the open set uU ðUÞ; ðuU Þ1 ðGÞ is a nonempty open subset of U. So,
by Lemma 4.10, ððuU Þ1 ðGÞ; wðuU Þ1 ðGÞ Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of M,
where wðuU Þ1 ðGÞ denotes the restriction of uU on ðuU Þ1 ðGÞ: h
Theorem 4.12 Let N be a 4-dimensional smooth manifold, M be a 3-dimensional

smooth manifold, F : M ! N be a smooth function, and 2 be the rank of F. Let p be
in M. Then, there exist admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ in M satisfying p 2 U;
and admissible coordinate chart ðV; wV Þ in N satisfying FðpÞ 2 V such that
uU ðpÞ ¼ ð0; 0; 0Þ; wV ðFðpÞÞ ¼ ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ and for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in uU ðUÞ;

Further, we may assume uU ðUÞ ¼ ðe; eÞ ðe; eÞ ðe; eÞ, and wV ðVÞ ¼
ðe; eÞ ðe; eÞ ðe; eÞ ðe; eÞ for some e [ 0: In short, uU ðUÞ ¼ Ce3 ð0Þ;
and wV ðVÞ ¼ Ce4 ð0Þ for some e [ 0:
Proof By Theorem 4.8, there exist admissible coordinate chart ðU ; uU Þ in
M satisfying p 2 U ; and admissible coordinate chart ðV ; wV Þ in N satisfying
FðpÞ 2 V such that for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in uU ðU Þ;

Put U U ; uU uU uU ðpÞ; V V ; wV wV ððuU ðpÞÞ1 ; ðuU ðpÞÞ2 ; 0; 0Þ:

It remains to prove:
(i) ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart in N satisfying p 2 U;
(ii) ðV; wV Þ is an admissible coordinate chart in M satisfying FðpÞ 2 V;
(iii) uU ðpÞ ¼ ð0; 0; 0Þ;
(iv) for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in uU ðUÞ; ðwV F ðuU Þ1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ;
(v) wV ðFðpÞÞ ¼ ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ:
For (i): Since ðU ; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart in N satisfying p 2 U ,

U ð¼ UÞ is an open neighborhood of p, and hence, U is an open neighborhood
of p.
Since ðU ; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart in N, uU ðU Þ is open in R3 :
Now, since U ¼ U ; uU ðUÞ is open in R3 ; and hence, ðuU þ uU ðpÞÞ
ðUÞð¼ uU ðUÞ þ uU ðpÞÞ is open in R3 : Since uU ðUÞ þ uU ðpÞ is open in R3 ;
uU ðUÞ is open in R3 : Since ðU ; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart in M,
uU : U ! uU ðU Þ is a homeomorphism. Since uU : U ! uU ðU Þ is a
homeomorphism, and the translation
TuU ð pÞ : uU ðU Þ ! ðuU ðU Þ uU ð pÞÞ
is a homeomorphism, their composite
ðuU ¼ÞTuU ð pÞ uU : U ð¼ U Þ ! ðuU ðU Þ uU ð pÞÞð¼ ðuU uU ð pÞÞðU Þ¼ uU ðU ÞÞ
is a homeomorphism. Thus, we have shown that ðU; uU Þ is a coordinate chart in

M satisfying p 2 U:
Next, let ðW; vW Þ be an admissible coordinate chart in M such that U \ W is
nonempty. Now, we have to prove that vW ðuU Þ1 ; and uU ðvW Þ1 are C1 :
Here,
1
vW ðuU Þ1 ¼ vW ðuU uU ð pÞÞ1 ¼ vW TuU ð pÞ uU

¼ vW ðuU Þ1 TuU ð pÞ ¼ vW ðuU Þ1 TuU ð pÞ ;
so vW ðuU Þ1 ¼ ðvW ðuU Þ1 Þ TuU ðpÞ : Since ðW; vW Þ; and ðU ; uU Þ are
admissible coordinate charts in M, vW ðuU Þ1 is C 1 . Since vW ðuU Þ1 is C1 ;
and translation TuU ðpÞ is C1 , their composite ðvW ðuU Þ1 Þ TuU ðpÞ ð¼ vW
ðuU Þ1 Þ is C1 , and hence, vW ðuU Þ1 is C1 . Similarly, uU ðvW Þ1 is C1 :
For (ii): Its proof is similar to that of (i).
For (iii): uU ðpÞ ¼ ðuU uU ðpÞÞðpÞ ¼ uU ðpÞ uU ðpÞ ¼ ð0; 0; 0Þ: Thus
uU ðpÞ ¼ ð0; 0; 0Þ:
For (iv): Let us take any ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in uU ðUÞ: We have to prove that
ðwV F ðuU Þ1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ: Here, ðuU Þ1 ¼ ðuU uU
ðpÞÞ1 ¼ ðTuU ðpÞ uU Þ1 ¼ ðuU Þ1 TuU ðpÞ : Since uU ¼ uU uU ðpÞ;
uU ðUÞ ¼ uU ðUÞ uU ðpÞ ¼ uU ðU Þ uU ðpÞ: Now, since ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ is in
uU ðUÞ; ðx1 þ ðuU ðpÞÞ1 ; x2 þ ðuU ðpÞÞ2 ; x3 þ ðuU ðpÞÞ3 Þ is in uU ðU Þ; and
hence,

wV F ðuU Þ1 x1 þ ðuU ð pÞÞ1 ; x2 þ ðuU ð pÞÞ2 ; x3 þ ðuU ð pÞÞ3

¼ x1 þ ðuU ð pÞÞ1 ; x2 þ ðuU ð pÞÞ2 ; 0; 0 :
Now,

LHS ¼ wV F ðuU Þ1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ wV F ðuU Þ1 uU ð pÞ ðx 1 ; x 2 ; x 3 Þ

¼ wV ðuU ð pÞÞ1 ; ðuU ð pÞÞ2 ; 0; 0 F ðuU Þ1 TuU ð pÞ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ

¼ TððuU ð pÞÞ1 ;ðuU ð pÞÞ2 ;0; 0Þ wV F ðuU Þ1 TuU ð pÞ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ

¼ TððuU ð pÞÞ1 ;ðuU ð pÞÞ2 ;0; 0Þ wV F ðuU Þ1 TuU ð pÞ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ

¼ TððuU ð pÞÞ1 ;ðuU ð pÞÞ2 ;0; 0Þ wV F ðuU Þ1

x1 þ ðuU ð pÞÞ1 ; x2 þ ðuU ð pÞÞ2 ; x3 þ ðuU ð pÞÞ3

¼ TððuU ð pÞÞ1 ;ðuU ð pÞÞ2 ;0; 0Þ x1 þ ðuU ð pÞÞ1 ; x2 þ ðuU ð pÞÞ2 ; 0; 0
¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ ¼ RHS:
For (v): Since p 2 U; uU ðpÞ 2 uU ðUÞ; and ððuU ðpÞÞ1 ; ðuU ðpÞÞ2 ; ðuU ðpÞÞ2 Þ ¼
uU ðpÞ ¼ ð0; 0; 0Þ so

ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ ¼ ðuU ð pÞÞ1 ; ðuU ð pÞÞ2 ; 0; 0 ¼ wV F ðuU Þ1 ðuU ð pÞÞ
¼ ðwV F Þð pÞ ¼ wV ðF ð pÞÞ:
This completes the proof of the main part.

Since wV ðVÞ is an open neighborhood of wV ðFðpÞÞð¼ ð0; 0; 0; 0ÞÞ in R4 ; and
uU ðUÞ is an open neighborhood of uU ðpÞð¼ ð0; 0; 0ÞÞ; there exists e [ 0 such
that ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ 2 ðe; eÞ ðe; eÞ ðe; eÞ ðe; eÞð¼ Ce4 ð0ÞÞ wV ðVÞ, and
ð0; 0; 0Þ 2 ðe; eÞ ðe; eÞ ðe; eÞð¼ Ce3 ð0ÞÞ uU ðUÞ: Now, by Lemma 4.11,
ððwV Þ1 ðCe4 ð0ÞÞ; wV Þ is an admissible coordinate chart in N satisfying FðpÞ 2
ðwV Þ1 ðCe4 ð0ÞÞ; and ððuU Þ1 ðCe3 ð0ÞÞ; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart in
M satisfying p 2 ðuU Þ1 ðCe3 ð0ÞÞ: Since uU ðpÞ ¼ ð0; 0; 0Þ 2 Ce3 ð0Þ; p 2
ðuU Þ1 ðCe3 ð0ÞÞ: Next, since wV ðFðpÞÞ ¼ ð0; 0; 0; 0Þ 2 Ce4 ð0Þ; so FðpÞ 2 ðwV Þ1
ðCe4 ð0ÞÞ. Also since uU is 1–1, uU ððuU Þ1 ðCe3 ð0ÞÞÞ ¼ Ce3 ð0Þ: Similarly,
wV ððwV Þ1 ðCe4 ð0ÞÞÞ ¼ Ce4 ð0Þ:
Now, it remains to prove: for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in Ce3 ð0Þ; ðwV F ðuU Þ1 Þ
ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ. For this purpose, let us take any ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in Ce3 ð0Þ:
Since ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ is in Ce3 ð0Þ; and Ce3 ð0Þ uU ðUÞ; ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ is in uU ðUÞ; and
hence, ðwV F ðuU Þ1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ: h
Theorem 4.13 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, N be an n-dimen-
sional smooth manifold, F : M ! N be a smooth function, and k be the rank of F.
Let p be in M. Then, there exist admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ in M satisfying
p 2 U; and admissible coordinate chart ðV; wV Þ in N satisfying FðpÞ 2 V such that

uU ðpÞ ¼ 0; wV ðFðpÞÞ ¼ 0; and for every, ðx1 ; x2 ; . . .; xn Þ in uU ðUÞ;
0 1

wV F ðuU Þ1 ðx1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ @x1 ; x2 ; . . .; xk ; 0; . . .; 0A:
nk
Further, we may assume uU ðUÞ ¼ Cem ð0Þ; and wV ðVÞ ¼ Cen ð0Þ for some e [ 0:
Lemma 4.14 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, N be an n-dimensional
smooth manifold, and F : N ! M be a 1–1 smooth function. Let O1 be the topology
of N. Let A1 be the differential structure on N. Put O fFðGÞ : G 2 O1 g and
A fðFðUÞ; uU F 1 Þ : ðU; uU Þ 2 A1 g: Then,
I. O is a topology over FðNÞ;
II. A determines a unique differential structure on FðNÞ, and
III. F is a diffeomorphism from N onto FðNÞ:
Proof of I
(i) Since / 2 O1 ; Fð/Þð¼ /Þ is in O; and hence, / 2 O: Next, since
N 2 O1 ; so FðNÞis in O:
(ii) Let FðGÞ 2 O; where G 2 O1 : Let FðHÞ 2 O; where H 2 O1 : We have to
prove that FðGÞ \ FðHÞ 2 O: Since G 2 O1 ; H 2 O1 ; and O1 is a topology,
G \ H 2 O1 ; and hence, FðG \ HÞ 2 O: Since F : N ! M is 1–1,
FðG \ HÞ ¼ FðGÞ \ FðHÞ: Since FðG \ HÞ ¼ FðGÞ \ FðHÞ; and
FðG \ HÞ 2 O; FðGÞ \ FðHÞ 2 O:
(iii) Let FðGi Þ 2 O; where Gi 2 O1 for every index i in index set I. We have to
prove that [i2I FðGi Þ 2 O: Since for every index i, Gi 2 O1 ; and O1 is a
topology, [i2I Gi 2 O1 ; and hence, Fð[i2I Gi Þð¼ [i2I FðGi ÞÞ 2 O: Thus,
[i2I FðGi Þ 2 O: Hence, O is a topology over FðNÞ: h
Proof of II It is clear that F is a homeomorphism from topological space ðN; O1 Þ onto

topological space ðFðNÞ; OÞ: Since N is an n-dimensional smooth manifold, and O1
is the topology of N, ðN; O1 Þ is a Hausdorff topological space. Since ðN; O1 Þ is a
Hausdorff topological space, and ðN; O1 Þ is homeomorphic onto topological space
ðFðNÞ; OÞ; ðFðNÞ; OÞ is a Hausdorff topological space. Since N is an n-dimensional
smooth manifold, and O1 is the topology of N, ðN; O1 Þ is a second countable space.
Since ðN; O1 Þ is a second countable space, and ðN; O1 Þ is homeomorphic onto
topological space ðFðNÞ; OÞ; ðFðNÞ; OÞ is a second countable space.
We want to prove that ðFðNÞ; OÞ is an n-dimensional topological manifold. For
this purpose, let us take any FðxÞ in FðNÞ; where x is in N. Since x is in N, and A1 is
a differential structure on N, there exists ðU; uU Þ 2 A1 such that x 2 U: It follows
that FðxÞ 2 FðUÞ: Since ðU; uU Þ 2 A1 ; ðFðUÞ; uU F 1 Þ 2 A: It remains to

prove:
(a) FðUÞ 2 O;
(b) ðuU F 1 ÞðFðUÞÞ is an open subset of Rn ;
(c) uU F 1 is a homeomorphism from FðUÞ (relative to topology O) onto
ðuU F 1 ÞðFðUÞÞ.
For (a): Here, ðU; uU Þ 2 A1 ; and A1 is a differential structure on N, U 2 O1 ;

and hence, FðUÞ 2 O:
For (b): Here, U 2 O1 ; and O1 is the topology of N, U is contained in N. Since
U is contained in N, F is 1–1, ðuU F 1 ÞðFðUÞÞ ¼ uU ðUÞ: Since ðU; uU Þ 2
A1 ; and A1 is a differential structure on N, uU ðUÞð¼ ðuU F 1 ÞðFðUÞÞÞ is
open in Rn : Hence, ðuU F 1 ÞðFðUÞÞ is an open subset of Rn :
For (c): Since ðU; uU Þ 2 A1 ; uU is 1–1. Since uU is 1–1, and F is 1–1, the
composite uU F 1 is 1–1. Thus, uU F 1 : FðUÞ ! ðuU F 1 ÞðFðUÞÞ is a
1–1 onto function.
Since ðU; uU Þ 2 A1 ; uU is a homeomorphism from U onto uU ðUÞ: Since F is a
homeomorphism from topological space ðN; O1 Þ onto topological space ðFðNÞ; OÞ;
F 1 is a homeomorphism from topological space ðFðNÞ; OÞ onto topological space
ðN; O1 Þ, and hence, the restriction of F 1 on FðUÞ (relative to topology OÞ is a
homeomorphism from FðUÞ onto U. It follows that uU F 1 is a homeomorphism
from FðUÞ (relative to topology O) onto uU ðUÞð¼ ðuU F 1 ÞðFðUÞÞÞ: Thus, we
have shown that ðFðNÞ; OÞ is an n-dimensional topological manifold.
Now we want to prove: All pairs of members in A are C 1 -compatible. For this
purpose, let us take any ðFðUÞ; uU F 1 Þ 2 A, where ðU; uU Þ is in A1 ; and
ðFðVÞ; wV F 1 Þ 2 A where ðV; wV Þ is in A1 satisfying FðUÞ \ FðVÞ is non-
empty. Since F is 1–1, FðUÞ \ FðVÞ ¼ FðU \ VÞ: Since FðUÞ \ FðVÞ ¼
FðU \ VÞ; and FðUÞ \ FðVÞ is nonempty, FðU \ VÞis nonempty, and hence, U \ V
is nonempty. Since U \ V is nonempty, A1 is a differential structure on N, ðU; uU Þ
is in A1 ; and ðV; wV Þ is in A1 ; ðU; uU Þ and ðV; wV Þ are C1 -compatible, that is,
ðwV ðuU Þ1 Þ : uU ðU \ VÞ ! uV ðU \ VÞ is a smooth function.
We have to show that ðFðUÞ; uU F 1 Þ and ðFðVÞ; wV F 1 Þ are C1 -com-
patible, that is, ððwV F 1 Þ ðuU F 1 Þ1 Þ : ðuU F 1 ÞðFðUÞ \ FðVÞÞ ! ðwV F 1 Þ
ðFðUÞ \ FðVÞÞ is a smooth function, that is, ðwV F 1 Þ ðF ðuU Þ1 Þ :
ðuU F 1 ÞðFðU \ VÞÞ ! ðwV F 1 ÞðFðU \ VÞÞ is a smooth function, that is,
ðwV ðuU Þ1 Þ : uU ðU \ VÞ ! wV ðU \ VÞ is a smooth function. This has already
been shown. Thus, we have shown that A determines a unique differentiable structure
on FðNÞ that contains A: In short, FðNÞ is an n-dimensional smooth manifold. h
Proof of III Now, we want to prove that F is a diffeomorphism from N onto FðNÞ:
For this purpose, let us take any p in N. We have to prove that F is C1 at p. Now let
us take any admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of N satisfying p 2 U; an
admissible coordinate chart ðFðVÞ; wV F 1 Þ of FðNÞ satisfying FðpÞ 2 FðVÞ

where ðV; wV Þ is in A1 : Since F is 1–1, and FðpÞ 2 FðVÞ; p 2 V: Since p 2 U; and
p 2 V; p 2 U \ V; and hence, U \ V is nonempty. We shall try to prove that
ðwV F 1 Þ F ðuU Þ1 is C 1 at uU ðpÞ. Since ðU; uU Þ is in A1 ; ðV; wV Þ is in A1 ;
and U \ V is nonempty, wV ðuU Þ1 ð¼ ðwV F 1 Þ F ðuU Þ1 Þ is C 1 at uU ðpÞ:
Thus ðwV F 1 Þ F ðuU Þ1 is C 1 at uU ðpÞ: Thus F is C1 : Similarly, F 1 is
C 1 : This proves that F is a diffeomorphism from N onto FðNÞ: h
4.2 Lie Groups
Definition Let G be an n-dimensional smooth manifold that is also a group. Let

m : G G ! G be the mapping defined as follows: for every g, h in G,
mðg; hÞ gh:
Let i : G ! G be the mapping defined as follows: for every g in G,
iðgÞ g1 :
If m is a smooth map from 2n-dimensional product manifold G × G to n-

dimensional smooth manifold G, and i is a smooth map from n-dimensional smooth
manifold G to itself, then we say that G is a Lie group.
Here, m is the binary operation of the group G and is smooth. Further, i is the
(algebraic) inverse mapping of the group G, which is smooth. Since smooth
mappings are continuous mappings, and m, i are smooth mappings, m, i are con-
tinuous mappings. Since the binary operation m of group G is continuous, and the
inverse mapping i of the group G is continuous, G is a topological group. Thus,
every Lie group is also a topological group.
Note 4.15 Let G be an n-dimensional smooth manifold, and M be an m-dimen-
sional smooth manifold. Let a be in G. Let us define a mapping F : M ! G M as
follows: for every h in M,
F ðhÞ ða; hÞ:
We shall try to show that F is a smooth mapping. For this purpose, let us fix any
h0 in M. We have to prove that F is smooth at h0 in M.
For this purpose, let us take any admissible coordinate chart ðV; wV Þ of M sat-
isfying h0 2 V; and any admissible coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of G satisfying a 2 U:
Here, ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of G satisfying a 2 U; ðV; wV Þ is an
admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying h0 2 V; and Fðh0 Þ ¼ ða; h0 Þ 2 U V;
ðU V; ðuU wV ÞÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of G M satisfying Fðh0 Þ 2
U V: We have to prove that each of the 2 component functions of the mapping
4.2 Lie Groups 247

ðuU wV Þ F ðwV Þ1 : wV V \ F 1 ðU V Þ ! ðuU wV ÞðU V Þ
is C1 at the point wV ðh0 Þ in Rm ; that is, ðr; sÞ 7! p1 ðððuU wV Þ ðF ðwV Þ1 ÞÞ

ðr; sÞÞ; and ðr; sÞ 7! p2 ðððuU wV Þ ðF ðwV Þ1 ÞÞðr; sÞÞ are C 1 at the point
wV ðh0 Þin Rm : For every ðr; sÞ in wv ðV \ F 1 ðU VÞÞ, there exists y in V such that
wV ðyÞ ¼ ðr; sÞ: So y ¼ ðwV Þ1 ðr; sÞ: Now, since

ðuU wV Þ F ðwV Þ1 ðr; sÞ ¼ ðuU wV Þ F ðwV Þ1 ðr; sÞ
¼ ðuU wV ÞðF ð yÞÞ
¼ ðuU wV Þða; yÞ ¼ ðuU ðaÞ; wV ð yÞÞ;
ðr; sÞ 7! p1 ðððuU wV Þ ðF ðwV Þ1 ÞÞðr; sÞÞ ¼ p1 ðuU ðaÞ; wV ðyÞÞ ¼ uU ðaÞ; which is
a constant function. Hence, ðr; sÞ 7! p1 ðððuU wV Þ ðF ðwV Þ1 ÞÞðr; sÞÞ is a
smooth function. Next, since ðr; sÞ 7! p2 ðððuU wV Þ ðF ðwV Þ1 ÞÞðr; sÞÞ ¼
p2 ðuU ðaÞ; wV ðyÞÞ ¼ wV ðyÞ ¼ ðr; sÞ is the identity function, ðr; sÞ 7! p2 ðððuU
wV Þ ðF ðwV Þ1 ÞÞðr; sÞÞ is a smooth function. Thus, we have shown that F is a
smooth mapping, that is, h 7! ða; hÞ is a smooth mapping.
Similarly, h 7! ðh; aÞ is a smooth mapping.
Note 4.16 Let G; H; K be smooth manifolds. Let f : H ! K be a smooth mapping.
Let F : G H ! G K be the mapping defined as follows: for every ðx; yÞ in
G H;
F ðx; yÞ ðx; f ð yÞÞ:
We shall try to show that F is a smooth mapping. For simplicity, let each of G,H,
K have dimension 2. Let us fix any ðx0 ; y0 Þ in G H: We have to prove that F is
smooth at ðx0 ; y0 Þ:
For this purpose, let us take any admissible coordinate chart ðU V; ðuU wV ÞÞ
of the product manifold G H; where ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of
G satisfying x0 2 U; and ðV; wV Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of H satisfying
y0 2 V: Next, let us take any admissible coordinate chart ðU V; ~ ðuU wV~ ÞÞ of
~
G K; where ðV; wV~ Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of K satisfying f ðy0 Þ 2 V: ~
~ ~ ~
Here, since x0 2 U; and f ðy0 Þ 2 V; Fðx0 ; y0 Þ ¼ ðx0 ; f ðy0 ÞÞ 2 U V: Thus, ðU V;
ðuU wV~ ÞÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of G K satisfying Fðx0 ; y0 Þ 2 U V:~
Now, we have to prove that each of the 4 component functions of the mapping

~
uU wV~ F ðuU wV Þ1 : ðuU wV Þ ðU V Þ \ F 1 U V

! uU wV~ U V ~
is C 1 at the point ðuU wV Þðx0 ; y0 Þ in R4 ; that is, ðr; s; t; uÞ 7! p1 ðððuU wV~ Þ

ðF ðuU wV Þ1 ÞÞðr; s; t; uÞÞ; ðr; s; t; uÞ 7! p2 ðððuU wV~ Þ ðF ðuU wV Þ1 ÞÞ
ðr; s; t; uÞÞ; ðr; s; t; uÞ 7! p3 ðððuU wV~ Þ ðF ðuU wV Þ1 ÞÞðr; s; t; uÞÞ; and
ðr; s; t; uÞ 7! p4 ðððuU wV~ Þ ðF ðuU wV Þ1 ÞÞðr; s; t; uÞÞ are C1 at the point
ðuU wV Þðx0 ; y0 Þ in R4 :
For every ðr; s; t; uÞ in ðuU wV ÞððU VÞ \ F 1 ðU VÞÞ; ~ there exist x in U,
and y in V such that ðuU wV Þðx; yÞ ¼ ðr; s; t; uÞ: So ðr; s; t; uÞ ¼
ðuU wV Þðx; yÞ ¼ ðuU ðxÞ; wV ðyÞÞ; and hence, uU ðxÞ ¼ ðr; sÞ; and wV ðyÞ ¼ ðt; uÞ:
Now, since

uU wV~ F ðuU wV Þ1 ðr; s; t; uÞ

¼ uU wV~ F ðuU wV Þ1 ððuU wV Þðx; yÞÞ

¼ uU wV~ ðF ðx; yÞÞ ¼ uU wV~ ðx; f ð yÞÞ

¼ uU ð xÞ; wV~ ðf ð yÞÞ ¼ uU ð xÞ; wV~ f ð yÞ

¼ r; s; wV~ f ð yÞ ¼ r; s; wV~ f ðwV Þ1 ðt; uÞ

¼ r; s; wV~ f ðwV Þ1 ðt; uÞ ;
so

ðr; s; t; uÞ 7! p1 uU wV~ F ðuU wV Þ1 ðr; s; t; uÞ

¼ p1 r; s; wV~ f ðwV Þ1 ðt; uÞ ¼ r;
which is a smooth function. Hence, ðr; sÞ 7! p1 ðððuU wV~ Þ ðF ðuU wV Þ1 ÞÞ

ðr; s; t; uÞÞ is a smooth function. Next, since


p2 r; s; wV~ f ðwV Þ1 ðt; uÞ ¼ s;
which is a smooth function, ðr; s; t; uÞ 7! p2 ðððuU wV~ Þ ðF ðuU wV Þ1 ÞÞ

ðr; s; t; uÞÞ is a smooth function. Next,


¼ p3 r; s; wV~ f ðwV Þ1 ðt; uÞ

¼ p1 wV~ f ðwV Þ1 ðt; uÞ :
4.2 Lie Groups 249
Now, since f : H ! K is a smooth mapping, ðV; wV Þ is an admissible coordinate

chart of H satisfying y0 2 V; and ðV; ~ wV~ Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of
~
K satisfying f ðy0 Þ 2 V;

wV~ f ðwV Þ1 : wV V \ f 1 V~ ! wV~ V ~
is C 1 at the point wV ðy0 Þ in R2 ; that is, ðt; uÞ 7! p1 ðwV~ ðf ðwV Þ1 Þðt; uÞÞ; and
ðt; uÞ 7! p2 ðwV~ ðf ðwV Þ1 Þðr; sÞÞ are C1 at the point wV ðy0 Þ in R2 : Since
ðr; s; t; uÞ 7! ðt; uÞ is smooth, and ðt; uÞ 7! p1 ðwV~ ðf ðwV Þ1 Þðt; uÞÞ is smooth,
their composite ðr; s; t; uÞ 7! p1 ðwV~ ðf ðwV Þ1 Þðt; uÞÞ is smooth, and hence,

is a smooth map. Similarly, ðr; s; t; uÞ 7! p4 ðððuU wV~ Þ ðF ðuU wV Þ1 ÞÞ

ðr; s; t; uÞÞ is a smooth function.
Thus, we have shown that F is a smooth mapping. In short, if y 7! f ðyÞ is smooth
map, then ðx; yÞ 7! ðx; f ðyÞÞ is smooth.
Similarly, if x 7! f ðxÞ is a smooth map, then ðx; yÞ 7! ðf ðxÞ; yÞ is smooth.
Lemma 4.17 Let G be a Lie group. Let a be in G. Then, the mapping F : y 7! ay is
a smooth mapping from smooth manifold G to itself. The mapping F is denoted by
La and is called the left translation by a. Thus, for every y 2 G; La ðyÞ ¼ ay:
Observe that La : G ! G is a 1–1, onto mapping, and ðLa Þ1 ¼ La1 : Now, since
La ; La1 ð¼ ðLa Þ1 Þ are smooth, La is a diffeomorphism.
Proof Since G is a Lie group, G is a smooth manifold. Hence y 7! ða; yÞ is a smooth
map. Since G is a Lie group, ðx; yÞ 7! xy is a smooth map. Since y 7! ða; yÞ is a
smooth map, and ðx; yÞ 7! xy is a smooth map, their composite map y 7! ay is a
smooth map. h
Note 4.18 Let G be a Lie group. Let a be in G. Then, as above, it can be shown that
the mapping F : x 7! xa is a smooth mapping from smooth manifold G to itself. The
mapping F is denoted by Ra and is called the right translation by a. Thus, for every
x 2 G; Ra ðyÞ ¼ ya: Observe that Ra : G ! G is a 1–1, onto mapping, and ðRa Þ1 ¼
Ra1 : Now, since Ra ; Ra1 ð¼ ðRa Þ1 Þ are smooth, Ra is a diffeomorphism.
Lemma 4.19 Let G be an n-dimensional smooth manifold that is also a group. If
ðg; hÞ 7! gh1 is a smooth mapping from 2n-dimensional product manifold G × G
to n-dimensional smooth manifold G, then G is a Lie group.
Proof For simplicity, let n = 2. Next, let e be the identity element of the group. Let
us define a mapping m : G G ! G as follows: for every g; h in G,
mðg; hÞ gh:
Let us define a mapping i : G ! G as follows: for every g in G,

iðgÞ g1 :
We have to show that

(i) i is smooth,
(ii) m is smooth.
For (i): Since h 7! ðe; hÞ is a smooth mapping, and ðg; hÞ 7! gh1 is a smooth
mapping, their composite h 7! eh1 ¼ h1 ¼ iðhÞ is a smooth mapping, and
hence, i is a smooth mapping.
For (ii): Since h 7! h1 is a smooth mapping, ðg; hÞ 7! ðg; h1 Þ is a smooth
mapping. Since ðg; hÞ 7! ðg; h1 Þ is a smooth mapping, and ðg; hÞ 7! gh1 is a
smooth mapping, their composite ðg; hÞ 7! gðh1 Þ1 ¼ gh ¼ mðghÞ is a smooth
mapping, and hence, m is a smooth mapping. h
Note 4.20 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, whose topology is O; and

differential structure is A: Let G be a nonempty open subset of M. Let O1 be the
induced topology over G, that is, O1 ¼ fG1 : G1 G; and G1 2 Og: Put
AG fðU; uU Þ : ðU; uU Þ 2 A; and U Gg:
Since M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, M is a Hausdorff space. Since

M is a Hausdorff space, and G is a subspace of M, G with the induced topology is a
Hausdorff space. Since M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, M is a second
countable space. Since M is a second countable space, and G is a subspace of M,
G with the induced topology is a second countable space.
Now, we shall try to show that AG is an atlas on G that is,

1. [fU : ðU; uU Þ is in AG g ¼ G;
2. all pairs of members in AG are C 1 -compatible.
For (1): By the definition of AG ; it is clear that [fU : ðU; uU Þ is in AG g G:
So, it remains to prove that G [fU : ðU; uU Þ is in AG g:
For this purpose, let us take any p in G. Since p is in G, and G is a subset of M,
p is in M. Since p is in M, and M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, there exists
ðU; uU Þ in A such that p is in U. Since ðU; uU Þ is in A; U is an open subset of
M. Since U is open, and G is open, U \ G is open. Thus, U \ G is an open
neighborhood of p.
4.2 Lie Groups 251
We shall try to show that ðU \ G; uU jðU\GÞ Þ is in AG ; that is, ðU \ G; uU jðU\GÞ Þ

2 A; and U \ G G. Since U \ G G; it remains to show that ðU \ G; uU jðU\GÞ Þ
2 A: Since ðU; uU Þ is in A; ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of M. Now,
since U \ G is a nonempty open subset of U, by the Lemma 4.10, ðU \ G; uU jðU\GÞ Þ
is an admissible coordinate chart of M, and hence, ðU \ G; uU jðU\GÞ Þ 2 A:
For (2): Let us take any ðU; uU Þ; ðV; wV Þ 2 AG : We have to show that ðU; uU Þ
andðV; wV Þ are C 1 -compatible. Since ðU; uU Þ 2 AG , by the definition of AG ;
ðU; uU Þ 2 A: Similarly ðV; wV Þ 2 A: Since ðU; uU Þ 2 A; ðV; wV Þ 2 A; and A
is a differential structure, ðU; uU Þ and ðV; wV Þ are C 1 -compatible. Thus, we
have shown that AG is an atlas on G. Hence, AG determines a unique smooth
structure on G. Thus, the open subset G of smooth manifold M becomes an m-
dimensional smooth manifold. Here, G is called an open submanifold of M.
Example 4.21 Let Mð2 3; RÞ be the collection of all 2 × 3 matrices with real
entries, that is,
abc
Mð2 3; RÞ : a; b; c; d; e; f 2 R :
def
We define addition of matrices as follows:
a b c a b1 c1 a þ a1 b þ b1 c þ c1
þ 1 :
d e f d1 e1 f1 d þ d1 e þ e1 f þ f1
Clearly, Mð2 3; RÞ is a commutative group under addition as binary operation.

We define scalar multiplication of matrix as follows:
a b c ta tb tc
t :
d e f td te tf
Clearly, Mð2 3; RÞ becomes a real linear space of dimension ð2 3Þ: Here,

one of the basis of Mð2 3; RÞ is
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
; ; ; ; ; :
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Clearly, the real linear space R23 is isomorphic to the real linear space
Mð2 3; RÞ: Since R23 is isomorphic to Mð2 3; RÞ; we will not distinguish
between
a b c
and ða; b; c; d; e; f Þ:
d e f
Now since R23 is a ð2 3Þ-dimensional smooth manifold, Mð2 3; RÞ is also

a ð2 3Þ-dimensional smooth manifold. Similarly, Mðm n; RÞ is a mn-dimen-
sional smooth manifold. Clearly,

a b c
Mð2 3; CÞ : a; b; c; d; e; f are complex numbers
d e f
is a 2 ð2 3Þ-dimensional smooth manifold. Similarly, Mðm n; CÞ is a 2mn-

dimensional smooth manifold. The n2 -dimensional smooth manifold Mðn n; RÞ
is denoted by Mðn; RÞ: The 2n2 -dimensional smooth manifold Mðn n; CÞ is
denoted by Mðn; CÞ: Let GLð2; RÞ be the collection of all invertible 2 2 matrices
with real entries, that is,
x1 x2 x1 x2
GLð2; RÞ : 2 Mð2; RÞ andx1 x4 x2 x3 6¼ 0 :
x3 x4 x3 x4
x x
It is clear that ½ 1 2 7! ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ is in 1–1 correspondence from
x3 x4
GLð2; RÞ onto fðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ : ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 2 R4 and x1 x4 x2 x3 6¼ 0g: Let us
define a function f : R4 ! R as follows: for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ in R4
f ð x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ x1 x4 x2 x3 :
We shall try to show that f is a continuous function.

Since ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 7! x1 ; and ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 7! x4 are continuous functions,
ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 7! ðx1 ; x4 Þ is continuous. Since ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 7! ðx1 ; x4 Þ is continu-
ous, and the multiplication operation ðx1 ; x4 Þ 7! x1 x4 is continuous, their composite
function ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 7! x1 x4 is continuous. Similarly, ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 7! x2 x3 is
continuous. Since ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 7! x1 x4 is continuous, and ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 7! x2 x3 is
continuous, ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 7! ðx1 x4 ; x2 x3 Þ is continuous. Since ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 7!
ðx1 x4 ; x2 x3 Þ is continuous, and the difference operation ðy; zÞ 7! y z is continuous,
their composite function ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 7! x1 x4 x2 x3 ¼ f ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ is contin-
uous, and hence, f is a continuous function.
Since f0g is a closed subset of R; R f0g is an open subset of R: Since R f0g is
an open subset of R; and f : R4 ! R is a continuous function, f 1 ðR f0gÞ
ð¼ fðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ : ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 2 R4 and x1 x4 x2 x3 6¼ 0gÞ is an open subset of
R4 ; and hence, fðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ : ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 2 R4 and x1 x4 x2 x3 6¼ 0g is an open
subset of R4 : Since fðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ : ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 2 R4 and x1 x4 x2 x3 6¼ 0g is an
x x
open subset of R4 ; and ½ 1 2 7! ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ is in 1–1 correspondence from
x3 x4
GLð2; RÞ onto fðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ : ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 2 R4 and x1 x4 x2 x3 6¼ 0g; GLð2; RÞ
4.2 Lie Groups 253
is an open subset of Mð2; RÞð¼ R4 Þ: Since GLð2; RÞ is an open subset of R4 ; and R4 is

a 4-dimensional smooth manifold, GLð2; RÞ is a 4-dimensional smooth manifold.
Clearly, fðGLð2; RÞ; IdGLð2;RÞ Þg is an atlas of GLð2; RÞ: This shows that
ðGLð2; RÞ GLð2; RÞ; ðIdGLð2;RÞ IdGLð2;RÞ ÞÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of
the product manifold GLð2; RÞ GLð2; RÞ: Since, for every

a b e f
; in GLð2; RÞ GLð2; RÞ;
c d g h
we have

a b e f
IdGLð2;RÞ IdGLð2;RÞ ;
c d g h

a b e f
¼ IdGLð2;RÞ ; IdGLð2;RÞ
c d g h

a b e f a b e f
¼ ; ¼ IdGLð2;RÞGLð2;RÞ ; ;
c d g h c d g h
IdGLð2;RÞ IdGLð2;RÞ ¼ IdGLð2;RÞGLð2;RÞ ; and hence, ðGLð2; RÞ GLð2; RÞ;

IdGLð2;RÞGLð2;RÞ Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of the product manifold
GLð2; RÞ GLð2; RÞ:
We define multiplication of matrices as follows:
a b e f ae þ bg af þ bh
:
c d g h ce þ dg cf þ dh
We know that GLð2; RÞ becomes a group under multiplication as binary oper-

ation. Thus, GLð2; RÞ is a 4-dimensional smooth manifold that is also a group. We
want to show that GLð2; RÞ is a Lie group. Let us define m : GLð2; RÞ
GLð2; RÞ ! GLð2; RÞ as follows: for every

a b e f
; in GLð2; RÞ GLð2; RÞ;
c d g h
we have

a b e f a b e f ae þ bg af þ bh
m ; ¼ :
c d g h c d g h ce þ dg cf þ dh
a b
Let us define i : GLð2; RÞ ! GLð2; RÞ as follows: for every in
c d
GLð2; RÞ;
2 3
d b
a b 1 d b 6 ad bc ad bc 7
i ¼ 4 c 5:
c d ad bc c a a
ad bc ad bc
We have to show:
(i) m is a smooth map from (4 + 4)-dimensional product manifold GLð2; RÞ
GLð2; RÞ to 4-dimensional smooth manifold GLð2; RÞ,
(ii) i is a smooth map from 4-dimensional smooth manifold GLð2; RÞ to 4-
dimensional smooth manifold GLð2; RÞ.
For (i): For this purpose, let us fix any

a b e f
; in GLð2; RÞ GLð2; RÞ:
c d g h
We have to prove that m is smooth at

a b e f
; :
c d g h
For this purpose, let us take the admissible coordinate chart ðGLð2; RÞ
GLð2; RÞ; IdGLð2;RÞGLð2;RÞ Þ of the product manifold GLð2; RÞ GLð2; RÞ: Here,

a b e f
; 2 GLð2; RÞ GLð2; RÞ:
c d g h
Next, let us take the admissible coordinate chart ðGLð2; RÞ; IdGLð2;RÞ Þ of
GLð2; RÞ: Clearly,

a b e f ae þ bg af þ bh
m ; ¼ 2 GLð2; RÞ:
c d g h ce þ dg cf þ dh
1
IdGLð2;RÞ m IdGLð2;RÞGLð2;RÞ : IdGLð2;RÞGLð2;RÞ

ðGLð2; RÞ GLð2; RÞÞ \ m1 ðGLð2; RÞÞ ! IdGLð2;RÞ ðGLð2; RÞÞ
is C 1 at the point

a b e f a b e f
IdGLð2;RÞGLð2;RÞ ; ¼ ; in R8 :
c d g h c d g h
4.2 Lie Groups 255
Let us observe that IdGLð2;RÞ ðm ðIdGLð2;RÞGLð2;RÞ Þ1 Þ ¼ m; ðIdGLð2;RÞGLð2;RÞ Þ

ððGLð2; RÞ GLð2; RÞÞ \ m1 ðGLð2; RÞÞÞ ¼ ðGLð2; RÞ GLð2; RÞÞ \ m1 ðGL
ð2; RÞÞ ¼ ðGLð2; RÞ GLð2; RÞÞ \ðGLð2; RÞ GLð2; RÞÞ ¼ ðGLð2; RÞ GLð2; RÞÞ; and
IdGLð2;RÞ ðGLð2; RÞÞ ¼ GLð2; RÞ; so we have to prove that each of the 4 component
functions of the mapping
m : GLð2; RÞ GLð2; RÞ ! GLð2; RÞ
is C 1 at the point

a b e f
; ;
c d g h
that is,

x1 x2 y1 y2 x1 x2 y1 y2
7! x1 y1 þ x2 y3 ; 7! x1 y2 þ x2 y4 ;
x3 x4 y3 y4 x3 x4 y3 y4

x1 x2 y1 y2 x1 x2 y1 y2
7! x3 y1 þ x4 y3 ; 7! x3 y2 þ x4 y4
x3 x4 y3 y4 x3 x4 y3 y4
are smooth, that is, ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; y1 ; y2 ; y3 ; y4 Þ 7! x1 y1 þ x2 y3 ; ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; y1 ; y2 ;

y3 ; y4 Þ 7! x1 y2 þ x2 y4 ; ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; y1 ; y2 ; y3 ; y4 Þ 7! x3 y1 þ x4 y3 ; ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; y1 ;
y2 ; y3 ; y4 Þ 7! x3 y2 þ x4 y4 are smooth. Clearly, all these four functions are smooth.
Thus, we have shown that m is a smooth map.
For (ii): For this purpose, let us fix any
a b
in GLð2; RÞ:
c d
We have to prove that i is smooth at
a b
:
c d
For this purpose, let us take the admissible coordinate chart ðGLð2; RÞ; IdGLð2;RÞ Þ
of the smooth manifold GLð2; RÞ: Here,
a b
2 GLð2; RÞ:
c d
Next, let us take the admissible coordinate chart ðGLð2; RÞ; IdGLð2;RÞ Þ of the
smooth manifold GLð2; RÞ: Clearly,
2 3
d b
a b 1 d b 6 bc ad bc 7
i ¼ ¼ 4 adc 5 2 GLð2; RÞ:
c d ad bc c a a
ad bc ad bc
1
IdGLð2;RÞ i IdGLð2;RÞ : IdGLð2;RÞ ðGLð2; RÞÞ \ i1 ðGLð2; RÞÞ
! IdGLð2;RÞ ðGLð2; RÞÞ
is C 1 at the point

a b a b
IdGLð2;RÞ ¼ in R4 :
c d c d
Let us observe that IdGLð2;RÞ ði ðIdGLð2;RÞ Þ1 Þ ¼ i; ðIdGLð2;RÞ ÞððGLð2; RÞÞ

1
\ i ðGLð2; RÞÞÞ ¼ ðGLð2; RÞÞ \ i1 ðGLð2; RÞÞ ¼ ðGLð2; RÞÞ \ ðGLð2; RÞÞ ¼
GLð2; RÞ; and IdGLð2;RÞ ðGLð2; RÞÞ ¼ GLð2; RÞ; so we have to prove that each of
the 4 component functions of the mapping
i : GLð2; RÞ ! GLð2; RÞ
is C 1 at the point
a b
;
c d
that is,
x1 x2 x4 x1 x2 x2
7! ; 7! ;
x3 x4 x1 x4 x2 x3 x3 x4 x1 x4 x2 x3
x1 x2 x3 x1 x2 x1
7! ; 7!
x3 x4 x1 x4 x2 x3 x3 x4 x1 x4 x2 x3
are smooth, that is,

x4 x2
ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 7! ; ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 7! ;
x1 x4 x2 x3 x1 x4 x2 x3
x3 x2
ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 7! ; ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ 7!
x1 x4 x2 x3 x1 x4 x2 x3
are smooth. Clearly, all these four functions are smooth. Thus, we have shown that
i is a smooth map. Hence, GLð2; RÞ is a 4-dimensional Lie group. Similarly,
4.2 Lie Groups 257
GLðn; RÞ is a n2 -dimensional Lie group. GLðn; RÞ is known as the general linear

group.
As above, it can be shown that GLðn; CÞ is a 2n2 -dimensional Lie group.
GLðn; CÞ is known as the complex general linear group.
Example 4.22 Let V be a real linear space. Let GLðVÞ be the collection of all
invertible linear transformations from V onto V. We shall try to show that GLðVÞ is
a group under composition of mappings as binary operation.
(1) Closure law: Let us take any T1 ; T2 in GLðVÞ: We have to show that T1 T2 is
in GLðVÞ; that is,
(a) T1 T2 is 1–1 from V to V,
(b) T1 T2 maps V onto V,
(c) for every x; y in V, and for every s; t in R; ðT1 T2 Þðsx þ tyÞ ¼
sððT1 T2 ÞðxÞÞ þ tððT1 T2 ÞðyÞÞ:
For (a): Since T1 is in GLðVÞ; T1 is invertible, and hence, T1 is 1–1. Similarly,

T2 is 1–1. Since T1 is 1–1, and T2 is 1–1, their composite T1 T2 is 1–1.
For (b): Since T1 is in GLðVÞ; T1 is invertible, and hence, T1 maps V onto
V. Similarly, T2 maps V onto V. Since T1 maps V onto V, and T2 maps V onto V,
their composite T1 T2 maps V onto V.
For (c): LHS ¼ ðT1 T2 Þðsx þ tyÞ ¼ T1 ðT2 ðsx þ tyÞÞ ¼ T1 ðsðT2 ðxÞÞ þ tðT2 ðyÞÞÞ ¼
sðT1 ðT2 ðxÞÞÞ þ tðT1 ðT2 ðyÞÞÞ ¼ sððT1 T2 ÞðxÞÞ þ tððT1 T2 ÞðyÞÞ ¼ RHS:
Thus, we have shown that T1 T2 is in GLðVÞ:
(2) is associative: Let T1 ; T2 ; T3 be in GLðVÞ: We have to show that ðT1 T2 Þ
T3 ¼ T1 ðT2 T3 Þ: Since the composition of mappings is associative,
ðT1 T2 Þ T3 ¼ T1 ðT2 T3 Þ:
(3) Existence of identity element: Let us define the mapping IdV : V ! V as
follows: for every x in V, IdV ðxÞ ¼ x: It is clear that IdV is an invertible linear
transformation from V onto V, and hence, IdV is in GLðVÞ: Also, for any T in
GLðVÞ; it is clear that IdV T ¼ T IdV ¼ T: Hence, IdV serves the purpose
of identity element in GLðVÞ:
(4) Existence of inverse element: Let us take any T in GLðVÞ: Since T is in GLðVÞ;
T is invertible, and hence, T 1 exists. Now, we shall try to show that T 1 is in
GLðVÞ; that is, T 1 : V 7! V is linear. For this purpose, let us take any x; y in V,
and any real s; t: We have to show that T 1 ðsx þ tyÞ ¼ sðT 1 ðxÞÞ þ tðT 1 ðyÞÞ:
Since x is in V, and T maps V onto V, there exists x1 in V such that Tðx1 Þ ¼ x:
Hence, T 1 ðxÞ ¼ x1 : Similarly Tðy1 Þ ¼ y; and T 1 ðyÞ ¼ y1 : Now,
LHS ¼ T 1 ðsx þ tyÞ ¼ T 1 ðsðT ðx1 ÞÞ þ tðT ðy1 ÞÞÞ ¼ T 1 ðT ðsx1 þ ty1 ÞÞ ¼ sx1 þ ty1

¼ s T 1 ð xÞ þ t T 1 ð yÞ ¼ RHS:
Thus, T 1 is in GLðVÞ: It is clear that T 1 T ¼ T T 1 ¼ IdV : Hence, T 1

serves the purpose of the inverse element of T in GLðVÞ: Thus, we have shown that
GLðVÞ is a group.
Next, let V be finite-dimensional real linear space. Let n be the dimension of
V. For simplicity, we shall take 2 for n. Let fe1 ; e2 g be a basis of the real linear
space V. Let us take any T in GLðVÞ: So, T : V 7! V: Let Tðe1 Þ a11 e1 þ a21 e2 ;
and Tðe2 Þ a12 e1 þ a22 e2 : Since T is in GLðVÞ; T is invertible, and hence, there
exists unique ðt1 ; t2 Þ such that
ða11 t1 þ a12 t2 Þe1 þ ða21 t1 þ a22 t2 Þe2 ¼ t1 ða11 e1 þ a21 e2 Þ þ t2 ða12 e1 þ a22 e2 Þ
¼ t1 ðT ðe1 ÞÞ þ t2 ðT ðe2 ÞÞ ¼ T ðt1 e1 þ t2 e2 Þ
¼ e1 ¼ 1e1 þ 0e2 :
Thus, the system of equations
a11 t1 þ a12 t2 ¼ 1
a21 t1 þ a22 t2 ¼ 0
has a unique solution for ðt1 ; t2 Þ; and hence, a11 a22 a12 a21 6¼ 0: Since
a11 a22 a12 a21 6¼ 0;
a11 a12
is in GLð2; RÞ:
a21 a22
Now, we can define a mapping g : GLðVÞ ! GLð2; RÞ as follows:
a11 a12
gð T Þ :
a21 a22
We shall try to show that g is an isomorphism from group GLðVÞ onto group
GLð2; RÞ: For this purpose, we must show:
(i) g is 1–1,
(ii) g maps GLðVÞ onto GLð2; RÞ;
(iii) for every S; T in GLðVÞ; gðS TÞ ¼ ðgðSÞÞðgðTÞÞ:
For (i): Let gðSÞ ¼ gðTÞ; where Sðe1 Þ ¼ a11 e1 þ a21 e2 ; Sðe2 Þ ¼ a12 e1 þ a22 e2 ;
Tðe1 Þ ¼ b11 e1 þ b21 e2 ; and Tðe2 Þ ¼ b12 e1 þ b22 e2 : We have to show that S ¼
T; that is, Sðe1 Þ ¼ Tðe1 Þ; and Sðe2 Þ ¼ Tðe2 Þ: Since
a11 a12 b11 b12

¼ gð SÞ ¼ gð T Þ ¼ ;
a21 a22 b21 b22
a11 ¼ b11 ; and a21 ¼ b21 ; and hence, Sðe1 Þ ¼ a11 e1 þ a21 e2 ¼ b11 e1 þ b21 e2 ¼
Tðe1 Þ: Thus, Sðe1 Þ ¼ Tðe1 Þ: Similarly, Sðe2 Þ ¼ Tðe2 Þ:
4.2 Lie Groups 259
For (ii): We have to show that g : GLðVÞ ! GLð2; RÞ is onto. For this purpose,
let us take any
a11 a12
in GLð2; RÞ:
a21 a22
We have to construct invertible linear transformation T from V to V such that
a11 a12
gð T Þ ¼ :
a21 a22
Let us define T : V ! V as follows: for every t1 ; t2 2 R;
T ðt1 e1 þ t2 e2 Þ ¼ ða11 t1 þ a12 t2 Þe1 þ ða21 t1 þ a22 t2 Þe2 :
It is clear that T is linear. Also Tðe1 Þ ¼ Tð1e1 þ 0e2 Þ ¼ ða11 1 þ a12 0Þe1 þ
ða21 1 þ a22 0Þe2 ¼ a11 e1 þ a21 e2 : Thus, Tðe1 Þ ¼ a11 e1 þ a21 e2 : Similarly, Tðe2 Þ ¼
a a12
a12 e1 þ a22 e2 : Now, since det 11 ¼ a11 a22 a12 a21 6¼ 0; T is invertible.
a21 a22
Since T is an invertible linear transformation from V onto V, T is in GLðVÞ: Since
Tðe1 Þ ¼ a11 e1 þ a21 e2 ; and Tðe2 Þ ¼ a12 e1 þ a22 e2 ;
a11 a12
gð T Þ ¼ :
a21 a22
For (iii): Let
a11 a12
gð SÞ ¼ ;
a21 a22
where Sðe1 Þ ¼ a11 e1 þ a21 e2 ; and Sðe2 Þ ¼ a12 e1 þ a22 e2 : Let
b11 b12
gð T Þ ¼ ;
b21 b22
where Tðe1 Þ ¼ b11 e1 þ b21 e2 ; and Tðe2 Þ ¼ b12 e1 þ b22 e2 : So,
ðS T Þðe1 Þ ¼ SðT ðe1 ÞÞ ¼ Sðb11 e1 þ b21 e2 Þ ¼ b11 ðSðe1 ÞÞ þ b21 ðSðe2 ÞÞ

¼ b11 ða11 e1 þ a21 e2 Þ þ b21 ða12 e1 þ a22 e2 Þ
¼ ða11 b11 þ a12 b21 Þe1 þ ða21 b11 þ a22 b21 Þe2 :
Thus,
ðS T Þðe1 Þ ¼ ða11 b11 þ a12 b21 Þe1 þ ða21 b11 þ a22 b21 Þe2 :
Next,
ðS T Þðe2 Þ ¼ SðT ðe2 ÞÞ ¼ Sðb12 e1 þ b22 e2 Þ ¼ b12 ðSðe1 ÞÞ þ b22 ðSðe2 ÞÞ

¼ b12 ða11 e1 þ a21 e2 Þ þ b22 ða12 e1 þ a22 e2 Þ
¼ ða11 b12 þ a12 b22 Þe1 þ ða21 b12 þ a22 b22 Þe2 :
Thus,
ðS T Þðe2 Þ ¼ ða11 b12 þ a12 b22 Þe1 þ ða21 b12 þ a22 b22 Þe2 :
It follows that
a11 b11 þ a12 b21 a11 b12 þ a12 b22 a11 a12 b11 b12
LHS ¼ gðS T Þ ¼ ¼
a21 b11 þ a22 b21 a21 b12 þ a22 b22 a21 a22 b21 b22
¼ ðgðSÞÞðgðT ÞÞ ¼ RHS:
Thus, we have shown that g is an isomorphism between group GLðVÞ onto

group GLð2; RÞ: Hence, group GLðVÞ is isomorphic onto group GLð2; RÞ: Since
GLðVÞ and GLð2; RÞ are isomorphic groups, and GLð2; RÞ is a Lie group, we can
bestow a topology on GLðVÞ so that GLðVÞ is also a Lie group. It also shows that
the smooth structure on GLðVÞ is independent of the choice of basis of V. Thus, if
V is a real linear space of dimension n, then GLðVÞ is isomorphic to the Lie group
GLðn; RÞ: Similarly, if V is a complex linear space of dimension n, then GLðVÞ is
isomorphic to the Lie group GLðn; CÞ:
Example 4.23 Observe that ðR; þÞ is a group, and R is a 1-dimensional smooth
manifold. We want to show that R is a Lie group.
By Lemma 4.19, it is enough to show that the mapping f : ðx; yÞ 7! x y is a

smooth mapping from 2-dimensional product manifold R R to 1-dimensional
smooth manifold R: For this purpose, let us fix any ða; bÞ in R R: We have to
prove that f is smooth at ða; bÞ. For this purpose, let us take the admissible coor-
dinate chart ðR R; IdRR Þ of the product manifold R R: Here, ða; bÞ 2 R R:
Next, let us take the admissible coordinate chart ðR; IdR Þ of R. Clearly f ða; bÞ ¼
a b 2 R: Now, we have to prove that the function

IdR f ðIdRR Þ1 : ðIdRR Þ ðR RÞ \ f 1 ðRÞ ! IdR ðRÞ
is C 1 at the point IdRR ða; bÞð¼ ða; bÞÞ in R2 : Let us observe that IdR ðf
ðIdRR Þ1 Þ ¼ f ; ðIdRR ÞððR RÞ \ f 1 ðRÞÞ ¼ ðR RÞ \ f 1 ðRÞ ¼ ðR RÞ \
ðR RÞ ¼ R R; and IdR ðRÞ ¼ R; so we have to prove that the function
4.2 Lie Groups 261
f :RR!R
is C1 at the point ða; bÞ: But this is known to be true. Thus, we have shown that
ðx; yÞ 7! x y is a smooth map. This proves that R is a Lie group under addition.
Similarly, R2 is a Lie group under addition, R3 is a Lie group under addition, etc.
Since each ordered pair ðx; yÞ of real numbers x; y can be identified with the
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
complex number x þ 1y; and R2 is a Lie group under addition, clearly C is a
Lie group under addition.
Example 4.24 By R we shall mean the set of all nonzero real numbers. We know
that R is a group under multiplication as binary operation. Since the elements of
R can be identified, in a natural way, with the elements of GLð1; RÞ; and
GLð1; RÞ; is a 1-dimensional Lie group, R is also a 1-dimensional Lie group under
multiplication.
Next, since R is a 1-dimensional Lie group, R is a smooth manifold. Since R
is a smooth manifold, and fx : x 2 R and 0\xg is an open subset of R ;
fx : x 2 R and 0\xg is a smooth manifold. We know that fx : x 2 R and 0\xg is
a subgroup of the multiplicative group R : Thus, fx : x 2 R and 0\xg is a 1-
dimensional smooth manifold that is also a group. Since the function ðx; yÞ 7! xy is
smooth so, by Lemma 4.19, fx : x 2 R and 0\xg is a 1-dimensional Lie group
under multiplication.
Example 4.25 By C we shall mean the set of all nonzero complex numbers. We
know that C is a group under multiplication as binary operation. Since the ele-
ments of R can be identified, in a natural way, with the elements of GLð1; CÞ; and
GLð1; CÞ is a 2-dimensional Lie group, C is also a 2-dimensional Lie group under
multiplication.
Example 4.26 We know that the unit circle S1 ð¼ fðx; yÞ : ðx; yÞ 2 R2 and
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
x2 þ y2 ¼ 1gÞ is a 1-dimensional smooth manifold. Observe that we can identify
ðx; yÞ with the complex number x þ 1y: Thus, we can identify the unit circle S1
with fz : z 2 C and jzj ¼ 1g: Further, we know that fz : z 2 C and jzj ¼ 1g is a
multiplicative group. Thus, unit circle S1 is a 1-dimensional smooth manifold that is
also a group. Since the function ðz; wÞ 7! wz is smooth, by Lemma 4.19, the circle S1
is a 1-dimensional Lie group. The Lie group S1 is called the circle group.
Example 4.27 Let G1 and G2 be Lie groups. Since G1 and G2 are Lie groups, G1
and G2 are groups. We know that the Cartesian product G1 G2 is also a group
under the binary operation given by ðg1 ; h1 Þðg2 ; h2 Þ ðg1 g2 ; h1 h2 Þ: Since G1 and
G2 are Lie groups, G1 and G2 are smooth manifolds, and hence, their Cartesian
product G1 G2 is a smooth manifold (called the product manifold of G1 and G2 ).
Thus, G1 G2 is a 1-dimensional smooth manifold that is also a group.
We want to show that G1 G2 is a Lie group. By Lemma 4.19, it is enough to

show that the mapping ððx; yÞ; ðz; wÞÞ 7! ðxz1 ; yw1 Þ is smooth. Since the projec-
tion map ððx; yÞ; ðz; wÞÞ 7! ðx; yÞ is smooth, and ðx; yÞ 7! x is smooth, their com-
posite ððx; yÞ; ðz; wÞÞ 7! x is smooth. Similarly, ððx; yÞ; ðz; wÞÞ 7! y is smooth. Since
ððx; yÞ; ðz; wÞÞ 7! x and ððx; yÞ; ðz; wÞÞ 7! z are smooth, ððx; yÞ; ðz; wÞÞ 7! ðx; zÞ is
smooth. Since G1 is a Lie group, and x; z are in G1 ; ðx; zÞ 7! xz1 is smooth. Since
ððx; yÞ; ðz; wÞÞ 7! ðx; zÞ is smooth, and ðx; zÞ 7! xz1 is smooth, their composite
ððx; yÞ; ðz; wÞÞ 7! xz1 is smooth. Similarly, ððx; yÞ; ðz; wÞÞ 7! yw1 is smooth. Since
ððx; yÞ; ðz; wÞÞ 7! xz1 and ððx; yÞ; ðz; wÞÞ 7! yw1 are smooth, ððx; yÞ; ðz; wÞÞ
7! ðxz1 ; yw1 Þ is smooth. Thus, we have shown that G1 G2 is a Lie group.
Similarly, if G1 ; G2 ; G3 are Lie groups, then G1 G2 G3 is a Lie group, etc.
Here, G1 G2 G3 is called the direct product of Lie groups G1 ; G2 ; G3 ; etc. The
direct product of circle group S1 with itself, that is, S1 S1 is an abelian Lie group
under pointwise multiplication. S1 S1 is called the 2-torus and is denoted by T2 :
Similarly, by 3-torus T3 , we mean the abelian Lie group S1 S1 S1 ; etc.
Example 4.28 Let G be a finite group. Let us bestow discrete topology over
G. Observe that discrete topology over G is Hausdorff and second countable. Here,
G is called a 0-dimensional Lie group or discrete group.
Definition Let G and H be Lie groups. Let F : G ! H be a mapping. If F is a
smooth mapping, and F is a group homomorphism, then we say that F is a Lie
group homomorphism from G to H.
Definition Let G and H be Lie groups. Let F : G ! H be a mapping. If F is a
group isomorphism, and F is a diffeomorphism, then we say that F is a Lie group
isomorphism from G onto H.
Definition Let G and H be Lie groups. If there exists a mapping F : G ! H such
that F is a Lie group isomorphism from G onto H, then we say that G and H are
isomorphic Lie groups.
Example 4.29 We have seen that the circle S1 ; and the set C of all nonzero
complex numbers are Lie groups. Let us define a function I : S1 ! C as follows:
for every z in S1 ; IðzÞ ¼ z: Clearly, the inclusion map I is a Lie group homomor-
phism from S1 to C :
Example 4.30 We have seen that R is a Lie group under addition, and R is a Lie
group under multiplication. Consider the function exp : R ! R defined as follows:
for every x in R; expðxÞ ex : Since x 7! ex is a smooth function and is a group
homomorphism from R to R ; exp is a Lie group homomorphism from R to R :
Observe that the range of exp is fx : x 2 R and 0\xg: We have seen that
fx : x 2 R and 0\xg is a Lie group under multiplication. Here, the inverse function
of exp is ln : fx : x 2 R and 0\xg ! R: Since ln is a smooth function and is 1–1
onto, exp is a Lie group isomorphism from R to fx : x 2 R and 0\xg:
4.2 Lie Groups 263
Example 4.31 We have seen that C is a Lie group under addition, and C is a Lie
group under multiplication. Consider the function exp : C ! C defined as follows:
for every z in C;
expðzÞ ez ¼ eReðzÞ cosðImðzÞÞ þ 1 sinðImðzÞÞ :
Since ðx; yÞ ¼ z 7! ez ¼ ðex cos y; ex sin yÞ is a smooth function and is a group

homomorphism from C to C ; exp is a Lie group homomorphism from Cto C :
Observe that the range of exp is C ; exp is a function from C onto C : Since exp is
not 1–1, exp is not a Lie group isomorphism from C to C :
Example 4.32 We have seen that R is a Lie group under addition, and the circle S1
is a Lie group under multiplication. Consider the function e : R ! S1 defined as
follows: for every t in R;
eðtÞ cosð2ptÞ þ 1 sinð2ptÞ:
Since t 7! ðcosð2ptÞ þ 1 sinð2ptÞÞ ¼ ðcosð2ptÞ; sinð2ptÞÞ is a smooth func-
tion and is a group homomorphism from R onto S1 ; e is a Lie group homomorphism
from R onto S1 :
Here, the kernel kerðeÞ of homomorphism e is given by kerðeÞ ¼ e1 ð1Þ ¼

ft : t 2 R and eðtÞ ¼ 1g ¼ ft : t 2 R and cosð2ptÞ þ 1 sinð2ptÞ ¼ 1g ¼ f0;
1; 2; 3; . . .g ¼ Z. We have seen that R2 is a Lie group under addition and the
2-torus T2 ð¼ S1 S1 Þ is a Lie group under pointwise multiplication.
Consider the function e2 : R2 ! S1 S1 defined as follows: for every s; t in R;
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
e2 ðs; tÞ cosð2psÞ þ 1 sinð2psÞ; cosð2ptÞ þ 1 sinð2ptÞ :
Since
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ðs; tÞ 7! cosð2psÞ þ 1 sinð2psÞ; cosð2ptÞ þ 1 sinð2ptÞ
¼ ððcosð2psÞ; sinð2psÞÞ; ðcosð2ptÞ; sinð2ptÞÞÞ
¼ ðcosð2psÞ; sinð2psÞ; cosð2ptÞ; sinð2ptÞÞ
is a smooth function and is a group homomorphism from R2 onto S1 S1 ; e2 is a

Lie group homomorphism from R2 onto 2-torus T2 ð¼ S1 S1 Þ:
Here, the kernel kerðe2 Þ of homomorphism e2 is given by kerðe2 Þ ¼ ðe2 Þ1 ð1; 1Þ ¼
fðs; tÞ : ðs; tÞ 2 R2 and e2 ðs; tÞ ¼ ð1; 1Þg ¼ fðs; tÞ : ðs; tÞ 2 R2 ; cosð2psÞ þ 1 sinð2psÞ ¼
1; and cosð2ptÞ þ 1 sinð2ptÞ ¼ 1g¼ f0; 1; 2; 3; . . .g f0; 1; 2; 3; . . .g ¼ Z2 :
Similar discussion can be given for e3 ; e4 ; etc.

Example 4.33 We have seen that

x1 x2 x1 x2
GLð2; RÞ ¼ : 2 Mð2; RÞ and x1 x4 x2 x3 6¼ 0
x3 x4 x3 x4
is a Lie group under matrix multiplication, and R is a Lie group under ordinary
multiplication. Consider the function det : GLð2; RÞ 7! R defined as follows: For
every
x1 x2
2 Mð2; RÞ;
x3 x4
we have

x1 x2
det x1 x4 x2 x3 :
x3 x4
Since
x1 x2
ð x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ ¼ 7! ðx1 x4 x2 x3 Þ
x3 x4
is a smooth function, and by a property of determinant det is a group homomor-

phism from GLð2; RÞ onto R ; det is a Lie group homomorphism from
GLð2; RÞ onto R :
Example 4.34 Let us take any n-dimensional Lie group G. Let us fix any a in G.
For simplicity, let us take 2 for n. Consider the mapping Ca : G 7! G defined as
follows: for every x in G, Ca ðxÞ axa1 : We want to show that Ca is a Lie group
homomorphism from G onto G; that is,
1. Ca is a group homomorphism,
2. Ca is onto,
3. Ca is smooth.
For 1: Since for every x; y in G; Ca ðxyÞ aðxyÞa1 ¼ ðaxa1 Þðaya1 Þ ¼
ðCa ðxÞÞðCa ðyÞÞ; Ca is a group homomorphism.
For 2: For this purpose, let us take any y in G. Since a1 ya is in G, and
Ca ða1 yaÞ ¼ aða1 yaÞa1 ¼ y; it follows that Ca is onto.
For 3: Since G is a Lie group, and a is in group G, the map x 7! ax is smooth.
Similarly x 7! xa1 ; is smooth. Since x 7! ax is smooth, and x 7! xa1 ; their
composite x 7! axa1 ð¼ Ca ðxÞÞ is smooth, and hence Ca is smooth.
Thus we have shown that Ca is a Lie group homomorphism from G onto G:
4.3 Locally Path Connected Spaces 265
4.3 Locally Path Connected Spaces
Note 4.35 Let X be a topological space. Let S be a connected subset of X. We shall

try to show that the closure S– of S is also connected. We claim that S– is connected.
If not, otherwise, let S– be not connected. We have to arrive at a contradiction. Since
S– is not connected, there exist open subsets G1 ; G2 of X such that G1 \ðS Þ is
nonempty, G2 \ðS Þ is nonempty, G1 \ G2 \ðS Þ is empty, and S G1 [ G2 :
Since G1 \ðS Þ is nonempty, there exists a 2 G1 \ðS Þ; and hence a 2 G1 : Since
a 2 G1 and G1 is open, G1 is an open neighborhood of a. Since a 2 G1 \ðS Þ;
a 2 S : Since a 2 S and G1 is an open neighborhood of a, G1 \ S is nonempty.
Similarly, G2 \ S is nonempty. Since S S ; and G1 \ G2 \ðS Þ is empty,
G1 \ G2 \ S is empty. Since S S G1 [ G2 ; S G1 [ G2 : Since G1 ; G2 are
open subsets of X, G1 \ S is nonempty, G2 \ S is nonempty, G1 \ G2 \ S is empty,
and S G1 [ G2 ; S is not connected, a contradiction.
Note 4.36 Let X be a topological space. Let S be a nonempty subset of X. For every
x; y in S, by x y we shall mean that there exists a connected subset C of X such that
C S; x 2 C; and y 2 C: We shall show that * is an equivalence relation over S,
that is,
1. for every x in S, x x;
2. if x y then y x;
3. if x y; and y z then x z:
For 1: Let us take any x in S. Since the singleton set {x} is connected subset of
X, and x 2 fxg S, by the definition of *, x x:
For 2: Let x y: Now, by the definition of *, there exists a connected subset
C of X such that C S; x 2 C; and y 2 C: Thus, C is a connected subset of
X such that C S; y 2 C; and x 2 C; and hence, by the definition of *, y x:
For 3: Let x y; and y z: Since x y; so by the definition of *, there exists a
connected subset C of X such that C S; x 2 C; and y 2 C: Similarly, there exists
a connected subset C1 of X such that C1 S; y 2 C1 ; and z 2 C1 : Since C is a
connected subset of X, C1 is a connected subset of X, and y 2 C \ C1 ; C [ C1 is a
connected subset of X. Also x 2 C C [ C1 ; and z 2 C1 C [ C1 : Since C S;
and C1 S; so C [ C1 S: It follows, by the definition of *, that x z:
Thus, we have shown that * is an equivalence relation over S. Hence, S is
partitioned into equivalence classes. Here, each equivalence class is called a
component of S.
Now, we shall try to show that each component of S is a connected subset of X.
Let us take any component [a] of S, where a is in S, and ½a
fx : x 2 S; and x ag: We claim that [a] is connected. If not, otherwise, let [a] be
not connected, that is, there exist open subsets G1 ; G2 of X such that G1 \½a is
nonempty, G2 \½a is nonempty, G1 \ G2 \½a is empty, and ½a G1 [ G2 :
We have to arrive at a contradiction. Since G1 \½a is nonempty, there exists b in
G1 \½a : Similarly, there exists c in G2 \½a : Here, b and c are in [a], and [a] is an
equivalence class, so b c; and hence, by the definition of *, there exists a connected

subset C of X such that C S; b 2 C; and c 2 C: Thus, b is in G1 \ C; and hence,
G1 \ C is nonempty. Similarly, G2 \ C is nonempty. Clearly, C is contained in [a].
(Reason: If not, otherwise, there exists t 2 C such that t 62 ½a : Since C is a
connected subset of X, C S; b 2 C; and t 2 C; b t: Since b is in G1 \½a ; b a.
Since b t; and b a; t a; and hence t 2 ½a ; a contradiction.)
Since C is contained in [a], and G1 \ G2 \½a is empty, G1 \ G2 \ C is empty.
Next since C is contained in [a] and ½a G1 [ G2 ; C G1 [ G2 : Since G1 ; G2 are
open subsets of X, G1 \ C is nonempty, G2 \ C is nonempty, G1 \ G2 \ C is empty,
and C G1 [ G2 ; C is not connected, a contradiction.
Thus, we have shown that [a] is a connected subset of S. Clearly, [a] is a
maximal connected subset of S.
(Reason: If not, otherwise, let [a] be not a maximal connected subset of S. So,
there exists a connected subset C of S such that [a] is a proper subset of C. So, there
exists t in C such that t is not in [a]. Since a 2 ½a C S; t is in C, and C is a
connected subset of X, t a; and hence, t is in [a], a contradiction.)
Finally, we want to show that every component of X is a closed set. Let us take
any component C of X. Since C is a component of X, C is connected, and hence, C
is connected. Since C is a component of X, C is connected, and C C X,
C ¼ C ; and hence, C is closed.
(i) every nonempty subset S topological space X is partitioned into compo-
nents, and
(ii) every component of S is connected.
(iii) if C is a component of S, C1 is connected, and C C1 S then C ¼ C1 :
(iv) every component of X is a closed set.
Note 4.37 Let X be a topological space. Let S be a nonempty subset of X. Let a,

b be elements of S. Let f be a function from closed interval [0,1] to S. If
(i) f is continuous,
(ii) f ð0Þ ¼ a and f ð1Þ ¼ b,
then, we say that f is a path in S from a to b. Let X be a topological space. Let S be a
nonempty subset of X. If for every a, b in S, there exists a path f in S from a to b,
then we say that S is a path connected subset of X. By X is path connected we mean:
X is a path connected subset of X. In other words, a topological space X is path
connected means for every x, y in X, there exists a continuous function f : ½0; 1 7! X
such that f ð0Þ ¼ x and f ð1Þ ¼ y:
Let X be a topological space. Let S be a nonempty subset of X. For every x, y in
S, by x y, we shall mean that the following statement is true:
there exists a path f in S from x to y:
We shall try to show that * is an equivalence relation over S. By the definition

of equivalence relation, we must prove:
(1) x x for every x in S,
(2) if x y, then y x;
(3) if x y and y z, then x z:
For (1): Let us take any x in S. By the definition of *, we must find a path f in
S from x to x. For this purpose, consider the constant function f : ½0; 1 ! S
defined by
f ðt Þ x
for every t in [0,1]. Since every constant function is a continuous function, and
f is a constant function, f is a continuous function. Further, by the definition of f,
f ð0Þ ¼ x and f ð1Þ ¼ x. Hence, by the definition of path, f is a path in S from x to
x. This proves (1).
For (2): Let x y. So, by the definition of *, there exists a path f in S from x to
y. Since f is a path in S from x to y so, by the definition of path, f is a function
from the closed interval [0,1] to S such that
(i) f is continuous,
(ii) f ð0Þ ¼ x and f ð1Þ ¼ y.
We have to prove: y x. So, by the definition of *, we must find a path in

S from y to x, and hence, by the definition of path, we must find a function
g : ½0; 1 7! S such that
(10 ) g is continuous,
(20 ) gð0Þ ¼ y and gð1Þ ¼ x:
Let us define g : ½0; 1 ! X as follows: gðtÞ f ð1 tÞ for every t in [0, 1].
Clearly, the range of g is equal to the range of f. Since the range of g is equal to the
range of f, and f : ½0; 1 ! S; g : ½0; 1 ! S:
For ð10 Þ: Since t 7! 1 t is a polynomial function, this is continuous. Since
t 7! 1 t is a continuous function, and f is a continuous function, their com-
posite function t 7! f ð1 tÞ ¼ gðtÞ is continuous, and hence, g is continuous.
This proves (10 ).
For ð20 Þ : Here, by the definition of g, gð0Þ ¼ f ð1 0Þ ¼ f ð1Þ ¼ y; and gð1Þ ¼
f ð1 1Þ ¼ f ð0Þ ¼ x: This proves 20 :
Thus we have shown: If x y, then y x: This proves ð2Þ.
For (3): Given that x y and y z. We have to prove: x z; that is, by the
definition of *, we must find a path h in S from x to z, that is, we must find a
function h : ½0; 1 ! S such that
(10 ) h is continuous,
(20 ) hð0Þ ¼ x and hð1Þ ¼ z.
Since x y, by the definition of *, there exists a path in S from x to y, and
hence, there exists a function f : ½0; 1 ! S such that
(100 ) f is continuous,
(200 ) f ð0Þ ¼ x and f ð1Þ ¼ y.
Since y z, by the definition of *, there exists a path in S from y to z, and
hence, there exists a function g : ½0; 1 7! S such that
(1000 ) g is continuous,
(2000 ) gð0Þ ¼ y and gð1Þ ¼ z. Let us define a function h : ½0; 1 7! X as follows:
f ð2tÞ if 0 t\ 12
hð t Þ
gð2t 1Þ if 12 t 1:
Clearly, the range of h is the union of the range of f, and the range of g. Further,
since f : ½0; 1 ! S; and g : ½0; 1 ! S; the range of h is contained S, and hence
h : ½0; 1 7! S:
For ð10 Þ: we have to prove that h is continuous over [0, 1], that is, h is continuous at
all points of [0, 1]. By the definition of h over 0 t\ 12, h is the composite function
of two continuous functions, namely t 7! 2t and f so, h is continuous at all points of
ft : 0 t\ 12g: Similarly, h is continuous at all points of ft : 12 \t 1g: So, it
remains to prove that h is continuous at 12 : For this purpose, we should calculate the
left-hand limit of h at 12, the right-hand limit of h at 12 and hð12Þ. If all the three values
are equal, then we can say that h is continuous at 12. In short, we have to prove:

1
lim hðtÞ ¼ lim þ hðtÞ ¼ h :
t!ð2Þ
1
t!ð12Þ 2
Here, limt!ð12Þ hðtÞ ¼ limt!12 f ð2tÞ; by the definition of h. Since t 7! f ð2tÞ is a

continuous function over ½0; 12 , limt!12 f ð2tÞ ¼ f ð2 12Þ ¼ f ð1Þ ¼ y: Hence,
limt!ð12Þ hðtÞ ¼ y: Similarly, limt!ð1Þþ hðtÞ ¼ limt!12 gð2t 1Þ ¼ gð2ð12Þ 1Þ ¼
2
gð0Þ ¼ y:Hence limt!ð12Þ hðtÞ ¼ limt!ð1Þþ hðtÞ ¼ y. Further, by the definition of
2
h, hð12Þ ¼ gð2ð12Þ 1Þ ¼ gð0Þ ¼ y: Hence, limt!ð12Þ hðtÞ ¼ limt!ð1Þþ hðtÞ ¼ hð12Þ.

2
Thus, we have shown that h is continuous over [0,1]. This proves ð10 Þ
For ð20 Þ: Here hð0Þ ¼ f ð2ð0ÞÞ ¼ f ð0Þ ¼ x, and hð1Þ ¼ gð2ð1Þ 1Þ ¼ gð1Þ ¼ z.
This proves ð20 Þ: Thus, we have shown: If x y and y z, then x z: This
proves (3).
Hence, * is an equivalence relation over S. Hence, S is partitioned into
equivalence classes. Here, each equivalence class is called a path component of S.
Note 4.38 Let X be a topological space. Let S be a nonempty subset of X. Now, we

shall try to prove that each path component of S is a path connected subset of X. For
this purpose, let us take any path component [a] of S, where a 2 S; ½a
fx : x 2 S; and x ag; and x a stands for: There exists a path in S from x to a. We
have to show that [a] is a path connected subset of S. For this purpose, let us take
any x,y in [a]. We have to find a path in [a] from x to y. Since [a] is a path
component of S, [a] is an equivalence class. Since [a] is an equivalence class, and
x is in [a], x a; and hence, there exists a function f : ½0; 1 ! S such that
(10 ) f : ½0; 1 ! S is continuous,
(20 ) f ð0Þ ¼ x and f ð1Þ ¼ a. Clearly, the range of f is contained in [a].
(Reason: Let us take any b f ðt0 Þ 2 ran f ; where t0 2 ð0; 1Þ: We have to prove
that b 2 ½a ; that is, a b: We must find a function F : ½0; 1 ! S such that (i) F is
continuous, (ii) Fð0Þ ¼ a and Fð1Þ ¼ b.
Let us define F : ½0; 1 ! S as follows: for every t in [0,1], FðtÞ
f ð1 þ ðt0 1ÞtÞ: Clearly, the range of [0,1] under t 7! ð1 þ ðt0 1ÞtÞ is ½t0 ; 1 ; and
hence, the ran F f ð½t0 ; 1 Þ S: Since ran F f ð½t0 ; 1 Þ S; F : ½0; 1 ! S. Since
F is the composite of two continuous functions t 7! ð1 þ ðt0 1ÞtÞ; and f, F is con-
tinuous. Clearly, Fð0Þ ¼ f ð1 þ ðt0 1Þ0Þ ¼ f ð1Þ ¼ a; and Fð1Þ ¼ f ð1 þ ðt0 1Þ1Þ ¼
f ðt0 Þ ¼ b.)
Since the range of f is contained in [a], and f : ½0; 1 ! S; f : ½0; 1 ! ½a : Now,
since f : ½0; 1 ! S; is continuous, f : ½0; 1 ! ½a : is continuous. Further, f ð0Þ ¼ x
and f ð1Þ ¼ a. Thus we get a path in [a] from x to a. Similarly, we get a path in
[a] from a to y. Since there exist a path in [a] from x to a, and a path in [a] from a to
y, there exists a path in [a] from x to y.
Let X be a topological space. Let S be a nonempty subset of X. Now, we shall try
to prove that if C is a path component of S, C1 is path connected, and C C1 S,
then C ¼ C1 : If C is a component of S, C1 is connected, and C C1 S, then
C ¼ C1 : Let us take a path component [a] of S, and a path connected set C satis-
fying ½a C S: We claim that ½a ¼ C1 : If not, otherwise, let [a] be a proper
subset of C. So, there exists t in C such that t is not in [a]. Since a 2 ½a C; a is in
C. Since a is in C, t is in C, and C is a path connected subset of X, there exists a path
f in C from t to a. Since f is a path in C, and C S; f is a path in S, and hence, t is in
[a], a contradiction.
(i) every nonempty subset S of a topological space X is partitioned into path
components,
(ii) every path component of S is path connected,
(iii) if C is a path component of S, C1 is path connected, and C C1 S then
C ¼ C1 :
Note 4.39 Let X be a topological space. Let S be a nonempty subset of X. We shall

try to prove: Each component of S is a union of path components of S. Let us take
any component fy : y 2 S and y ag of S, where a is in S, and y a stands for:
There exists a connected subset A of X such that A S; and y; a are in A. It is

enough to show that
0
fy : y 2 S and y ag fy : y 2 S and y ag
where y 0 a stands for: There exists a path in S from y to a. For this purpose, let us
take any y in LHS. We have to prove that y is in RHS, that is, y a: By the
definition of *, we should find a connected subset A of X such that A S; and y,
a are in A. Since y is in LHS, y 0 a. Since y 0 a, by the definition of 0 , there
exists a path f in S from y to a. Since f is a path in S from y to a, f is a function from
closed interval [0,1] to S satisfying
(I) f is continuous,
(II) f ð0Þ ¼ y and f ð1Þ ¼ a. Since f : ½0; 1 ! S is continuous, and [0,1] is con-
nected, so the f-image set f ð½0; 1 Þ of [0, 1] is a connected subset of X. Since
0 is in [0, 1], f ð0Þ is in f ð½0; 1 Þ. Similarly, f ð1Þ is in f ð½0; 1 Þ: Further,
f ð0Þ ¼ y and f ð1Þ ¼ a: Thus, f ð½0; 1 Þ is a connected subset of X such that
f ð½0; 1 Þ S; and y, a are in f ð½0; 1 Þ:
Note 4.40 Let X be a topological space. We shall try to show: If X is path con-
nected, then X is connected. If not, otherwise, let X be not connected. We have to
arrive at a contradiction. Since X is not connected, there exist open subsets G1 ; G2
of X such that G1 is nonempty, G2 is nonempty, G1 \ G2 is empty, and X ¼
G1 [ G2 : Since G1 is nonempty, there exists a in G1 : Similarly, there exists b in G2
Now, since X is path connected, there exists a continuous function f : ½0; 1 ! X
such that f ð0Þ ¼ a; and f ð1Þ ¼ b: Since f : ½0; 1 ! X is continuous, and [0, 1] is
connected, the image set f ð½0; 1 Þ is connected. Here, a is in G1 ; and a ¼ f ð0Þ 2
f ð½0; 1 Þ; so a 2 G1 \ f ð½0; 1 Þ; and hence, G1 \ f ð½0; 1 Þ is nonempty. Similarly,
G2 \ f ð½0; 1 Þ is nonempty. Next, since G1 \ G2 is empty, G1 \ G2 \ f ð½0; 1 Þ is
empty. Since G1, G2 are open subsets of X such that G1 \ f ð½0; 1 Þ is nonempty,
G2 \ f ð½0; 1 Þ is nonempty, G1 \ G2 \ f ð½0; 1 Þ is empty, and f ð½0; 1 Þ X ¼
G1 [ G2 ; f ð½0; 1 Þ is not connected, a contradiction.
Definition Let X be a topological space. If for every x in X, and for every open
neighborhood U of x, there exists an open neighborhood V of x such that
(i) x 2 V U;
(ii) V is a connected subset of X,
then we say that X is a locally connected space.
Definition Let X be a topological space. If for every x in X, and for every open
neighborhood U of x, there exists an open neighborhood V of x such that
(i) x 2 V U;
(ii) V is a path connected subset of X,
then we say that X is a locally path connected space.
Note 4.41 Let X be a topological space. We shall try to prove: If X is locally

connected space, and G is a nonempty open subset of X, then each component of
G is open. Let X be a locally connected space, and let G be an open subset of X. We
have to show that each component of G is open in X. By the definition of com-
ponent, every component of G is of the form
½a fx : x 2 G and x ag
for some a 2 G, where x a stands for: There exists a connected subset A of X such
that A G; x 2 A; and a 2 A: We have to show that [a] is an open subset of X, that
is, every point of [a] is an interior point of [a]. For this purpose, let us take any
x 2 ½a . We must find an open neighborhood V of x such that V ½a . Since x 2 ½a
and ½a G, x 2 G. Since x 2 G and G is open in X, G is an open neighborhood of
x. Since X is a locally connected space, and G is an open neighborhood of x, there
exists an open neighborhood V of x such that
(I) x 2 V G;
(II) V is a connected subset of X.
We claim that V ½a :
If not, otherwise, let V 6 ½a : So, there exists b in V such that b 62 ½a . Since [a] is
an equivalence class of a, and b 62 ½a , b ¿ a: Here, b 2 V G so b 2 G: Similarly,
x 2 G. Further, since V is a connected subset of X, V G; and x, b are in V, by the
definition of *, x b: Since x b; and * is an equivalence relation, ½x ¼ ½b :
Since x 2 ½a ; and * is an equivalence relation, ½x ¼ ½a : Since ½x ¼ ½b ; and
½x ¼ ½a , ½a ¼ ½b . Since ½a ¼ ½b , a b. This is a contradiction. So, our claim is
true, that is, V ½a :
Clearly, if X is locally connected space, then each component of X is open.
Note 4.42 Let X be a topological space. We shall try to prove: If X is locally path
connected space, and G is a nonempty open subset of X, then each path component
of G is open. Let X be a locally path connected space, and let G be an open subset of
X. We have to show that each path component of G is open in X. By the definition
of path component, every path component of G is of the form
½a fx : x 2 G and x ag
for some a 2 G, where x a stands for: There exists a path in G from x to a. We

have to show that [a] is an open subset of X, that is, every point of [a] is an interior
point of [a]. For this purpose, let us take any x 2 ½a . We must find an open
neighborhood V of x such that V ½a .
Since x 2 ½a ; and ½a G, x 2 G. Since x 2 G and G is open in X, G is an open
neighborhood of x. Since X is a locally path connected space, and G is an open
neighborhood of x, there exists an open neighborhood V of x such that
(I) x 2 V G;
(II) V is a path connected subset of X.
It remains to prove: V ½a : If not, otherwise, let V 6 ½a : We have to arrive at a

contradiction. Since V 6 ½a , there exists b in V such that b 62 ½a . Since [a] is an
equivalence class of a, and b 62 ½a , b ¿ a: Here, b 2 V G so b 2 G: Similarly,
x 2 G. Further, since V is a path connected subset of X and x, b are in V, there exists
a path in V from x to b. Since there exists a path in V from x to b, and V G, by the
definition of *, x b: Since x b and * is an equivalence relation, ½x ¼ ½b :
Since x 2 ½a ; and * is an equivalence relation, ½x ¼ ½a : Since ½x ¼ ½b ; and
½x ¼ ½a , ½a ¼ ½b . Since ½a ¼ ½b , a b. Thus, we get a contradiction.
Clearly, if X is a locally path connected space, then each path component of X is open.
Note 4.43 Let X be a locally path connected space. We shall try to prove that the
collection of all path components of X, and the collection of all components of X are
equal. For any a in X, let fy : y 2 X and y 0 ag be a path component of X, where
y 0 a stands for: There exists a path in X from y to a. It is enough to prove that
0
fy : y 2 X and y ag ¼ fy : y 2 X and y ag
where y a stands for: There exists a connected subset A of X such that A

G; y 2 A; and a 2 A: We know that fy : y 2 X and y 0 ag fy : y 2 X and y ag:
So, it remains to prove that
0
fy : y 2 X and y ag fy : y 2 X and y ag . . . ð Þ
If not, otherwise, let there exists y 2 fy : y 2 X and y ag such that

y 62 fy : y 2 X and y 0 ag. We have to arrive at a contradiction. Here, y a is true
and y 0 a is false. Since y a is true, by the definition of *, there exists a
connected subset A of X such that y ; a are in A. Since fy : y 2 X and y 0 y g is the
path component of X containing y ; and X is a locally path connected space,
0
P fy : y 2 X and y yg
is an open set containing y : Since P contains y ; and y is in A, y 2 A \ P, and

therefore, A \ P is nonempty.
Since X is partitioned into path components, complement of each path compo-
nent in X is a union of path components of X. Since X is a locally path connected
space, each path component is open. Since union of open sets is open, complement
of each path component in X is union of path components, and each path com-
ponent is open, complement of each path component in X is open. Since
fy : y 2 X and y 0 y g is a path component, and complement of each path com-
ponent in X is open, the complement P0 of P is open. Thus, we have obtained two
open sets P and P0 such that A \ P is nonempty.
Now, we shall try to prove that A \ ðP0 Þ in nonempty. Since y 62
fy : y 2 X and y 0 ag; and 0
is an equivalence relation over X,
0
fy : y 2 X and y y gð¼ PÞ and fy : y 2 X and y 0 ag are disjoint sets, and
therefore, fy : y 2 X and y 0 ag is contained in P0 : Since 0 is reflexive over X,
a is in fy : y 2 X and y 0 ag. Since a 2 fy : y 2 X and y 0 ag P0 ; a is in P0 .

Since a is in P0 and a is in A, a is in A \ðP0 Þ, and therefore, A \ðP0 Þ is nonempty.
Since P and P0 are two open sets such that
(I) P \ A and P0 \ A are nonempty sets,
(II) P \ P0 \ A is empty,
(III) A P [ðP0 Þ;
by the definition of connected set, A is not a connected set. This is a contradiction.
This proves (*). h
4.4 Smooth Manifold as Paracompact Space
Definition Let n be a fixed positive integer. Let M be a topological space. If the

following conditions are satisfied:
1. M is a Hausdorff space,
2. M is a second countable space,
3. for every x in M, there exists an open neighborhood U of x in M, and an open
subset Ue of Euclidean space Rn such that U and U
e are homeomorphic, then we
say that M is a topological manifold of dimension n. In other words, M is a
topological manifold of dimension n means M is a topological space that sat-
isfies the following conditions:
10 : If x and y are distinct points of M, then there exist an open neighborhood U of

x and an open neighborhood V of y such that U and V have no common element,
20 . There exists a countable collection C of open subsets of M such that for every
neighborhood U of x, there exists a member G of C such that x 2 G U;
30 . For every x in M, there exist an open neighborhood U of x in M, an open
subset U e of Euclidean space Rn , and a 1–1 mapping φ from U onto U e such that
1
φ and its inverse u , both are continuous functions.
Here, ðU; uÞ is referred as a coordinate chart of M.
Note 4.44 Let M be a topological manifold of dimension n. We shall try to show
that M is locally path connected. For this purpose, let us take an element x in M and
an open neighborhood U of x in M. We have to find an open set V of x such that
(I) x 2 V U;
(II) V is a path connected subset of M.
Since M is a topological manifold, and x is in M so, there exist an open
e 1 of Euclidean space Rn such that
neighborhood U1 of x in M and an open subset U
U1 and Ue 1 are homeomorphic.
Since U and U1 are open neighborhoods of x, their intersection U \ U1 is also an

open neighborhood of x. Here that U1 and Ue 1 are homeomorphic so, there exists a
e
1–1 mapping φ from U1 onto U 1 such that φ and its inverse u1 , both are continuous
e 1 11; onto
functions. Since U \ U1 is an open subset of U1, and u1 : U ! U1 is con-
e 1 Since uðU \ U1 Þ is an open subset of U
tinuous, uðU \ U1 Þ is an open subset of U e 1;
e
and U 1 is an open subset of R , uðU \ U1 Þ is an open subset of R : Since U \ U1 is
n n
an open neighborhood of x, x is in U \ U1 ; and hence, uðxÞ is in uðU \ U1 Þ: Since

uðxÞ is in uðU \ U1 Þ and uðU \ U1 Þ is an open subset of Rn , uðU \ U1 Þis an open
neighborhood of uðxÞ in Rn . So, there exists e [ 0 such that the open ball
B fy 2 Rn : jy uð xÞj\eg
is contained in uðU \ U1 Þ: Since B uðU \ U1 Þ U e 1 ; B is contained in U

e 1 : We
e
know that B is open in R . Since φ is a continuous function from U1 onto U 1 ; and
n
B is an open subset of Ue 1 , u1 ðBÞ is an open subset of U1. Let us take u1 ðBÞ for
V in (I) and (II). So, we must prove:
(I) x 2 u1 ðBÞ U;
(II) u1 ðBÞ is a path connected subset of M.
For (I): Since juðxÞ uðxÞj ¼ 0\e, uðxÞ 2 fy 2 Rn : jy uðxÞj\eg ¼ B; and

hence, x 2 u1 ðBÞ: Since U \ U1 is contained in U1, uðU \ U1 Þ uðUÞ: Since
B uðU \ U1 Þ uðUÞ, B uðUÞ and hence u1 ðBÞ U: This proves (I).
For (II): We have to prove that u1 ðBÞ is a path connected subset of M. For this
purpose, let us take any a and b in u1 ðBÞ. We have to find a path f in M from
a to b, that is, we have to find a continuous function f from closed interval [0, 1]
to M such that f ð0Þ ¼ a and f ð1Þ ¼ b: Consider the function
f : ½0; 1 7! M defined by f ðtÞ u1 ðð1 tÞuðaÞ þ tuðbÞÞ for every t in [0, 1].
Here, t 7! u1 ðð1 tÞuðaÞ þ tuðbÞÞ is a composite function of two functions
t 7! ð1 tÞuðaÞ þ tuðbÞ and u1 . Since a is in u1 ðBÞ, uðaÞ 2 B, and hence, by
the definition of B; juðaÞ uðxÞj\e: Similarly, juðbÞ uðxÞj\e. Since
juðaÞ uðxÞj\e; and juðbÞ uðxÞj\e; for every t satisfying 0 t 1, we have
jðð1 tÞuðaÞ þ tuðbÞÞuð xÞj ¼ jð1 tÞðuðaÞ uð xÞÞ þ tðuðbÞ uð xÞÞj

ð1 tÞjuðaÞ uð xÞj þ tjuðbÞ uð xÞj
\ð1 tÞe þ te ¼ e:
It follows, by the definition of B, that t 7! ð1 tÞuðaÞ þ tuðbÞ is a function from

[0,1] to B. Since t 7! ð1 tÞuðaÞ þ tuðbÞ is a function from [0,1] to Bð U e 1 Þ; and
u1 : Ue 1 7! U1 M; their composite t 7! u1 ðð1 tÞuðaÞ þ tuðbÞÞ maps [0, 1] to
M. Since t 7! ð1 tÞuðaÞ þ tuðbÞ and u1 both are continuous, their composite
4.4 Smooth Manifold as Paracompact Space 275
function t 7! u1 ðð1 tÞuðaÞ þ tuðbÞÞ is continuous. Further, since f ðtÞ ¼

u1 ðð1 tÞuðaÞ þ tuðbÞÞ and , t 7! u1 ðð1 tÞuðaÞ þ tuðbÞÞ is continuous, f :
½0; 1 7! M is continuous. Also f ð0Þ ¼ u1 ðð1 0ÞuðaÞ þ 0uðbÞÞ ¼ u1 ðuðaÞÞ ¼
a; and f ð1Þ ¼ u1 ðð1 1ÞuðaÞ þ 1uðbÞÞ ¼ u1 ðuðbÞÞ ¼ b. Thus f is a path in
M from a to b. This proves (II).
Note 4.45 Let M be a topological manifold of dimension n. We shall try to prove:
(i) M is connected if and only if it is path connected.
(ii) The collection of all path components of M is equal to the collection of all
components of M.
(iii) M has countable many components, each of which is an open subset of M,
and a connected topological manifold.
For (i): Let M be path connected. We have to prove that M is connected. Since
M is path connected, M is a path component. Since M is a topological manifold,
M is locally path connected. Since M is locally path connected, and M is a path
component, M is a component. Since M is a component, M is connected.
Converse: Let M be connected. We have to prove that M is path connected.
Since M is connected, M is a component. Since M is a topological manifold,
M is locally path connected. Since M is locally path connected, and M is a
component, M is a path component. Since M is a path component, M is path
connected.
This completes the proof of (i).
For (ii): Since M is a topological manifold, M is locally path connected. Since
M is locally path connected, the collection of all path components of M is equal
to the collection of all components of M. This proves (ii).
For (iii): We have to prove that M has countable many components. If not,
otherwise, let M has uncountable many components. We have to arrive at a
contradiction.
Let C be a component of M. Since M is a topological manifold, M is locally path
connected. Since M is locally path connected, and C is a component of M, C is a
path component. Since M is locally path connected, and C is a path component, C is
open in M. Since C is open in M, and a is in C, C is an open neighborhood of a in
M. Since M is a topological manifold, M is a second countable space. Since M is a
second countable space, there exists a countable collection C of open subsets of
M such that for every neighborhood U of x, there exists a member G of C such that
x 2 G U: Now, since C is an open neighborhood of a, there exists a member G of
C such that x 2 G C:
Thus, we see that corresponding to each component C, there exists a member
G of C such that G is contained in C. Since M is partitioned into components, each
component contains a member of C, and the collection of all components is
uncountable, the collection C is uncountable. This is a contradiction. This proves
that M has countable many components.
Now, let us take a component C. We have to prove that C is open and connected.
Since M is a topological manifold, M is locally path connected. Since M is locally
path connected and C is a component of M, C is a path component. Since M is
locally path connected, and C is a path component, C is open in M. Since C is a
component, C is connected. Hence, C is open and connected.
Lastly, we have to show that C is a topological manifold of dimension n, where
topology on C is the induced topology of M. Since C is an open subset of topo-
logical space M, under induced topology of M, open subsets of C are exactly those
subsets of C which are open in M. By the definition of topological manifold, we
must prove:
1. C is a Hausdorff space,
2. C is a second countable space,
e1
3. for every x in C, there exist a neighborhood U1 of x in C, and an open subset U
of Euclidean space R such that U1 and U
n e 1 are homeomorphic:
For 1: Since M is a topological manifold, M is a Hausdorff space. Since M is a

Hausdorff space, and C is a subspace of M, C is a Hausdorff space. This proves 1.
For 2: Since M is a topological manifold, M is a second countable space. Since
M is a second countable space, and C is a subspace of M, C is a second
countable. This proves 2.
For 3: Let us fix any a in C. We have to find an open neighborhood U1 of a in C,
and an open subset U e 1 of Euclidean space Rn such that U1 and U e 1 are
homeomorphic.
Since a is in C, and C is contained in M so, a is in M. Since a is in M, and M is a
topological manifold, there exists an open neighborhood U of a in M, an open
subset Ue of Euclidean space Rn , and a 1–1 mapping φ from U onto U e such that φ
1
and its inverse u , both are continuous functions. Since a is in C, and C is open,
C is an open neighborhood of a. Since C is an open neighborhood of a, and U is an
open neighborhood of a, C \ U is an open neighborhood of a, and C \ U is con-
tained in U. Here, function φ from U to U e is 1–1, so its restriction ujC U to C \ U
\
is also 1–1. Since function φ from U to U e is continuous, its restriction ujC U to
\
onto
C \ U is also continuous. Since the mapping u1 : U e 11;
! U is continuous, and
e . Since uðC \ UÞ is open in U
C \ U is an open subset of U, uðC \ UÞ is open in U e;
and Ue is open in R , uðC \ UÞ is open in R Since u : U ! U
n n e is a homeomor-
phism, C \ U is an open subset of U, and uðC \ UÞ is an open subset of U e;
ujC \ U : C \ U ! uðC \ UÞ is a homeomorphism. This proves 3.
Note 4.46 Let X be a second countable space. We shall try to show that every open
cover of X has a countable subcover. Let G be an open cover of X. We have to find a
countable subcover of G. Since X is a second countable space, there exists a basis B
of X such that B is countable. Put
B1 fU : U 2 B; and there exists G 2 G such that U Gg:
Since B1 B; and B is countable, B1 is countable. Now, we shall try to show

that B1 is a basis of X. For this purpose, let us take any open neighborhood G of x in
X. We have to find a member U of B1 such that x 2 U G:
Since x is in X, and G is a cover of X, there exists G1 in G such that x is in G1.
Since G1 is in G; and G is an open cover of X, G1 is open. Since G1 is open, and x is
in G1, G1 is an open neighborhood of x. Since G1 is an open neighborhood of x, and
G is an open neighborhood of x, their intersection G1 \ G is an open neighborhood
of x. Since G1 \ G is an open neighborhood of x, and B is a basis of X, there exists
U in B such that x 2 U G1 \ G G: Since U G1 \ G G1 ; U G1 Since
U is in B; G1 2 G; and U G1 , by the definition of B1 ; U is in B1 : Thus, we have
shown that B1 is a basis of X.
By the definition of B1 ; for each U in B1 ; the set fG : G 2 G; and U Gg is
nonempty, and hence, we can choose a unique GU in G such that U GU : Put
G1 fGU : U 2 B1 g:
We shall try to show that G1 is a countable subcover of G: Since B1 is countable,

by the definition of G1 ; G1 is countable. Clearly, G1 G: It remains to prove that G1
is a cover of X. For this purpose, let us take any x in X. We have to find a member of
G1 that contains x.
Since X is an open neighborhood of x, and B1 is a basis of X, there exists U in B1
such that x 2 U X: Since U is in B1 , by the definition of G1 ; GU 2 G1 ; and hence
U GU : Since x 2 U; and U GU ; x 2 GU ; where GU 2 G1 : Thus, G1 is a cover
of X. Thus, we have shown that G1 is a countable subcover of G:
Lemma 4.47 Let M be a topological manifold of dimension n. Then, there exists a
countable collection fðU1 ; u1 Þ; ðU2 ; u2 Þ; ðU3 ; u3 Þ; . . .g of coordinate charts of M
such that
1. fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is a basis of M,
2. each ui ðUi Þ is an open ball in Rn ;
3. each closure Ui of Ui is a compact subset of M.
Proof Let C be the collection of all coordinate charts ðU; uÞ of M. Since M is a

topological manifold, fU : ðU; uÞ 2 Cg is an open cover of M. Since M is a
topological manifold, M is second countable. Since M is a second countable space,
and fU : ðU; uÞ 2 Cg is an open cover of M, there exists a countable subcover
fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g of fU : ðU; uÞ 2 Cg: Here, U1 2 fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g
fU : ðU; uÞ 2 Cg; U1 2 fU : ðU; uÞ 2 Cg; and hence, there exists a function u1
such that ðU1 ; u1 Þ 2 C: It follows that there exists an open subset U e 1 of Rn such
that u1 : U1 7! U e 1 is a homeomorphism.
Let B be the collection of all open balls Br ðxÞ with center x and radius r such that
r is a positive rational, and each coordinate of x is a rational number. We know that
B is a basis of Rn : Since the set of all rational numbers is countable, the collection B
is countable. Let B1 be the collection of all Br ðxÞ 2 B such that the closure ðBr ðxÞÞ
of Br ðxÞ is contained in U e 1 : We shall try to show that B1 is a basis of U e 1:
For this purpose, let us take any open neighborhood V of y such that V ~ ~ is
contained in U e 1 : Since V ~ is an open neighborhood of y, and B is a basis of R ; there n
exists an open ball Bry ðxy Þ in B such that y 2 Bry ðxy Þ V; ~ where ry is a positive
rational, and each coordinate of xy is a rational number. Since y 2 Bry ðxy Þ;
jy xy j\ry : There exists a positive rational number sy such that jy xy j\sy \ry :
Hence, y 2 Bsy ðxy Þ ðBsy ðxy ÞÞ fz : jz xy j sy g Bry ðxy Þ V ~U e 1 : Since
sy is a positive rational, and each coordinate of xy is a rational number, Bsy ðxy Þ is in
B: Since Bsy ðxy Þ is in B; and ðBsy ðxy ÞÞ U e 1 ; Bsy ðxy Þ is in B1 . Also y 2 Bsy ðxy Þ
~ and Bsy ðxy Þ is an open neighborhood of y, B1 is a basis of U
V; e 1 : Thus, we have
shown that B1 is a basis of U e 1:
Since B is countable, and B1 is contained in B; B1 is countable. Thus, B1 is a
countable basis of U e 1 : Let us take any Br ðxÞ in B1 : Since Br ðxÞ is in B1 ; and B1 is a
e
basis of U 1 ; Br ðxÞ is an open subset of the open set U e 1 : Since Br ðxÞ is an open
subset of U e 1 ; and u1 : U1 ! U e 1 is a homeomorphism, u1 e
1 ðBr ðxÞÞ is open in U 1 :
1 e e
Since u1 ðBr ðxÞÞ is open in U 1 ; and u1 : U1 ! U 1 is a homeomorphism, the
restriction u1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ : u11 ðBr ðxÞÞ ! Br ðxÞ is a homomorphism. Thus, the
1
ordered pair ðu1

1 ðBr ðxÞÞ; u1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þ is a coordinate chart of U 1 :
1
Since B1 is countable, the collection fðu1

1 ðBr ðxÞÞ; u1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þ : Br ðxÞ is in B 1 g
1
of coordinate charts is countable. Thus, fðu1

1
is a countable collection of coordinate charts of M.
Now, we shall try to prove that
1. fu1
1 ðBr ðxÞÞ : Br ðxÞ is in B1 g is a basis of U1 ;
2. for each Br ðxÞ in B1 ; ðu1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þðu1
1 ðBr ðxÞÞÞ is an open ball in R ;
n
1

3. for each Br ðxÞ in B1 ; the closure ðu1 1
1 ðBr ðxÞÞÞ of u1 ðBr ðxÞÞ is a compact
subset of U1 :
For 1: Since u1 : U1 7! U e 1 is a homeomorphism, B1 is a basis of U e 1;
fu1
1 ðBr ðxÞÞ : Br ðxÞ is in B 1 g is a basis of U 1 :
For 2: Since ðu1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þðu11 ðBr ðxÞÞÞ ¼ Br ðxÞ; and Br ðxÞ is an open ball in
1
Rn ; ðu1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þðu1

1 ðBr ðxÞÞÞ is an open ball in R :
n
1
For 3: Since, for each Br ðxÞ in B1 ; ðBr ðxÞÞ U e 1 ; u1 e

1 : U 1 ! U1 is continu-

ous, and, by Heine–Borel theorem, ðBr ðxÞÞ is compact, u1 1 ððBr ðxÞÞ Þ
1 1
ð¼ ðu1 ðBr ðxÞÞÞ Þ is compact, and hence, ðu1 ðBr ðxÞÞÞ is a compact subset
of U1 : Here, U2 2 fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g fU : ðU; uÞ 2 Cg; so U2 2
fU : ðU; uÞ 2 Cg; and hence, there exists a function u2 such that ðU2 ; u2 Þ 2 C;
and hence, there exists an open subset U e 2 of Rn ; such that u2 : U2 7! Ue 2 is a
homeomorphism. Let B2 be the collection of all Br ðxÞ 2 B such that the closure
e2
ðBr ðxÞÞ of Br ðxÞ is contained in U
As above, fðu1
2 ðBr ðxÞÞ; u2 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þ : Br ðxÞis in B 2 g is a countable collection
2
of coordinate charts of M such that
(a) fu1
2 ðBr ðxÞÞ : Br ðxÞis in B2 g is a basis of U2 ;
(b) for each Br ðxÞin B2 ; ðu2 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þðu1
n
2

(c) for each Br ðxÞin B2 ; the closure ðu1 1
subset of U2 ; etc.
Since the countable union of countable sets is countable, the collection
[1 1
i¼1 fðui ðBr ðxÞÞ; ui ju1 Þ
: Br ðxÞis in Bi g of coordinates charts is countable.
i ðBr ðxÞÞ
I. [1 1
i¼1 fui ðBr ðxÞÞ : Br ðxÞis in Bi g is a basis of M,
II. for each i ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .; and for each Br ðxÞ in Bi ; ðui ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þðu1
i ðBr ðxÞÞÞ is
i
an open ball in R ; n

III. for each i ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .; and for each Br ðxÞ in Bi ; the closure ðu1 i ðBr ðxÞÞÞ of
1
ui ðBr ðxÞÞ is a compact subset of M, etc.
For I: Let G be any open neighborhood of a in M. Since fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is a cover
of M, there exists a positive integer i such that a 2 Ui : Since Ui \ G is an open
neighborhood of a, Ui \ G is contained in Ui ; and fu1 i ðBr ðxÞÞ : Br ðxÞ is in Bi g is
a basis of Ui ; there exists Br ðxÞ in Bi such that a 2 u1 i ðBr ðxÞÞ Ui \ G G:
This shows that [1 i¼1 fu1
i ðBr ðxÞÞ : Br ðxÞ is in B i g is a basis of M.
For II: This is clear.
For III: This is clear. h
Note 4.48 Let M be an m-dimensional topological manifold. Let p 2 M: Let U be

an open neighborhood of p. We shall try to prove: There exists an open neigh-
borhood V of p such that V U: Since M is an m-dimensional topological
manifold so, by Lemma 4.47, there exists a countable collection
fðU1 ; u1 Þ; ðU2 ; u2 Þ; ðU3 ; u3 Þ; . . .g of coordinate charts of M such that
2. each ui ðUi Þ is an open ball in Rm ;
Since U is an open neighborhood of p, and fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is a basis of M,
there exists a positive integer k such that p 2 Uk U: Here uk ðUk Þ is an open ball
in Rm ; and uk ðpÞ 2 uk ðUk Þ; there exists a real number r [ 0 such that the closed
ball Br ½uk ðpÞ uk ðUk Þ; and hence, u1 k ðBr ½uk ðpÞ Þ Uk : Since ðUk ; uk Þ is a
coordinate chart of M, uk : Uk ! uk ðUk Þ is a homeomorphism. Since uk : Uk !

uk ðUk Þ is a homeomorphism, u1 k : uk ðUk Þ ! Uk is continuous. Since uk :
1
uk ðUk Þ ! Uk is continuous, and Br ½uk ðpÞ is compact, u1 k ðBr ½uk ðpÞ Þ is compact.
Since M is topological manifold, the topology of M is Hausdorff. Since the topology
of M is Hausdorff, and u1 1
k ðBr ½uk ðpÞ Þ is compact, uk ðBr ½uk ðpÞ Þ is closed in M.
Clearly, uk ðBr ðuk ðpÞÞÞ is an open neighborhood of p, and u1
1
k ðBr ðuk ðpÞÞÞ
u1
k ðB ½u
r k ðpÞ Þ: Let us take u 1
k ðB r ðu k ðpÞÞÞ for V. Thus, V is an open neighbor-
1 1
hood of p, and V uk ðBr ½uk ðpÞ Þ: Since V uk ðBr ½uk ðpÞ Þ; and
u1 1
k ðBr ½uk ðpÞ Þ is closed in M, V uk ðBr ½uk ðpÞ Þ Uk U: Thus, V U:

Lemma 4.49 Let M be an n-dimensional smooth manifold. Then, there exists a

countable collection fðU1 ; u1 Þ; ðU2 ; u2 Þ; ðU3 ; u3 Þ; . . .g of admissible coordinate
charts of M such that
1. fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is a basis of M.
2. each ui ðUi Þ is an open ball in Rn ;
Proof Let C be the collection of all admissible coordinate charts ðU; uÞ of M. Since
M is a smooth manifold, fU : ðU; uÞ 2 Cg is an open cover of M. Since M is a
smooth manifold, M is second countable. Since M is a second countable space, and
fU : ðU; uÞ 2 Cg is an open cover of M, there exists a countable subcover
fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g of fU : ðU; uÞ 2 Cg:
Here, U1 2 fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g fU : ðU; uÞ 2 Cg; U1 2 fU : ðU; uÞ 2 Cg; and
hence, there exists a function u1 ; and an open subset U e 1 of Rn such that
u1 : U1 ! U e 1 , and ðU1 ; u1 Þ 2 C: Let B be the collection of all open balls Br ðxÞ
with center x and radius r such that r is a positive rational, and each coordinate of
x is a rational number. We know that B is a basis of Rn : Since the set of all rational
numbers is countable, the collection B is countable. Let B1 be the collection of all
Br ðxÞ 2 B such that the closure ðBr ðxÞÞ of Br ðxÞ is contained in U e 1:
e
We shall try to show that B1 is a basis of U 1 : For this purpose, let us take any
open neighborhood V ~ of y such that V ~ is contained in U e 1 : Since V ~ is an open
neighborhood of y, and B is a basis of Rn ; there exists an open ball Bry ðxy Þ in B such
that y 2 Bry ðxy Þ V; ~ where ry is a positive rational, and each coordinate of xy is a
rational number. Since y 2 Bry ðxy Þ; jy xy j\ry : There exists a positive rational
number sy such that jy xy j\sy \ry : Hence, y 2 Bsy ðxy Þ ðBsy ðxy ÞÞ
fy : jy xy j sy g Bry ðxy Þ V ~U e 1 : Since sy is a positive rational, and each
coordinate of xy is a rational number, Bsy ðxy Þ is in B: Since Bsy ðxy Þ is in B; and
ðBsy ðxy ÞÞ U e 1 ; Bsy ðxy Þ is in B1 . Also y 2 Bsy ðxy Þ V;~ and Bsy ðxy Þ is an open
neighborhood of y, B1 is a basis of U 1 : e
Thus, we have shown that B1 is a basis of U e 1 : Since B is countable, and B1 is
contained in B; B1 is countable. Thus, B1 is a countable basis of U e 1 : Let us take any
e 1 ; Br ðxÞ is an open subset of

Br ðxÞ in B1 : Since Br ðxÞ is in B1 ; and B1 is a basis of U
e
the open set U 1 : Since Br ðxÞ is an open subset of U e 1 ; and u1 : U1 ! U e 1 is a
1 1
homeomorphism, u1 ðBr ðxÞÞ is open in U1 : Since u1 ðBr ðxÞÞ is open in U1 ; and
u1 : U1 ! U e 1 is a homeomorphism, the restriction u1 ju1 ðB ðxÞÞ : u1 1 ðBr ðxÞÞ !
r1
Br ðxÞ is a homomorphism. Thus, the ordered pair ðu1 1 ðBr ðxÞÞ; u1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þ is a
1
coordinate chart of U1 :
Now, we want to show that ðu1 1 ðBr ðxÞÞ; u1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þ 2 C: For this purpose, let
1
us take any ðW; wÞ 2 C: Now, we must prove that

u1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ w1 : w u1 1 ðBr ð xÞÞ \ W
1
! u1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ u11 ð B r ð xÞ Þ \ W ;
1
and
1
w u1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ : u1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ u1
1 ðBr ð xÞÞ \ W

1 1
! w u1 1 ðBr ð xÞÞ \ W
are C 1 : Let us take any ðy1 ; . . .; yn Þ 2 wððu1 1 ðBr ðxÞÞÞ \ WÞ: So, there exists p in
ðu1
1 ðB r ðxÞÞÞ \ W such that wðpÞ ¼ ðy 1 ; . . .; yn Þ; and hence w1 ðy1 ; . . .; yn Þ ¼ p;
and p 2 u1 1 ðBr ðxÞÞ: Now,

u1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ w1 ðy1 ; . . .; yn Þ

1
¼ u1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ w1 ðy1 ; . . .; yn Þ ¼ u1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ ð pÞ

1
1 1
1
¼ u1 ð pÞ ¼ u1 w ðy1 ; . . .; yn Þ ¼ u1 w ðy1 ; . . .; yn Þ

1

¼ u1 w wððu1 ðBr ðxÞÞÞ \ W Þ
ðy1 ; ; yn Þ;
1
so ðu1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þ w1 ¼ ðu1 w1 Þjwððu1 ðBr ðxÞÞÞ \ WÞ : Since ðU1 ; u1 Þ 2 C; ðW; wÞ 2
1 1
C; and C is the collection of all admissible coordinate charts of M, ðu1 w1 Þ :

wðU1 \ WÞ ! u1 ðU1 \ WÞ is C 1 : Since u1 1 ðBr ðxÞÞ is an open subset of U1 ;
wððu11 ðB r ðxÞÞÞ \ WÞ is an open subset of wðU 1
1 \ WÞ: Since wððu1 ðBr ðxÞÞÞ \ WÞ
is an open subset of wðU1 \ WÞ; and ðu1 w1 Þ : wðU1 \ WÞ ! u1 ðU1 \ WÞ is C1 ;
ðu1 w1 Þjwððu1 ðBr ðxÞÞÞ \ WÞ ð¼ ðu1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þ w1 Þ is C1 ; and hence, ðu1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þ
1 1 1
w1 is C 1 : Thus, we have shown that ððu1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þ w1 Þ : wððu1
1 ðBr ðxÞÞÞ
1
1
\WÞ ! ðu1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þððu1 1
1 ðBr ðxÞÞÞ \ WÞis C : Similarly, ðw ðu1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þ Þ :
1 1
ðu1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þððu1 1 1 1

1 ðBr ðxÞÞÞ \ WÞ ! wððu1 ðBr ðxÞÞÞ \ WÞ is C . Thus, ðu1 ðBr
1
ðxÞÞ; u1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þ 2 C:
1
Since B1 is countable, the collection fðu1

1
of coordinate charts is countable. Thus, fðu1

1
is a countable collection of admissible coordinate charts of M. Now, we shall try to
prove that
1. fu1
2. for each Br ðxÞ in B1 ; ðu1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þðu1
n
1

3. for each Br ðxÞ in B1 ; the closure ðu1 1
subset of U1 :
For 1: Since u1 : U1 ! U e 1 is a homeomorphism, B1 is a basis of U e 1;

fu1
1 ðBr ðxÞÞ : Br ðxÞ is in B 1 g is a basis of U1 :
For 2: Since ðu1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þðu1
1 ðBr ðxÞÞÞ ¼ Br ðxÞ; and Br ðxÞ is an open ball in
1
Rn ; ðu1 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þðu1

1 ðBr ðxÞÞÞis an open ball in R :
n
1
For 3: Since, for each Br ðxÞ in B1 ; ðBr ðxÞÞ U e 1 ; u1 e

1 : U 1 ! U1 is continuous,

and, by Heine–Borel theorem, ðBr ðxÞÞ is compact, u1 1
1 ððBr ðxÞÞ Þð¼ ðu1
1
ðBr ðxÞÞÞ Þ is compact, and hence, ðu1 ðBr ðxÞÞÞ is a compact subset of U1 :
Here, U2 2 fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g fU : ðU; uÞ 2 Cg; U2 2 fU : ðU; uÞ 2 Cg; and
hence, there exists a function u2 such that ðU2 ; u2 Þ 2 C; and hence, there exists an
open subset U e 2 of Rn such that u2 : U2 ! U e 2 is a homeomorphism. Let B2 be the
collection of all Br ðxÞ 2 B such that the closure ðBr ðxÞÞ of Br ðxÞ is contained in U e 2:
1
As above, fðu2 ðBr ðxÞÞ; u2 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þ : Br ðxÞ is in B2 g is a countable collection
2
of admissible coordinate charts of M satisfying
(a) fu1
(b) for each Br ðxÞin B2 ; ðu2 ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þðu1
n
2

(c) for each Br ðxÞin B2 ; the closure ðu1 1
subset of U2 ; etc.
Since the countable union of countable sets is countable, the collection
[1 1
i¼1 fðui ðBr ðxÞÞ; ui ju1
i ðBr ðxÞÞ
Þ : Br ðxÞ is in Bi g of admissible coordinates charts is
countable. It remains to prove that
I. [1 1
i¼1 fui ðBr ðxÞÞ : Br ðxÞ is in B i g is a basis of M,
II. for each i ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .; and for each Br ðxÞ in Bi ; ðui ju1 ðBr ðxÞÞ Þðu1
i ðBr ðxÞÞÞ is
i
an open ball in Rn ;

III. for each i ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .; and for each Br ðxÞ in Bi ; the closure ðu1 i ðBr ðxÞÞÞ of
u1
i ðBr ðxÞÞ is a compact subset of M, etc.
For I: Let G be any open neighborhood of a in M. Since fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is a cover

of M, there exists a positive integer i such that a 2 Ui : Since Ui \ G is an open
neighborhood of a, Ui \ G is contained in Ui ; and fu1 i ðBr ðxÞÞ : Br ðxÞ is in Bi g is
a basis of Ui ; there exists Br ðxÞ is Bi such that a 2 u1 i ðBr ðxÞÞ Ui \ G G:
This shows that [1 i¼1 fu1
i ðBr ðxÞÞ : Br ðxÞ is in B i g is a basis of M.
For II: This is clear.
For III: This is clear. h
Definition Let X be a topological space. Let U be a collection of subsets of X. If for

every x in X, there exists an open neighborhood G of x such that
fU : U 2 U and U \ G is nonemptyg
is a finite set, then we say that U is locally finite. In other words, U is locally finite
means for every x in X, there exists an open neighborhood G of x such that all
members of U except finite many are “outside” G. In short, if for every x in X, there
exists an open neighborhood G of x such that G intersects only finite many
members of U; then we say that U is locally finite. Clearly, every subcollection of a
locally finite collection is locally finite.
Note 4.50 Let X be a topological space. Let U be an open cover of X. Let each
member of U intersects only finite many members of U: We shall try to show that U
is locally finite. For this purpose, let us take any x in X. Since x is in X, and U is a
cover of X, there exists G in U such that x is in G. Since G is in U; and U is an open
cover of X, G is open. Since G is open, and x is in G, G is an open neighborhood of
x. Since G is in U; and each member of U intersects only finite many members of U;
G intersects only finite many members of U: This proves that U is locally finite.
Lemma 4.51 Let M be a topological manifold. There exists a countable collection
fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; . . .g of open sets such that
1. fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; . . .g is a cover of M,
2. fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; . . .g is locally finite,
3. for each n ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .; the closure G
n of Gn is compact.
Proof By Lemma 4.47, there exists a countable collection fðU1 ; u1 Þ; ðU2 ; u2 Þ;

ðU3 ; u3 Þ; . . .g of coordinate charts of M such that
(i) fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is a basis of M,
(ii) each closure Un of Un is a compact subset of M.
Put B1 U1 :
By (i), clearly fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is an open cover of M. Since B1 ¼ U1 ; B 1 ¼
U1 : Since B
1 ¼ U
1 ; and U 1

is compact, B
1 is compact. Since fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is

an open cover of M, and B1 is compact, there exists a positive integer m1 [ 1 such
that B1 U1 [ U2 [ [ Um1 :
Put B2 U1 [ U2 [ [ Um1 : Since B2 ¼ U1 [ U2 [ [ Um1 ; B 2 ¼ ðU1 [ U2

[ [ Um1 Þ ¼ ðU1 Þ [ðU2 Þ [ [ðUm1 Þ: Since each of U1 ; U2 ; . . .; Um1 is
compact, the finite union ðU1 Þ [ðU2 Þ [ [ðUm1 Þð¼ B 2 Þ is compact, and hence,
B2 is compact. Since fU 1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is an open cover of M, and B2 is compact,

there exists a positive integer m2 [ m1 [ 1 such that B2 U1 [ U2 [ [ Um1 [
[Um2 :
Put B3 U1 [ U2 [ [ Um2 : Since B3 ¼ U1 [ U2 [ [ Um2 ; B 3 ¼ ðU1 [ U2

[ [ Um2 Þ ¼ ðU1 Þ [ðU2 Þ [ [ðUm2 Þ: Since each of U1 ; U2 ; . . .; Um2 is
compact, the finite union ðU1 Þ [ðU2 Þ [ [ðUm2 Þð¼ B 3 Þ is compact, and hence,
B3 is compact. Since fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is an open cover of M, and B

3 is compact,
there exists a positive integer m3 [ m2 [ m1 [ 1 such that B 3 U1 [
U2 [ [ Um1 [ [ Um2 [ [ Um3 :
Put B4 U1 [ U2 [ [ Um3 ; etc. Clearly
(a) for every positive integer n, Un Bn ;
(b) fB1 ; B2 ; B3 ; . . .g is an open cover of M,
(c) B1 B2 B3 ;
(d) each closure B n of B n is a compact subset of M,
(e) for every positive integer n, Bn B n Bnþ1 :
Put G1 B1 ; G2 B2 ; G3 B3 ðB
1 Þ; G4 B4 ðB2 Þ; G5 B5 ðB3 Þ; etc.
Clearly fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; . . .g is a countable collection of open sets (see Fig. 4.1).
1. fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; . . .g is a cover of M,
2. fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; . . .g is locally finite,
3. for each n ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .; the closure G
n of Gn is compact.
Fig. 4.1 A countable collection of open sets

For 1: This is clear.

For 2: Here, fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; . . .g is an open cover of M, and each member of
fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; . . .g intersects only finite many members of fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; . . .g;
fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; . . .g is locally finite.
For 3: Since G1 ¼ B1 ; G
1 ¼ B1 : Since B1 is compact, G1 is compact. Since
G2 ¼ B2 ; G2 ¼ B2 : Since B2 is compact, G2 is compact. Since G3 B

3;
G3 B
3 : Since the closed set G
3 is contained in the compact set B
3 ; G
3 is
compact. Since G4 B 4 ; G
4 B
4 : Since the closed set G
4 is contained in the
compact set B 4 ; G
4 is compact, etc. This proves 3. h
Definition Let X be a topological space. Let A; B be open covers of X. By A is a

refinement of B we mean: For every A in A; there exists B in B such that A B:
Lemma 4.52 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let X be any open
cover of M. There exists a countable collection fðU1 ; u1 Þ; ðU2 ; u2 Þ; ðU3 ; u3 Þ; . . .g
of admissible coordinate charts of M such that
1. fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g covers M,
2. fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is locally finite,
3. fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is a refinement of X ;
4. each un ðUn Þ is equal to the open ball B3 ð0Þ;
5. fu1 1 1
1 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; u2 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; u3 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; . . .g covers M.
Proof Since M is a smooth manifold, M is a topological manifold, and hence, by

Lemma 4.51, there exists a countable collection fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; . . .g of open sets such
that
a. fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; . . .g is a cover of M,
b. fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; . . .g is locally finite,
c. for each n ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .; the closure G
n of Gn is compact.
Let us fix any p in M. Since fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; . . .g is locally finite, and p is in M,

there exists an open neighborhood Wp of p such that

Gk : Gk \ Wp is nonempty
is a finite set.
Since p 2 Wp ; fGk : p 2 Gk g ¼ fGk : p 2 Gk \ Wp g fGk : Gk \ Wp is nonemptyg:
Since fGk : p 2 Gk g fGk : Gk \ Wp is nonemptyg; and fGk : Gk \ Wp is nonemptyg
is finite, fGk : p 2 Gk g is finite. Since fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; . . .g is a cover of M, and p 2 M;
fGk : p 2 Gk g is nonempty. Since fGk : p 2 Gk g is a nonempty finite collection of
open neighborhoods of p, \p2Gk Gk is an open neighborhood of p.
Since X is an open cover of M, and p is in M, there exists Xp in X such that

p 2 Xp : Since X is an open cover of M, and Xp is in X ; Xp is open. Since Xp is open,
and p 2 Xp ; Xp is an open neighborhood of p.
Since p is in M, and M is a smooth manifold, there exists an admissible coor-
dinate chart ðVp ; up Þ of M such that Vp is an open neighborhood of p.
Since \p2Gk Gk is an open neighborhood of p, Wp is an open neighborhood of p,
Xp is an open neighborhood of p, and Vp is an open neighborhood of p, their
intersection ð\p2Gk Gk Þ \ Wp \ Xp \ Vp is an open neighborhood of p.
Since ðVp ; up Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of M, ð\p2Gk Gk Þ \ Wp \ Xp
\ Vp Vp ; and ð\p2Gk Gk Þ \ Wp \ Xp \ Vp is an open neighborhood of p, the pair
ðð\p2Gk Gk Þ \ Wp \ Xp \ Vp ; up jð\p2G Gk Þ \ Wp \ Xp \ Vp Þ is an admissible coordinate
k
chart of M: Since ðð\p2Gk Gk Þ \ Wp \ Xp \ Vp ; up jð\p2G Gk Þ \ Wp \ Xp \ Vp Þ is an
k
admissible coordinate chart of M, and p 2 ð\p2Gk Gk Þ \ Wp \ Xp \ Vp ; there exists
an admissible coordinate chart ðUp ; wp Þ such that Up ð\p2Gk Gk Þ \ Wp \ Xp \ Vp ;
Up is an open neighborhood of p, wp ðUp Þ ¼ B3 ð0Þ; and wp ðpÞ ¼ 0: Thus, wp :
Up ! B3 ð0Þ is a homeomorphism.
Since Up ð\p2Gk Gk Þ \ Wp \ Xp \ Vp Wp ; and fGk : Gk \ Wp is nonemptyg
is a finite set, fGk : Gk \ Up is nonemptyg is a finite set.
It is clear that
if q 2 Gk0 then Uq Gk0 :
(Reason: Let q 2 Gk0 : Since q 2 Gk0 ; Uq ð\q2Gk Gk Þ \ Wq \ Xq \ Vq

ð\q2Gk Gk Þ Gk0 :)
Since ðUp ; wp Þ is a coordinate chart, and wp ðUp Þ ¼ B3 ð0Þ; wp : Up ! B3 ð0Þ is
continuous. Since wp : Up ! B3 ð0Þ is continuous, and B1 ð0Þ is an open subset of
B3 ð0Þ; ðwp Þ1 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ is open in Up : Since ðwp Þ1 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ is open in Up ; and Up is
open in M; ðwp Þ1 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ is open in M. Since wp ðpÞ ¼ 0 2 B1 ð0Þ; p 2
ðwp Þ1 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ: Thus, ðwp Þ1 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ is an open neighborhood of p: Since wp :
Up ! B3 ð0Þ; and B1 ð0Þ B3 ð0Þ; ðwp Þ1 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ Up :
Since for every p in M; ðwp Þ1 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ is an open neighborhood of p; the
collection fðwp Þ1 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ : p 2 G
1g is an open cover of G
1: Since
1
fðwp Þ ðB1 ð0ÞÞ : p 2 G
1g is an open cover of G
1; and G
1 is compact, there exists
1 1
finite many p11 ; p12 ; . . .; p1k1 2 G
1 such that G1 ðwp11 Þ ðB1 ð0ÞÞ [ðwp12 Þ
ðB1 ð0ÞÞ [ [ðwp1k Þ1 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ Up11 [ Up12 [ [ Up1k1 ; where ðUp11 ; wp11 Þ;
1
ðUp12 ; wp12 Þ; . . .; ðUp1k1 ; wp1k Þ are admissible coordinate charts of M:
1
Similarly, there exists finite many p21 ; p22 ; . . .; p2k2 2 G 2 such that G2

Up21 [ Up22 [ [ Up2k2 ; etc. Clearly, ðUp11 ; wp11 Þ; ðUp12 ; wp12 Þ; . . .; ðUp1k1 ; wp1k1 Þ,
ðUp21 ; wp21 Þ; ðUp22 ; wp22 Þ; . . .; ðUp2k2 ; wp2k Þ; ðUp31 ; wp31 Þ; ðUp32 ; wp32 Þ; . . .; ðUp3k3 ; wp3k Þ; . . .
2 3
constitute a countable collection of admissible coordinate charts of M:
1 1 1
For 1: Since G1 G
1 ðwp11 Þ ðB1 ð0ÞÞ [ðwp12 Þ ðB1 ð0ÞÞ [ [ðwp1k1 Þ
1 1
ðB1 ð0ÞÞ Up11 [ Up12 [ [ Up1k1 ; G2 G
2 ðwp21 Þ ðB1 ð0ÞÞ [ðwp22 Þ ðB1 ð0ÞÞ
1
[ [ðwp2k2 Þ ðB1 ð0ÞÞ Up21 [ Up22 [ [ Up2k2 ; . . .; and fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; g is
a cover of M; fUp11 ; Up12 ; . . .; Up1k1 ; Up21 ; Up22 ; . . .; Up2k2 ; Up31 ; Up32 ; . . .; Up3k3 ; . . .g
is an open cover of M:
For 2: We have to prove that fUp11 ; Up12 ; . . .; Up1k1 ; Up21 ; Up22 ; . . .; Up2k2 ;
Up31 ; Up32 ; . . .; Up3k3 ; . . .g is locally finite.
Since fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; . . .g is a cover of M; and p11 2 M; there exists a positive
integer n11 such that p11 2 Gn11 : Since p11 2 Gn11 ; Up11 Gn11 : Similarly, there
exists a positive integer n12 such that Up12 Gn12 ; etc.
Since fUp11 ; Up12 ; . . .; Up1k1 ; Up21 ; Up22 ; . . .; Up2k2 ; Up31 ; Up32 ; . . .; Up3k3 ; . . .g is a
cover of M; and each Upij is contained in Gnij ; fGn11 ; Gn12 ; . . .; Gn1k1 ; Gn21 ; Gn22 ; . . .;
Gn2k2 ; Gn31 ; Gn32 ; . . .; Gn3k3 ; . . .g is a cover of M: Since fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; . . .g is locally
finite, and fGn11 ; Gn12 ; . . .; Gn1k1 ; Gn21 ; Gn22 ; . . .; Gn2k2 ; Gn31 ; Gn32 ; . . .; Gn3k3 ; . . .g
fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; . . .g; fGn11 ; Gn12 ; . . .; Gn1k1 ; Gn21 ; Gn22 ; . . .; Gn2k2 ; Gn31 ; Gn32 ; . . .; Gn3k3 ; . . .g is
locally finite. Since fGn11 ; Gn12 ; . . .; Gn1k1 ; Gn21 ; Gn22 ; . . .; Gn2k2 ; Gn31 ; Gn32 ; . . .;
Gn3k3 ; . . .g is locally finite, and each Upij is contained in Gnij ;
fUp11 ; Up12 ; . . .; Up1k1 ; Up21 ; Up22 ; . . .; Up2k2 ; Up31 ; Up32 ; . . .; Up3k3 ; . . .g is locally finite.
For 3: We have to show that the open cover fUp11 ; Up12 ; . . .; Up1k1 ;
Up21 ; Up22 ; . . .; Up2k2 ; Up31 ; Up32 ; . . .; Up3k3 ; . . .g is a refinement of the open cover X :
Here Up11 ð\p11 2Gk Gk Þ \ Wp11 \ Xp11 \ Vp11 Xp11 2 X : Thus, Up11 Xp11 2 X :
Similarly, Up12 Xp12 2 X ; etc.
For 4: This is clear.
For 5: We have to show that
n o
w1 1 1 1 1 1
p11 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; wp12 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; . . .; wp1k ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; wp21 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; wp22 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; . . .; wp2k ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; . . .
1 2
covers M.
1 1 1
Since G1 G
1 ðwp11 Þ ðB1 ð0ÞÞ [ðwp12 Þ ðB1 ð0ÞÞ [ [ðwp1k1 Þ ðB1 ð0ÞÞ;
1 1 1
G2 G
2 ðwp21 Þ ðB1 ð0ÞÞ [ðwp22 Þ ðB1 ð0ÞÞ [ [ðwp2k2 Þ ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; . . .; and
fG1 ; G2 ; G3 ; g is a cover of M; fw1 1

p11 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; wp12 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; ; w1
p1k ðB1
1
ð0ÞÞ; w1 1
p21 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; wp22 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; ; w1
p2k ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; g is a cover of M: h
2
Definition Let X be a topological space. If for every open cover A of X; there

exists an open cover C of M such that C is locally finite, and C is a refinement of A;
then we say that X is a paracompact space.
Note 4.53 By the Lemma 4.52, we find that every smooth manifold is a para-
compact space.
4.5 Partitions of Unity Theorem
Note 4.54 (Pasting Lemma) Let X and Y be topological spaces. Let A and B be
subsets of X such that the union of A and B is X: Let f : A ! Y be a continuous
function, where the topology of A is the induced topology of X: Let g : B ! Y be a
continuous function, where the topology of B is the induced topology of X: Let
f ðxÞ ¼ gðxÞ for every x in A \ B. Let F : X ! Y be a function defined as follows:
f ð xÞ if x is in A
F ð xÞ
gð xÞ if x is in B:
Then, if A and B are open subsets of X, then F is continuous.

Proof Since f : A ! Y is a function, g : B ! Y is a function, for every x in A \ B;
f ðxÞ ¼ gðxÞ; and
f ð xÞ if x is in A
F ð xÞ
gð xÞ if x is in B;
F is well defined on A [ Bð¼ X Þ: Let us take any x in X. We have to prove that

F is continuous at x. Since x is in X, and X ¼ A [ B; x 2 A or x 2 B:
Case I: When x 2 A. Since f : A ! Y is a continuous function, and x 2 A; f is
continuous at x: Since f is continuous at x; and FjA ¼ f ; FjA is continuous at x:
Since x 2 A; and A is open, x is an interior point of A: Since x is an interior point
of A; and FjA is continuous at x; F is continuous at x:
Case II: When x 2 B. As in case I, F is continuous at x: h
Lemma 4.55 Let X be a topological space. Let U be a collection of subsets of X: If

U is locally finite, then ð[fU : U 2 UgÞ ¼ [fU : U 2 Ug:
Proof Let U be locally finite. For any U 2 U; U ð[fU : U 2 UgÞ; so U
ð[fU : U 2 UgÞ : This shows that [fU : U 2 Ug ð[fU : U 2 UgÞ : It
remains to show that ð[fU : U 2 UgÞ [fU : U 2 Ug: For this purpose, let us
4.5 Partitions of Unity Theorem 289
take any a in ð[fU : U 2 UgÞ : We claim that a is in [fU : U 2 Ug: If not,

otherwise, let for every U 2 U; a 62 U : We have to arrive at a contradiction. h
Now, since U is locally finite, there exists an open neighborhood Ga of a such that
all but finite many U 2 U are outside Ga : For every U 2 U, we have a 62 U ; there
exists an open neighborhood HU of a such that HU contains no point of U ; and
hence, HU contains no point of U: Since all but finite many U 2 U are outside Ga ;
the finite intersection ð\Ga \ U6¼; HU Þ \ Ga is an open neighborhood of a: Since for
every U 2 U; HU contains no point of U; and all but finite many U 2 U are outside
Ga ; ð\Ga \ U6¼; HU Þ \ Ga contains no point of [fU : U 2 Ug: It follows that a is not
in ð[fU : U 2 UgÞ ; a contradiction. h
Definition Let X be a topological space. Let f : X ! Rk be any function. The
closure fx : f ðxÞ 6¼ 0g of fx : f ðxÞ ¼
6 0g is denoted by supp f ; and is called the
support of f :
Lemma 4.56 Let M be a 3-dimensional smooth manifold. Let fXi gi2I be an open
cover of M: Then, there exists a family fwi gi2I of functions wi : M ! ½0; 1 such
that
1. for each i 2 I; wi is smooth,
2. for each i 2 I; supp wi is contained in Xi ;
3. fsupp wi gi2I is locally finite,
P
4. i2I wi ¼ 1:
Proof By the Lemma 4.52, there exists a countable collection fðU1 ; u1 Þ; ðU2 ;
u2 Þ; ðU3 ; u3 Þ; . . .g of admissible coordinate charts of M such that
i. fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g covers M;
ii. fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is locally finite,
iii. fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is a refinement of fXi gi2I ;
iv. each un ðUn Þ is equal to the open ball B3 ð0Þ;
v. fu1 1 1
1 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; u2 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; u3 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; . . .g covers M.
By the Note 3.52, there exists a function H : R3 ! ½0; 1 such that

I. H is smooth,
II. HðxÞ ¼ 1; if x is in the closed ball B1 ½0 ;
III. supp H ¼ B2 ½0 :
Let us fix any positive integer n. Observe that
Un ¼ u1
n ðB3 ð0ÞÞ u1
n ðB2 ½0 Þ:
If x 2 Un u1 1
n ðB2 ½0 Þ; then x 62 un ðB2 ½0 Þ; and hence, un ðxÞ 62 B2 ½0 ¼
1 1
supp H ¼ ðH ðR f0gÞÞ H ðR f0gÞ: It follows that if x 2 Un
u1 1
n ðB2 ½0 Þ; then un ðxÞ 62 H ðR f0gÞ; and hence, Hðun ðxÞÞ ¼ 0: This shows
that the function fn : M ! ½0; 1 defined as follows: For every x in M;
H ðun ð xÞÞ if x 2 Un ;
fn ð xÞ
0 6 u1
if x 2 n ðB2 ½0 Þ;
is well defined. Clearly, fn1 ðR f0gÞ u1 1

n ðB2 ½0 Þ; and hence, supp fn ¼ ðfn ðR

f0gÞÞ ðu1 1 1
n ðB2 ½0 ÞÞ ¼ un ðB2 ½0 Þ un ðB3 ð0ÞÞ ¼ Un : Thus, supp fn Un :
Since ðUn ; un Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of 3-dimensional smooth
manifold M, un ðUn Þ is open in R3 ; and un : Un ! un ðUn Þð¼ B3 ð0ÞÞ is a homeo-
morphism. Since un : Un ! un ðUn Þ; and H : R3 ! ½0; 1 ; H un : Un ! ½0; 1 :
Clearly, H un : Un ! ½0; 1 is smooth.
(Reason: Take any p in Un : We have to prove that H un is smooth at p: For this
purpose, let us take any admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ of M such that p 2 V: We
have to prove that ðH un Þ w1 is smooth. Since ðUn ; un Þ; ðV; wÞ are admissible
coordinate charts of M; and Un \ V is nonempty, un w1 is smooth. Since un
w1 is smooth, and H is smooth, their composite H ðun w1 Þð¼ ðH un Þ w1 Þ
is smooth, and hence, ðH un Þ w1 is smooth.)
Since
ðH un Þð xÞ if x 2 Un ;
f n ð xÞ ¼
0 if x 2 M ðun 1 ðB2 ½0 ÞÞ
is a well-defined function, Un and M ðu1 n ðB2 ½0 ÞÞ are open sets, the restriction
fn jUn ð¼ H un Þ is smooth, and the restriction fn jMðu1 n ðB2 ½0 ÞÞ
ð¼ 0Þ is smooth, fn is
smooth.
Let us fix any a in M: Since fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is a locally finite cover of M, and a is
in M; there exists an open neighborhood Ga of a; and a positive integer N such that
k N implies Uk is outside Ga : For k N; Uk ¼ u1 k ðB3 ð0ÞÞ u1
k ðB2 ½0 Þ; and Uk is
1
outside Ga ; uk ðB2 ½0 Þ is outside Ga for every k N: Since for every k N; Ga is
outside u1 k ðB2 ½0 Þ; by the definition of fk ; for every x in the open neighborhood Ga of
a; and k N; we have fk ðxÞ ¼ 0: Now, since a 2 Ga ; fN ðaÞ ¼ 0 ¼ fNþ1 ðaÞ ¼
fNþ2 ðaÞ ¼ : It follows that f1 ðaÞ þ f2 ðaÞ þ f3 ðaÞ þ is a real number.
Since fu1
1 ðB 1 ð0ÞÞ; u 1
2 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; u 1
3 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; . . .g covers M; and a is in M; there
exists a positive integer N0 such that a 2 u1 N0 ðB 1 ð0ÞÞ u 1
N0 ðB3 ð0ÞÞ ¼ UN0 ; and
hence uN0 ðaÞ 2 B1 ð0Þ B1 ½0 : Since uN0 ðaÞ 2 B1 ½0 ; a 2 UN0 ; and HðxÞ ¼ 1 for
every x in the closed ball B1 ½0 ; fN0 ðaÞ ¼ HðuN0 ðaÞÞ ¼ 1:
Since f1 : M ! ½0; 1 ; f2 : M ! ½0; 1 ; f3 : M ! ½0; 1 ; . . .; and fN0 ðaÞ ¼ 1;
f1 ðaÞ þ f2 ðaÞ þ f3 ðaÞ þ fN0 ðaÞ ¼ 1:
Further, since 1 f1 ðaÞ þ f2 ðaÞ þ f3 ðaÞ þ ; and f1 ðaÞ þ f2 ðaÞ þ f3 ðaÞ þ is
a real number,
fn ðaÞ
2 ½0; 1 :
f1 ðaÞ þ f2 ðaÞ þ f3 ðaÞ þ
Thus, the function gn : M ! ½0; 1 defined as follows: For every x in M;
f n ð xÞ
gn ð x Þ
f 1 ð xÞ þ f 2 ð xÞ þ f 3 ð xÞ þ
is well defined. Further, we have shown that for every a in M; there exists an open
neighborhood Ga of a; and a positive integer N such that for every x in the open
neighborhood Ga ;
f n ð xÞ
gn ð x Þ ¼ :
f1 ð xÞ þ f2 ð xÞ þ þ f N ð xÞ
Further, since f1 ; f2 ; f3 ; . . . are smooth,
f n ð xÞ
x 7! ð ¼ gn ð x Þ Þ
f 1 ð xÞ þ f 2 ð xÞ þ þ f N ð xÞ
is smooth in Ga : This shows that gn is smooth. Clearly, supp gn ¼ supp fn Un :

Since for every x in the open neighborhood Ga of a; we have
fN ðxÞ ¼ 0 ¼ fNþ1 ðxÞ ¼ fNþ2 ðxÞ ¼ ;
f N ð xÞ 0
gN ð x Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 0;
f 1 ð xÞ þ f 2 ð xÞ þ þ fN ð xÞ f1 ð xÞ þ f2 ð xÞ þ þ f N ð xÞ
fNþ1 ð xÞ 0
gNþ1 ð xÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ 0;
f 1 ð xÞ þ f 2 ð xÞ þ þ fN ð xÞ f1 ð xÞ þ f2 ð xÞ þ þ f N ð xÞ
gNþ1 ðxÞ ¼ 0; . . .:
Hence, ðg1 þ g2 þ g3 þ ÞjGa ¼ ðg1 þ g2 þ þ gN ÞjGa : Clearly, for every

x in M,
g1 ð x Þ þ g2 ð x Þ þ g3 ð x Þ þ
1 1
¼ f 1 ð xÞ þ f2 ð xÞ
f1 ð xÞ þ f2 ð xÞ þ f3 ð xÞ þ f1 ð xÞ þ f2 ð xÞ þ f3 ð xÞ þ
1
þ f 3 ð xÞ þ
f 1 ð xÞ þ f 2 ð xÞ þ f 3 ð xÞ þ
1
¼ ðf1 ð xÞ þ f2 ð xÞ þ f3 ð xÞ þ Þ ¼ 1:
f1 ð xÞ þ f2 ð xÞ þ f3 ð xÞ þ
In short, g1 þ g2 þ g3 þ ¼ 1:
Since fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is a refinement of fXi gi2I ; for every positive integer m,

there exists an index iðmÞ 2 I such that Um XiðmÞ : It follows that
[i 2I fm : iðmÞ ¼ i g ¼ f1; 2; 3; . . .g:
Let us fix any i in I: Since fx : 0\f1 ðxÞg fx : 0\f1 ðxÞg ¼ supp f1 U1 ;
fx : 0\f1 ðxÞg U1 : Similarly, fx : 0\f2 ðxÞg U2 ; fx : 0\f3 ðxÞg U3 ; . . ..
Further, since fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is locally finite, ffx : 0\f1 ðxÞg; fx : 0\f2 ðxÞg;
fx : 0\f3 ðxÞg; . . .g is locally finite, and hence, its subcollection ffx : 0\fm ðxÞg :
iðmÞ ¼ i g is locally finite. It follows that ð[iðmÞ¼i fx : 0\fm ðxÞgÞ ¼ [iðmÞ¼i
ðfx : 0\fm ðxÞg Þ ¼ [iðmÞ¼i ðsupp fm Þ [iðmÞ¼i Um [iðmÞ¼i XiðmÞ ¼ [iðmÞ¼i Xi ¼ Xi :
Thus ð[iðmÞ¼i fx : 0\fm ðxÞgÞ Xi :
P
Since for every x in M; iðmÞ¼i gm ðxÞ g1 ðxÞ þ g2 ðxÞ þ g3 ðxÞ þ ¼ 1; it
follows that the function wi : M ! ½0; 1 defined as follows:
( P
gm if fm : iðmÞ ¼ i g is nonempty;
wi ¼ iðmÞ¼i
0 if fm : iðmÞ ¼ i g is the empty set;
is well defined.

For 1: Case I: When Pfm : iðmÞ ¼ i g is nonempty. Let us take any a in M: We
have to prove that iðmÞ¼i gm ð¼ wi Þ is smooth at a: We have seen that there
exist an open neighborhood Ga of a; and positiveP integers m1 ; m2 ; . . .; mk such
that i ¼ iðm1 Þ ¼ iðm2 Þ ¼ ¼ iðmk Þ; and ð iðmÞ¼i gm ÞjGa ¼ ðgm1 þ gm2
þ þ gmk ÞjGa : Since each gn is smooth, ðgm1 þ gm2 þ þ gmk ÞjGa is smooth
P
at a: Since ðgm1 þ gm2 þ þ gmk ÞjGa is smooth at a; and ð iðmÞ¼i gm ÞjGa ¼
P
ðgm1 þ gm2 þ þ gmk ÞjGa ; ð iðmÞ¼i gm ÞjGa is smooth at a: This shows that
P
wi ð¼ iðmÞ¼i gm Þ is smooth.
Case 2: When fm : iðmÞ ¼ i gis the empty set. Since the constant function 0 is
smooth, and wi ¼ 0; wi is smooth. So, in all cases, wi is smooth.
For 2: Case I: When fm : iðmÞ ¼ i g is nonempty. We have to prove that
supp wi Xi : Here
0 1 00 11 1
X X
supp wi ¼ supp @ gm A ¼ @ @ gm A ð R f0gÞ A
iðmÞ¼i iðmÞ¼i
8 0 1 9 8 9
< X = < X =
¼ x : 0\@ gm Að xÞ ¼ x : 0\ ð gm ð x Þ Þ
: iðmÞ¼i
; : iðmÞ¼i
;
8 9
< X 1
=
¼ x : 0\ f m ð xÞ
: iðmÞ¼i
f 1 ð xÞ þ f 2 ð xÞ þ f 3 ð xÞ þ ;
8 9
< 1 X =
¼ x : 0\ ðfm ð xÞÞ
: f1 ð xÞ þ f2 ð xÞ þ f3 ð xÞ þ iðmÞ¼i
;
8 9
< X =
¼ x : 0\ fm ð xÞ ¼ [iðmÞ¼i fx : 0\fm ð xÞg Xi :
: iðmÞ¼i
;
Hence, supp wi Xi :

Case II: When fm : iðmÞ ¼ i g is the empty set. Here, supp wi ¼ supp ð0Þ ¼
; Xi ; and hence, supp wi Xi :Hence, in all cases, supp wi Xi :
For 3: We have seen that if fm : iðmÞ ¼ i g is nonempty; then supp wi ¼
ð[iðmÞ¼i fx : 0\fm ðxÞgÞ ¼ [iðmÞ¼i ðfx : 0\fm ðxÞg Þ ¼ [iðmÞ¼i ðsupp fm Þ
[iðmÞ¼i Um : Thus, if fm : iðmÞ ¼ i g is nonempty; then supp wi [iðmÞ¼i Um :
Also, if fm : iðmÞ ¼ i g is the empty set; then supp wi ¼ supp 0 ¼ ;: Now, it
suffices to show that f[iðmÞ¼i Um : i 2 Ig is locally finite. Since ffm : iðmÞ ¼
i g : i 2 Ig is a partition of f1; 2; 3; . . .g; and fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is locally finite,
f[iðmÞ¼i Um : i 2 Ig is locally finite.
For 4: Here
X X X X
LHS ¼ wi ¼ wi ¼ wi þ wi
i2I i 2I i 2I i 2I
fm:iðmÞ¼i gis non empty fm:iðmÞ¼i gis empty set
X X X
¼ wi þ 0¼ wi
i 2I i 2I i 2I
fm:iðmÞ¼i gis non empty fm:iðmÞ¼i gis empty set fm:iðmÞ¼i gis non empty
0 1
X X
¼ @ gm A ¼ g1 þ g2 þ g3 þ ¼ 1 ¼ RHS: h
i 2I iðmÞ¼i
fm:iðmÞ¼i gis non empty
Note 4.57 Clearly, the above lemma is also valid for m-dimensional smooth
manifold M.
Definition Let M be a topological space. Let fXi gi2I be an open cover of M: Let
fwi gi2I be a family of functions wi : M ! ½0; 1 satisfying the following conditions:
1. for each i 2 I; wi is continuous,
2. for each i 2 I; supp wi is contained in Xi ;
3. fsupp wi gi2I is locally finite,
P
4. wi ¼ 1:
i2I
Then, we say that fwi gi2I is a partition of unity subordinate to fXi gi2I : Since
fsupp wi gi2I is locally
P finite, for P every x in M; there are only finite many nonzero
wi ðxÞ’s in the sum i2I wi ðxÞ; i2I wi ¼ 1 is meaningful. Further, if M is a smooth
manifold, and each wi is smooth, then we say that fwi gi2I is a smooth partition of
unity subordinate to fXi gi2I : Now, the Lemma 4.56 can be abbreviated as: “If M is
an n-dimensional smooth manifold, and fXi gi2I is an open cover of M; then there
exists a smooth partition of unity subordinate to fXi gi2I :” This result is known as
the partitions of unity theorem.
Definition Let M be a topological space. Let A be a closed subset of M: Let U be
an open subset of M such that A U: Let w : M ! ½0; 1 be a continuous function.
If
1. for every x in A, wðxÞ ¼ 1;
2. supp w U;
then we say that w is a bump function for A supported in U:
Lemma 4.58 Let M be a smooth manifold. Let A be a closed subset of M: Let U be

an open subset of M such that A U: Then, there exists a smooth function w :
M ! ½0; 1 such that w is a bump function for A supported in U:
Proof Clearly, fM A; Ug is an open cover of M: So, by the partitions of unity
theorem, there exist functions w1 : M ! ½0; 1 ; w : M ! ½0; 1 such that
1. w1 ; w are smooth,
2. supp w1 is contained in M A; and supp w is contained in U;
3. w1 þ w ¼ 1:
It remains to prove: For every x in A; wðxÞ ¼ 1; that is, for every x in A;
1 w1 ðxÞ ¼ ð1 w1 ÞðxÞ ¼ 1; that is, for every x in A; w1 ðxÞ ¼ 0: Since
fx : 0 6¼ w1 ðxÞg supp w1 M A;
A fx : 0 ¼ w1 ðxÞg ¼ fx : 0 ¼ 1 wðxÞg ¼ fx : wðxÞ ¼ 1g: h
Lemma 4.59 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let A be a nonempty
closed subset of M: Let U be an open subset of M such that A U: Let f : A ! Rk
be a smooth function (that is, for every p in A; there exists an open neighborhood
Wp of p; and a smooth function Fp : Wp ! Rk such that f jWp \ A ¼ Fp jWp \ A Þ: Then,
there exists a smooth function ~f : M ! Rk such that
1. ~fA ¼ f ;
2. supp ~f U:
Proof Let us fix any p in A: Since f : A ! Rk is a smooth function, and p is in A,

there exists an open neighborhood Vp of p, and a smooth function Fp : Vp ! Rk
such that f jVp \ A ¼ Fp jVp \ A : Since p is in A, and A U; p is in U. Since p is in U,
and U is open, U is an open neighborhood of p. Since U is an open neighborhood of

p, and Vp is an open neighborhood of p, Vp \ U is an open neighborhood of p.
Clearly, the collection fVp \ U : p 2 Ag [fM Ag is an open cover of smooth
manifold M: By the partitions of unity theorem, then there exist a collection
fwp : p 2 Ag [fwg of smooth functions wp : M ! ½0; 1 ; and w : M ! ½0; 1 such
that
(a) for each p 2 A; supp wp is contained in Vp \ U; supp w is contained in M A;
(b) fsupp wp : p 2 Ag [fsupp wg is locally finite,
P
(c) p2A wp ¼ 1 w:
Since for every p 2 A; wp : M ! ½0; 1 is smooth, and Vp \ U is an open

neighborhood of p; wp jVp \ U is smooth. Since Fp : Vp ! Rk is smooth, Vp is an
open neighborhood of p; Vp \ U is an open neighborhood of p; and Vp \ U Vp ;
Fp jVp \ U is smooth. Since wp jVp \ U is smooth, Fp jVp \ U is smooth, and Vp \ U is an
open neighborhood of p; ðwp jVp \ U ÞðFp jVp \ U Þ is smooth on Vp \ U: For every p in
A, supp wp Vp \ U; so M ðVp \ UÞ M ðsupp wp Þ: If t 2 ðVp \ UÞ \
ðM ðsupp wp ÞÞ then t 62 ðsupp wp Þ; and hence ðwp jVp \ U ÞðtÞ ¼ 0: Thus, for every
t 2 ðVp \ UÞ \ðM ðsupp wp ÞÞ; we have

w p V \U
Fp Vp \ U ðtÞ ¼ wp V \ U ðtÞ Fp Vp \ U ðtÞ

p p
¼ 0 Fp ðtÞ ¼ 0:
Vp \ U
It follows that we can define a function vp : M ! Rk as follows: For every x

in M;
8
< wp F p
ð xÞ if x 2 Vp \ U
\U Vp \ U
vp ð x Þ
Vp
:0 if x 2 M supp wp :
Since M ðsupp wp Þ fx : vp ðxÞ ¼ 0g; fx : vp ðxÞ 6¼ 0g supp wp ; and

hence, supp vp ¼ fx : vp ðxÞ 6¼ 0g ðsupp wp Þ ¼ supp wp : Thus, for every p 2
A; supp vp supp wp : Since fsupp wp : p 2 Ag [fsupp wg is locally finite, its
subcollection fsupp wp : p 2 Ag is also locally finite. Since fsupp wp : p 2 Ag is
locally finite, and for every p 2 A; supp vp supp wp ; fsupp vp : p 2 Ag is locally
finite.
Further, since Vp \ U is open, M ðsupp wp Þ is open, ðwp jVp \ U ÞðFp jVp \ U Þ is
smooth on Vp \ U; and 0 is smooth on M ðsupp wp Þ; by the definition of vp ;
vp : M ! Rk is smooth.
Let us take any x in M: Since fsupp wp : p 2 Ag is also locally finite, and x is in
M; there exists an open neighborhood Gx of x such that all but finite many
supp wp ’s are outside Gx : Since all but finite many supp wp ’s are outside Gx ; there
P
exists p1 ; p2 ; . . .; pn 2 A such that ð p2A vp ÞjGx ¼ ðvp1 þ vp2 þ þ vpn ÞjGx : Since
vp1 ; vp2 ; . . .; vpn are smooth, and Gx is an open neighborhood of x;
ðvp1 þ vp2 þ þ vpn ÞjGx is smooth on Gx : Since ðvp1 þ vp2 þ þ vpn ÞjGx is
P P
smooth on Gx ; and ð p2A vp ÞjGx ¼ ðvp1 þ vp2 þ þ vpn ÞjGx ; ð p2A vp ÞjGx is
P
smooth on Gx : It follows that y 7! ð p2A vp ÞðyÞ is smooth.
Now, we can define a function ~f : M ! Rk as follows:
X
~f vp :
p2A
Clearly, ~f is smooth.
For 1: Let us fix any x 2 A: We have to show that ~f ðxÞ ¼ f ðxÞ:
Since fy : wðyÞ 6¼ 0g supp w M A; x 2 A fy : wðyÞ ¼ 0g; and hence
wðxÞ ¼ 0: Since supp wp Vp \ U; M ðVp \ UÞ M ðsupp wp Þ: If x 62
Vp \ U; then x 2 M ðVp \ UÞ M ðsupp wp Þ; and hence vp ðxÞ ¼ 0: Also if
x 62 Vp \ U then x 62 supp wp ¼ fy : wp ðyÞ 6¼ 0g fy : wp ðyÞ 6¼ 0g; and hence
wp ðxÞ ¼ 0: Thus, if x 62 Vp \ U; then vp ðxÞ ¼ 0 ¼ wp ðxÞ: Now,
!
X X X X
~f ð xÞ ¼ vp ðxÞ ¼ vp ðxÞ ¼ vp ðxÞ þ vp ð xÞ
p2A fp:p2Ag fp:p2A;x2Vp \ U g fp:p2A;x62Vp \ U g
X X X
¼ vp ð xÞ þ 0¼ vp ð xÞ
fp:p2A;x2Vp \ U g fp:p2A;x62Vp \ U g fp:p2A;x2Vp \ U g
X X
¼ wp Fp
Vp \ U
ð xÞ ¼
Vp \ U
wp Vp \ U
ð xÞ Fp Vp \ U ð xÞ
fp:p2A;x2Vp \ U g fp:p2A;x2Vp \ U g
X X
¼ wp V \U
ð xÞ Fp ðxÞ ¼ wp V \ U ð xÞ ðf ðxÞÞ
p p
0 1 0 1
X X
B C B C
¼@ wp V \ U ð xÞAðf ðxÞÞ ¼ @ wp ð xÞAðf ð xÞÞ
p
0 1
B X X C
¼@ wp ð x Þ þ 0Aðf ðxÞÞ
0 1 0 1
B X X C X
¼@ wp ð x Þ þ wp ðxÞAðf ð xÞÞ ¼ @ wp ðxÞAðf ð xÞÞ
f p:p2A;x2V p \ U g fp:p2A;x6 2Vp \ U g f p:p2A g
00 1 1
X
¼ @@ wp AðxÞAðf ð xÞÞ ¼ ðð1 wÞðxÞÞðf ðxÞÞ ¼ ð1 wð xÞÞðf ðxÞÞ ¼ ð1 0Þðf ðxÞÞ ¼ f ðxÞ:
fp:p2Ag
Thus, ~f ðxÞ ¼ f ðxÞ: So, for any x 2 A we have ~f ðxÞ ¼ f ðxÞ: Thus, ~f jA ¼ f : This
proves 1.
For 2: Let us take any y 2 M such that ~f ðyÞ 6¼ 0: Here,
!
X X X X
0 6¼ ~f ðyÞ ¼ vp ð yÞ ¼ vp ðyÞ ¼ vp ð yÞ þ vp ð yÞ
p2A fp:p2Ag fp:p2A;y2Vp \ U g fp:p2A;y62Vp \ U g
X X X
¼ vp ð yÞ þ 0¼ vp ðyÞ
fp:p2A;y2Vp \ U g fp:p2A;y62Vp \ U g fp:p2A;y2Vp \ U g
X X
¼ w p Vp \ U Fp ð yÞ ¼
Vp \ U
wp Vp \ U ð yÞ Fp Vp \ U ðyÞ
fp:p2A;y2Vp \ U g fp:p2A;y2Vp \ U g
X
¼ wp ðyÞ Fp ð xÞ :
fp:p2A;y2Vp \ U g
P
Since fp:p2A;y2Vp \ Ug ðwp ðyÞÞðFp ðxÞÞ 6¼ 0; there exists p 2 A such that wp ðyÞ 6¼ 0:
It follows that fy : ~f ðyÞ 6¼ 0g [p2A fy : wp ðyÞ 6¼ 0g; and hence, supp ~f ¼ fy : ~f ðyÞ
6¼ 0g ð[p2A fy : wp ðyÞ 6¼ 0gÞ : Since fsupp wp : p 2 Ag is locally finite, ð[p2A
fy : wp ðyÞ 6¼ 0gÞ ¼ [p2A ðfy : wp ðyÞ 6¼ 0g Þ: It follows that supp ~f [p2A ðfy :
wp ðyÞ 6¼ 0g Þ ¼ [p2A ðsupp wp Þ [p2A ðVp \ UÞ ¼ ð[p2A Vp Þ \ U U: Thus,
supp ~f U: This proves 2. h
4.6 Topological Manifolds With Boundary
Definition By H3 we mean the set fðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ : ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 2 R3 and 0 x3 g; and

is called the closed 3-dimensional upper half-space. By Int H3 we mean
fðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ : ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 2 R3 and 0\x3 g: By oH3 we mean fðx1 ; x2 ; 0Þ :
ðx1 ; x2 ; 0Þ 2 R3 g: Observe that the collection of all open subsets of H3 which do not
intersect oH3 is contained in the collection of all open subsets of R3 :
Let M be a topological space, whose topology is Hausdorff, and second
countable. If for every p in M, there exist an open neighborhood U of p; “a subset G
of H3 which is open in H3 or a subset G of R3 which is open in R3 ,” and a
homeomorphism u from U onto G; then we say that M is a 3-dimensional topo-
logical manifold with boundary. Here, the ordered pair ðU; uÞ is called a chart of
M: If uðUÞð¼ GÞ is open in R3 ; then we say that ðU; uÞ is an interior chart of M: If
uðUÞ ð¼ GÞ is a subset of H3 ; uðUÞ is open in H3 ; and uðUÞ \ oH3 6¼ ;; then we
say that ðU; uÞ is a boundary chart of M:
Let p 2 M: By p is an interior point of M; we mean: There exists an interior

chart ðU; uÞ of M such that p 2 U: By p is a boundary point of M; we mean: There
exists a boundary chart ðU; uÞ of M such that p 2 U; and uðpÞ 2 oH3 : By Int M
we mean the set of all interior points of M; and is called the interior of M: By oM
we mean the set of all boundary points of M; and is called the boundary of M:
Similar definitions can be supplied for 4-dimensional topological manifolds with
boundary, etc.
Note 4.60 Let M be a 3-dimensional topological manifold with boundary. We want
to prove:
1. M ¼ ðInt MÞ [ðoMÞ
2. ðInt MÞ \ðoMÞ ¼ ;:
For 1: Clearly, ðInt MÞ M; and ðoMÞ M: So, ðInt MÞ [ðoMÞ M: It

remains to prove that M ðInt MÞ [ðoMÞ: If not, otherwise, let there exists
p 2 M such that p 62 Int M; and p 62 oM: We have to arrive at a contradiction.
Since p 2 M; and M is a 3-dimensional topological manifold with boundary,
there exist an open neighborhood U of p; “a subset G of H3 which is open in H3 or
a subset G of R3 which is open in R3 ,” and a homeomorphism u from U onto G:
Thus, ðU; uÞ is a chart for M: Since p 62 Int M; p is not an interior point of M: Since
p is not an interior point of M; ðU; uÞ is a chart for M; and p 2 U; ðU; uÞ is not an
interior chart of M: Since ðU; uÞ is not an interior chart of M; uðUÞð¼ GÞ is not
open in R3 ; and hence, G is not open in R3 : Since G is not open in R3 ; and “G is a
subset of H3 which is open in H3 or G is a subset of R3 which is open in R3 ,” G is a
subset of H3 which is open in H3 : Since p 2 U; uðpÞ 2 uðUÞð¼ GÞ: Since G is not
open in R3 ; G is a subset of H3 ; and G is open in H3 ; G \ oH3 6¼ ;:
(Reason: If not, otherwise, let G \ oH3 ¼ ;: Since G H3 ¼ Int H3 [ oH3 ; and
G \ oH3 ¼ ;; G Int H3 : Since G is open in H3 ; there exists an open set G1 in R3
such that G1 \ H3 ¼ G: Since G ¼ G1 \ H3 G1 ; and G Int H3 ; G
G1 \ Int H3 : Since G1 \ Int H3 Int H3 H3 ; and G1 \ Int H3 G1 ; G1 \ Int
H3 G1 \ H3 ¼ G: Since G1 \ Int H3 G; and G G1 \ Int H3 ; G ¼
G1 \ Int H3 : Since G1 ; Int H3 are open in R3 ; their intersection G1 \ Int H3 ð¼ GÞ
is open in R3 ; and hence, G is open in R3 ; a contradiction.)
Since uðUÞð¼ GÞ is a subset of H3 which is open in H3 ; and uðUÞ \ oH3 6¼ ;;

ðU; uÞ is a boundary chart for M: Since p 62 oM; p is not a boundary point of M:
Since p is not a boundary point of M; ðU; uÞ is a chart for M satisfying p 2 U; and
ðU; uÞis a boundary chart for M; uðpÞ 62 oH3 : Clearly, oH3 ð¼ fðx1 ; x2 ; 0Þ :
ðx1 ; x2 ; 0Þ 2 R3 gÞ is closed in H3 : It follows that G oH3 is open in H3 : Since
4.6 Topological Manifolds With Boundary 299
uðpÞ 62 oH3 ; uðpÞ 2 G; and G oH3 is open in H3 ; there exists an open neigh-
borhood HuðpÞ of uðpÞ in H3 such that HuðpÞ G oH3 G; and hence
HuðpÞ \ oH3 ¼ ;: Since HuðpÞ \ oH3 ¼ ;; and HuðpÞ is open in H3 ; HuðpÞ is open in
R3 : Since u is a homeomorphism from U onto G; G is open in H3 ; HuðpÞ G; and
HuðpÞ is an open neighborhood of uðpÞ in H3 ; u1 ðHuðpÞ Þ is an open neighborhood
of p in M; and uju1 ðHuðpÞ Þ is a homeomorphism from u1 ðHuðpÞ Þ onto HuðpÞ : Thus,
the ordered pair ðu1 ðHuðpÞ Þ; uju1 ðHuðpÞ Þ Þ is a chart for M: Now, since ðuju1 ðHuðpÞ Þ Þ
ðu1 ðHuðpÞ ÞÞ ¼ HuðpÞ ; and HuðpÞ is open in R3 ; the chart ðu1 ðHuðpÞ Þ; uju1 ðHuðpÞ Þ Þ
is an interior chart for M: Since ðu1 ðHuðpÞ Þ; uju1 ðHuðpÞ Þ Þ is an interior chart for M;
and p 2 u1 ðHuðpÞ Þ; p is an interior point of M; and hence p 2 Int M; a
contradiction.
For 2: Its proof is postponed right now. This result is known as the topological
invariance of the boundary.
Similar results can be supplied for 4-dimensional topological manifolds with
boundary, etc.
Note 4.61 Let M be a topological n-manifold with boundary. We want to show that
Int M is an open subset of M. Here,
Int M ¼ fp : p 2 M; there exists a chartðU; uÞ of M such that p 2 U; and uðU Þ is open in Rn g:
For this purpose, let us take any p 2 Int M: We have to find an open neigh-
borhood Up such that if q 2 Up then q 2 Int M: Since p 2 Int M; p 2
M; there exists a chart ðU; uÞ of M such that p 2 U; and uðUÞ is open in Rn :
Since ðU; uÞ is a chart, U is open in M: Since U is open in M; and p 2 U; U is an
open neighborhood of p: Next, let us take any q 2 U: Here, ðU; uÞ is a chart of M
such that q 2 U; and uðUÞ is open in Rn : Hence, by definition of the Int M;
q 2 Int M:
This proves that Int M is an open subset of M:
Note 4.62 Clearly, a topological n-manifold M “in the original sense” is a topo-
logical n-manifold M with boundary.
If M is a topological n-manifold M “in the original sense,” then Int M ¼ M:

Hence, by the topological invariance of the boundary, if M is a topological n-
manifold “in the original sense,” then oM ¼ ;: Conversely, let M be a topological
n-manifold M with boundary such that oM ¼ ;: Hence, M ¼ Int M [ oM ¼
Int M [ ; ¼ Int M: Since Int M ¼ M; M is a topological n-manifold “in the ori-
ginal sense.”
Thus, we have shown that a topological n-manifold M with boundary is a

topological n-manifold if and only if oM ¼ ;: Sometimes, a manifold in the original
sense is referred as manifold without boundary.
Note 4.63 Let M be a topological n-manifold with boundary. We want to show that
Int M is a topological n-manifold without boundary.
Here, Int M is contained in M: The topology of Int M is assumed to be the
subspace topology of M: Since M is a topological n-manifold with boundary, the
topology of M is Hausdorff, and second countable, and hence, the subspace
topology over Int M is Hausdorff, and second countable.
Next, let us take any p 2 Int M: Since p 2 Int M; p is an interior point of M; and
hence, there exists an interior chart ðU; uÞ of M such that p 2 U: Since ðU; uÞ is an
internal chart of M, ðU; uÞ is a chart of M; and uðUÞ is open in Rn : Since ðU; uÞ is
a chart of M, U is open in M; and u : U ! uðUÞ is a homeomorphism. Since U is
open in M; and Int M is open in M; U \ Int M is open in the topological space
Int M: Since p 2 U; and p 2 Int M; p 2 U \ Int M: Thus, U \ Int M is an open
neighborhood of p in the topological space Int M: Since U is open in M; and Int M
is open in M; U \ Int M is open in M: Since U \ Int M; U are open in M; and
U \ Int M U; U \ Int M is open in U:
Since u : U ! uðUÞ is a homeomorphism, and U \ Int M is open in U;
uðU \ Int MÞ is open in uðUÞ: Since uðU \ Int MÞ is open in uðUÞ; and uðUÞ is
open in Rn ; uðU \ Int MÞ is open in Rn : Since U \ Int M is open in U;
uðU \ Int MÞ is open in uðUÞ; and u : U ! uðUÞ is a homeomorphism, ujU \ IntM
is a homeomorphism from U \ Int M onto uðU \ Int MÞ: Since U \ Int M is an
open neighborhood of p in the topological space Int M; uðU \ Int MÞ is open in
Rn ; and ujU \ IntM is a homeomorphism from U \ Int M onto uðU \ Int MÞ; the
ordered pair ðU \ Int M; ujU \ IntM Þ is an interior chart of the topological space
Int M: Also p 2 U \ Int M: This shows that Int M is a topological n-manifold
without boundary.
Note 4.64 Let M be a topological 3-manifold with boundary. We want to show that
1. oM is a closed subset of M,
2. oM is a topological 2-manifold without boundary.
For 1: Since Int M is open in M; M Int M is closed in M: By the topological
invariance of the boundary, oM ¼ M Int M: Since oM ¼ M Int M; and
M Int M is closed in M; oM is a closed subset of M:
For 2: Here, oM is contained in M: The topology of oM is assumed to be the
subspace topology of M: Since M is a topological 3-manifold with boundary,
the topology of M is Hausdorff, and second countable, and hence, the subspace
topology over oM is Hausdorff, and second countable.
Next, let us fix any p 2 oM: Since p 2 oM; p is a boundary point of M; and hence,
there exists a boundary chart ðU; uÞ of M such that p 2 U; and uðpÞ 2 oH3 ¼
fðx1 ; x2 ; 0Þ : ðx1 ; x2 ; 0Þ 2 R3 g: Since ðU; uÞ is a boundary chart of M, U is open in M;
uðUÞ is open in H3 ; and u : U ! uðUÞ is a homeomorphism. Since p 2 U; uðpÞ 2
uðUÞ: Since uðpÞ 2 uðUÞ; and uðUÞ is open in H3 ; uðUÞ is an open neighborhood of
uðpÞ in H3 : Since uðUÞ is an open neighborhood of uðpÞ in H3 ; and uðpÞ 2 oH3
H3 ; uðUÞ \ oH3 is an open neighborhood of uðpÞ in oH3 : Since u : U ! uðUÞ is a
homeomorphism, and uðUÞ \ oH3 uðUÞ; the restriction uju1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ is a
homeomorphism from u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ onto uðUÞ \ oH3 : Since uðpÞ 2 uðUÞ; and
uðpÞ 2 oH3 ; uðpÞ 2 uðUÞ \ oH3 ; and hence p 2 u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ:
Now, we shall try to prove:
(a) u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ oM;
(b) u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ is open in oM;
(c) uðUÞ \ oH3 is open in oH3 :
For a: Let us take any a 2 u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ: Since a 2 u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ; and
u : U ! uðUÞ; a 2 U: Since a 2 u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ; uðaÞ 2 uðUÞ \ oH3 ; and
hence, uðaÞ 2 oH3 : Since ðU; uÞ is a boundary chart of M; a 2 U; and uðaÞ 2
oH3 ; a is a boundary point of M; and hence a 2 oM:
For b: First of all, we want to prove that u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ ¼ U \ oM: For this
purpose, let us take any a in u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ: Since a 2 u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ; and
u : U ! uðUÞ; a 2 U: Hence, u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ U: Since u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ
U; and from (a), u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ oM; u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ U \ oM:
Next, let us take any b in U \ oM: Since b is inU \ oM; b 2 U; and hence,
uðbÞ 2 uðUÞ: Clearly, uðbÞ 2 oH3 :
(Reason: If not, otherwise, let uðbÞ 62 oH3 : We have to arrive at a contradiction.
Since b is in U \ oM; b is in U: Since b is in U; and u : U ! uðUÞ; uðbÞ 2 uðUÞ:
Since uðbÞ 2 uðUÞ; and uðUÞ is open in H3 ; uðbÞ 2 H3 ¼ Int H3 [ oH3 :Since
uðbÞ 2 Int H3 [ oH3 ;and uðbÞ 62 oH3 ; uðbÞ 2 Int H3 ¼ fðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ : ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
2 R3 and 0\x3 g: Since uðbÞ 2 fðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ : ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 2 R3 and 0\x3 g; uðbÞ 2
uðUÞ; and uðUÞ is open in H3 ; there exists a real number r [ 0 such that the open
ball Br ðuðbÞÞ is contained in uðUÞ \ Int H3 : It follows that Br ðuðbÞÞ is open in
uðUÞ: Since Br ðuðbÞÞ is open in uðUÞ; and u : U ! uðUÞ is a homeomorphism,
u1 ðBr ðuðbÞÞÞ is open in U; and the restriction uju1 ðBr ðuðbÞÞÞ is a homeomorphism
from u1 ðBr ðuðbÞÞÞ onto Br ðuðbÞÞ: Since uðbÞ 2 Br ðuðbÞÞ; b 2 u1 ðBr ðuðbÞÞÞ:
Since u1 ðBr ðuðbÞÞÞ is open in U; and U is open in M; u1 ðBr ðuðbÞÞÞ is open in
M: Since u1 ðBr ðuðbÞÞÞ is open in M; and b 2 u1 ðBr ðuðbÞÞÞ; u1 ðBr ðuðbÞÞÞ is
an open neighborhood of b in M: It follows that the ordered pair
ðu1 ðBr ðuðbÞÞÞ; uju1 ðBr ðuðbÞÞÞ Þ is a chart of M: Also since b 2 u1 ðBr ðuðbÞÞÞ;
ðuju1 ðBr ðuðbÞÞÞ Þðu1 ðBr ðuðbÞÞÞÞ ¼ Br ðuðbÞÞ; and Br ðuðbÞÞ is open in R3 ;
ðu1 ðBr ðuðbÞÞÞ; uju1 ðBr ðuðbÞÞÞ Þ is an interior chart of M; and hence b 2 Int M:
Since b 2 Int M, by the topological invariance of the boundary, b 62 oM; and hence,
b 62 U \ oM; a contradiction.)
Since uðbÞ 2 oH3 ; and uðbÞ 2 uðUÞ; uðbÞ 2 uðUÞ \ oH3 ; and hence, b 2
u ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ: Thus, U \ oM u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ:
1
Thus, we have shown that u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ ¼ U \ oM: Since U is open in M;
and oM M; U \ oMð¼ u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 ÞÞ is open in oM; and hence,
u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ is open in oM: This proves (b).
For c: Since uðUÞ is open in H3 ; and oH3 H3 ; uðUÞ \ oH3 is open in oH3 :
This proves (c).
Since the mapping p3 : oH3 ! R2 defined by p3 ðx1 ; x2 ; 0Þ ðx1 ; x2 Þ is a
homeomorphism, and uju1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ is a homeomorphism from u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ
onto uðUÞ \ oH3 ; their composite p3 ðuju1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ Þ is a homeomorphism from
u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ onto p3 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ: Since uðUÞ \ oH3 is open in oH3 ; and
p3 : oH3 ! R2 is a homeomorphism, p3 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ is open in R2 : Here, p3
ðuju1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ Þ is a homeomorphism from u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ onto p3 ðuðUÞ
\oH3 Þ; u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ is open in oM; p 2 u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ; and p3 ðuðUÞ \
oH3 Þ is open in R2 ; the ordered pair ðu1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ;Þp3 ðuju1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ Þ is
an internal chart of oM; where p 2 u1 ðuðUÞ \ oH3 Þ: Hence, oM is a topological
2-manifold without boundary.
This completes the proof of 2.
Similar results can be supplied for 4-dimensional topological manifolds with
boundary, etc.
Definition Let A be a nonempty subset of Rn : Let f : A ! Rm : By f is smooth we
mean: For every x in A; there exist an open neighborhood Vx of x in Rn ; and a
function fx : Vx ! Rm such that fx jA \ Vx ¼ f jA \ Vx ; and fx is smooth.
Definition Let G be a nonempty subset of Hn : Let G be open in Hn : Let f : G !
Rm : By f is smooth we mean: For every x in G; there exist an open neighborhood Vx
of x in Rn ; and a function fx : Vx ! Rm such that fx jG \ Vx ¼ f jG \ Vx ; and fx is smooth
in the usual sense.
Note 4.65 Let G be a nonempty subset of Hn : Let G be open in Hn : Let f : G !
Rm : Let f be smooth.
We first show that G \ðInt Hn Þ is open in Rn : Since G is open in Hn ; there exists

an open subset U of Rn such that G ¼ U \ Hn : Now, G \ðInt Hn Þ ¼
ðU \ Hn Þ \ðInt Hn Þ ¼ U \ðHn \ Int Hn Þ ¼ U \ Int Hn : Since U; Int Hn are open in
Rn ; U \ Int Hn ð¼ G \ðInt Hn ÞÞ is open in Rn ; and hence, G \ðInt Hn Þ is open in Rn :
Since G \ðInt Hn Þð GÞ is open in Rn ; and f : G ! Rm ; it is meaningful to say

“f jG \ðIntHn Þ is smooth in the usual sense.” We want to show that f jG \ðIntHn Þ is
smooth in the usual sense. For this purpose, let us take any a in G \ðInt Hn Þ: We
have to show that f jG \ðIntHn Þ is smooth at a in the usual sense.
Since a is in G \ðInt Hn Þ; a is in G: Since a is in G; and f : G ! Rm is smooth,
there exist an open neighborhood Va of a in Rn ; and a function fa : Va ! Rm such
that fa jG \ Va ¼ f jG \ Va ; and fa is smooth in the usual sense. Since a is in G \ðInt Hn Þ;
and G \ðInt Hn Þ is open in Rn ; G \ðInt Hn Þ is an open neighborhood of a in Rn :
Since G \ðInt Hn Þ is an open neighborhood of a in Rn ; and Va is an open neigh-
borhood of a in Rn ; G \ðInt Hn Þ \ Va is an open neighborhood of a in Rn ; and is
contained in the open set Va : Now, since fa : Va ! Rm is smooth in the usual sense,
the restriction fa jG \ðIntHn Þ \ Va is smooth at a in the usual sense. Since fa jG \ Va ¼
f jG \ Va ; G \ðInt Hn Þ \ Va G \ Va ; fa jG \ðIntHn Þ \ Va ¼ f jG \ðIntHn Þ \ Va : Since fa :
Va ! Rm is smooth in the usual sense, G \ðInt Hn Þ \ Va is an open neighborhood of
a in Rn ; and is contained in the open set Va ; fa jG \ðIntHn Þ \ Va is smooth at a in the usual
sense. Since fa jG \ðIntHn Þ \ Va is smooth at a in the usual sense, and fa jG \ðIntHn Þ \ Va ¼
f jG \ðIntHn Þ \ Va ; f jG \ðIntHn Þ \ Va is smooth at a in the usual sense. Since f jG \ðIntHn Þ \ Va is
smooth at a in the usual sense, G \ðInt Hn Þ \ Va is an open neighborhood of a in Rn ;
G \ðInt Hn Þ is an open neighborhood of a in Rn ; and G \ðInt Hn Þ \ Va is contained
in G \ðInt Hn Þ; f jG \ðIntHn Þ is smooth at a in the usual sense.
Thus, we have shown that if G is open in Hn ; and f : G ! Rm is smooth, then
f jG \ðIntHn Þ is smooth in the usual sense.
Note 4.66 Let G be a nonempty subset of H3 : Let G be open in H3 : Let f : G !

Rm be smooth.
We want to prove that f : G ! Rm is continuous. For this purpose, let us take
any a in G: Now, let us take any open neighborhood Vf ðaÞ of f ðaÞ in Rm : We have to
find an open neighborhood Ua of a in R3 such that
1. Ua \ H3 G;
2. f ðUa \ H3 Þ Vf ðaÞ :
Since G is open in H3 ; there exists an open subset W1 of R3 such that G ¼

W1 \ H3 : Since a is in Gð¼ W1 \ H3 Þ; a is in W1 : Since a is in W1 ; and W1 is open
in R3 ; W1 is an open neighborhood of a in R3 :
Since f : G ! Rm is smooth, and a is in G; there exist an open neighborhood Va
of a in Rn ; and a function fa : Va ! Rm such that fa jG \ Va ¼ f jG \ Va ; and fa is
smooth in the usual sense. Since Va is an open neighborhood of a in Rn ; and
fa : Va ! Rm is smooth in the usual sense, fa : Va ! Rm is continuous. Since fa :
Va ! Rm is continuous, and a is in Va ; fa : Va ! Rm is continuous at a:
Since Va is an open neighborhood of a in R3 ; and W1 is an open neighborhood of a

in R3 ; Va \ W1 is an open neighborhood of a in R3 : Since a 2 G; and a 2 Va ; a 2
G \ Va : Since a 2 G \ Va ; and fa jG \ Va ¼ f jG \ Va ; fa ðaÞ ¼ f ðaÞ: Since Vf ðaÞ is an open
neighborhood of f ðaÞ; and fa ðaÞ ¼ f ðaÞ; Vf ðaÞ is an open neighborhood of fa ðaÞ:
Since fa : Va ! Rm is continuous at a; Va is an open neighborhood of a in R3 ;
Va \ W1 is an open neighborhood of a in R3 ; and Vf ðaÞ is an open neighborhood of
fa ðaÞ in Rm ; there exists an open neighborhood Ua of a in R3 ; such that Ua
Va \ W1 ; and fa ðUa Þ Vf ðaÞ :
For 1: Take any x in Ua \ H3 : Since x is in Ua \ H3 ; x is in Ua Va \ W1 ; and

hence, x is in W1 : Since x is in Ua \ H3 ; x is in H3 : Since x is in H3 ; and x is in
W1 ; x is in W1 \ H3 ð¼ GÞ; and hence, x is in G: Thus, Ua \ H3 G:
For 2: Since fa jG \ Va ¼ f jG \ Va ; and G ¼ W1 \ H3 ; fa jW1 \ H3 \ Va ¼ f jW1 \ H3 \ Va :
Since Ua Va \ W1 ; Ua \ H3 Va \ W1 \ H3 ¼ W1 \ H3 \ Va : Since Ua \ H3
W1 \ H3 \ Va ; and fa jW1 \ H3 \ Va ¼ f jW1 \ H3 \ Va ; f ðUa \ H3 Þ ¼ fa ðUa \ H3 Þ
fa ðUa Þ Vf ðaÞ : Thus f ðUa \ H3 Þ Vf ðaÞ :
4.7 Smooth Covering Maps
Definition Let Me and M be connected smooth manifolds. Let p : M

e ! M be a
smooth map. If
1. p maps M e onto M,
2. for every p in M; there exists a connected open neighborhood U of p such that
for each component C of the open set p1 ðUÞ; the restriction pjC : C ! U is a
diffeomorphism, then we say that p is a smooth covering map, M is a base of the
covering, and Me is a covering manifold of M:
Observe that, in the condition (2), since Me is a locally path connected, and
e
p ðUÞ is an open subset of M each component of p1 ðUÞ is open.
1
Lemma 4.67 Every smooth covering map is a topological covering map.

Proof Let p : Me ! M be a smooth covering map, where M e andM are connected
smooth manifolds. Since M is a smooth manifold, M is a topological manifold, and
hence, M is locally path connected. Since p : Me ! M is a smooth covering map,
e e
p : M ! M is a continuous map. Since M is a connected topological space, M is a
e ! M is a continuous map, it is
locally path connected topological space, and p : M
meaningful to talk about “p is a topological covering map,” that is,
4.7 Smooth Covering Maps 305
1. p maps M e onto M;
2. for every p in M; there exists a connected open neighborhood U of p such that
for each component C of the open set p1 ðUÞ; the restriction pjC : C ! U is a
homeomorphism,
For 1: Since p : Me ! M is a smooth covering map, p maps M e onto M:

e
For 2: Let us take any p in M: Since p : M ! M is a smooth covering map,
there exists a connected open neighborhood U of p such that for each compo-
nent C of the open set p1 ðUÞ; the restriction pjC : C ! U is a diffeomorphism,
and hence, pjC : C ! U is a homeomorphism. h
Lemma 4.68 Let M e and M be connected smooth manifolds. Let p : M e ! M be a

e
smooth covering map. Then, p is a local diffeomorphism, that is, for every p in M;
there exists an open neighborhood C of p such that pðCÞ is open in M, and the
restriction pjC : C ! pðCÞ is a diffeomorphism.
Proof Let us take an element p in M e : We have to find an open neighborhood C of

p such that pðCÞ is open in M, and the restriction pjC : C ! pðCÞ is a
diffeomorphism.
e ! M; and p is in M;
Since p : M e pðpÞ is in M: Since pðpÞ is in M; and
e
p : M ! M is a smooth covering map, there exists a connected open neighborhood
U of pðpÞ such that for each component C of the open set p1 ðUÞ; the restriction
pjC : C ! U is a diffeomorphism.
Since pðpÞ is in U; p 2 p1 ðUÞ: Since p 2 p1 ðUÞ; and p1 ðUÞ is partitioned
into components, there exists a component C of p1 ðUÞ such that p 2 C: Since
p:M e ! M is a smooth map, p : M e ! M is a continuous map. Since p : M e !M
1
is a continuous map, and U is an open neighborhood of pðpÞ; p ðUÞ is an open
neighborhood of p: Since Me is a smooth manifold, Me is a topological manifold, and
e e
hence M is locally path connected. Since M is locally path connected, and p1 ðUÞ
is an open subset of Me and C is a component of p1 ðUÞ; C is open. Since C is
open, and p 2 C; C is an open neighborhood of p in M. e
Since pjC : C ! U is a diffeomorphism, pðCÞ ¼ ðpjC ÞðCÞ ¼ U: Since pðCÞ ¼
U; and U is open, pðCÞ is open in M. Since pjC : C ! U is a diffeomorphism, p is a
local diffeomorphism. h
Chapter 5
Immersions, Submersions,
and Embeddings
The counterpart of “homeomorphism in topological spaces” and “linear isomor-

phism in real linear spaces” are the concepts of immersion, submersion, and
embedding in smooth manifolds. Because a smooth manifold associates with a
topological space together with a collection of linear spaces (i.e., tangent spaces at
various points of manifold), there emerges different types of “homomorphisms”
among smooth manifolds. Their definitions and various theorems on relationship
between immersion, submersion, and embedding constitute a beautiful area of
studies. In this chapter, we shall prove some of the important theorems on
immersion, submersion, embedding, and its related notions. Definitely, the pace of
this chapter is a bit slower for obvious reason.
5.1 Pointwise Pushforward
Definition Let a 2 R3 : By R3a we mean the Cartesian product fag R3 : Members

of R3a are called geometric tangent vectors in R3 at a, and R3a is called the geometric
tangent space to R3 at a. A geometric tangent vector ða; vÞ in R3 at a is denoted by
va or vja : We define vector addition and scalar multiplication over R3a as follows:
va þ wa ðv þ wÞa ; tðva Þ ðtvÞa :
Clearly, R3a becomes a real linear space. Here, the zero vector is ð0; 0; 0Þa ; and the
negative vector of va is ðvÞa : It is easy to see that the mapping v 7! va is an
isomorphism from R3 onto R3a ; and hence, R3 and R3a are isomorphic.
Note 5.1 Since members of a smooth manifold M may not be added, the above
definition of tangent space cannot be generalized. Observe that C1 ðR3 Þ is a real
linear space under pointwise vector addition and scalar multiplication. Also, cor-
responding to each geometric tangent vector va in R3 at a, we can define a function
Dv ja : C1 ðR3 Þ ! R as follows: For every f 2 C1 ðR3 Þ;

308 5 Immersions, Submersions, and Embeddings

d f ða þ tvÞ f ðaÞ
Dv ja ðf Þ ðDv Þðf ðaÞÞ ¼ ðf ða þ tvÞÞ ¼ lim :
dt t¼0
t!0 t
We know that Dv ja is linear and satisfies the Leibnitz rule:

Dv ja ðf gÞ ¼ Dv ja ðf Þ ðgðaÞÞ þ ðf ðaÞÞ Dv ja ðgÞ :
Also,

Dðv1 ;v2 ;v3 Þ a ðf Þ ¼ v1 Dð1;0;0Þ a ðf Þ þ v2 Dð0;1;0Þ a ðf Þ þ v3 Dð0;0;1Þ a ðf Þ
f ða þ tð1; 0; 0ÞÞ f ðaÞ f ða þ tð0; 1; 0ÞÞ f ðaÞ
¼ v1 lim þ v2 lim
t!0 t t!0 t
f ð a þ t ð 0; 0; 1 Þ Þ f ðaÞ
þ v3 lim
t!0 t
¼ v ððD1 f ÞðaÞÞ þ v ððD2 f ÞðaÞÞ
1 2

of 2 of 3 of
þ v3 ððD3 f ÞðaÞÞ ¼ v1 ðaÞ þ v ðaÞ þ v ðaÞ
ox1 ox2 ox3
X
3
of of
¼ vi ðaÞ ¼ vi ðaÞ :
i¼1
ox i ox i
Thus,

i of

Dðv1 ;v2 ;v3 Þ a ðf Þ ¼ v ðaÞ :
oxi
It follows that
of of
Dð1;0;0Þ a ðf Þ ¼ 1 ðaÞ; Dð0;1;0Þ a ðf Þ ¼ 2 ðaÞ;
ox ox
of
and
Dð0;0;1Þ a ðf Þ ¼ 3 ðaÞ:
ox
Definition Let a 2 R3 : Let w : C 1 ðR3 Þ ! R be a linear function. If w satisfies the

Leibnitz rule:
wðf gÞ ¼ ðwðf ÞÞðgðaÞÞ þ ðf ðaÞÞðwðgÞÞ
for every f, g in C 1 ðR3 Þ; then we say that w is a derivation at a. Let us denote the
collection of all derivations at a by Ta R3 : Clearly, Ta R3 is a real linear space under
pointwise vector addition and scalar multiplication. It is clear that if va 2 R3a ; then
the mapping Dv ja : C1 ðR3 Þ ! R; defined as above, is a derivation at a. Thus, for
every va 2 R3a ; Dv ja 2 Ta R3 :
5.1 Pointwise Pushforward 309
Note 5.2 Let a 2 R3 : Let w 2 Ta R3 : Let f ; g 2 C 1 ðR3 Þ: We shall try to show:

1. If f is a constant function, then wðf Þ ¼ 0;
2. If f ðaÞ ¼ gðaÞ ¼ 0, then wðf gÞ ¼ 0:
For 1: Here, f is a constant function, so there exists a real number c such that
f ðxÞ ¼ c for every x in R3 : Let us define a function f1 : R3 ! R as follows: For
every x in R3 ; f1 ðxÞ ¼ 1: Clearly, f1 2 C 1 ðR3 Þ; and f ¼ cf1 : Now, wðf1 Þ ¼ w
ðf1 f1 Þ ¼ ðwðf1 ÞÞ ðf1 ðaÞÞ þ ðf1 ðaÞÞ ðwðf1 ÞÞ ¼ ðwðf1 ÞÞ 1 þ 1ðwðf1 ÞÞ ¼ 2ðwðf1 ÞÞ;
and hence, wðf1 Þ ¼ 0: Next, wðf Þ ¼ wðcf1 Þ ¼ cðwðf1 ÞÞ ¼ c 0 ¼ 0: This proves 1.
For 2: LHS ¼ wðf gÞ ¼ ðwðf ÞÞðgðaÞÞ þ ðf ðaÞÞ ðwðgÞÞ ¼ ðwðf ÞÞ 0 þ 0
ðwðgÞÞ ¼ 0 ¼ RHS:
Note 5.3 Let us fix any a ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ 2 R3 : Let g : R3a ! Ta R3 be the mapping

defined as follows: For every va 2 R3a ;
gðva Þ Dv ja :
Then, g is a linear isomorphism from real linear space R3a onto real linear space
Ta R3 :
Reason: Let va ; wa 2 R3a ; where v ðv1 ; v2 ; v3 Þ; and w ðw1 ; w2 ; w3 Þ: Let s; t 2 R:
We have to prove that gðsðva Þ þ tðwa ÞÞ ¼ sðgðva ÞÞ þ tðgðwa ÞÞ; that is, for every f in
C 1 ðR3 Þ; ðgðsðva Þ þ tðwa ÞÞÞ ðf Þ ¼ ðsðgðva ÞÞ þ tðgðwa ÞÞðf Þ.

LHS ¼ ðgðsðva Þ þ tðwa ÞÞÞðf Þ ¼ g ðsvÞa þðtwÞa ðf Þ

¼ g ðsv þ twÞa ðf Þ ¼ DðsvþtwÞ a ðf Þ

of
¼ Dðsv1 þtw1 ;sv2 þtw2 ;sv3 þtw3 Þ a ðf Þ ¼ svi þ twi ðaÞ
oxi

of of
¼ s vi ðaÞ þ t wi ðaÞ ¼ s Dv ja ðf Þ þ t Dw ja ðf Þ
ox i ox i
¼ sððgðva ÞÞðf ÞÞ þ tððgðwa ÞÞðf ÞÞ ¼ ðsðgðva ÞÞ þ tðgðwa ÞÞÞðf Þ ¼ RHS:
This proves that g : R3a ! Ta R3 is linear.

Now, we want to prove that g is 1–1. For this purpose, let gððv1 ; v2 ; v3 Þa Þ ¼
gððw1 ; w2 ; w3 Þa Þ: We have to prove that ðv1 ; v2 ; v3 Þ ¼ ðw1 ; w2 ; w3 Þ: Let us define
a function p1 : R3 ! R; as follows: For every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in R3 ; p1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ x1 :
Clearly, p1 2 C 1 ðR3 Þ: Since

Dðv1 ;v2 ;v3 Þ a ¼ g v1 ; v2 ; v3 a ¼ g w1 ; w2 ; w3 a ¼ Dðw1 ;w2 ;w3 Þ a ;
and p1 2 C 1 ðR3 Þ;

of 2 of 3 of
v1 ¼ v1 ð1Þ þ v2 ð0Þ þ v3 ð0Þ ¼ v1 ðaÞ þ v ðaÞ þ v ðaÞ
ox1 ox2 ox3

of
¼ Dðv1 ;v2 ;v3 Þ a ðp1 Þ ¼ Dðw1 ;w2 ;w3 Þ a ðp1 Þ ¼ w1 ðaÞ
ox1

of of
þ w2 ðaÞ þ w3 ðaÞ
ox2 ox3
¼ w1 ð1Þ þ w2 ð0Þ þ w3 ð0Þ ¼ w1 ;
and hence, v1 ¼ w1 : Similarly, v2 ¼ w2 ; v3 ¼ w3 : Hence, ðv1 ; v2 ; v3 Þ ¼ ðw1 ; w2 ; w3 Þ:

Now, it remains to be proved that g : R3a ! Ta R3 is onto. For this purpose, let us
take any w 2 Ta R3 : We have to find an element va 2 R3a such that gðva Þ ¼ w; that is,
Dv ja ¼ w; that is, for every f 2 C 1 ðR3 Þ; ðDv ja Þðf Þ ¼ wðf Þ: For every i ¼ 1; 2; 3, let us
define a function pi : R3 ! R; as follows: For every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in R3 ; pi ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ
xi : Clearly, each pi 2 C1 ðR3 Þ: Since w 2 Ta R3 ; w : C1 ðR3 Þ ! R: Now, since pi 2
C 1 ðR3 Þ; wðpi Þ is a real number. It follows that ðwðp1 Þ; wðp2 Þ; wðp3 ÞÞ 2 R3 : Let us
1
take ðwðp1 Þ; wðp2 Þ; wðp3 ÞÞ for v: It remains to be proved1that 3for every f 2 C ðR Þ;
3
ðDðwðp1 Þ;wðp2 Þ;wðp3 ÞÞ a Þðf Þ ¼ wðf Þ; that is, for every f 2 C ðR Þ;

of
ðwðpi ÞÞð ðaÞÞ ¼ wðf Þ:
oxi
Since f 2 C 1 ðR3 Þ; f : R3 ! R; and is smooth. Now, by Theorem 3.62, there exist
C 1 functions g1 ðxÞ; g2 ðxÞ; g3 ðxÞ on R3 such that
1. for every x ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in R3 ; f ðxÞ ¼ f ðaÞ þ ðg1 ðxÞÞðx1 a1 Þ þ ðg2 ðxÞÞ
ðx2 a2 Þ þ ðg3 ðxÞÞðx3 a3 Þ; that is, f ¼ f ðaÞ þ g1 ðp1 a1 Þ þ g2 ðp2 a1 Þ
þg3 ðp3 a1 Þ;
2. g1 ðaÞ ¼ oxof1 ðaÞ; g2 ðaÞ ¼ oxof2 ðaÞ; g3 ðaÞ ¼ ox
of
3 ðaÞ:

RHS ¼ wðf Þ ¼ w f ðaÞ þ g1 p1 a1 þ g2 p2 a2 þ g3 p3 a3

¼ wðf ðaÞÞ þ ðwðg1 ÞÞ p1 a1 ðaÞ þ w p1 a1 ðg1 ðaÞÞ

þ ðwðg2 ÞÞ p2 a2 ðaÞ þ w p2 a2 ðg2 ðaÞÞ

þ ðwðg3 ÞÞ p3 a3 ðaÞ þ w p3 a3 ðg1 ðaÞÞ

¼ 0 þ ðwðg1 ÞÞ a1 a1 þ ðwðp1 Þ 0Þðg1 ðaÞÞ

þ ðwðg2 ÞÞ a2 a2 þ ðwðp2 Þ 0Þðg2 ðaÞÞ

þ ðwðg3 ÞÞ a3 a3 þ ðwðp3 Þ 0Þðg3 ðaÞÞ
¼ ðwðp1 ÞÞðg1 ðaÞÞ þ ðwðp2 ÞÞðg2 ðaÞÞ þ ðwðp3 ÞÞðg3 ðaÞÞ

of
¼ ðwðpi ÞÞðgi ðaÞÞ ¼ ðwðpi ÞÞ ðaÞ
oxi
¼ LHS:
Thus, we have shown that g is a linear isomorphism from real linear space R3a onto
real linear space Ta R3 : Hence, R3a is isomorphic to Ta R3 :
Since R3a is a linear space of dimension 3, and R3a is isomorphic to Ta R3 ; Ta R3 is
of dimension 3. Further, since fð1; 0; 0Þa ; ð0; 1; 0Þa ; ð0; 0; 1Þa g is a basis of R3a ; and
g is a linear isomorphism from R3a onto Ta R3 ; fgðð1; 0; 0Þa Þ; gðð0; 1; 0Þa Þ;
gðð0; 0; 1Þa Þg is a basis of Ta R3 ; that is,
n o
Dð1;0;0Þ a ; Dð0;1;0Þ a ; Dð0;0;1Þ a
is a basis of Ta R3 ; that is,

o o o
; ;
ox1 a ox2 a ox3 a
is a basis of Ta R3 : Similarly,

o o o
; ; . . .; n
ox1 a ox2 a ox a
is a basis of Ta Rn :
Note 5.4 Since R3a is the geometric tangent space to R3 at a, and R3a is isomorphic
to Ta R3 ; Ta R3 can be thought of as the geometric tangent space to R3 at a. Simi-
larly, for every a in Rk ; Rka is isomorphic to Ta Rk . The interesting thing is that
Ta R3 ; but not R3a ; can be generalized on a smooth manifold.
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M: Let v :
C 1 ðMÞ ! R be a linear function. If v satisfies the Leibnitz rule:
vðf gÞ ¼ ðvðf ÞÞðgðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞðvðgÞÞ;
for every f, g in C 1 ðMÞ; then we say that v is a derivation at p. The collection of all
derivations at p is denoted by Tp M: Clearly, Tp M is a real linear space under
pointwise vector addition and scalar multiplication. Here, the real linear space Tp M
is called the tangent space to M at p and the members of Tp M are called tangent
vectors at p.
Note 5.5 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M: Let v 2 Tp M:
Let f ; g 2 C1 ðMÞ: As above, it is easy to show:
1. If f is a constant function, then vðf Þ ¼ 0:
2. If f ðpÞ ¼ gðpÞ ¼ 0, then vðf gÞ ¼ 0:
Note 5.6 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold and N be an n-dimensional

smooth manifold. Let F : M ! N be a smooth map. Let v 2 Tp M: Let f 2 C1 ðNÞ:
Since f 2 C 1 ðNÞ; f : N ! R is a smooth map. Since F : M ! N is a smooth map,

and f : N ! R is a smooth map, their composite f F : M ! R is a smooth map,
and hence, f F 2 C1 ðMÞ: Since v 2 Tp M; v : C 1 ðMÞ ! R: Since v : C 1 ðMÞ !
R; and f F 2 C1 ðMÞ; vðf FÞ is a real number. Let us define the mapping
ððdFp ÞðvÞÞ : C 1 ðNÞ ! R as follows: For every f 2 C 1 ðNÞ;

dFp ðvÞ ðf Þ vðf F Þ:
We shall try to show that ððdFp ÞðvÞÞ 2 TFðpÞ N; that is, ðdFp ÞðvÞ is a derivation at
FðpÞ: Observe that ðdFp ÞðvÞ : C1 ðNÞ ! R is linear.
(Reason: Let f ; g 2 C 1 ðNÞ; and let s, t be any real. We must prove:

dFp ðvÞ ðsf þ tgÞ ¼ s dFp ðvÞ ð f Þ þ t dFp ðvÞ ðgÞ :
LHS ¼ ððdFp ÞðvÞÞðsf þ tgÞ ¼ vððsf þ tgÞ FÞ ¼ vðsðf FÞ þ tðg FÞÞ ¼ sðvðf FÞÞþ
tðvðg FÞÞ ¼ sðððdFp ÞðvÞÞðf ÞÞ þ tðððdFp ÞðvÞÞðgÞÞ ¼ RHS:Þ
Now, we shall try to prove that ðdFp ÞðvÞ : C 1 ðNÞ ! R satisfies the Leibnitz
rule:

dFp ðvÞ ðf gÞ ¼ dFp ðvÞ ðf Þ ðgðFðpÞÞÞ þ ðf ðFðpÞÞÞ dFp ðvÞ ðgÞ
for every f ; g in C 1 ðNÞ:

LHS ¼ dFp ðvÞ ðf gÞ ¼ vððf gÞ F Þ ¼ vððf F Þ ðg F ÞÞ
¼ ðvðf F ÞÞððg F ÞðpÞÞ þ ððf F ÞðpÞÞðvðg F ÞÞ

¼ dFp ðvÞ ðf Þ ððg F ÞðpÞÞ þ ððf F ÞðpÞÞ dFp ðvÞ ðgÞ

¼ dFp ðvÞ ðf Þ ðgðFðpÞÞÞ þ ðf ðFðpÞÞÞ dFp ðvÞ ðgÞ ¼ RHS:
Thus, we have shown that ðdFp ÞðvÞ 2 TFðpÞ N:

sional smooth manifold. Let F : M ! N be a smooth map. If v 2 Tp M; then
ðdFp ÞðvÞ 2 TFðpÞ N: Thus, dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N: Here, dFp is called the differential
of F at p (or tangent map, total derivative, or derivative of F, or pointwise push-
forward of F). dFp is also denoted by F 0 ðpÞ; DF; F (see Fig. 5.1).
Note 5.7 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, and N be an n-dimensional
smooth manifold. Let F : M ! N be a smooth map. We shall try to show that
dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is a linear mapping from tangent space Tp M to tangent space
TFðpÞ N: Let us take any v1 ; v2 in Tp M; and any real s; t: We have to show that

dFp ðsv1 þ tv2 Þ ¼ s dFp ðv1 Þ þ t dFp ðv2 Þ ;
that is, for every f in C1 ðNÞ;

Fig. 5.1 Tangent map

dFp ðsv1 þ tv2 Þ ðf Þ ¼ s dFp ðv1 Þ þ t dFp ðv2 Þ ðf Þ:

LHS ¼ dFp ðsv1 þ tv2 Þ ðf Þ ¼ ðsv1 þ tv2 Þðf F Þ
¼ s ð v1 ð f F Þ Þ þ t ð v2 ð f F Þ Þ

¼ s dFp ðv1 Þ ðf Þ þ t dFp ðv2 Þ ðf Þ

¼ s dFp ðv1 Þ ðf Þ þ t dFp ðv2 Þ ðf Þ

¼ s dFp ðv1 Þ þ t dFp ðv2 Þ ðf Þ ¼ RHS:
Note 5.8 Let M; N; P be smooth manifolds. Let F : M ! N; and G : N ! P be

smooth maps. Let p 2 M: It follows that the composite map G F : M ! P is a
smooth map. Here, dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N; dGFðpÞ : TFðpÞ N ! TGðFðpÞÞ P; and
dðG FÞp : Tp M ! TðGFÞðpÞ P: Since dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N; and dGFðpÞ : TFðpÞ N !
TGðFðpÞÞ P; ðdGFðpÞ Þ ðdFp Þ : Tp M ! TGðFðpÞÞ P; that is, ðdGFðpÞ Þ ðdFp Þ : Tp M !
TðGFÞðpÞ P: Thus, dðG FÞp : Tp M ! TðGFÞðpÞ P; and ðdGFðpÞ Þ ðdFp Þ : Tp M !
TðGFÞðpÞ P:
We shall try to prove: dðG FÞp ¼ ðdGFðpÞ Þ ðdFp Þ; that is, for every v in Tp M;
ðdðG FÞp ÞðvÞ ¼ ððdGFðpÞ Þ ðdFp ÞÞðvÞ: Further, since ðdðG FÞp ÞðvÞ 2 TðGFÞðpÞ P;
ðd ðG FÞp ÞðvÞ : C1 ðPÞ ! R; and hence, we must prove: For every f in C 1 ðPÞ;

dðG F Þp ðvÞ ðf Þ ¼ dGFðpÞ dFp ðvÞ ðf Þ:

LHS ¼ dðG F Þp ðvÞ ðf Þ ¼ vðf ðG F ÞÞ

¼ vððf GÞ F Þ ¼ dFp ðvÞ ðf GÞ

¼ dGFðpÞ dFp ðvÞ ðf Þ

¼ dGFðpÞ dFp ðvÞ ðf Þ ¼ RHS:
Thus, we have shown that dðG FÞp ¼ ðdGFðpÞ Þ ðdFp Þ:

Note 5.9 Let M be a smooth manifold. Let p 2 M: Here, IdM : M ! M is given by

IdM ðxÞ ¼ x for every x in M: Clearly, IdM is a smooth function. Also, dðIdM Þp :
Tp M ! Tp M; and IdTp M : Tp M ! Tp M:
We shall try to prove: dðIdM Þp ¼ IdTp M ; that is, for every v in Tp M;
ðdðIdM Þp ÞðvÞ ¼ ðIdTp M ÞðvÞ; that is, for every v in Tp M; ðdðIdM Þp ÞðvÞ ¼ v: Further,
since v is in Tp M; v : C 1 ðMÞ ! R; and hence, we must prove: For every f in
C 1 ðMÞ; ððdðIdM Þp ÞðvÞÞðf Þ ¼ vðf Þ:

LHS ¼ dðIdM Þp ðvÞ ðf Þ ¼ vðf ðIdM ÞÞ ¼ vðf Þ ¼ RHS:
Thus, we have shown that dðIdM Þp ¼ IdTp M :
5.2 Open Submanifolds
Note 5.10 Let M; N be smooth manifolds. Let F : M ! N be a diffeomorphism.

Let p 2 M: Since F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism, F : M ! N is a smooth
map. We shall try to show: dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is an isomorphism.
Since dFp is linear, it suffices to show that dFp is 1–1 and onto.
dFp is 1–1: Let ðdFp ÞðvÞ ¼ ðdFp ÞðwÞ; where v; w are in Tp M: We have to prove
that v ¼ w:
Since dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N; and v is in Tp M; ðdFp ÞðvÞ is in TFðpÞ N; and hence,
ðdFp ÞðvÞ : C1 ðNÞ ! R: Since v is in Tp M; v : C 1 ðMÞ ! R: Similarly, w : C 1 ðMÞ
! R: Now, we have to prove that v ¼ w; that is, for every f in C 1 ðMÞ;
vðf Þ ¼ wðf Þ:
For this purpose, let us take any f in C1 ðMÞ: Since f is in C1 ðMÞ; f : M ! R is
smooth. Since F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism, F 1 : N ! M is smooth. Since F 1 :
N ! M is smooth, and f : M ! R is smooth, their composite f ðF 1 Þ : N ! R is
smooth, and hence, f ðF 1 Þ 2 C1 ðNÞ: Now, since ðdFp ÞðvÞ ¼ ðdFp ÞðwÞ; for every
g in C 1 ðNÞ; vðg FÞ ¼ ððdFp ÞðvÞÞðgÞ ¼ ððdFp ÞðwÞÞðgÞ ¼ wðg FÞ: Since for
every g in C1 ðNÞ; vðg FÞ ¼ wðg FÞ; and f ðF 1 Þ 2 C 1 ðNÞ; LHS ¼ vðf Þ ¼
vðf IdM Þ ¼ vðf ðF 1 FÞÞ ¼ vððf ðF 1 ÞÞ FÞ ¼ wððf ðF 1 ÞÞ FÞ ¼ wðf
ðF 1 FÞÞ ¼ wðf IdM Þ ¼ wðf Þ ¼ RHS:
Thus, we have shown that if F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism, then dFp :
Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is an isomorphism.
Since F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism, F 1 : N ! M is a smooth map, and hence,
dðF 1 ÞFðpÞ : TFðpÞ N ! Tp M is an isomorphism. Since dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is an
isomorphism, ðdFp Þ1 : TFðpÞ N ! Tp M: Thus
5.2 Open Submanifolds 315
1
d F 1 FðpÞ : TFðpÞ N ! Tp M; and dFp : TFðpÞ N ! Tp M:
Now, we want to prove that dðF 1 ÞFðpÞ ¼ ðdFp Þ1 ; that is, ðdðF 1 ÞFðpÞ Þ
ðdFp Þ ¼ IdTp M :

LHS ¼ d F 1 FðpÞ dFp ¼ d F 1 F p ¼ dðIdM Þp ¼ IdTp M ¼ RHS:
Thus, we have shown that if F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism, then dðF 1 ÞFðpÞ

¼ ðdFp Þ1 :
Theorem 5.12 Let M be a smooth manifold. Let p 2 M; v 2 Tp M: Let f ; g 2
C 1 ðMÞ: If there exists an open neighborhood U of p such that f jU ¼ gjU ; then
vðf Þ ¼ vðgÞ: In short, we say that tangent vectors act “locally.”
Proof Let U be an open neighborhood of p such that f jU ¼ gjU : We want to show
that vðf Þ ¼ vðgÞ: Let us put h f g: Since f ; g 2 C1 ðMÞ; h ¼ f g 2 C 1 ðMÞ;
and hence, h 2 C1 ðMÞ: Since f jU ¼ gjU ; hjU ¼ 0: Clearly, p 62 supp h: (Reason: If
not, otherwise, let p 2 supp h: We have to arrive at a contradiction. Since p 2
supp h ¼ fx : hðxÞ 6¼ 0g ; and U is an open neighborhood of p; there exists t 2 M
such that hðtÞ 6¼ 0; and t 2 U: Since t 2 U; and hjU ¼ 0; hðtÞ ¼ 0; a contradiction.)
Since p 62 supp h; hðpÞ ¼ 0:
Here, M is a smooth manifold, so M is Hausdorff. Since M is Hausdorff, and
p 2 M; fpg is closed, and hence, M fpg is open: Since p 62 supp h; supp h
M fpg: Here, supp h M fpg; supp h is a closed subset of M;
M fpg is an open subset of M, so, by Lemma 4.58, there exists a smooth
function w : M ! ½0; 1 such that w is a bump function for supp h supported in
M fpg; and hence,
1. for every x in supp h; wðxÞ ¼ 1;
2. supp w M fpg:
Since supp w M fpg; p 62 supp w; and hence, wðpÞ ¼ 0: Since w : M !
½0; 1 is smooth, w 2 C 1 ðMÞ: Since w 2 C 1 ðMÞ; and h 2 C 1 ðMÞ; their product
ðw hÞ 2 C 1 ðMÞ: Since v 2 Tp M; v : C 1 ðMÞ ! R: Now, vðw hÞ ¼ ðvðwÞÞ
ðhðpÞÞ þ ðwðpÞÞ ðvðhÞÞ ¼ ðvðwÞÞð0Þ þ ð0ÞðvðhÞÞ ¼ 0: Thus, vðw hÞ ¼ 0:
Clearly, w h ¼ h: (Reason: If x 2 supp h; then from condition 1, ðw hÞðxÞ ¼
ðwðxÞÞðhðxÞÞ ¼ 1ðhðxÞÞ ¼ hðxÞ: If x 62 supp h; then hðxÞ ¼ 0; and hence,
ðw hÞðxÞ ¼ ðwðxÞÞðhðxÞÞ ¼ ðwðxÞÞ0 ¼ 0 ¼ hðxÞ: Thus, for all x in M; ðw hÞðxÞ ¼
hðxÞÞ. Now, 0 ¼ vðw hÞ ¼ vðhÞ ¼ vðf gÞ ¼ vðf Þ vðgÞ; so vðf Þ ¼ vðgÞ: h
Theorem 5.13 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M: Let U be
an open neighborhood of p. We know that U is also a smooth manifold (called open
submanifold U of M). Let i : U ! M be the mapping defined as follows: For every
x in U, iðxÞ x: (Here, we say that i is the inclusion map of U.) Then, the
differential dip : Tp U ! TiðpÞ Mð¼ Tp MÞ is an isomorphism, that is, dip : Tp U !

Tp M is 1–1 and onto.
Proof Since M is a smooth manifold, M is a topological manifold. Since M is a
topological manifold, and U is an open neighborhood of p, there exists an open
neighborhood V of p such that V U: We know that dip is linear.
dip is 1–1: For this purpose, let ðdip ÞðvÞ ¼ 0 where v 2 Tp U: We have to prove
that v ¼ 0: Since v 2 Tp U; v : C 1 ðUÞ ! R: We have to show that v ¼ 0; that is,
for every f 2 C1 ðUÞ; vðf Þ ¼ 0: For this purpose, let us take any f 2 C 1 ðUÞ: Since
f 2 C 1 ðUÞ; f : U ! R is smooth. Since f : U ! R is smooth, and V U, f jV
is smooth. Here, V U; V is closed, U is open, and f jV is smooth, so, by

Lemma 4.59, there exists a smooth function ~f : M ! Rm such that ~f V ¼ f jV :

Since ~f V ¼ f jV ; and V V ; ~f V ¼ f jV : Since ~f : M ! Rm is smooth, ~f U is

smooth on U; and hence, ~f U 2 C 1 ðUÞ: Since V V U; ð~f U Þ ¼ ~f V ¼ f jV ;

V

and hence, ð~f U Þ ¼ f jV : Since U is a smooth manifold, p 2 U; v 2 Tp U; ~f U ; f 2

V
C 1 ðUÞ; V is an open neighborhood of p such that V U; and ð~f U Þ ¼ f jV , by
V
Theorem 5.12, vð~f U Þ ¼ vðf Þ: Now,

LHS ¼ vðf Þ ¼ v ~f U ¼ v ~f i ¼ dip ðvÞ ~f ¼ 0 ~f ¼ 0 ¼ RHS:
This proves that dip is 1–1.

dip : Tp U ! Tp M is onto: For this purpose, let us take any w 2 Tp M: We have to
find v 2 Tp U such that ðdip ÞðvÞ ¼ w: Since w 2 Tp M; w : C 1 ðMÞ ! R: It follows
that we must find v 2 Tp U such that for every f 2 C 1 ðMÞ; ððdip ÞðvÞÞðf Þ ¼ wðf Þ;
that is, for every f 2 C 1 ðMÞ; vðf iÞ ¼ wðf Þ:
Now, let us take any g 2 C1 ðUÞ: Since g 2 C1 ðUÞ; g : U ! R is smooth.
Since M is a topological manifold, and U is an open neighborhood of p; there exists
an open neighborhood V of p such that V U: Since g : U ! R is smooth, and
V U, gjV is smooth. Here, V U; V is closed, U is open, and gjV is
smooth, by Lemma 4.59, there exists a smooth function g : M ! Rm such that
g jV ¼ gjV : Next, let g : M ! Rm be another smooth function such that
g jV ¼ gjV : Since g jV ¼ gjV ¼ g jV ; and V V ; g jV ¼ g jV : Since M is a
smooth manifold, p 2 M; w 2 Tp M; g ; g 2 C1 ðMÞ; V is an open neighborhood
of p; and g jV ¼ g jV , by Theorem 5.12, wðg Þ ¼ wðg Þ:
Let us define a function v : C 1 ðUÞ ! R as follows: For every g 2 C1 ðUÞ;
vðgÞ wðg Þ where g 2 C 1 ðMÞ; and g jV ¼ gjV : From the above discussion,
we find that v : C 1 ðUÞ ! R is well defined. Now, we want to prove that v is linear.
For this purpose, let us take any g1 ; g2 2 C1 ðUÞ; and s; t any real numbers. We
have to prove that vðsg1 þ tg2 Þ ¼ sðvðg 1 ÞÞ þ tðvðg2 ÞÞ:
Let g1 2 C1 ðMÞ such that g1 V ¼ g1 jV ; and g2 2 C 1 ðMÞ such that

g2 V ¼ g2 jV : It follows that sðg1 Þ þ tðg2 Þ 2 C 1 ðMÞ: Since g1 V ¼ g1 jV ; and

g2 V ¼ g2 jV ; ðsðg1 Þ þ tðg2 ÞÞV ¼ ðsg1 þ tg2 ÞjV : Since ðsg1 þ tg2 ÞjV ¼ ðsðg1 Þ þ
tðg2 ÞÞjV ; and sðg1 Þ þ tðg2 Þ 2 C1 ðMÞ;

LHS ¼ vðsg1 þ tg2 Þ ¼ w s g1 þ t g2 ¼ s w g1 þ t w g2
¼ sðvðg1 ÞÞ þ tðvðg2 ÞÞ ¼ RHS:
Now, we want to prove the Leibnitz rule: For every f ; g 2 C 1 ðUÞ;
vðf gÞ ¼ ðvðf ÞÞðgðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞðvðgÞÞ:
Let f 2 C 1 ðMÞ such that f jV ¼ f jV ; and g 2 C 1 ðMÞ such that g jV ¼

gjV : It follows that ðf Þ ðg Þ 2 C 1 ðMÞ: Since f jV ¼ f jV ; and g jV ¼ gjV ;
ððf Þ ðg ÞÞjV ¼ ðf gÞjV : Since f jV ¼ f jV ; and p 2 V V ; f ðpÞ ¼
f ðpÞ. Similarly, g ðpÞ ¼ gðpÞ: Now,
LHS ¼ vðf gÞ ¼ wððf Þ ðg ÞÞ ¼ ðwðf ÞÞðg ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞðwðg ÞÞ

¼ ðvðf ÞÞðg ðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞðvðgÞÞ ¼ ðvðf ÞÞðgðpÞÞ þ ðf ðpÞÞðvðgÞÞ ¼ RHS:
Thus, we have shown that v : C 1 ðUÞ ! R is a derivation at p; and hence, v 2 Tp U.

Next, let us take any f 2 C 1 ðMÞ: It remains to be proved that vðf iÞ ¼ wðf Þ:
Since i : U ! M is smooth, and f : M ! R is smooth, f i : U ! R is smooth,
and hence, f i 2 C 1 ðUÞ: Now, since V U; f jV ¼ ðf iÞjV : Since
f 2 C 1 ðMÞ; f i 2 C 1 ðUÞ; and f jV ¼ ðf iÞjV , by the definition of v;
vðf iÞ ¼ wðf Þ: h
Theorem 5.14 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M: Then, the
real linear space Tp M is of dimension m.
Here, M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, and p 2 M; so there exists an
admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ of M such that p 2 U: Since ðU; uÞ is an
admissible coordinate chart of M, there exists an open neighborhood G of uðpÞ in
Rm such that u : U ! G is a diffeomorphism. Since u : U ! G is a diffeomor-
phism, F : M ! N is an isomorphism, and hence, Tp U is isomorphic onto TuðpÞ G:
Since M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, p 2 M; and U is an open
neighborhood of p, by Theorem 5.13, the differential dip : Tp U ! TiðpÞ Mð¼ Tp MÞ
is an isomorphism, where i denotes the inclusion map of U. Since dip : Tp U !
Tp M is an isomorphism, Tp U is isomorphic onto Tp M:
Since Rm is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, uðpÞ 2 Rm ; and G is an open
neighborhood of uðpÞ, by Theorem 5.13, the differential dîuðpÞ : TuðpÞ G !
TîðuðpÞÞ Rm ð¼ TuðpÞ Rm Þ is an isomorphism, where î denotes the inclusion map of
G. Since dîuðpÞ : TuðpÞ G ! TuðpÞ Rm is an isomorphism, TuðpÞ G is isomorphic onto
TuðpÞ Rm :
We have seen that Rm uðpÞ is isomorphic to TuðpÞ R : Since Tp U is isomorphic onto
m
TuðpÞ G; Tp U is linear isomorphic onto Tp M; TuðpÞ G is isomorphic onto TuðpÞ Rm ; and

RmuðpÞ is isomorphic to TuðpÞ R ; Tp M is isomorphic to RuðpÞ ; and hence, dim Tp M ¼

m m
dim Rm uðpÞ : Since dim Tp M ¼ dim RuðpÞ ; and dim RuðpÞ ¼ m; dim Tp M ¼ m:
m m
Note 5.15 Let M be a two-dimensional smooth manifold with differentiable

structure A; and let N be a three-dimensional smooth manifold with differentiable
structure B: Hence, the product manifold M N is a ð2 þ 3Þ-dimensional smooth
manifold. Let ðp; qÞ 2 M N:
Since ðp; qÞ 2 M N; p 2 M; and q 2 N: Since p 2 M; and M is a two-
dimensional smooth manifold, the tangent space Tp M is a two-dimensional real
linear space. Similarly, Tq N is a three-dimensional real linear space, and the tangent
space Tðp;qÞ ðM NÞ is a ð2 þ 3Þ-dimensional real linear space. Since Tp M is a two-
dimensional real linear space, and Tq N is a three-dimensional real linear space, their
direct product Tp M Tp N is a ð2 þ 3Þ-dimensional real linear space. Let p1 :
M N ! M be the mapping defined as follows: For every ðx; yÞ 2 M N;
p1 ðx; yÞ x: Let p2 : M N ! N be the mapping defined as follows: For every
ðx; yÞ 2 M N; p2 ðx; yÞ y: We know that p1 : M N ! M is a smooth map-
ping. Since p1 : M N ! M is a smooth mapping, and ðp; qÞ 2 M N; its dif-
ferential dðp1 Þðp;qÞ : Tðp;qÞ ðM NÞ ! Tp1 ðp;qÞ Mð¼ Tp MÞ is a linear map, that is,
dðp1 Þðp;qÞ : Tðp;qÞ ðM NÞ ! Tp M is a linear map. Similarly, dðp2 Þðp;qÞ :
Tðp;qÞ ðM NÞ ! Tq N is a linear map.
Let us define a mapping a : Tðp;qÞ ðM NÞ ! Tp M Tq N as follows: For every
v in Tðp;qÞ ðM NÞ;

aðvÞ ¼ dðp1 Þðp;qÞ ðvÞ; dðp2 Þðp;qÞ ðvÞ :
Since v 7! ðdðp1 Þðp;qÞ ÞðvÞ is linear, and v 7! ðdðp2 Þðp;qÞ ÞðvÞ is linear,
v 7! ððdðp1 Þðp;qÞ ÞðvÞ; ðdðp2 Þðp;qÞ ÞðvÞÞ is linear, and hence, a : Tðp;qÞ ðM NÞ !
Tp M Tp N is linear.
Similarly, we can show that let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, N be
an n-dimensional smooth manifold, and ðp; qÞ 2 M N: Define a : Tðp;qÞ
ðM NÞ ! Tp M Tq N as follows: For every v in Tðp;qÞ ðM NÞ; aðvÞ
ððdðp1 Þðp;qÞ ÞðvÞ; ðdðp2 Þðp;qÞ ÞðvÞÞ: Then, α is linear, etc.
Note 5.16 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M: Let U be an

open neighborhood of p. We know that U is also a smooth manifold (called open
submanifold U of M). Let i : U ! M be the mapping defined as follows: For every
x in U, iðxÞ x: We know that the differential dip : Tp U ! Tp M is an
isomorphism.
So, from now on, we shall not distinguish between a derivation v in Tp U; and the
derivation ðdip ÞðvÞ in Tp M: Also, we shall not distinguish between Tp U and Tp M:
Here, let v be in Tp U: So v : C1 ðUÞ ! R: Since ðdip ÞðvÞ is in Tp M; ðdip ÞðvÞ :
1
C ðMÞ ! R: Observe that the action of “derivation at a point” on a function
depends only on the values of the function in any open neighborhood of the point.
Also, we shall not distinguish between a derivation v in Tp M; and the derivation

ðdip Þ1 ðvÞ in Tp U:
Note 5.17 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let ðU; uÞ be an
admissible coordinate chart of M. Let us fix any p 2 U:
Since ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying p 2 U; there
exists an open neighborhood G of uðpÞ in Rm such that u : U ! G is a diffeo-
morphism. Since u : U ! G is a diffeomorphism, dup : Tp U ! TuðpÞ G is an iso-
morphism. Thus, for every v 2 Tp U; and for every f 2 C1 ðGÞ;

dup ðvÞ ðf Þ ¼ vðf uÞ:
Since M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, p 2 M; and U is an open neigh-

borhood of p, by Theorem 5.13, the differential dip : Tp U ! TiðpÞ Mð¼ Tp MÞ is an
isomorphism, where i denotes the inclusion map of U. Since dip : Tp U ! Tp M is
an isomorphism, ðdip Þ1 : Tp M ! Tp U is an isomorphism. Thus, for every v 2
Tp U; and for every f 2 C 1 ðMÞ;

dip ðvÞ ðf Þ ¼ vðf iÞ ¼ v f jU :
Since Rm is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, uðpÞ 2 Rm ; and G is an open

neighborhood of uðpÞ, by Theorem 5.13, the differential dîuðpÞ : TuðpÞ G ! TîðuðpÞÞ
Rm ð¼ TuðpÞ Rm Þ is an isomorphism, where î denotes the inclusion map of G. Thus,
for every v 2 TuðpÞ G; and for every f 2 C 1 ðRm Þ;

dîuðpÞ ðvÞ ðf Þ ¼ vðf îÞ ¼ v f jG :
Since ðdip Þ1 : Tp M ! Tp U is an isomorphism, dup : Tp U ! TuðpÞ G is an isomor-

phism, and dîuðpÞ : TuðpÞ G ! TuðpÞ Rm is an isomorphism, their composite ðdîuðpÞ Þ
ðdup Þ ðdip Þ1 : Tp M ! TuðpÞ Rm is an isomorphism. It follows that ðdip Þ
ðdup Þ1 ðdîuðpÞ Þ1 : TuðpÞ Rm ! Tp M is an isomorphism. Further, since u : U !
G is a diffeomorphism, ðdup Þ1 ¼ dðu1 ÞuðpÞ ; and hence, ðdip Þ dðu1 ÞuðpÞ
ðdîuðpÞ Þ1 : TuðpÞ Rm ! Tp M is an isomorphism. Since ðdip Þ dðu1 ÞuðpÞ
ðdîuðpÞ Þ1 : TuðpÞ Rm ! Tp M is an isomorphism, and
( )
o o o
; ; . . .; m
ox1 uðpÞ ox2 uðpÞ ox uðpÞ
is a basis of TuðpÞ Rm ;
( !
1 o 1
dip d u1 uðpÞ dîuðpÞ ; dip d u1 uðpÞ dîuðpÞ
ox uðpÞ
1
! !)
o 1 o
1
; . . .; dip d u uðpÞ dîuðpÞ
ox2 uðpÞ oxm uðpÞ
is a basis of Tp M: Here, we can write:
!
1
1 o
dip d u dîuðpÞ
uðpÞ ox1 uðpÞ
!!
1
1 o
¼ dip d u dîuðpÞ
uðpÞ ox1 uðpÞ
! !!
o 1 o
¼ dip d u 1
¼ dip d u uðpÞ
uðpÞ ox1 uðpÞ ox1 uðpÞ
!
o
¼ d u1 uðpÞ :
ox1 uðpÞ
Thus,
! !
1 o 1 o
dip d u1 uðpÞ dîuðpÞ ¼ d u uðpÞ :
ox1 uðpÞ ox1 uðpÞ
Similarly,
! !
1 o 1 o
dip d u 1
dîuðpÞ ¼ d u uðpÞ ; etc;
uðpÞ ox2 uðpÞ ox2 uðpÞ
Thus,
( ! ! !)
o 1 o o
d u1 uðpÞ ; d u uðpÞ 1
; . . .; d u uðpÞ
ox1 uðpÞ ox2 uðpÞ oxm uðpÞ
is a basis of Tp M: For i ¼ 1; 2; . . .; m; the tangent vector
!
o
d u1 uðpÞ
oxi uðpÞ
o

at p is denoted by oxi p . Thus,
( )
o o o
; ; . . .; m
ox1 p ox2 p ox p
is a basis of Tp M:
Conclusion: Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let ðU; uÞ be an
admissible coordinate chart of M. Then, for every p 2 U;
( )
o o o
; ; . . .; m
ox1 p ox2 p ox p

o
is a basis of Tp M; where oxi p stands for
!
o
d u1 uðpÞ :
oxi uðpÞ
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let ðU; uÞ be an

admissible coordinate chart of M. For every p 2 M; the ordered basis
!
o o o
; ; . . .; m ;
ox1 p ox2 p ox p
as defined in the Note 5.17, is called the coordinate basis of Tp M: If v 2 Tp M, then

there exists a unique m-tuple ðv1 ; v2 ; . . .; vm Þ of real numbers such that
! ! !
o o o
v¼v 1
þv 2
þ þ v m
:
ox1 p ox2 p oxm p
Here, we say that ðv1 ; v2 ; . . .; vm Þ are the components of v with respect to coordinate
basis.
Note 5.18 Let U be an open subset of Rn ; V be an open subset of Rm ; and p 2 U:
Let F : U ! V be smooth, where F ðF 1 ; F 2 ; . . .; F m Þ:
Since U is a nonempty open subset of the n-dimensional smooth manifold Rn ;
U is also an n-dimensional smooth manifold. Similarly, V is an m-dimensional
smooth manifold. It follows that dFp : Tp U ! TFðpÞ V is a linear map from real
linear space Tp U to real linear space TFðpÞ V: Here,
!
o o o
; ; . . .; n
ox1 p ox2 p ox p
is the coordinate basis of Tp Rn ; and we do not distinguish between Tp U and Tp Rn ;

so
!
o o o
; ; . . .; n
ox1 p ox2 p ox p
is the coordinate basis of Tp U: Similarly,

!
o o o
; ; . . .; m
oy1 FðpÞ oy2 FðpÞ oy FðpÞ
is the coordinate basis of TFðpÞ V: Now, since dFp : Tp U ! TFðpÞ V; for every
f 2 C 1 ðVÞ;
!! !
o o
dFp ðf Þ ¼ ðf F Þ
ox1 p ox1 p
¼ 1st column of ½ðD1 f ÞðFðpÞÞ
2 3
ðD1 F 1 ÞðpÞ ðDn F 1 ÞðpÞ
6. .. . 7
ðDm f ÞðFðpÞÞ 6
4 .. . .. 7
5
ðD1 F ÞðpÞ ðDn F ÞðpÞ
m m

¼ ððD1 f ÞðFðpÞÞÞ D1 F 1 ðpÞ
þ þ ððDm f ÞðFðpÞÞÞððD1 F m ÞðpÞÞ
Xm i
of oF
¼ ðFðpÞÞ ðpÞ
i¼1
oy i ox1
X
m
oF i of
¼ ðpÞ ðFðpÞÞ
i¼1
ox1 oyi
X i ! !!
m
oF o
¼ ðpÞ f
i¼1
ox1 oyi FðpÞ
X i !! !
m
oF o
¼ ðpÞ f
i¼1
ox1 oyi FðpÞ
! !
X m
oF i o
¼ ðpÞ f
i¼1
ox1 oyi FðpÞ
and hence,
! X m !
o oF i o
dFp ¼ ðpÞ :
ox1 p i¼1
ox1 oyi FðpÞ
Similarly,
! m !
o X oF i o
dFp ¼ ðpÞ ; etc:
ox2 p i¼1
ox2 oyi FðpÞ
Since for every j ¼ 1; 2; . . .; n;

! m !
o X oF i o
dFp ¼ ðpÞ ;
ox j p i¼1
ox j oyi FðpÞ
and
!
o o o
; ; . . .; m
is the coordinate basis of TFðpÞ V; the matrix representation of linear map dFp is the
following m n matrix:
2 3
oF 1 oF 1 oF 1
ox1 ðpÞ ox2 ðpÞ oxn ðpÞ
6 oF 2 7
6 1 ðpÞ oF 2
ðpÞ oF 2
ðpÞ 7
6 ox ox2 oxn 7:
4 5
oF m oF m
oF
m
ox1 ðpÞ ox2 ðpÞ oxn ðpÞ
Let us recall that this matrix is the matrix representation of the total derivative
DFðpÞ : Rn ! Rm : Thus, we find that in this case, differential dFp : Tp Rn !
TFðpÞ Rm corresponds to the total derivative DFðpÞ : Rn ! Rm ; tangent space Tp Rn
corresponds Rn ; and tangent space TFðpÞ Rm corresponds Rm :
Note 5.19 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, and N be an n-dimen-
sional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M: Let F : M ! N be a smooth mapping. Let
ðU; uÞ be an admissible coordinate chart of M such that p 2 U: Let ðV; wÞ be an
admissible coordinate chart of N such that FðpÞ 2 V: Since F : M ! N is a smooth
mapping, ðw F u1 Þ : uðU \ F 1 ðVÞÞ ! wðVÞ is smooth. Put ðF ^ 1; F
^ 2 ; . . .;
^ ÞF
F n ^ w F u : Thus, F
1 ^ : uðU \ F ðVÞÞ ! wðVÞ is smooth, that is, each
1
1
pi ðw F u Þ is smooth, where pi denotes the ith projection function from Rn
to R:
Since F : M ! N is a smooth, F : M ! N is continuous. Since F : M ! N is

continuous, and V is open in N, F 1 ðVÞ is open in M. Since F 1 ðVÞ is open in M,
and U is open in M, U \ F 1 ðVÞ is open in M. Clearly, p 2 U \ F 1 ðVÞ: Thus,
U \ F 1 ðVÞ is an open neighborhood of p. Since U \ F 1 ðVÞ U; U \ F 1 ðVÞ is
open in M, and U is open in M, U \ F 1 ðVÞ is open in U. Since U \ F 1 ðVÞ is an
open neighborhood of p in U, and u is a homeomorphism from U onto an open
subset of Rm ; uðU \ F 1 ðVÞÞ is an open neighborhood of uðpÞ in Rm : Clearly,
wðVÞ is open in Rn : Now, since F^ : uðU \ F 1 ðVÞÞ ! wðVÞ is smooth, as in the
ûðpÞ : TuðpÞ Rm ! T ^
FðuðpÞÞ R ð¼ TðFuÞðpÞ
n
Note 5.18, the matrix representation of dF ^
R ¼ TðwFÞðpÞ R Þ is
n n
2 oF^ 1 ^1
oF ^1
oF
3
ox1 ðuðpÞÞ ox2 ðuðpÞÞ oxm ðuðpÞÞ
6 ^2 7
6 oF1 ðuðpÞÞ
^2
oF
ðuðpÞÞ
^2
oF
ðuðpÞÞ 7
6 ox ox2 oxm 7:
4 5
^n
oF ^n
oF ^n
ox1 ðuðpÞÞ ox2 ðuðpÞÞ ooxFm ðuðpÞÞ
Since F^ w F u1 ; and u; w are 1–1, w1 F

^ ¼ F u1 : Here, F u1 :
uðUÞ ! N; so dðF u ÞuðpÞ : TuðpÞ R ! TFðpÞ N: Similarly dðw1 FÞ
1 ^
uðpÞ :
m
TuðpÞ R ! TFðpÞ N: Here

m
!
o o o
; ; . . .; m
ox1 p ox2 p ox p
is the coordinate basis of Tp M; where

!
o 1 o
d u uðpÞ :
oxi p oxi uðpÞ
Also,
!
o o o
; ; . . .; n
is the coordinate basis of TFðpÞ N; where

!
o o
1
d w wðFðpÞÞ :
oy j FðpÞ oy j wðFðpÞÞ
Now, we want to obtain the matrix representation of dFp :

Since F : M ! N is a smooth mapping, dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N: Next, for

i ¼ 1; 2; . . .; m;
! !!
o 1 o
dFp ¼ dFp d u uðpÞ
oxi p oxi uðpÞ
!
1 o
¼ dFp d u uðpÞ
oxi uðpÞ
!
o
¼ dFu1 ðuðpÞÞ d u1 uðpÞ
oxi uðpÞ
!
o
¼ d F u1 uðpÞ
oxi uðpÞ
!
o
1 ^
¼ d w F uðpÞ
oxi uðpÞ
!
o
ûðpÞ
¼ d w1 F^ ðuðpÞÞ dF
oxi uðpÞ
!!
o
1
¼ d w F^ ðuðpÞÞ ^
dFuðpÞ
oxi uðpÞ

¼ d w1 F ðuðpÞÞ ðith column of
2 ^1 ^1 ^1
31
oF oF oF
6 ^2 7C
6 oF1 ðuðpÞÞ oF^22 ðuðpÞÞ oF^m2 ðuðpÞÞ 7C
6 ox ox ox 7C
6 7C
4 5A
^n
oF oF^n ^n
oF
ox 1 ð uðpÞ Þ ox 2 ð uðpÞ Þ ox m ðuðpÞ Þ
!!
X n ^j
1
oF o
¼ d w F^ ðuðpÞÞ ð uðpÞ Þ
j¼1
oxi oy j F^ ðuðpÞÞ
!!
X n ^j
1
oF o
¼ d w ðFu ðuðpÞÞ
^ ÞðpÞ
j¼1
oxi oy j ðFu^ ÞðpÞ
!!
X n
oF^j o
1
¼ d w ðwF ÞðpÞ ðuðpÞÞ
j¼1
oxi oy j ðwF ÞðpÞ
!!
Xn
oF ^j
o
¼ ð uðpÞ Þ d w 1
j¼1
oxi ðwF ÞðpÞ oy j ðwF ÞðpÞ
!!
Xn ^j
oF

1 o
¼ ðuðpÞÞ d w wðFðpÞÞ
j¼1
oxi oy j wðFðpÞÞ
!
Xn ^j
oF o
¼ ð uðpÞ Þ :
j¼1
oxi oy j FðpÞ
Thus,
! n ^j !
o X oF o
dFp ¼ ðuðpÞÞ :
oxi p j¼1
oxi oy j FðpÞ
Since for every i ¼ 1; 2; . . .; m;

! n ^j !
o X oF o
dFp ¼ ðuðpÞÞ ;
oxi p j¼1
oxi oy j FðpÞ
and
!
o o o
; ; . . .; n
is the coordinate basis of TFðpÞ N; the matrix representation of linear map dFp is the
following n m matrix:
2 3
^1
oF ^1
oF ^1
oF
6 7
6 oF^ 2 ^2 ^2 7
6 ox1 ðuðpÞÞ oF
ðuðpÞÞ ooxFm ðuðpÞÞ 7
6 ox2 7
4 5
oF^n ^n
oF ^n
ox1 ðuðpÞÞ ox2 ðuðpÞÞ ooxFm ðuðpÞÞ
2 3
oðp1 ðwFu1 ÞÞ oðp1 ðwFu1 ÞÞ oðp1 ðwFu1 ÞÞ
ðuðpÞÞ ðuðpÞÞ ðuðpÞÞ
6 ox1 ox2 oxm 7
6 7
6 o p wFu1 ÞÞ 7
¼ 6 ð 2 ð ox1
oðp2 ðwFu1 ÞÞ oðp2 ðwFu1 ÞÞ
ðuðpÞÞ ðuðpÞÞ ð uðpÞ Þ 7:
6 ox2 oxm 7
4 5
oðpn ðwFu1 ÞÞ oðpn ðwFu1 ÞÞ oðpn ðwFu1 ÞÞ
ox 1 ð uðpÞ Þ ox2 ðuðpÞÞ oxm ðuðpÞÞ
It follows that the matrix representation of dFp is the same as the matrix repre-
sentation of dðw F u1 ÞuðpÞ :
Note 5.20 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M: Let ðU; uÞ be

an admissible coordinate chart of M such that p 2 U: Let ðV; wÞ be an admissible
coordinate chart of M such that p 2 V: Let uðpÞ ðx1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm Þ; and wðpÞ
~x1 ; ~x2 ; . . .; ~xm : Let
!
o o o
; ; . . .; m
ox1 p ox2 p ox p
be the coordinate basis of Tp M corresponding to ðU; uÞ; where

!
o 1 o
d u uðpÞ :
oxi p oxi uðpÞ
Let
!
o o o
; ; . . .; m
o~x1 p o~x2 p o~x p
be the coordinate basis of Tp M corresponding to ðV; wÞ; where

!
o 1 o
d w wðpÞ :
o~xi p o~xi wðpÞ
Let v 2 Tp M: Let ðv1 ; v2 ; . . .; vm Þ be the components of v with respect to coordinate

basis
!
o o o
; ; . . .; m
ox1 p ox2 p ox p
of Tp M: Let ð~v1 ; ~v2 ; . . .; ~vm Þ be the components of v with respect to coordinate basis
!
o o o
; ; . . .; m
o~x1 p o~x2 p o~x p
of Tp M: Thus,
0 1 0 1
!
1@ o A 2@ o A o
~v
1
þ ~v
2
þ þ ~vm
m ¼v
ox p ox p ox p
! ! !
o o o
¼ v1 þ v2 þ þ vm :

ox1 p
ox2 p oxm p
Since ðU; uÞ and ðV; wÞ are admissible coordinate charts of M such that p 2 U \ V;
w u1 : uðU \ VÞ ! wðU \ VÞ is smooth.
Here, with the hope that there will be no confusion, for every i ¼ 1; 2; . . .; m; the
ith component of the “transition map” w u1 is generally denoted by ~xi : Thus, ~xi
has two meanings: the ith component of wðpÞ; and the ith component function of
w u1 : The situation indicates which meaning is to be attached with. Here, for
every x 2 uðU \ VÞ; ðw u1 ÞðxÞ ¼ ð~x1 ðxÞ; ~x2 ðxÞ; . . .; ~xm ðxÞÞ:
Since uðU \ VÞ is an open neighborhood of uðpÞ in Rm ; wðU \ VÞ is an open

neighborhood of wðpÞ in Rm ; and w u1 : uðU \ VÞ ! wðU \ VÞ is a diffeo-
morphism, the differential dðw u1 ÞuðpÞ : TuðpÞ uðU \ VÞ ! TwðpÞ wðU \ VÞ is an
isomorphism, and hence, dðw u1 ÞuðpÞ : TuðpÞ Rm ! TwðpÞ Rm is an isomorphism.
Here,
!
o o o
; ; . . .; m
ox1 uðpÞ ox2 uðpÞ ox uðpÞ
is a basis of TuðpÞ Rm : Hence, for j ¼ 1; 2; . . .; m;

! !
o o 1 o
1
d u uðpÞ ¼ d w wu 1
ox j p ox j uðpÞ uðpÞ ox j uðpÞ
!
o
¼ d w1 ðwu1 ÞðuðpÞÞ d w u1 uðpÞ
ox j uðpÞ
!
o
1
¼ d w wðpÞ d w u uðpÞ 1
ox j uðpÞ
!!
o
1
¼ d w wðpÞ d w u uðpÞ 1
ox j uðpÞ

¼ d w1 wðpÞ
0 2 31
oðwu1 Þ oðwu1 Þ oðwu1 Þ
1 1 1
B 6 ox1 ð uðpÞ Þ ox2 ð uðpÞ Þ oxm ð uðpÞ Þ 7C

B 6 7C
B 6 oðwu1 Þ oðwu1 Þ oðwu1 Þ 7C
2 2 2
Bjth column of 6 ox1 ðuðpÞÞ ox2 ðuðpÞÞ oxm ðuðpÞÞ 7C

B 6 7C
B 6 7C
@ 4 5A
oðwu1 Þ oðwu1 Þ oðwu1 Þ
m m m

! !!
X m
oðw u1 Þ
i
o
1
¼ d w wðpÞ ðuðpÞÞ
i¼1
ox j o~xi ðwu1 ÞðuðpÞÞ
! !!
X m
oðw u1 Þ
i
o
1
i¼1
ox j o~xi wðpÞ
! ! !
X m
ox
i
o
1
i¼1
ox j o~xi wðpÞ
!!
Xm
o~xi o
¼ ð uðpÞ Þ d w 1
i¼1
ox j wðpÞ o~xi wðpÞ
Xm i !
o~x o
¼ ðuðpÞÞ :
i¼1
ox j o~xi p
Thus, for j ¼ 1; 2; . . .; m;
m i !
o X o~x o
¼ ðuðpÞÞ :
ox j p i¼1 ox j o~xi p
Now,
! ! ! !
X
m
o o o o
~v
i
¼ ~v1
þ ~v 2
þ þ ~v m
¼v
i¼1
o~xi p o~x1 p o~x2 p o~xm p
! ! !
o o o
¼v 1
þv 2
þ þ v m
ox1 p ox2 p oxm p
! !!
X X X m i
m
o m
o~x o
¼ v j
¼ v j
ðuðpÞÞ
j¼1
ox j p j¼1 i¼1
ox j o~xi p
m i !!!
X m X o~x o
¼ ðuðpÞÞ v j
j¼1 i¼1
ox j o~xi p
m i !!!
X m X o~x o
¼ ð uðpÞ Þ v j
i¼1 j¼1
ox j o~xi p
X X m i ! !!
m
o~x o
¼ ðuðpÞÞ v j
i¼1 j¼1
ox j o~xi p
X X m i ! !
m
o~x o
¼ ðuðpÞÞ v j
;
i¼1 j¼1
ox j o~xi p
so
X ! X Xm i ! !
m
o m
o~x o
~v
i
¼ ðuðpÞÞ v j
;
i¼1
o~xi p i¼1 j¼1
ox j o~xi p
and hence
m i
X
o~x
~vi ¼ ð uðpÞ Þ v j:
j¼1
ox j
In short,

o~xi
~v ¼
i
ðuðpÞÞ v j :
ox j
5.3 Tangent Bundles
Lemma 5.21 Let M be a nonempty set. Let fUi gi2I be a nonempty family of subsets
of M. Let fui gi2I be a family of maps ui from Ui to Rm : If
1. for each i 2 I; ui is a 1–1 mapping from Ui onto an open subset ui ðUi Þ of Rm ;
2. for each i; j 2 I; ui ðUi \ Uj Þ; and uj ðUi \ Uj Þ are open in Rm ;
3. if Ui \ Uj 6¼ ;; then the map uj u1 i : ui ðUi \ Uj Þ ! uj ðUi \ Uj Þ is smooth,
4. there exists a countable subcollection of fUi gi2I that covers M;
5. if p; q are distinct points of M; then either ðthere exists i 2 I such that p; q 2
Ui Þ; or ðthere exist i; j 2 I such that p 2 Ui ; q 2 Uj ; and Ui \ Uj ¼ ;Þ; then
there exists a unique smooth differential structure A over M such that for each
i 2 I; ðUi ; ui Þ 2 A:
Proof First of all, we shall try to show that the collection fu1 k ðGÞ : k 2 I;
and G is open in Rm g is closed with respect to finite intersection.
For this purpose, let us take any u1 1 1
i ðG1 Þ; uj ðG2 Þ 2 fuk ðGÞ : k 2 I;
and G is open in R g; where i; j 2 I; G1 ; G2 are open in R :
m m
Case I: when i ¼ j. Since i ¼ j; u1 1 1 1

i ðG1 Þ \ uj ðG2 Þ ¼ ui ðG1 Þ \ ui ðG2 Þ ¼
1
ui ðG1 \ G2 Þ: Since G1 ; G2 are open in R ; G1 \ G2 is open in Rm : Now,
m
since i 2 I; and G1 \ G2 is open in Rm ; u1 1

i ðG1 \ G2 Þ 2 fuk ðGÞ : k 2 I;
and G is open in R g; and hence, ui ðG1 Þ \ uj ðG2 Þ 2 fu1
m 1 1
k ðGÞ : k 2 I;
and G is open in Rm g:
Case II: when i 6¼ j.
Subcase I: when u1 1
i ðG1 Þ \ uj ðG2 Þ ¼ ;. Since fUi gi2I is a nonempty family of
subsets of M, I is nonempty. Since I is nonempty, there exists i0 2 I: Since i0 2 I;
and the empty set ; is open in Rm ; u1 1 1
i ðG1 Þ \ uj ðG2 Þ ¼ ; ¼ ui0 ð;Þ 2
fu1 1
k ðGÞ : k 2 I; and G is open in R g; and hence ui ðG1 Þ \ uj ðG2 Þ 2
m 1
1
fuk ðGÞ : k 2 I; and G is open in R g: m
Subcase II: when u1 1

i ðG1 Þ \ uj ðG2 Þ 6¼ ;.
Since u1 1 1 1
i ðG1 Þ \ uj ðG2 Þ 6¼ ;; there exists x 2 ui ðG1 Þ \ uj ðG2 Þ; and hence,
ui ðxÞ 2 G1 ; uj ðxÞ 2 G2 ; x 2 Ui ; and x 2 Uj : Since x 2 Ui ; and x 2 Uj ; Ui \ Uj 6¼ ;;
1
and hence, by condition 3, ðuj u1
i Þ ðG2 Þ is open in ui ðUi \ Uj Þ: Since
1
ðuj u1
i Þ ðG2 Þ is open in ui ðUi \ Uj Þ and, by condition 2, ui ðUi \ Uj Þ is open in
1
Rm ; ðuj u1 1 1
i Þ ðG2 Þð¼ ðui uj ÞðG2 ÞÞ is open in R ; and hence, ðui uj Þ ðG2 Þ
m
is open in Rm : Since ðui u1

j ÞðG2 Þ is open in R ; and G1 is open in R ; G1 \
m m
ðui u1 1
j ÞðG2 Þ is open in R : Since G1 \ ðui uj ÞðG2 Þ is open in R ;
m m
u1 1 1
i ðG1 \ ðui uj ÞðG2 ÞÞ 2 fuk ðGÞ : k 2 I; and G is open in R g: Since fuk
m 1
ðGÞ : k 2 I; and G is open in Rm g3 u1 1 1

i ðG1 \ ðui uj ÞðG2 ÞÞ ¼ ui ðG1 Þ \ ui
1
1 1 1 1 1 1
ððui uj ÞðG2 ÞÞ ¼ ui ðG1 Þ \ uj ðG2 Þ; ui ðG1 Þ \ uj ðG2 Þ 2 fuk ðGÞ : k 2 I;
and G is open in Rm g:
5.3 Tangent Bundles 331
Thus, we see that, in all cases, u1 1 1

i ðG1 Þ \ uj ðG2 Þ 2 fuk ðGÞ : k 2 I;
and G is open in Rm g: Hence, fu1 k ðGÞ : k 2 I; and G is open in R g is closed
m
with respect to finite intersection. Let O be the collection of arbitrary unions of the
members of fu1 i ðGÞ : i 2 I; and G is open in R g:
m
We shall show that O is a topology over M:

(a) Since fUi gi2I is a nonempty collection of subsets of M; I is nonempty. Since I
is nonempty, there exists i0 2 I. Since i0 2 I; and the empty set ; is open in
Rm ; ; ¼ u1 1
i0 ð;Þ 2 fui ðGÞ : i 2 I; and G is open in R g O; and hence,
m
; 2 O:
(b) Since for each i 2 I; ui maps from Ui to Rm ; u1
i ðR Þ ¼ Ui : Now, since R is
m m
1 1
open in R ; fUi : i 2 Ig ¼ fui ðR Þ : i 2 Ig fui ðGÞ : i 2 I; and G
m m
is open in Rm g; and hence, [i2I Ui 2 O: By condition 4, there exists a

countable subcollection of fUi gi2I that covers M, so fUi gi2I also covers M,
and hence, [i2I Ui ¼ M: Since M ¼ [i2I Ui 2 O; M 2 O:
(c) Clearly, O is closed with respect to arbitrary union.
(d) Let [fu1 1
i ðGi1 Þ : i 2 I; and Gi1 is open in R g 2 O; and [fui ðGi2 Þ : i 2 I;
m
and Gi2 is open in R g 2 O: We have to prove that ð[fu1

m
i ðGi1 Þ : i 2 I;
1
and Gi1 is open in R gÞ \ ð[fui ðGi2 Þ : i 2 I; and Gi2 is open in Rm gÞ 2 O:
m
Here, ð[fu1 1
i ðGi1 Þ : i 2 I; and Gi1 is open in R gÞ \ ð[fui ðGi2 Þ : i 2 I; and Gi2
m
m 1 1
is open in R gÞ ¼ [fuj ðGj1 Þ \ uk ðGk2 Þ : ðj; kÞ 2 I I; Gj1 ; Gk2 are open in Rm g:
Since fu1 i ðGÞ : i 2 I; and G is open in R g is closed with respect to finite
m
intersection, fuj ðGj1 Þ \ uk ðGk2 Þ : ðj; kÞ 2 I I; Gj1 ; Gk2 are open in Rm g fu1
1 1
i
ðGÞ : i 2 I; and G is open in Rm g; and hence, [fu1 j ðG j1 Þ \ u 1
k ðG k2 Þ : ðj; kÞ 2
I I; Gj1 ; Gk2 are open in Rm g 2 O: It follows that ð[fu1 i ðG i1 Þ : i 2 I;
1
and Gi1 is open in R gÞ \ ð[fui ðGi2 Þ : i 2 I; and Gi2 is open in R gÞ 2 O:
m m
Thus, O is a topology over M:

It is clear that fu1 i ðGÞ : i 2 I; and G is open in R g is a basis of the topo-
m
logical space ðM; OÞ. Now, we want to prove that for each i 2 I; Ui 2 O: For this
purpose, let us fix any i0 2 I: We have to prove that Ui0 2 O: Clearly, fu1 i ðGÞ :
i 2 I; and G is open in Rm g O; and Ui0 ¼ u1 i0 ðR m
Þ 2 fu 1
i ðGÞ : i 2 I; and G
is open in R g; so Ui0 2 O:
m
Now, we want to prove that for each i 2 I; ui : Ui ! ui ðUi Þ is continuous. For

this purpose, let us take any open set G in ui ðUi Þ: We have to show that u1 i ðGÞ is
open in Ui : Since G is open in ui ðUi Þ; and ui ðUi Þ is open in Rm ; G is open in Rm ;
and hence, by the definition of O; for every i 2 I; u1 1
i ðGÞ 2 O: Since ui ðGÞ 2 O;
u1 1
i ðGÞ \ Ui is open in Ui : Since ui : Ui ! ui ðUi Þ; ui ðGÞ Ui ; and hence,
ui ðGÞ \ Ui ¼ ui ðGÞ: Since ui ðGÞ \ Ui ¼ ui ðGÞ; and u1
1 1 1 1
i ðGÞ \ Ui is open
in Ui ; u1
i ðGÞ is open in U i :
Thus, we have shown that for each i 2 I; ui : Ui ! ui ðUi Þ is continuous. Now,
we want to show that ui is an open mapping. For this purpose, let us take any
open set G in Ui : We have to show that ui ðGÞ is open in ui ðUi Þ: Since

fu1
j ðGÞ : j 2 I; and G is open in R g is a basis of the topological space ðM; OÞ;
m
fu1
j ðGÞ \ Ui : j 2 I; and G is open in R g is a basis of Ui : Now, it suffices to
m
prove that ui ðu1

j ðGÞ \ Ui Þ is open in ui ðUi Þ for every j 2 I; and for every G
which is open in Rm :
Case I: when u1 1
j ðGÞ \ Ui ¼ ;. Here, ui ðuj ðGÞ \ Ui Þ ¼ ui ð;Þ ¼ ;; which is
open in ui ðUi Þ:
Case II: when u1 1 1
j ðGÞ \ Ui 6¼ ;: Since uj ðGÞ Uj ; and uj ðGÞ \ Ui 6¼ ;; Uj \
Ui 6¼ ;: Here, ui is 1–1, so ui ðu1 1
j ðGÞ \ Ui Þ ¼ ui ðuj ðGÞÞ \ ui ðUi Þ ¼ ðui
u1 1
j ÞðGÞ \ ui ðUi Þ: Since Uj \ Ui 6¼ ;; by the condition 3, ui uj is open. Since
1 1
G is open in R ; and ui uj is open, ðui uj ÞðGÞ is open in Rm ; and hence,
m
ðui u1 1
j ÞðGÞ \ ui ðUi Þ is open in ui ðUi Þ: Since ðui uj ÞðGÞ \ ui ðUi Þ ð¼ ui
1 1
ðuj ðGÞ \ Ui ÞÞ is open in ui ðUi Þ; ui ðuj ðGÞ \Ui Þ is open in ui ðUi Þ:
Thus, in all cases, ui ðu1

j ðGÞ \ Ui Þ is open in ui ðUi Þ: This shows that ui is an
open mapping. Thus, we have shown that ui : Ui ! ui ðUi Þ is a homeomorphism. It
follows that for each i 2 I; the ordered pair ðUi ; ui Þ is a coordinate chart of M.
Now, we want to show that the topology O of M is Hausdorff. For this purpose,
let us take any two distinct points p, q in M. We have to find an open neighborhood
G of p, and an open neighborhood G1 of q such that G; G1 are disjoint. Since p, q are
distinct points of M, by condition 5, either ðthere exists i 2 I such that p; q 2 Ui Þ or
ðthere exist i; j 2 I such that p 2 Ui ; q 2 Uj ; and Ui \ Uj ¼ ;Þ:
Case I: when there exist i; j 2 I such that p 2 Ui ; q 2 Uj ; and Ui \ Uj ¼ ;. Since
i 2 I; Ui 2 O: Since Ui 2 O; and p 2 Ui ; Ui is an open neighborhood of p in M:
Similarly, Uj is an open neighborhood of q in M: Also, Ui \ Uj ¼ ;: Thus, we have
found an open neighborhood Ui of p; and an open neighborhood Uj of q such that
Ui ; Uj are disjoint.
Case II: when there exists i 2 I such that p; q 2 Ui . Since ui : Ui ! ui ðUi Þ is
continuous, ui is 1–1, and p; q are distinct elements of Ui ; ui ðpÞ; ui ðqÞ are
distinct points of ui ðUi Þ: Since, by condition 1, ui ðUi Þ is open in Rm ; and
ui ðpÞ; ui ðqÞ are distinct points of ui ðUi Þ; there exist an open neighborhood G1
of ui ðpÞ in Rm and an open neighborhood G2 of ui ðqÞ in Rm such that G1
ui ðUi Þ; G2 ui ðUi Þ; and G1 ; G2 are disjoint. Since ui : Ui ! ui ðUi Þ is con-
tinuous, and G1 is an open neighborhood of ui ðpÞ in Rm ; u1 i ðG1 Þ is an open
neighborhood of p in Ui : Since u1 i ðG 1 Þ is an open neighborhood of p in Ui ; and
Ui 2 O; u1 i ðG 1 Þ is an open neighborhood of p in M: Similarly, u1
i ðG2 Þ is an
1 1 1
open neighborhood of q in M: Also, ui ðG1 Þ \ ui ðG2 Þ ¼ ui ðG1 \ G2 Þ ¼
u1 1
i ð;Þ ¼ ;: Thus, we have found an open neighborhood ui ðG1 Þ of p, and an
1 1 1
open neighborhood ui ðG2 Þ of q such thatui ðG1 Þ; ui ðG2 Þ are disjoint.
Thus, we see that, in all cases, there exist disjoint open neighborhoods of p and q.
Hence, the topology O over M is Hausdorff.
Now, we want to show that the topology O of M is second countable. Observe

that for every j 2 I; the subspace topology of Uj is second countable.
(Reason: For every j 2 I; uj ðUj Þ is a subset of Rm : Since each uj ðUj Þ is a subset
of Rm ; and the topology of Rm is second countable, the subspace topology of uj ðUj Þ
is second countable. Since the topology of uj ðUj Þ is second countable, and uj :
Uj ! uj ðUj Þ is a homeomorphism, the topology of Uj is second countable.)
By condition 4, there exists a countable subcollection fUi1 ; Ui2 ; Ui3 ; . . .g of
fUi gi2I such that fUi1 ; Ui2 ; Ui3 ; . . .g covers M: Since fUi1 ; Ui2 ; Ui3 ; . . .g is a sub-
collection of fUi gi2I ; and for each i 2 I; the topology of Ui is second countable,
each Uik ðk ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .Þ is a second countable space, and hence, there exists a
countable basis fVk1 ; Vk2 ; Vk3 ; . . .g of Uik : Since each Vkl is open in Uik ; and Uik 2
O; each Vkl 2 O: Observe that fVkl : k; l are positive integersg is a countable col-
lection of open subsets of M. We shall try to show that fVkl :
k; l are positive integersg is a basis of M. For this purpose, let us take any open
neighborhood G of p in M.
Since p 2 M; and fUi1 ; Ui2 ; Ui3 ; . . .g covers M, there exists a positive integer
k such that p 2 Uik : Since p 2 Uik ; p 2 G; p 2 Uik \ G: Since G are open in M,
Uik \ G is open in Uik : Thus, Uik \ G is an open neighborhood of p in Uik : Since
Uik \ G is an open neighborhood of p in Uik ; and fVk1 ; Vk2 ; Vk3 ; . . .g is a basis
of Uik ; there exists a positive integer l such that p 2 Vkl Uik \ G G:
This shows that fVkl : k; l are positive integersg is a countable basis of
M. Hence, the topology of M is second countable.
Now, we want to show that M is an m-dimensional topological manifold. For
this purpose, let us take any p 2 M: Since p 2 M; and fUi gi2I is a cover of M; there
exists i0 2 I such that p 2 Ui0 : Here, ðUi0 ; ui0 Þ is a coordinate chart of M, and
p 2 Ui0 : It follows that M is an m-dimensional topological manifold.
Next, let B be the collection of all coordinate charts ðUi ; ui Þ; where i 2 I: We
shall try to prove that B is an atlas on M: For this purpose, let us take any coordinate
charts ðUi ; ui Þ; ðUj ; uj Þ, where Ui \ Uj 6¼ ;: We have to prove that uj u1 i :
ui ðUi \ Uj Þ ! uj ðUi \ Uj Þ is smooth. Since Ui \ Uj 6¼ ;; by the condition 3, uj
u1
i : ui ðUi \ Uj Þ ! uj ðUi \ Uj Þ is smooth. This proves that B is an atlas on M.
Since B is an atlas on an m-dimensional topological manifold M, by Note 1.5,
there exists a unique smooth differential structure A on M which contains B: h
Definition Let‘fXi gi2I be any family of sets. The set fði; xÞ : i 2 I and x 2 Xi g is
denoted by
‘ i2I Xi ; and is called the disjoint union of fXi gi2I . Thus,
i2I Xi ¼ [i2I ðfig Xi Þ:
Note 5.22 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let A be the smooth
structure of M. Let ðU; uÞ 2 A: For every p 2 U; let
!
o o o
; ; . . .; m
ox1 p ox2 p ox p

!
o 1 o
d u uðpÞ :
oxi p oxi uðpÞ
‘ ‘
Here, r2U Tr M r2M Tr M; and uðUÞ Rm Rm Rm ¼ R2m : Let us define
‘
~ : r2U Tr M ! uðUÞ Rm as follows: For every
a function u
! !!
o o a
p; v 1
þ þ v m
2 Tr M;
ox p
1 ox p
m
r2U
! !!
o o
~ p; v
u 1
þ þ v m
ðp1 uÞðpÞ; . . .; ðpm uÞðpÞ; v1 ; . . .; vm :
ox p
1 ox p
m
~ is well defined.
First of all, observe that u

(Reason:Let ðp; v1 ðoxo1 p Þ þ þ vm ðoxom p ÞÞ ¼ ðq; w1 ðoxo1 q Þ þ þ wm ðoxom q ÞÞ where
‘
ðp; v1 ð o1 Þ þ þ vm ð om ÞÞ 2
ox p ox p
Tr M;
r2U
and
! !!
o o a
q; w1 þ þ w m 2 Tr M:

ox1 q
oxm q r2U

ðp1 uÞðpÞ; . . .; ðpm uÞðpÞ; v1 ; . . .vm ¼ ðp1 uÞðqÞ; . . .; ðpm uÞðqÞ; w1 ; . . .; wm :
Since
! !! ! !!
o o o o
p; v 1
þ þ v m
¼ q; w 1
þ þ wm
;
ox1 p oxm p ox1 q oxm q
p ¼ q and
! ! ! !
o o o o
v 1
þ þ v m
¼w 1
þ þ w m
:
Since p ¼ q; for every i ¼ 1; . . .; m; ðpi uÞðpÞ ¼ ðpi uÞðqÞ: Since p ¼ q; and

! ! ! !
o o o o
v1
þ þ v m
¼w 1
þ þ w m
;
! ! ! !
o o o o
so v1 þ þ vm
¼ w 1
þ þ wm
:
ox1 p oxm p ox1 p oxm p
Since
! ! ! !
o o o o
v 1
þ þ v m
¼w 1
þ þ w m
;
and
!
o o o
; ; . . .; m
ox1 p ox2 p ox p
is a basis of Tp M; for every i ¼ 1; . . .; m; vi ¼ wi : Since for every i ¼ 1; . . .; m;

vi ¼ wi ; and ðpi uÞðpÞ ¼ ðpi uÞðqÞ; ððp1 uÞðpÞ; . . .; ðpm uÞðpÞ; v1 ; . . .vm Þ
‘
¼ ððp1 uÞðqÞ; . . .; ðpm uÞðqÞ; w1 ; . . .; wm Þ:) Thus, f r2U Tr MgðU;uÞ2A is a
‘
family of subsets of r2M Tr M; and f~ ugðU;uÞ2A is a family of functions from
‘
r2U Tr M onto uðUÞ R ð R Þ:
m 2m
Now, we shall verify all the conditions 1–5 of Lemma 5.21:

‘
1. u~ : r2U Tr M ! uðUÞ Rm is 1–1: For this purpose, let
! !! ! !!
o o o o
~ p; v
u 1
þ þ vm
~ q; w
¼u 1
þ þ wm
:

! !! ! !!
o o o o
p; v 1
þ þ vm
¼ q; w1
þ þ w m
:
Here,
! !!
o o
ðp1 uÞðpÞ; . . .; ðpm uÞðpÞ; v ; . . .; v
1 m
~ p; v
¼u 1
þ þ v m
ox1 p oxm p
! !!
o o
~ q; w1
¼u þ þ wm
ox1 q oxm q

¼ ðp1 uÞðqÞ; . . .; ðpm uÞðqÞ; w1 ; . . .; wm ;
and hence, for every i ¼ 1; . . .; m; ðpi uÞðpÞ ¼ ðpi uÞðqÞ; and vi ¼ wi : Since for
every i ¼ 1; . . .; m; ðpi uÞðpÞ ¼ ðpi uÞðqÞ; uðpÞ ¼ uðqÞ: Since uðpÞ ¼ uðqÞ;
and u is 1–1, p ¼ q: Since for every i ¼ 1; . . .; m; vi ¼ wi ;
! ! ! !
o o o o
v 1
þ þ v m
¼w 1
þ þ w m
:
Since
! ! ! !
o o o o
v 1
þ þ v m
¼w1
þ þ w m
; and p ¼ q;
! ! ! !
o o o o
so v1 þ þ v m
¼w1
þ þ w m
:
It follows that
! !! ! !!
o o
o o

p; v1 þ þ v m
¼ q; w1 þ þ wm
:
ox1 p oxm p
ox1 q oxm q
‘
Thus, we have shown that u ~ : r2U Tr M ! uðUÞ Rm is 1–1. Now, we want to
‘
show that u~ : r2U Tr M ! uðUÞ Rm is onto. For this purpose, let us take any
ððp1 uÞðpÞ; . . .; ðpm uÞðpÞ; v1 ; . . .; vm Þ 2 uðUÞ Rm ; where p 2 U: Here, p 2 U;
and
! !
o o
v 1
þ þ v m
2 Tp M;
ox1 p oxm p
so
! !
o o a
v 1
þ þ v m
2 Tr M:
ox p
1 ox p
m
r2U
Also,
! !!
o o

~ v1
u þ þ vm ¼ ðp1 uÞðpÞ; . . .; ðpm uÞðpÞ; v1 ; . . .; vm :
ox p
1 ox p
m
‘
This shows that u~ : r2U Tr M ! uðUÞ Rm is a 1–1 onto mapping.
Now, we want to show that uðUÞ Rm is open in R2m : Since ðU; uÞ 2 A; and
A is a smooth structure of M; uðUÞ is open in Rm ; and hence, uðUÞ Rm is open
in Rm Rm ð¼ R2m Þ:
2. Let us take any ðU; uÞ 2 A; and ðV; wÞ 2 A: We have to prove that

‘ ‘ ‘
~ ðð r2U Tr MÞ \ ð r2V Tr MÞÞ is open in R2m : Here, u
u ~ ðð r2U Tr MÞ\
‘ ‘ ‘
ð r2V Tr MÞÞ ¼ u~ ð r2U \ V Tr MÞ: Here, u
~ : r2U Tr M ! uðUÞ Rm is
defined as follows: For every
! !! a
o o
p; v1
þ þ v m
2 Tr M;
ox1 p oxm p r2U
! !!
o o
~ p; v1
u þ þ vm
ðp1 uÞðpÞ; . . .; ðpm uÞðpÞ; v1 ; . . .; vm
ox1 p oxm p
‘ ‘
It follows that u~ ð r2U \ V Tr MÞ ¼ uðU \ VÞ Rm ; and hence, u~ ðð r2U Tr MÞ
‘
\ð r2V Tr MÞÞ ¼ uðU \ VÞ Rm : Since ðU; uÞ 2 A; and ðV; wÞ 2 A; uðU \ VÞ
is open in Rm ; and hence, uðU \ VÞ Rm is open in R2m : This shows that
‘ ‘ ~ ‘
~ ðð r2U Tr MÞ \ð r2V Tr MÞÞ is open in R2m : Similarly, wðð
u r2U Tr MÞ\
‘
ð r2V Tr MÞÞ is open in R :2m
‘ ‘
3. Let us take any ðU; uÞ 2 A; and ðV; wÞ 2 A: Let ð r2U Tr MÞ \ ð r2V Tr MÞ 6¼
;: We have to prove that
! !! ! !!
a a a a
~ u
w ~ 1
~
:u Tr M \ Tr M ~
!w Tr M \ Tr M
r2U r2V r2U r2V
is smooth, that is,

! !
a a
~ u
w ~ 1
~
:u Tr M ~
!w Tr M
r2U\V r2U\V
is smooth. For every p 2 U \ V; let

!
o o o
; ; . . .; m
ox1 p ox2 p ox p

!
o 1 o
d u uðpÞ ;
oxi p oxi uðpÞ
and let !
o o o
; ; . . .; m
o~x1 p o~x2 p o~x p
be the coordinate basis of Tp M corresponding to ðV; wÞ; where

!
o 1 o
d w wðpÞ :
o~xi p o~xi wðpÞ
Also,
i !
o o~x o
¼ ðuðpÞÞ :
ox j p ox j o~xi p
‘
~ð
Here, for every ðx1 ; . . .; xm ; v1 ; . . .; vm Þ 2 u r2U\V Tr MÞ; we have
1 1
~ u
w ~ 1 x1 ; . . .; xm ; v1 ; . . .; vm ¼ w ~ u ~ x ; . . .; xm ; v1 ; . . .; vm
!
1 1 o
¼w ~ u x ; . . .; x ; v
1 m
ox1 u1 ðx1 ;...;xm Þ
!!
o
þ þ vm
oxm u1 ðx1 ;...;xm Þ
!!

¼w ~ u1 x1 ; . . .; xm ; vi o
oxi u1 ðx1 ;...;xm Þ
j !!!
~

1 1
i o~x 1 o
¼ w u x ; . . .; x ; v m
x ; . . .; x m
oxi o~x j u1 ðx1 ;...;xm Þ
j !!
~

1 1
i o~ x 1 o
¼ w u x ; . . .; x ; v m
x ; . . .; x m
oxi o~x j u1 ðx1 ;...;xm Þ
1 1 1 1
¼ ðp1 wÞ u x ; ; x ; . . .; ðpm wÞ u x ; . . .; xm ;
m
1 m
o~x 1 i o~ x 1
vi x ; . . .; x m
; . . .; v x ; . . .; x m
oxi oxi
1
1
¼ p1 w u x ; . . .; x ; . . .; pm w u1 x1 ; . . .; xm ;
m
1 m
o~x 1 o~x 1
vi x ; . . .; xm ; . . .; vi x ; . . .; xm
oxi oxi

¼ p1 w u1 x1 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; pm w u1 x1 ; . . .; xm ;
! !
oðw u1 Þ 1 1 m
1
i oð w u Þ
vi x ; . . .; x m
; . . .; v x 1
; . . .; x m
oxi oxi
1 m 1
¼ w u1 x1 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; w u1 x ; . . .; xm ;
! !
oðw u1 Þ 1 1 m
1
i oð w u Þ
vi x ; . . .; x m
; . . .; v x 1
; . . .; x m
:
oxi oxi
Thus,
1 m 1
~ u
w ~ 1 x1 ; . . .; xm ; v1 ; . . .; vm ¼ w u1 x1 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; w u1 x ; . . .; xm ;
!
oðw u1 Þ 1 1 m
1
i oð w u Þ
v i
x ; . . .; x m
; . . .; v x 1
; . . .; x m
Þ:
oxi oxi
Here, w u1 is smooth, so each of ðx1 ; . . .; xm ; v1 ; . . .; vm Þ 7! ðw u1 Þi

ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ is smooth, and each of
!
oðw u1 Þ 1
j

x ; . . .; x ; v ; . . .; v
1 m 1 m
7! v i
x ; . . .; xm
ox i
~ u
is smooth, and hence, w ~ 1 is smooth.
4. Since fMg is an open cover of M, by the Lemma 4.52, there exists a countable
collection fðU1 ; u1 Þ; ðU2 ; u2 Þ; ðU3 ; u3 Þ; g of admissible coordinate charts of
M such that fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; g covers M. Here, each ðUk ; u‘ k Þ is an admissible
coordinate charts of M, so each ðUk ; uk Þ 2 A, and hence, f r2Uk Tr Mgk2N is a
‘
countable subcollection of f r2U Tr MgðU;uÞ2A :
‘ ‘
Now, we want to prove that f r2Uk Tr Mgk2N covers T M: Since
1 1
‘ r
r2M
fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g covers M, M ¼ [k¼1 Uk ; and hence, [k¼1 ð q2Uk Tq MÞ ¼
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
q2[1 Tq M ¼ q2M Tq M ¼ r2M Tr M: It follows that f q2U1 Tq M; q2U2
‘ Uk
k¼1 ‘
Tq M; q2U3 Tq M; . . .g covers r2M Tr M:
‘
5. Let ðp; vÞ 2 TM; ðq; wÞ 2 r2M Tr M; and ðp; vÞ 6¼ ðq; wÞ: Since ðp; vÞ 2
‘
r2M Tr M; v 2 Tp M: Similarly, w 2 Tq M:
Case I: when p ¼ q. Since p ¼ q; and ðp; vÞ 6¼ ðq; wÞ; v 6¼ w: Since p ¼ q; and

w 2 Tq M; w 2 Tp M: Since p 2 M; and M is an m-dimensional smooth ‘ manifold,
there exists ðV; wÞ 2 A such that p 2 V: Since ðV; wÞ 2 A; r2V Tr M 2
‘ ‘
f r2U Tr MgðU;uÞ2A : Since p 2 V; and v 2 Tp M; ðp; vÞ 2 r2V Tr M: Since p 2
‘
V; and p ¼ q; q 2 V: Since q 2 V; and w 2 Tq M; ðq; wÞ 2 r2V Tr M: Thus, there
‘ ‘ ‘
exists r2V Tr M 2 f r2U Tr MgðU;uÞ2A such that ðp; vÞ; ðq; wÞ 2 r2V Tr M:
Case II: when p 6¼ q. Since M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, its topology
is Hausdorff. Since the topology of M is Hausdorff, p 6¼ q; and p; q 2 M; there
exist an open neighborhood G1 of p and an open neighborhood G2 of q such that
G1 \ G2 ¼ ;: Since p 2 M; and M is a smooth manifold, there exists ðV; wÞ 2 A
such that p 2 V: Since ðV; wÞ 2 A; and p 2 V; V is an open neighborhood of p.
Since V is an open neighborhood of p, and G1 is an open neighborhood of p,
G1 \ V is an open neighborhood of p. Since ðV; wÞ 2 A; G1 \ V is an open
subset of V, and A is a smooth structure on M, ðG1 \ V; wjG1 \V Þ 2 A: Similarly,
there exists ðW; vÞ 2 A such that ðG2 \ W; vjG2 \W Þ 2 A: Since ðG1 \ V;

‘ ‘ ‘
wjG1 \V Þ 2 A; r2G1 \V Tr M 2 f r2U Tr MgðU;uÞ2A : Similarly, r2G2 \W Tr M 2
‘
f r2U Tr MgðU;uÞ2A : Here, G1 \ V is an open neighborhood of p, so p 2 G1 \ V:
‘
Since p 2 G1 \ V; and v 2 Tp M; ðp; vÞ 2 r2G1 \V Tr M: Similarly, ðq; wÞ 2
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
r2G2 \W Tr M: Next, ð r2G1 \V Tr MÞ \ ð r2G2 \W Tr MÞ ¼ r2ðG1 \VÞ\ðG2 \WÞ
‘ ‘ ‘
Tr M ¼ r2ðG1 \G2 Þ\ðV\WÞ Tr M ¼ r2;\ðV\WÞ Tr M ¼ r2; Tr M ¼ ;:
Hence, the condition 5 is satisfied.

‘ Now, by Lemma 5.21, there exists a unique ‘ B over
‘smooth differential structure
T
r2M r M such that for each ðU; uÞ 2 A; ð T
r2U r M; ~
u Þ 2 B: Thus, r2M Tr M
becomes
‘ a 2m-dimensional smooth manifold. This 2m-dimensional smooth mani-
fold r2M Tr M is called the tangent bundle of M. It is denoted by TM. Here,
‘
corresponding to each admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ of M, ð r2U Tr M; u ~ Þ is
an admissible coordinate chart of TM.
Theorem 5.23 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let ðM; uÞ be an
admissible coordinate chart of M. Then, TM is diffeomorphic onto M Rm :
‘ Since ðM; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of M, by the

Proof ‘ Note 5.22,
ð r2M Tr M; u~ Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of TM, where u ~ : r2M Tr M !
‘
uðMÞ Rm : Now, since r2M Tr M ¼ TM; ðTM; u ~ Þ is an admissible coordinate
chart of TM, where u ~ : TM ! uðMÞ Rm : Since ðM; uÞ is an admissible coor-
dinate chart of M, φ is a diffeomorphism from M onto φ(M). Since φ is a diffeo-
morphism from M onto φ(M), M is diffeomorphic onto φ(M). Since ðTM; u ~ Þ is an
admissible coordinate chart of TM; where u ~ : TM ! uðMÞ Rm ; u ~ : TM !
uðMÞ Rm is a diffeomorphism, and hence, TM is diffeomorphic onto uðMÞ
Rm : Since TM is diffeomorphic onto uðMÞ Rm ; and M is diffeomorphic onto
uðMÞ; TM is diffeomorphic onto M Rm : h
smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be smooth. ‘The mapping dF : TM ! TN is
defined as follows: For every ðp; vÞ 2 TMð¼ r2M Tr MÞ; where p 2 M; and
v 2 Tp M;

ðdF Þðp; vÞ FðpÞ; dFp ðvÞ :
Here, dF is called the global differential of F (or, global tangent map of F).
sional smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be smooth. Then, dF : TM ! TN is
smooth.
‘
Proof Let us take any ðp; vÞ 2 TMð¼ r2M Tr MÞ where p 2 M; and ðp; vÞ 2 Tp M:
Let us take any admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ of M such that p 2 U: For every
q 2 U; let
!
o o o
; ; . . .; m
ox1 q ox2 q ox q
be the coordinate basis of Tq M corresponding to ðU; uÞ; where

!
o 1 o
d u uðqÞ :
oxi q oxi uðqÞ
‘ ‘
Here, r2U Tr Mð r2M Tr M ¼ TMÞ is an open neighborhood of ðp; vÞ in TM;
and uðUÞ Rm ð Rm Rm ¼‘ R2m Þ is open in R2m :
~ : r2U Tr M ! uðUÞ Rm as follows: For every
Let us define a function u
! !! a
o o
1
q; v þ þ vm
2 Tr M;
ox1 q oxm q r2U
! !!
o o
~ q; v
u 1
þ þ v m
ðp1 uÞðqÞ; . . .; ðpm uÞðqÞ; v1 ; . . .; vm ;
ox1 q oxm q
where pi : Rm ! R‘ denotes the ith projection function of Rm :

We know that ð r2U Tr M; u~ Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of TM. Here,
F : M ! N; and p 2 M; so FðpÞ 2 N: Let us take any admissible coordinate chart
ðV; wÞ of N such that FðpÞ 2 V: For every r 2 V; let

o o o
; ; . . .; n
oy1 r oy2 r oy r
be the coordinate basis of TrN corresponding to ðV; wÞ; where

!
o 1 o
d w wðrÞ :
oyi r oyi wðrÞ
‘ ‘
Here, r2V Tr Nð r2N Tr N ¼ TNÞ is an open neighborhood of ðdFÞðp; vÞ
ð¼ ðFðpÞ; ðdFp ÞðvÞÞÞ; and wðVÞ Rn ð Rn Rn ¼ R2n Þ is open in R2n : Let us
define a function w~ : ‘ Tr N ! wðVÞ Rn as follows: For every
r2V
a
o o
r; w1 þ þ w n
2 Tr N;
oy r
1 oyn r r2V

~ o o
w r; w 1
þ þ w n
p01 w ðrÞ; . . .; p0n w ðrÞ; w1 ; . . .; wn ;
oy1 r oyn r
where p0i : Rn ! R denotes the ith projection function of Rn : We know that

‘ ~ is an admissible coordinate chart of TN: We have to prove that
ð r2V Tr N; wÞ
~ Fu 1
‘ ~ ‘ Tr NÞÞ is smooth. Here, for every
w ~ :u ~ ðð r2U Tr MÞÞ ! wðð
‘ r2V
~ ð r2U\V Tr MÞ; we have
ðx1 ; . . .; xm ; v1 ; . . .; vm Þ 2 u
1 1
w~ Fu ~ 1 x1 ; . . .; xm ; v1 ; . . .; vm ¼ w ~ u ~ x ; . . .; xm ; v1 ; . . .; vm
! !!
o
¼ w ~ F u1 x1 ; . . .; xm ; v1 o þ þ v m
ox1 u1 ðx1 ;...;xm Þ oxm u1 ðx1 ;...;xm Þ
!!

¼ w ~ F u1 x1 ; . . .; xm ; vi o
!!!

¼w ~ F u1 x1 ; . . .; xm ; vi o
!!!

¼w ~ F u1 x1 ; . . .; xm ; dFp vi o
!!!
o
¼w ~ F u1 x1 ; . . .; xm ; vi dFp
0 00 1 !11
o p0j ðw F u1 Þ
~ @
1 1 i
@ @ 1 1

A o AA
¼ w F u x ; . . .; x ; v m
u u x ; . . .; x m
oxi oy j F ðu1 ðx1 ;...;xm ÞÞ
0 00 1 !11
o p0j ðw F u1 Þ
~ @
1 1 i
@ @

m A o AA
¼ w F u x ; . . .; x ; v m
x ; . . .; x
1
oxi oy j 1 1 m
F ðu ðx ;...;x ÞÞ
0 0 0 11 !1
o p0j ðw F u1 Þ
~ @
1 1
@ i@

m AA o A
¼ w F u x ; . . .; x ; vm
x ; . . .; x
1
oxi oy j F ðu1 ðx1 ;...;xm ÞÞ

¼ p01 w F u1 x1 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; p0n w F u1 x1 ; . . .; xm ;
0
o p1 ðw F u1 Þ 1 o p0n ðw F u1 Þ 1
vi x ; . . .; xm ; . . .; vi x ; . . .; xm
ox i ox i

0 0
o p1 w F u1 1 o pn w F u1 1
vi x ; . . .; xm ; . . .; vi x ; . . .; xm :
ox i ox i
Thus,

~ Fu
w ~ 1 x1 ; . . .; xm ; v1 ; . . .; vm

0 0
o p1 w F u1 1 i o pn w F u
1
vi x ; . . .; xm
; . . .; v x1
; . . .; xm
oxi oxi
Since F : M ! N is smooth, ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of

M such that p 2 U; ðV; wÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of N such that FðpÞ
2 V; w F u1 is smooth. Since w F u1 is smooth, each function
ðx1 ; . . .; xm ; v1 ; . . .; vm Þ ! ðp0j w F u1 Þðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ is smooth, and each

function
0 1
o p0j w F u1
ðx1 ; . . .; xm ; v1 ; . . .; vm Þ 7! vi @ x1 ; . . .; xm A
oxi
~ Fu
is smooth, and hence, w ~ 1 is smooth. h
5.4 Smooth Immersion
Note 5.25 Let M; N; P be smooth manifolds. Let F : M ! N; and G : N ! P be

smooth maps. Since F : M ! N is smooth, by Theorem 5.24, dF : TM ! TN is
smooth. Similarly, dG : TN ! TP is smooth. Since dF : TM ! TN is smooth, and
dG : TN ! TP is smooth, ðdGÞ ðdFÞ : TM ! TP is smooth. Since F : M ! N is
smooth, and G : N ! P is smooth, G F : M ! P is smooth, and hence, by
Theorem 5.24, dðG FÞ : TM ! TP is smooth. We shall ‘ try to show that
dðG FÞ ¼ ðdGÞ ðdFÞ; that is, for every ðp; vÞ 2 TMð¼ r2M Tr MÞ; where p 2
M; and v 2 Tp M; ðdðG FÞÞðp; vÞ ¼ ððdGÞ ðdFÞÞðp; vÞ:

LHS ¼ ðdðG F ÞÞðp; vÞ ¼ ðG F ÞðpÞ; dðG F Þp ðvÞ ¼ GðFðpÞÞ; dðG F Þp ðvÞ

¼ GðFðpÞÞ; dGFðpÞ dFp ðvÞ ¼ GðFðpÞÞ; dGFðpÞ dFp ðvÞ ;

RHS ¼ ððdGÞ ðdF ÞÞðp; vÞ ¼ ðdGÞððdF Þðp; vÞÞ ¼ ðdGÞ FðpÞ; dFp ðvÞ

¼ GðFðpÞÞ; dGFðpÞ dFp ðvÞ :
Hence, LHS ¼ RHS: Thus, we have shown that dðG FÞ ¼ ðdGÞ ðdFÞ:
Note 5.26 Let M be a smooth manifold. Here, IdM : M ! M is given by IdM ðxÞ ¼
x for every x in M. Clearly, IdM is a smooth function. Hence, by Theorem 5.24,
dðIdM Þ : TM ! TM is smooth. Here, IdTM : TM ! TM is a smooth function. ‘ We
shall try to show that dðIdM Þ ¼ IdTM ; that is, for every ðp; vÞ 2 TMð¼ r2U Tr MÞ;
where p 2 M; and v 2 Tp M; ðdðIdM ÞÞðp; vÞ ¼ ðIdTM Þðp; vÞ:

LHS ¼ ðdðIdM ÞÞðp; vÞ ¼ IdM ðpÞ; dðIdM Þp ðvÞ ¼ p; dðIdM Þp ðvÞ

¼ p; dðIdM Þp ðvÞ ¼ p; IdTp M ðvÞ ¼ ðp; vÞ ¼ ðIdTM Þðp; vÞ ¼ RHS:
Thus, we have shown that dðIdM Þ ¼ IdTM :

Note 5.27 Let M, N be smooth manifolds. Let F : M ! N be a diffeomorphism.
Since F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism, F : M ! N is smooth, and hence, dF :
TM ! TN is smooth. We want to prove that dF : TM ! TN is a diffeomorphism,

that is, dF is 1–1 onto, and ðdFÞ1 is smooth.
dF : TM ! TN is 1–1: For this purpose, let ðdFÞðp; vÞ ¼ ðdFÞðq; wÞ; where p; q 2
M; and v; w 2 Tp M: We have to show that ðp; vÞ ¼ ðq; wÞ; that is, p = q, and v = w.
Here, ðFðpÞ; ðdFp ÞðvÞÞ ¼ ðdFÞðp; vÞ ¼ ðdFÞðq; wÞ ¼ ðFðqÞ; ðdFq ÞðwÞÞ; so
FðpÞ ¼ FðqÞ; and ðdFp ÞðvÞ ¼ ðdFq ÞðwÞ: Since F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism,
F is 1–1. Since F is 1–1, and FðpÞ ¼ FðqÞ; p = q. Since p = q, and ðdFp ÞðvÞ ¼
ðdFq ÞðwÞ; ðdFp ÞðvÞ ¼ ðdFp ÞðwÞ: Since F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism, and p 2
M; dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is an isomorphism, and hence, dFp is 1–1. Since dFp is
1–1, and ðdFp ÞðvÞ ¼ ðdFp ÞðwÞ; v = w. Thus, dF : TM ! TN is 1–1.
dF : TM ! TN is onto: For this purpose, let us take any ðq; wÞ 2 TN; where
q 2 N; and w 2 Tq N:
Since F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism, F : M ! N is onto. Since F : M ! N is
onto, and q 2 N; there exists p 2 M such that FðpÞ ¼ q: Since FðpÞ ¼ q; and
w 2 Tq N; w 2 TFðpÞ N: Since F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism, and p 2 M; dFp :
Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is an isomorphism, and hence, Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is onto. Since dFp :
Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is onto, and w 2 TFðpÞ N; there exists v 2 Tp M such that ðdFp ÞðvÞ ¼
w: Since p 2 M; and v 2 Tp M; ðp; vÞ 2 TM: Also, ðdFÞðp; vÞ ¼ ðFðpÞ; ðdFp ÞðvÞÞ ¼
ðq; ðdFp ÞðvÞÞ ¼ ðq; wÞ: This shows that dF : TM ! TN is onto.
ðdFÞ1 : TN ! TM is smooth: Since F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism, F 1 :
N ! M is smooth, and hence, dðF 1 Þ : TN ! TMis smooth.
Now, we shall try to show that ðdFÞ1 ¼ dðF 1 Þ; that is, for every ðq; wÞ 2 TN;
where q 2 N; and w 2 Tq N; ðdFÞ1 ðq; wÞ ¼ ðdðF 1 ÞÞðq; wÞ; that is, for every
ðq; wÞ 2 TN; where q 2 N; and w 2 Tq N; ðq; wÞ ¼ ðdFÞððdðF 1 ÞÞðq; wÞÞ: For this
purpose, let us take any ðq; wÞ 2 TN; where q 2 N; and w 2 Tq N: Now, since
dF : TM ! TN is onto, there exists ðp; vÞ 2 TM such that ðFðpÞ; ðdFp ÞðvÞÞ ¼
ðdFÞðp; vÞ ¼ ðq; wÞ: It follows that FðpÞ ¼ q; and ðdFp ÞðvÞ ¼ w: Since F : M ! N
is a diffeomorphism, and p 2 M; dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is an isomorphism, and
hence, dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is 1–1 onto. Since dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is 1–1 onto,
and ðdFp ÞðvÞ ¼ w; v ¼ ðdFp Þ1 ðwÞ: Since F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism, F :
M ! N is a 1–1 onto. Since F : M ! N is a 1–1 onto, and FðpÞ ¼ q; p ¼ F 1 ðqÞ:
Now,

RHS ¼ ðdF Þ d F 1 ðq; wÞ ¼ ðdF Þ F 1 ðqÞ; d F 1 q ðwÞ

¼ ðdF Þ F 1 ðqÞ; d F 1 q ðwÞ

¼ ðdF Þ F 1 ðqÞ; d F 1 FðpÞ ðwÞ
1 1
¼ ðdF Þ F 1 ðqÞ; dFp ðwÞ ¼ ðdF Þ p; dFp ðwÞ

¼ ðdF Þðp; vÞ ¼ FðpÞ; dFp ðvÞ ¼ q; dFp ðvÞ ¼ ðq; wÞ ¼ LHS:
5.4 Smooth Immersion 345
Thus, ðdFÞ1 ¼ dðF 1 Þ: Since ðdFÞ1 ¼ dðF 1 Þ; and dðF 1 Þ : TN ! TM is

smooth, ðdFÞ1 : TN ! TMis smooth.
This proves that if F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism, then dF : TM ! TN is a
diffeomorphism.
From the Note 5.27, dF : TM ! TN is a diffeomorphism. Since dF : TM ! TN is
a diffeomorphism, dF : TM ! TN is 1–1 onto, and hence, ðdFÞ1 : TN ! TM:
Since F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism, F 1 : N ! M is a diffeomorphism, and
hence, by the Note 5.27, dðF 1 Þ : TN ! TM is a diffeomorphism. Thus, ðdFÞ1 :
TN ! TM; and dðF 1 Þ : TN ! TM:
Now, we shall try to show that ðdFÞ1 ¼ dðF 1 Þ; that is, for every ðq; wÞ 2 TN;
where q 2 N; and w 2 Tq N; ðdFÞ1 ðq; wÞ ¼ ðdðF 1 ÞÞðq; wÞ; that is, for every
ðq; wÞ 2 TN; where q 2 N; and w 2 Tq N; ðq; wÞ ¼ ðdFÞððdðF 1 ÞÞðq; wÞÞ: For this
purpose, let us take any ðq; wÞ 2 TN; where q 2 N; and w 2 Tq N: Now, since
dF : TM ! TN is onto, there exists ðp; vÞ 2 TM such that ðFðpÞ; ðdFp ÞðvÞÞ ¼
ðdFÞðp; vÞ ¼ ðq; wÞ: It follows that FðpÞ ¼ q; and ðdFp ÞðvÞ ¼ w: Since F : M ! N
is a diffeomorphism, and p 2 M; dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is an isomorphism, and
hence, dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is 1–1 onto. Since dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is 1–1 onto,
and ðdFp ÞðvÞ ¼ w; v ¼ ðdFp Þ1 ðwÞ: Since F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism, F :
M ! N is a 1–1 onto. Since F : M ! N is a 1–1 onto, and FðpÞ ¼ q; p ¼ F 1 ðqÞ:
Now,

RHS ¼ ðdF Þ d F 1 ðq; wÞ ¼ ðdF Þ F 1 ðqÞ; d F 1 q ðwÞ

¼ ðdF Þ F 1 ðqÞ; d F 1 q ðwÞ ¼ ðdF Þ F 1 ðqÞ; d F 1 FðpÞ ðwÞ
1 1
¼ ðdF Þ F 1 ðqÞ; dFp ðwÞ ¼ ðdF Þ p; dFp ðwÞ

¼ ðdF Þðp; vÞ ¼ FðpÞ; dFp ðvÞ ¼ q; dFp ðvÞ ¼ ðq; wÞ ¼ LHS:
Thus, we have shown that if F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism, then

ðdFÞ1 ¼ dðF 1 Þ:
Definition Let t0 be a real number. Let e be any positive real number. Let M be an
m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let c : ðt0 e; t0 þ eÞ ! M be a smooth map.
Observe that the open interval ðt0 e; t0 þ eÞ is a one-dimensional smooth mani-
fold. Since c : ðt0 e; t0 þ eÞ ! M is a smooth map, and t0 2 ðt0 e; t0 þ eÞ; dct0 :
Tt0 ðt0 e; t0 þ eÞ ! Tcðt0 Þ M: The standard coordinate basis vector of Tt0 R is

denoted by dt d :
t0

Since Tt0 ðt0 e; t0 þ eÞ is the same as Tt0 R; and dt d is the standard coordinate
t0
basis vector of Tt0 R; dtd is the standard coordinate basis vector of T ðt e; t þ eÞ:
t0 0 0
t0

d is in T ðt e; t þ eÞ; and dc : T ðt e; t þ eÞ ! T M;
Since dt t0 0 0 t0 t0 0 0 cðt0 Þ
t0
d Þ 2 T M: Here, ðdc Þð d Þ is denoted by c0 ðt Þ; and is called the
ðdct0 Þðdt cðt0 Þ t0 dt 0
t0 t0
velocity of c at t0 : Since
!
d
c0 ðt0 Þ ¼ dct0 2 Tcðt0 Þ M; so c0 ðt0 Þ 2 Tcðt0 Þ M:
dtt0
Since c0 ðt0 Þ 2 Tcðt0 Þ M; c0 ðt0 Þ is a function from C 1 ðMÞ to R: Hence, for every
f 2 C 1 ðMÞ; we have
! !!
0 d d

ðf cÞ ðt0 Þ ¼ ð f cÞ ¼ dct0 ðf Þ ¼ ðc0 ðt0 ÞÞðf Þ:
dtt0 dtt0
Thus, for every f 2 C 1 ðMÞ; we have ðc0 ðt0 ÞÞðf Þ ¼ ðf cÞ0 ðt0 Þ:
Here, cðt0 Þ 2 M; and M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, so there exists an
admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ of M such that cðt0 Þ 2 U: Let
!
o o
; . . .; m
ox1 cðt0 Þ ox cðt0 Þ
be the coordinate basis of Tcðt0 Þ M corresponding to ðU; uÞ; where

!
o o
1
d u uðcðt0 ÞÞ :
oxi cðt0 Þ oxi uðcðt0 ÞÞ
So the matrix representation of linear map dct0 is the following m 1 matrix:

2 3
dðp1 ðucÞÞ ðt Þ
0
6 dt 7
6 dðp2 ðucÞÞ ðt Þ 7
6 0 7
6 dt 7;
6 .. 7
4. 5
dðpm ðucÞÞ ðt Þ
dt 0
where pi : Rm ! R denotes the ith projection function of Rm : It follows that

! !
d dðp1 ðu cÞÞ o
0
c ðt0 Þ ¼ dct0 ¼ ðt 0 Þ
dtt0 dt ox1 cðt0 Þ
!
dðpm ðu cÞÞ o
þ þ ðt 0 Þ
dt oxm cðt0 Þ
!
dðpi ðu cÞÞ o
¼ ðt 0 Þ :
dt oxi cðt0 Þ
Thus,
!
0 dðpi ðu cÞÞ o
c ðt0 Þ ¼ ðt 0 Þ :
dt oxi cðt0 Þ
In the case of Euclidean space Rm for M, the above formula takes the form:
!
0 d ð pi c Þ o
c ðt0 Þ ¼ ðt0 Þ ;
dt oxi cðt0 Þ
which is essentially the same as in the classical calculus.

Theorem 5.29 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p 2 M: Let v 2
Tp M: Then, there exist a positive real e and a smooth curve c : ðe; eÞ ! M such
that cð0Þ ¼ p; and c0 ð0Þ ¼ v:
Proof Since p 2 M; and M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, there exists an
admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ of M such that p 2 U; and uðpÞ ¼ 0: For every
q 2 U; let
!
o o
; . . .; m
ox1 q ox q

!
o 1 o
d u uðqÞ :
oxi q oxi uðqÞ
Here,
!
o o
; . . .; m
ox1 p ox p
is the coordinate basis of Tp M; and v 2 Tp M; there exist real numbers v1 ; . . .; vm

such that
! ! !
o o o
v¼v 1
þ þ v m
¼v i
:
ox1 p oxm p oxi p
Since ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of M, u is a mapping from U onto

uðUÞ; where uðUÞ is an open neighborhood of uðpÞð¼ 0Þ in Rm : Since
t 7! ðtv1 ; . . .; tvm Þ is a continuous map from R to Rm ; and uðUÞ is an open
neighborhood of uðpÞð¼ ð0; . . .; 0Þ ¼ ð0v1 ; . . .; 0vm ÞÞ in Rm ; there exists e [ 0
such that for every t 2 ð0 e; 0 þ eÞ, we have ðtv1 ; . . .; tvm Þ 2 uðUÞ; and hence, for
every t 2 ðe; eÞ, we have u1 ðtv1 ; . . .; tvm Þ 2 U: Now, let us define c : ðe; eÞ !
Uð MÞ as follows: For every t 2 ðe; eÞ; cðtÞ u1 ðtv1 ; . . .; tvm Þ: Here, cð0Þ ¼
u1 ð0v1 ; . . .; 0vm Þ ¼ u1 ð0Þ ¼ u1 ðuðpÞÞ ¼ p: Thus, cð0Þ ¼ p: We shall try to
show that c is smooth.
Since ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of M; u is a diffeomorphism from
U onto uðUÞ; and hence, u1 is smooth. Since u1 is smooth, and
t 7! ðtv1 ; . . .; tvm Þ is smooth, their composite t 7! u1 ðtv1 ; . . .; tvm Þð¼ cðtÞÞ is
smooth, and hence, c is smooth. It follows that for every t 2 ðe; eÞ we have

ðpi ðu cÞÞðtÞ ¼ pi ðuðcðtÞÞÞ ¼ pi u u1 tv1 ; . . .; tvm

¼ pi tv1 ; . . .; tvm ¼ tvi ¼ vi t;
so
d ð pi ð u c Þ Þ
ð0Þ ¼ vi :
dt
Now, we shall try to show that c0 ð0Þ ¼ v: Here,

! ! !
0 d ð pi ð u c Þ Þ o o o
c ð0Þ ¼ ð0Þ ¼v i
¼v i
¼ v:
dt oxi cð0Þ oxi cð0Þ oxi p
Hence, c0 ð0Þ ¼ v: h
Note 5.30 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, N be an n-dimensional
smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be a smooth map. Let c : ðt0 e; t0 þ eÞ ! M be
a smooth map.
Since c : ðt0 e; t0 þ eÞ ! M is a smooth map, and F : M ! N is a smooth
map, their composite F c : ðt0 e; t0 þ eÞ ! N is a smooth map, and hence,
ðF cÞ0 ðt0 Þ 2 TðFcÞðt0 Þ N ¼ TFðcðt0 ÞÞ N: Since c : ðt0 e; t0 þ eÞ ! M is a smooth
map, c0 ðt0 Þ 2 Tcðt0 Þ M: Since c : ðt0 e; t0 þ eÞ ! M; cðt0 Þ 2 M: Since cðt0 Þ
2 M; and F : M ! N is smooth, dFcðt0 Þ : Tcðt0 Þ M ! TFðcðt0 ÞÞ N. Since dFcðt0 Þ :
Tcðt0 Þ M ! TFðcðt0 ÞÞ N; and c0 ðt0 Þ 2 Tcðt0 Þ M; ðdFcðt0 Þ Þðc0 ðt0 ÞÞ 2 TFðcðt0 ÞÞ N: Thus,
ðdFcðt0 Þ Þðc0 ðt0 ÞÞ and ðF cÞ0 ðt0 Þ are elements of TFðcðt0 ÞÞ N: We shall try to show that
ðdFcðt0 Þ Þðc0 ðt0 ÞÞ ¼ ðF cÞ0 ðt0 Þ:
! !
d d
0
RHS ¼ ðF cÞ ðt0 Þ ¼ dðF cÞt0 ¼ dFcðt0 Þ dct0
dtt0 dtt0
!!
d
¼ dFcðt0 Þ dct0 ¼ dFcðt0 Þ ðc0 ðt0 ÞÞ ¼ LHS:

dt t0
Thus, we have shown that ðdFcðt0 Þ Þðc0 ðt0 ÞÞ ¼ ðF cÞ0 ðt0 Þ:

smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be a smooth map. Let p 2 M: Let v 2 Tp M: Let
c : ðe; eÞ ! M be a smooth curve on M; such that cð0Þ ¼ p; and c0 ð0Þ ¼ v: (The
existence of such a c has been established in Theorem 5.29.)
Since F : M ! N is a smooth map, dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N: Since dFp : Tp M !
TFðpÞ N; and v 2 Tp M; ðdFp ÞðvÞ 2 TFðpÞ N: Here, c : ðe; eÞ ! M is smooth, and F :
M ! N is smooth, so their composite F c : ðe; eÞ ! N is smooth, and hence,
ðF cÞ0 ð0Þ 2 TðFcÞð0Þ N ¼ TFðcð0ÞÞ N ¼ TFðpÞ N: Thus, ðdFp ÞðvÞ and ðF cÞ0 ð0Þ are
members of TFðpÞ N: We shall try to show that ðdFp ÞðvÞ ¼ ðF cÞ0 ð0Þ:

RHS ¼ ðF cÞ0 ð0Þ ¼ dFcð0Þ ðc0 ð0ÞÞ ¼ dFp ðc0 ð0ÞÞ ¼ dFp ðvÞ ¼ LHS:
This proves that ðdFp ÞðvÞ ¼ ðF cÞ0 ð0Þ: In short, we write ðdFcð0Þ Þ
ðc0 ð0ÞÞ ¼ ðF cÞ0 ð0Þ:
smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be a smooth map. Let p 2 M:
It follows that dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N: We know that dFp is a linear map from real
linear space Tp M to real linear space TFðpÞ N: Here, ðdFp ÞðTp MÞ is a linear subspace
of TFðpÞ N: We know that dim Tp M ¼ m; and dim TFðpÞ N ¼ n: Since ðdFp ÞðTp MÞ is
a linear subspace of TFðpÞ N; dimððdFp ÞðTp MÞÞ dim TFðpÞ N ¼ n: Since dFp is a
linear map from real linear space Tp M to real linear space TFðpÞ N; dimððdFp Þ
ðTp MÞÞ dim Tp M ¼ m: Since dimððdFp ÞðTp MÞÞ m; and dimððdFp ÞðTp MÞÞ
n; dimððdFp ÞðTp MÞÞ minfm; ng: Here, dimððdFp ÞðTp MÞÞ is called the rank of
F at p.
It follows that the rank of F at p is r if and only if the matrix representation of
linear map dFp has rank r. Clearly, the rank of F at p is less than or equal to
minfm; ng: Observe that the linear map dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is onto if and only if
dimððdFp ÞðTp MÞÞ ¼ dim TFðpÞ Nð¼ nÞ: Thus, the linear map dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N
is onto if and only if the rank of F at p is n.
Observe that the linear map dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is 1–1 if and only if
dimððdFp ÞðTp MÞÞ ¼ dim Tp Mð¼ mÞ: Thus, the linear map dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is
1–1 if and only if the rank of F at p is m.
smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be a smooth map. Let k be a positive integer. If
for every p 2 M; the rank of F at p is k, then we write rank F ¼ k; and say that
F has constant rank k. Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, N be an n-
dimensional smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be a smooth map. Here, the linear
map dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is onto for every p 2 M if and only if the rank of F at p is
n for every p 2 M: Thus, the linear map dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is onto for every
p 2 M if and only if rank F ¼ n:
smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be a smooth map. Here, the linear map dFp :
Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is 1–1 for every p 2 M if and only if the rank of F at p is m for
every p 2 M: Thus, the linear map dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is 1–1 for every p 2 M if
and only if rank F ¼ m:
smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be a smooth map. If for every p 2 M; the linear
map dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is onto, then we say that F is a smooth submersion. Thus,
F is a smooth submersion if and only if rank F ¼ n:
smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be a smooth map. If for every p 2 M; the linear
map dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is 1–1, then we say that F is a smooth immersion. Thus,
F is a smooth immersion if and only if rank F ¼ m:
5.5 Inverse Function Theorem for Manifolds
Note 5.33 Let Mð2 3; RÞ be the collection of all 2 3 matrices with real entries,
that is,
a b c
Mð2 3; RÞ : a; b; c; d; e; f 2 R :
d e f
We define addition of matrices as follows:
a b c a b1 c1 a þ a1 b þ b1 c þ c 1
þ 1 :
d e f d1 e1 f1 d þ d1 e þ e1 f þ f1
Clearly, Mð2 3; RÞ is a commutative group under addition as binary operation.

5.5 Inverse Function Theorem for Manifolds 351
We define scalar multiplication of matrix as follows:
a b c ta tb tc
t :
d e f td te tf
Clearly, Mð2 3; RÞ becomes a real linear space of dimension ð2 3Þ: Here, one
of the basis of Mð2 3; RÞ is
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
; ; ; ; ; :
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Clearly, the real linear space R23 is isomorphic to the real linear space
Mð2 3; RÞ: Since R23 is isomorphic to Mð2 3; RÞ; we will not distinguish
between
a b c
and ða; b; c; d; e; f Þ:
d e f
Now, since R23 is a ð2 3Þ-dimensional smooth manifold, Mð2 3; RÞ is also a

ð2 3Þ-dimensional smooth manifold. Let M2 ð2 3; RÞ be the collection of all
a b c
2 Mð2 3; RÞ
d e f
such that
a b c
rank ¼ 2:
d e f
If
a b c
2 M2 ð2 3; RÞ;
d e f
then
a b c
rank ¼ 2;
d e f
that is, if
a b c
2 M2 ð2 3; RÞ
d e f
then

b c a c a b
det 6¼ 0 or det 6¼ 0 or det 6¼ 0 :
e f d f d e
We want to show that M2 ð2 3; RÞ is an open subset of Mð2 3; RÞ: For this

purpose, let us fix any
a b c
2 M2 ð2 3; RÞ:
d e f
It follows that
b c a c a b
det 6¼ 0 or det 6¼ 0 or det 6¼ 0:
e f d f d e
Case I: when
b c
det 6¼ 0
e f
Here,
b c
bf ce ¼ det 6¼ 0:
e f
Since there exists e [ 0, the open interval

b c b c
det e; det þe
e f e f
does not contain 0. Let us define a function f : R6 ! R as follows: For every

ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 ; x6 Þ in R6
x2 x3
f ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 ; x6 Þ x2 x6 x5 x3 ¼ det :
x5 x6
Clearly, f is a continuous function. Also,
b c
f ða; b; c; d; e; f Þ ¼ det :
e f
Since f is a continuous at ða; b; c; d; e; f Þ; there exists an open neighborhood U

of ða; b; c; d; e; f Þ in R6 such that for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 ; x6 Þ 2 U;
x2 x3
det ¼ f ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 ; x6 Þ 2 ðf ða; b; c; d; e; f Þ e; f ða; b; c; d; e; f Þ þ eÞ
x5 x6

b c b c
¼ det e; det þ e 63 0:
e f e f
Thus, for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 ; x6 Þ 2 U; we have

x2 x3
det 6¼ 0;
x5 x6
and hence,
x1 x2 x3
rank ¼2
x4 x5 x6
for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 ; x6 Þ 2 U: Since U is an open neighborhood of

ða; b; c; d; e; f Þ in R6 ;
x1 x2 x3
: ð x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 ; x6 Þ 2 U
x4 x5 x6
is an open neighborhood of
a b c
in Mð2 3; RÞ:
d e f
Since
x1 x2 x3
rank ¼2
x4 x5 x6
for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 ; x6 Þ 2 U;
x1 x2 x3
: ð x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 ; x6 Þ 2 U M2 ð2 3; RÞ:
x4 x5 x6
Since
x1 x2 x3
: ð x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 ; x6 Þ 2 U
x4 x5 x6
is an open neighborhood of
a b c
in Mð2 3; RÞ;
d e f
and
x1 x2 x3
: ð x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 ; x6 Þ 2 U M2 ð2 3; RÞ;
x4 x5 x6
a b c
d e f
is an interior point of M2 ð2 3; RÞ:

Case II: when
a c
det 6¼ 0
d f
This case is similar to the case I.

Case III: when
a b
det 6¼ 0
d e
This case is similar to the case I. Hence, in all cases,
a b c
d e f
is an interior point of M2 ð2 3; RÞ:
This proves that M2 ð2 3; RÞ is an open subset of Mð2 3; RÞ: Since M2 ð2

3; RÞ is an open subset of Mð2 3; RÞ; and Mð2 3; RÞ is a ð2 3Þ-dimensional
smooth manifold, M2 ð2 3; RÞ is also a ð2 3Þ-dimensional smooth manifold.
Similarly, M2 ð3 2; RÞ is a ð3 2Þ-dimensional smooth manifold. Its gener-
alization to higher dimensions can also be given. Such smooth manifolds are known
as the manifolds of matrices of full rank.
sional smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be a smooth map. Let p 2 M: If dFp :
Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is onto, then there exists an open neighborhood W of p such that for
every q 2 W; the linear map dFq : Tq M ! TFðqÞ N is onto.
Proof Here, p 2 M; and M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, so there exists an
admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ of M such that p 2 U: For every q 2 U; let
!
o o o
; ; . . .; m
ox1 q ox2 q ox q

!
o 1 o
d u uðqÞ :
oxi q oxi uðqÞ
Here, p 2 M; and F : M ! N; so FðpÞ 2 N: Since FðpÞ 2 N; and N is an

n-dimensional smooth manifold, there exists an admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ
of N such that FðpÞ 2 V: For every r 2 V; let

o o o
; ; . . .;
oy1 oy2
r r oyn r
be the coordinate basis of Tr N corresponding to ðV; wÞ; where

!
o 1 o
d w wðrÞ :
oyi r oyi wðrÞ
Here, the matrix representation of linear map dFp is the following n m matrix:
2
oðp1 ðw F u1 ÞÞ oðp1 ðw F u1 ÞÞ
6 ðuðpÞÞ ðuðpÞÞ
6 ox1 ox2
6 oðp ðw F u1 ÞÞ 1
oðp2 ðw F u ÞÞ
6 2
6 ox1 ox2
6... ...
6
4 oðpn ðw F u1 ÞÞ oðpn ðw F u1 ÞÞ
ðuðpÞÞ ðuðpÞÞ
ox1 3 ox
2
1
oðp1 ðw F u ÞÞ
... ðuðpÞÞ 7
oxm 7
1
oðp2 ðw F u ÞÞ 7
7
... ðuðpÞÞ 7:
ox m 7
... ... 7
7
oðpn ðw F u1 ÞÞ 5
... ð uðpÞÞ
ox m
Since the linear map dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is onto, and dim TFðpÞ N ¼ n; the rank of
the matrix representation of linear map dFp is n; that is,
2
6 ox1 ox2
6 1 1
6 oðp2 ðw F u ÞÞ oðp2 ðw F u ÞÞ
rank6 ðuðpÞÞ ðuðpÞÞ
6 ox1 ox2
6... ...
6
ox1 3 ox
2
1
oðp1 ðw F u ÞÞ
... ðuðpÞÞ 7
oxm 7
oðp2 ðw F u1 ÞÞ 7
7
... ðuðpÞÞ 7
oxm 7
... ... 7
7
1
oðpn ðw F u ÞÞ 5
... ðuðpÞÞ
ox m
is n. Since the rank of F at p is less than or equal to minfm; ng; and the rank of F at
p is n, n minfm; ng m; and hence, n m: Here, n m; and
2
6 ð uðpÞÞ ðuðpÞÞ
6 ox1 ox2
oðp2 ðw F u ÞÞ
6 2
6 ox1 ox2
6... . . .
6
ox1
3 ox2
oðp1 ðw F u1 ÞÞ
... ðuðpÞÞ 7
oxm 7
1
7
... ðuðpÞÞ 7
ox m 7
... ... 7
7
... ðuðpÞÞ
oxm
is n, so
2
6 ox 1 ox2
6 oðp ðw F u1 ÞÞ oðp2 ðw F u1ÞÞ
6 2
6 ox1 ox2
6... ...
6
ox 1
3 ox
2
1
oðp1 ðw F u ÞÞ
... ðuðpÞÞ 7
oxm 7
7
... ð uðpÞ Þ 7
oxm 7
... ... 7
7
1
... ð uðpÞ Þ
oxm
2 Mn ðn m; RÞ Mðn m; RÞ: Since Mn ðn m; RÞ is an open subset of

Mðn m; RÞ: It follows that Mn ðn m; RÞ is an open neighborhood of
2
6 ox 1 ox2
6 oðp ðw F u1 ÞÞ oðp2 ðw F u1 ÞÞ
6 2
6 ox1 ox2
6... . . .
6
ox 1
3 ox
2
1
oðp1 ðw F u ÞÞ
... ðuðpÞÞ 7
oxm 7
1 7
... ðuðpÞÞ 7:
oxm 7
... ... 7
7
... ð uðpÞ Þ
oxm
Since F : M ! N is a smooth map, ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of M

such that p 2 U; and ðV; wÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of N such that
FðpÞ 2 V; w F u1 is smooth, and hence, each pi ðw F u1 Þ is smooth.
Since each pi ðw F u1 Þ is smooth, and u is smooth, each
oðpi ðw F u1 ÞÞ
q 7! ðuðqÞÞ
ox j
is continuous, and hence,

2
6 ðuðqÞÞ ðuðqÞÞ
6 ox 1 ox2
6
6 oðp2 ðw F u1 ÞÞ oðp2 ðw F u1 ÞÞ
q 7! 6 ð uðqÞÞ ðuðqÞÞ
6 ox1 ox2
6... ...
6
ðuðqÞÞ ðuðqÞÞ
ox1 3 ox2
oðp1 ðw F u1 ÞÞ
... ðuðqÞÞ 7
oxm 7
7
... ðuðqÞÞ 7
ox m 7
... ... 7
7
1
o ð pn ð w F u Þ Þ 5
... ð uðqÞ Þ
oxm
is continuous. It follows that there exists an open neighborhood W of p in M such

that for every q 2 W,
2
6 ox 1 ox2
6
6 ð uðqÞ Þ ðuðqÞÞ
6 ox1 ox2
6... ...
6
ox1 3 ox2
oðp1 ðw F u1 ÞÞ
... ðuðqÞÞ 7
oxm 7
7
... ðuðqÞÞ 7 2 Mn ðn m; RÞ;
ox m 7
... ... 7
7
1
... ð uðqÞ Þ
oxm
and hence, for every q 2 W, we have

2
6 ox1 ox2
oðp2 ðw F u ÞÞ
6 2
rank6 ðuðqÞÞ ðuðqÞÞ
6 ox1 ox2
6... ...
6
ox1 3 ox2
oðp1 ðw F u1 ÞÞ
... ðuðqÞÞ 7
oxm 7
7
... ð uðqÞ Þ 7 ¼ n:
oxm 7
... ... 7
7
... ðuðqÞÞ
ox m
It follows that for every q 2 W; the linear map dFq : Tq M ! TFðqÞ N is onto. h
Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is 1–1, then there exists an open neighborhood W of p such that for
every q 2 W; the linear map dFq : Tq M ! TFðqÞ N is 1–1.
admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ of M such that p 2 U: For every q 2 U;
!
o o o
; ; . . .; m
ox1 q ox2 q ox q
is the coordinate basis of Tq M corresponding to ðU; uÞ; where

!
o 1 o
d u uðqÞ :
oxi q oxi uðqÞ
Here, p 2 M; and F : M ! N; so FðpÞ 2 N: Since FðpÞ 2 N; and N is an n-

dimensional smooth manifold, there exists an admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ of
N such that FðpÞ 2 V: For every r 2 V;

o o o
; ; . . .;
oy1 r oy2 r oyn r
is the coordinate basis of Tr N corresponding to ðV; wÞ; where

!
o 1 o
d w wðrÞ :
oyi r oyi wðrÞ
Here, the matrix representation of linear map dFp is the following n m matrix:
2
6 ox 1 ox2
6 2
6 ox1 ox2
6... . . .
6
ox 1
3 ox2
oðp1 ðw F u1 ÞÞ
... ðuðpÞÞ 7
oxm 7
1
7
... ð uðpÞ Þ 7:
oxm 7
... ... 7
7
1
... ðuðpÞÞ
oxm
Since the linear map dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is 1–1, and dim Tp M ¼ m; the rank of
the matrix representation of linear map dFp is m; that is,
2
6 ox1 ox2
6
6 ox1 ox2
6... . . .
6
ox1
3 ox2
oðp1 ðw F u1 ÞÞ
... ðuðpÞÞ 7
oxm 7
1
7
... ðuðpÞ Þ 7
ox m 7
... ... 7
7
1
... ðuðpÞÞ
ox m
is m. Since the rank of F at p is less than or equal to minfm; ng; and the rank of F at
p is m, m minfm; ng n; and hence, m n: Here, m n; and
2
6 ox1 ox2
6 2
6 ox1 ox2
6... . . .
6
ox1 3 ox
2
1
oðp1 ðw F u ÞÞ
... ðuðpÞÞ 7
oxm 7
1
7
... ðuðpÞÞ 7
ox m 7
... ... 7
7
... ðuðpÞ Þ
ox m
is m, so
2
6 ox 1 ox2
6 2
6 ð uðpÞ Þ ðuðpÞÞ
6 ox1 ox2
6... . . .
6
ð uðpÞ Þ ðuðpÞÞ
ox1 3 ox2
oðp1 ðw F u1 ÞÞ
... ðuðpÞÞ 7
oxm 7
7
... ð uðpÞ Þ 7
oxm 7
... ... 7
7
1
... ð uðpÞ Þ
oxm
2 Mm ðn m; RÞ Mðn m; RÞ: Since Mm ðn m; RÞ is an open subset of

Mðn m; RÞ; it follows that Mm ðn m; RÞ is an open neighborhood of
2
6 ox 1 ox2
6 2
6 ox1 ox2
6... . . .
6
ð uðpÞ Þ ðuðpÞÞ
ox1 3 ox2
oðp1 ðw F u1 ÞÞ
... ðuðpÞÞ 7
oxm 7
7
... ð uðpÞ Þ 7:
oxm 7
... ... 7
7
1
... ð uðpÞ Þ
oxm
Since F : M ! N is a smooth map, ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of M

such that p 2 U; and ðV; wÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of N such that
FðpÞ 2 V; w F u1 is smooth, and hence, each pi ðw F u1 Þ is smooth.
Since each pi ðw F u1 Þ is smooth, and u is smooth, each
oðpi ðw F u1 ÞÞ
q 7! ðuðqÞÞ
ox j
is continuous, and hence,

2
6 ox 1 ox2
6 2
q 7! 6 ð uðqÞÞ ðuðqÞÞ
6 ox1 ox2
6... . . .
6
ox 1
3 ox2
oðp1 ðw F u1 ÞÞ
... ðuðqÞÞ 7
oxm 7
7
... ð uðqÞ Þ 7
oxm 7
... ... 7
7
1
o ð pn ð w F u Þ Þ 5
... ð uðqÞ Þ
oxm
is continuous. It follows that there exists an open neighborhood W of p in M such

that for every q 2 W;
2
6 1 ox2
6 2
6 ox1 ox2
6... . . .
6
ox 1
3 ox2
oðp1 ðw F u1 ÞÞ
... ðuðqÞÞ 7
oxm 7
7
... ð uðqÞ Þ 7 2 Mm ðn; RÞ;
oxm 7
... ... 7
7
1
... ð uðqÞ Þ
oxm
and hence, for every q 2 W, we have

2
6 ox1 ox2
6 2
rank6 ðuðqÞÞ ðuðqÞÞ
6 ox 1 ox2
6... ...
6
ox1 3 ox2
oðp1 ðw F u1 ÞÞ
... ðuðqÞÞ 7
oxm 7
1 7
... ð uðqÞ Þ 7 ¼ m:
oxm 7
... ... 7
7
1
... ð uðqÞ Þ
oxm
It follows that for every q 2 W; the linear map dFq : Tq M ! TFðqÞ N is 1–1. h
Theorem 5.36 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, N be an m-dimen-
Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is invertible (i.e., 1–1 and onto); then, there exists a connected open
neighborhood U0 of p, and a connected open neighborhood V0 of FðpÞ such that
FjU0 : U0 ! V0 is a diffeomorphism.
admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ of M such that p 2 U: For every q 2 U; let
!
o o o
; ; . . .; m
ox1 q ox2 q ox q

!
o 1 o
d u uðqÞ :
oxi q oxi uðqÞ
Here, p 2 M; and F : M ! N; so FðpÞ 2 N: Since FðpÞ 2 N; and N is an

m-dimensional smooth manifold, there exists an admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ
of N such that FðpÞ 2 V; and wðFðpÞÞ ¼ 0: For every r 2 V; let

o o o
; ; . . .; m
oy1 r oy2 r oy r
be the coordinate basis of Tr N corresponding to ðV; wÞ; where

!
o 1 o
d w wðrÞ :
oyi r oyi wðrÞ
Here, the matrix representation of linear map dFp is the following m m matrix:
2
6 ox 1 ox2
6 2
6 ox1 ox2
6... ...
6
4 oðpm ðw F u1 ÞÞ oðpm ðw F u1 ÞÞ
ox1 3 ox2
oðp1 ðw F u1 ÞÞ
... ðuðpÞÞ 7
oxm 7
7
... ðuðpÞÞ 7:
ox m 7
... ... 7
7
oðpm ðw F u ÞÞ1 5
... ðuðpÞ Þ
oxm
Since the linear map dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is 1–1 onto, and dim Tp M ¼ m;
2
6 ox1 ox2
6 2
det6 ðuðpÞÞ ðuðpÞÞ
6 ox 1 ox2
6... ...
6
ox1 3 ox2
oðp1 ðw F u1 ÞÞ
... ðuðpÞÞ 7
oxm 7
7
... ð uðpÞ Þ 7 6¼ 0:
oxm 7
... ... 7
7
1
... ðuðpÞÞ
ox m
Since F : M ! N is a smooth map, ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of

M such that p 2 U; and ðV; wÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of N such that
FðpÞ 2 V; w F u1 : uðU \ F 1 ðvÞÞ ! wðVÞ is smooth. Also, ðw F
u1 ÞðuðpÞÞ ¼ wðFðpÞÞ ¼ 0: Clearly, uðU \ F 1 ðVÞÞ is an open neighborhood of
uðpÞ in Rm : Further, wðVÞ is an open neighborhood of 0 in Rm : Now, by Theorem

4.1, there exists a connected open neighborhood U^ of uðpÞ such that
^ is contained in uðU \ F 1 ðVÞÞ;
1. U
^ is connected and is an open neighborhood of 0,
2. ðw F u1 ÞðUÞ
^
3. ðw F u Þ has a smooth inverse on ðw F u1 ÞðUÞ:
1
Put U0 u1 ðUÞ;^ and V0 ðF u1 ÞðUÞ: ^ We want to prove that U0 is con-
nected and is an open neighborhood of p in M. Since U ^ is connected, U
^ is contained
1 1 1 ^
in uðU \ F ðVÞÞ; and u is continuous, u ðUÞð¼ U0 Þ is connected, and hence,
U0 is connected. Since U ^ is open, U
^ contained in uðU \ F 1 ðVÞÞð uðUÞÞ; and
uðUÞ is open, U ^ is open in uðUÞ; and hence, u1 ðUÞ ^ is open in U. Since u1 ðUÞ ^ is
1 ^
open in U, and U is open in M, u ðUÞð¼ U0 Þ is open in M, and hence, U0 is open
in M. Since uðpÞ 2 U; ^
^ p 2 u1 ðUÞð¼ U0 Þ; and hence, p 2 U0 :
Since u ; F are continuous, F u1 is continuous. Since F u1 is continu-
1
ous, U^ is connected, and U ^ contained in uðU \ F 1 ðVÞÞ; ðF u1 ÞðUÞð¼ ^ V0 Þ is

1
connected, and hence, V0 is connected. Since ðw F u Þ has a smooth inverse
on ðw F u1 ÞðUÞ;^ u F 1 w1 is continuous. Since u F 1 w1 is con-
tinuous, and w is continuous, their composite u F 1 is continuous. Since u F 1
is continuous, and U ^ is open, ðu F 1 Þ1 ðUÞð¼
^ ðF u1 ÞðUÞ^ ¼ V0 Þ is open, and
hence, V0 is open. Since uðpÞ 2 U; ^ V0 ¼ ðF u ÞðUÞ3ðF
1 ^ u1 ÞðuðpÞÞ ¼ FðpÞ:
Thus, V0 is a connected open neighborhood of FðpÞ:
Since the inverse of ðw F u1 Þ exists, w F u1 is 1–1. Also, u; w1 are 1–1.
Since w F u1 ; u; w1 are 1–1, their composite F is 1–1. It remains to be proved

that ðFjU0 Þ1 : V0 ! U0 is smooth, that is, ðF 1 V0 Þ is smooth. Since w F u1 has
a smooth inverse, u F 1 w1 is smooth, and hence, F 1 is smooth on V0 : h
Note 5.37 The Theorem 5.36 is known as the inverse function theorem for
manifolds.
Definition Let M and N be smooth manifolds. Let F : M ! N be any function. If
for every p in M, there exists an open neighborhood U of p such that F(U) is open in
N, and the restriction FjU : U ! FðUÞ is a diffeomorphism, then we say that F is a
local diffeomorphism.
5.6 Shrinking Lemma
Note 5.38 Let M and N be smooth manifolds. Let F : M ! N be a local diffeo-

morphism. We shall try to show that F is an open map. For this purpose, let us take
any nonempty open subset U of M.
5.6 Shrinking Lemma 365
We have to show that F(U) is open in N, that is, each member of F(U) is an
interior point of F(U), that is, for every a in U, there exists an open neighborhood
V of F(a) such that V FðUÞ.
For this purpose, let us take any a in U. Since F : M ! N is a local diffeo-
morphism, and a is in M, there exists an open neighborhood U1 of a such that
FðU1 Þ is open in N, and the restriction FjU1 : U1 ! FðU1 Þ is a diffeomorphism.
Since U; U1 are open neighborhoods of a, U \ U1 is an open neighborhood of a,
and hence, U \ U1 is open in U1 . Since FjU1 : U1 ! FðU1 Þ is a diffeomorphism,
FjU1 : U1 ! FðU1 Þ is a homeomorphism. Since FjU1 : U1 ! FðU1 Þ is a homeo-
morphism, and U \ U1 is open in U1 , FjU1 ðU \ U1 Þð¼ FðU \ U1 ÞÞ is open in the
open set FðU1 Þ, and hence, FðU \ U1 Þ is open in the open set FðU1 Þ. Since
FðU \ U1 Þ is open in the open set FðU1 Þ, FðU \ U1 Þ is open in N. Since a is in
U \ U1 , F(a) is in FðU \ U1 Þ. Thus, FðU \ U1 Þ is an open neighborhood of F(a).
Also, FðU \ U1 Þ FðUÞ.
Note 5.39 Let M, N, P be smooth manifolds. Let F : M ! N; and G : N ! P be
local diffeomorphisms. We shall try to show that their composite G F : M ! P is
a local diffeomorphism.
Let us take any a 2 M. We have to find an open neighborhood U of a such that
ðG FÞðUÞ is open in P, and the restriction ðG FÞjU : U ! ðG FÞðUÞ is a
diffeomorphism.
Since F : M ! N is a local diffeomorphism, and a 2 M, there exists an open
neighborhood U1 of a such that FðU1 Þ is open in N, and the restriction FjU1 :
U1 ! FðU1 Þ is a diffeomorphism. Since FðaÞ 2 N, and G : N ! P is a local dif-
feomorphism, there exists an open neighborhood V of F(a) such that G(V) is open
in P, and the restriction GjV : V ! GðVÞ is a diffeomorphism. Since FðU1 Þ is an
open neighborhood of F(a), and V is an open neighborhood of F(a), FðU1 Þ \ V is
an open neighborhood of F(a). Here, FðU1 Þ \ V is an open neighborhood of F(a) in
FðU1 Þ, and FjU1 : U1 ! FðU1 Þ is a diffeomorphism, ðFjU1 Þ1 ðFðU1 Þ \ VÞ is an
open neighborhood of a, and FjðFj 1
ðFðU1 Þ\VÞ : ðFjU1 Þ1 ðFðU1 Þ \ VÞ ! FðU1 Þ \
U1 Þ
V is a diffeomorphism. Since FðU1 Þ \ V is an open neighborhood of F(a) in N, and

GjV : V ! GðVÞ is a diffeomorphism, GðFðU1 Þ \ VÞ is an open neighborhood of
GðFðaÞÞð¼ ðG FÞðaÞÞ, and GjðFðU1 Þ\VÞ : FðU1 Þ \ V ! GðFðU1 Þ \ VÞ is a diffe-
omorphism. Since FjðFj 1
ðFðU1 Þ\VÞ : ðFjU1 Þ1 ðFðU1 Þ \ VÞ ! FðU1 Þ \ V is a dif-
U1 Þ
feomorphism, and GjðFðU1 Þ\VÞ : FðU1 Þ \ V ! GðFðU1 Þ \ VÞ is a diffeomorphism,

their composite ðGjðFðU1 Þ\VÞ Þ ðFjðFj 1
ðFðU1 Þ\VÞ Þ : ðFjU1 Þ1 ðFðU1 Þ \ VÞ !
U1 Þ
GðFðU1 Þ \ VÞ is a diffeomorphism. Clearly, ðGjðFðU1 Þ\VÞ Þ ðFjðFj 1

U1 Þ
1
ðFðU1 Þ \ VÞÞ ¼ ðG FÞjðFj 1 . Thus, ðG FÞjðFj 1 : ðFjU1 Þ
U1 Þ ðFðU1 Þ\VÞ U1 Þ ðFðU1 Þ\VÞ
ðFðU1 Þ \ VÞ ! GðFðU1 Þ \ VÞ is a diffeomorphism, ðFjU1 Þ1 ðFðU1 Þ \ VÞ is an

open neighborhood of a, and
1 1

ðG F Þj Fj 1 ðF ðU Þ\V Þ FjU1 ðF ðU1 Þ \ V Þ ¼ ðG F Þ FjU1 ðF ðU 1 Þ \ V Þ
ð U1 Þ 1
1
¼ G F FjU1 ðF ðU 1 Þ \ V Þ ¼ G ðF ðU 1 Þ \ V Þ
is an open neighborhood of ðG FÞðaÞ. It follows that G F : M ! P is a local

diffeomorphism.
Note 5.40 Let M, N be smooth manifolds. Let F : M ! N be a local diffeomor-
phism. We shall try to show that F : M ! N is a local homeomorphism, that is,
F : M ! N is continuous, and for every a 2 M, there exists an open neighborhood
U of a such that F(U) is an open neighborhood of F(a) such that the restriction
FjU : U ! FðUÞ is a homeomorphism.
First of all, we shall try to show that F : M ! N is continuous. For this purpose,
let us take any a 2 M. Next, let us take any open neighborhood V of F(a). We have
to find an open neighborhood U of a such that FðUÞ V:
Since a 2 M, and F : M ! N is a local homeomorphism, there exists an open
neighborhood U1 of a such that FðU1 Þ is open in N, and the restriction FjU1 :
U1 ! FðU1 Þ is a diffeomorphism. Here, FðU1 Þ is an open neighborhood of F(a),
and V is an open neighborhood of F(a), so FðU1 Þ \ V is an open neighborhood of F
(a), and hence, FðU1 Þ \ V is open in FðU1 Þ. Since FðU1 Þ \ V is open in FðU1 Þ,
and FjU1 : U1 ! FðU1 Þ is a diffeomorphism, ðFjU1 Þ1 ðFðU1 Þ \ VÞ is open in U1 ,
and hence, ðFjU1 Þ1 ðFðU1 Þ \ VÞ is open in M. Since a 2 U1 , ðFjU1 ÞðaÞ ¼
FðaÞ 2 FðU1 Þ \ V, a 2 ðFjU1 Þ1 ðFðU1 Þ \ VÞ, and hence, ðFjU1 Þ1 ðFðU1 Þ \ VÞ is
an open neighborhood of a.
It remains to be proved that FððFjU1 Þ1 ðFðU1 Þ \ VÞÞ V. Here, FjU1 : U1 !
FðU1 Þ is 1–1, so
1
F FjU1 ðF ðU1 Þ \ V Þ ¼ F ðU1 Þ \ V V:
Thus, we have shown that F : M ! N is continuous.

Now, we shall try to show that for every a 2 M, there exists an open neigh-
borhood U of a, such that F(U) is an open neighborhood of F(a) and the restriction
FjU : U ! FðUÞ is a homeomorphism.
For this purpose, let us fix any a 2 M. Since a 2 M, and F : M ! N is a local
diffeomorphism, there exists an open neighborhood U of a such that F(U) is open in
N, and the restriction FjU : U ! FðUÞ is a diffeomorphism. Since FjU : U ! FðUÞ
is a diffeomorphism, FjU : U ! FðUÞ is a homeomorphism.
Note 5.41 Let M, N be smooth manifolds. Let M1 be a nonempty open subset of

M. Let F : M ! N be a local diffeomorphism. We shall try to prove that FjM1 :
M1 ! N is a local diffeomorphism.
For this purpose, let us take any a 2 M1 . We have to find an open neighborhood

U of a in M1 such that ðFjM1 ÞðUÞ is open in N, and the restriction ðFjM1 ÞU : U !
ðFjM1 ÞðUÞ is a diffeomorphism.
Since a 2 M1 M, a 2 M. Since a 2 M, and F : M ! N is a local diffeo-
morphism, there exists an open neighborhood U1 of a such that FðU1 Þ is open in N,
and the restriction FjU1 : U1 ! FðU1 Þ is a diffeomorphism. Since M1 is an open
neighborhood of a, M1 \ U1 is an open neighborhood of a in U1 . Since M1 \ U1 is
an open neighborhood of a in U1 , and FjU1 : U1 ! FðU1 Þ is a diffeomorphism,
ðFjU1 ÞðM1 \ U1 Þ is open in FðU1 Þ, and hence, ðFjU1 ÞðM1 \ U1 Þ is open in
N. Clearly, ðFjM1 ÞðM1 \ U1 Þ is open in N.
(Reason: Here, ðFjU1 ÞðM1 \ U1 Þ is open in N, and ðFjM1 ÞðM1 \ U1 Þ ¼
ðFjM1 \U1 ÞðM1 \ U1 Þ ¼ ðFjU1 ÞðM1 \ U1 Þ, so ðFjM1 ÞðM1 \ U1 Þ is open in N.)

Now, it remains to be showed that ðFjM1 ÞðM \U Þ : ðM1 \ U1 Þ ! ðFjM1 Þ ðM1 \ U1 Þ
1 1
is a diffeomorphism, that is, FjðM1 \U1 Þ : ðM1 \ U1 Þ ! ðFjM1 ÞðM1 \ U1 Þ is a diffeo-

morphism. Since FjU1 : U1 ! FðU1 Þ is a diffeomorphism, its restriction FjðM1 \U1 Þ :
ðM1 \ U1 Þ ! ðFjM1 ÞðM1 \ U1 Þ is a diffeomorphism.
smooth manifold. Let F : M ! N be a diffeomorphism. We shall try to show that
F : M ! N is a local diffeomorphism. For this purpose, let us take any a 2 M. We
have to find an open neighborhood U of a in M such that F(U) is open in N, and the
restriction FjU : U ! FðUÞ is a diffeomorphism.
Since a 2 M, and M is a smooth manifold, there exists an admissible coordinate
chart ðU; uÞ of M such that a 2 U. Since F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism, F :
M ! N is 1–1. Since F is 1–1, so FjU : U ! FðUÞ is 1–1 onto. Since F : M ! N is
a diffeomorphism, F : M ! N is a homeomorphism. Since F : M ! N is a
homeomorphism, and U is an open neighborhood of a, F(U) is an open neigh-
borhood of F(a).
Now, it remains to be proved that:
1. FjU : U ! FðUÞ is smooth and
2. ðFjU Þ1 : FðUÞ ! U is smooth.
For 1: Since F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism, F : M ! N is smooth. Since

F : M ! N is smooth, U is an open neighborhood of a, and F(U) is an open
neighborhood of F(a), the restriction FjU : U ! FðUÞ is smooth.

For 2: Observe that ðFjU Þ1 ¼ ðF 1 ÞFðUÞ .
(Reason: Let ðy; xÞ 2 LHS. So ðy; xÞ 2 ðFjU Þ1 . Since ðy; xÞ 2 ðFjU Þ1 ,
ðx; yÞ 2 FjU . Since ðx; yÞ 2 FjU , x 2 U, and ðx; yÞ 2 F. Since ðx; yÞ 2 F, ðy; xÞ
2 F 1 . Since ðx; yÞ 2 F, FðxÞ ¼ y. Since
x 2 U, y ¼ FðxÞ 2 FðUÞ. Since ðy; xÞ 2
F 1 , and y 2 FðUÞ, ðy; xÞ 2 ðF 1 ÞFðUÞ ¼ RHS. Thus, LHS RHS. Next, let

ðy; xÞ 2 RHS. So ðy; xÞ 2 ðF 1 Þ FðUÞ
. Since ðy; xÞ 2 ðF 1 Þ , y 2 FðUÞ, and
FðUÞ
ðy; xÞ 2 F 1 . Since y 2 FðUÞ, there exists x1 2 U such that Fðx1 Þ ¼ y. Since
ðy; xÞ 2 F 1 , ðx; yÞ 2 F, and hence, FðxÞ ¼ y. Since FðxÞ ¼ y, and Fðx1 Þ ¼ y,
FðxÞ ¼ Fðx1 Þ. Since FðxÞ ¼ Fðx1 Þ and F is 1–1, x ¼ x1 . Since x ¼ x1 , and x1 2 U,
x 2 U. Since x 2 U, and ðx; yÞ 2 F, ðx; yÞ 2 FjU , and hence, ðy; xÞ 2
ðFjU Þ1 ¼ LHS. Thus, RHS LHS. Hence, RHS LHS:Þ
Since
F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism, F 1 : N ! Mis smooth, and hence,
ðF 1 ÞFðUÞ : FðUÞ ! U is smooth. Since ðF 1 ÞFðUÞ : FðUÞ ! U is smooth, and

ðFj Þ1 ¼ ðF 1 Þ
U FðUÞ
, ðFj Þ1 : FðUÞ ! U is smooth.
U

smooth manifold. Let F : M ! N be 1–1 onto. Let F : M ! N be a local diffeo-
morphism. We shall try to show that F : M ! Nis a diffeomorphism.
Since F : M ! N is a local diffeomorphism, by Note 5.40, F : M ! N is a local
homeomorphism, and hence, F : M ! N is continuous. Since F : M ! N is a local
diffeomorphism, by Note 5.38, F : M ! N is an open map. Since F : M ! N is
1–1 onto, F : M ! N is continuous, and F : M ! N is an open map, F : M ! N is
a homeomorphism.
Now, we want to show that
1. F : M ! N is smooth, and
2. F 1 : N ! M is smooth.
For 1: Let us fix any a 2 M. We have to find an admissible coordinate chart
ðU; uÞ of M satisfying a 2 U, and an admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ of
N satisfying FðaÞ 2 V such that w F u1 : uðU \ F 1 ðVÞÞ ! wðVÞ is
smooth.
Since a 2 M, and F : M ! N is a local diffeomorphism, there exists an open
neighborhood U1 of a such that FðU1 Þ is an open neighborhood of F(a) in N, and
the restriction FjU1 : U1 ! FðU1 Þ is a diffeomorphism.
Since a 2 M, and M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, there exists an
admissible coordinate chart ðU2 ; u2 Þ of M such that a 2 U2 . Since a 2 U2 , and
F : M ! N, FðaÞ 2 N. Since FðaÞ 2 N, and N is a smooth manifold, there exists an
admissible coordinate chart ðV2 ; w2 Þ of N such that FðaÞ 2 V2 . Since U1 is an open
neighborhood of a, and U2 is an open neighborhood of a, U1 \ U2 is an open
neighborhood of a. Since ðU2 ; u2 Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying
a 2 U2 , and U1 \ U2 is an open neighborhood of a, ðU1 \ U2 ; u2 jU1 \U2 Þ is an
admissible coordinate chart of M satisfying a 2 U1 \ U2 . Since FjU1 : U1 ! FðU1 Þ
is a diffeomorphism, the restriction FjU1 \U2 : U1 \ U2 ! FðU1 \ U2 Þ is a
diffeomorphism. Since F : M ! N is a homeomorphism, and U1 \ U2 is an open

neighborhood of a, FðU1 \ U2 Þ is an open neighborhood of F(a).
Since ðV2 ; w2 Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of N such that V2 is an open
neighborhood of F(a), and FðU1 \ U2 Þ is an open neighborhood of F(a), V2 \
FðU1 \ U2 Þ is an open neighborhood of F(a). Since ðV2 ; w2 Þ is an admissible
coordinate chart ðV2 ; w2 Þ of N, and V2 \ FðU1 \ U2 Þ is an open neighborhood of F
(a), ðV2 \ FðU1 \ U2 Þ; w2 jV2 \FðU1 \U2 Þ Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of N such
that FðaÞ 2 V2 \ FðU1 \ U2 Þ.
Now, it remains to be showed that ðw2 jV2 \FðU1 \U2 Þ Þ F ðu2 jU1 \U2 Þ1 is smooth.
Since FjU1 : U1 ! FðU1 Þ is a diffeomorphism, FjU1 : U1 ! FðU1 Þ is smooth. Since
FjU1 : U1 ! FðU1 Þ, ðU1 \ U2 ; u2 jU1 \U2 Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of M
satisfying a 2 U1 \ U2 , and ðV2 \ FðU1 \ U2 Þ; w2 jV2 \FðU1 \U2 Þ Þ is an admissible
coordinate chart of N such that FðaÞ 2 V2 \ FðU1 \ U2 Þ, ðw2 jV2 \FðU1 \U2 Þ Þ
FjU1 ðu2 jU1 \U2 Þ1 ð¼ ðw2 jV2 \FðU1 \U2 Þ Þ F ðu2 jU1 \U2 Þ1 Þ is smooth, and hence,
ðw2 jV2 \FðU1 \U2 Þ Þ F ðu2 jU1 \U2 Þ1 is smooth.
Thus, we have shown that F : M ! N is smooth.
For 2: Since F : M ! N is 1–1 onto, F 1 : N ! M is 1–1 onto. Now, since
F : M ! N is a local diffeomorphism, F 1 : N ! M is a local diffeomorphism.
Since F 1 : N ! M is 1–1 onto and local diffeomorphism, as in 1, F 1 : N !
M is a diffeomorphism.
Theorem 5.44 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold and N be an

n-dimensional smooth manifold. Let F : M ! N be a local diffeomorphism. Then,
F is a smooth immersion and smooth submersion.
Proof We have to prove that rank F ¼ m, and rank F ¼ n, that is, for every p 2 M,
the rank of F at p is m and m = n. For this purpose, let us take any p 2 M. Since
p 2 M, and F : M ! N is a local diffeomorphism, there exists an open neighbor-
hood U of p in M such that F(U) is open in N and the restriction FjU : U ! FðUÞ is
a diffeomorphism. Since U is a nonempty open subset of M, and M is an
m-dimensional smooth manifold, U is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, and
hence, dim Tp U ¼ dim U ¼ m. Since F(U) is open in N, and N is an n-dimensional
smooth manifold, F(U) is an n-dimensional smooth manifold, and hence
dim TFðpÞ ðFðUÞÞ ¼ dimðFðUÞÞ ¼ n. Since FjU : U ! FðUÞ is a diffeomorphism,
and p 2 U, the linear map dFp : Tp U ! TFðpÞ ðFðUÞÞ is an isomorphism. Since
dFp : Tp U ! TFðpÞ ðFðUÞÞ is an isomorphism, dFp : Tp U ! TFðpÞ ðFðUÞÞ is 1–1,
and hence, rank of F at p is dim Tp Uð¼ mÞ.
Thus, for every p 2 M, the rank of F at p is m. Since dFp : Tp U ! TFðpÞ ðFðUÞÞ
is an isomorphism, m ¼ dim Tp U ¼ dim TFðpÞ ðFðUÞÞ ¼ n. h
Theorem 5.45 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold and N be an n-
dimensional smooth manifold. Let F : M ! N be a smooth immersion and smooth
submersion map. Then, F : M ! N is a local diffeomorphism.
Proof For this purpose, let us take any p 2 M. We have to find an open neigh-
borhood U of p in M such that F(U) is open in N, and the restriction FjU : U !
FðUÞ is a diffeomorphism.
Since p 2 M, and F : M ! N is a smooth immersion, the linear map dFp :
Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is 1–1. Since p 2 M, and F : M ! Nis a smooth submersion, the
linear map dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is onto. Since the linear map dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N
is 1–1 onto, m ¼ dim M ¼ dim Tp M ¼ dimðTFðpÞ NÞ ¼ n.
Since m = n, and N is an n-dimensional smooth manifold, N is an m-dimensional
smooth manifold. Since M, N are m-dimensional smooth manifolds, F : M ! N is a
smooth map, and dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is 1–1 onto, by Theorem 5.36, there exists
an open neighborhood U of p, and an open neighborhood V of F(p) such that
FjU : U ! V is a diffeomorphism. Since FjU : U ! V is a diffeomorphism, FjU :
U ! V is 1–1 onto, and hence, FðUÞ ¼ ðFjU ÞðUÞ ¼ V. Since FðUÞ ¼ V, and V is
open, F(U) is open. Since FjU : U ! V is a diffeomorphism, and FðUÞ ¼ V, FjU :
U ! FðUÞ is a diffeomorphism. Thus, U is an open neighborhood of p, F(U) is
open in N, and FjU : U ! FðUÞ is a diffeomorphism. h
Theorem 5.46 Let M, N be m-dimensional smooth manifolds. Let F : M ! N be a
smooth immersion. Then, F : M ! N is a local diffeomorphism.
Proof We first try to show that F : M ! N is a smooth submersion. For this
purpose, let us take any p 2 M. We have to show that the linear map dFp : Tp M !
TFðpÞ N is onto.
Since p 2 M, and F : M ! N is a smooth immersion, the linear map dFp :
Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is 1–1. Since dim Tp M ¼ dim M ¼ m ¼ dim N ¼ dimðTFðpÞ NÞ,
dim Tp M ¼ dimðTFðpÞ NÞ. Since dim Tp M ¼ dimðTFðpÞ NÞ, and the linear map dFp :
Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is 1–1, dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is onto. Since F : M ! N is a smooth
immersion and smooth submersion, by Theorem 5.45, F : M ! N is a local
diffeomorphism. h
Theorem 5.47 Let M, N be m-dimensional smooth manifolds. Let F : M ! N be a
smooth submersion. Then, F : M ! N is a local diffeomorphism.
Proof We first try to show that F : M ! N is a smooth immersion. For this pur-
pose, let us take any p 2 M. We have to show that the linear map dFp : Tp M !
TFðpÞ N is 1–1.
Since p 2 M, and F : M ! N is a smooth submersion, the linear map dFp :
Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is onto. Since dim Tp M ¼ dim M ¼ m ¼ dim N ¼ dimðTFðpÞ NÞ,
dim Tp M ¼ dimðTFðpÞ NÞ. Since dim Tp M ¼ dimðTFðpÞ NÞ, and the linear map dFp :
Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is onto, dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is 1–1. Since F : M ! N is a smooth
submersion and smooth immersion, by Theorem 5.45, F : M ! N is a local dif-
feomorphism. h
Note 5.48 Before going ahead, let us recall the constant rank Theorem 4.9:
Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, N be an n-dimensional smooth
manifold, F : M ! N be a smooth map, and r be the rank of F. Then, for every p in
M, there exist admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ in M satisfying p 2 U and

admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ in N satisfying FðpÞ 2 V, such that FðUÞ V,
and for every ðx1 ; . . .; xr ; xrþ1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uðUÞ;
0 1

w F u ðx1 ; . . .; xr ; xrþ1 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ @x1 ; . . .; xr ; 0; . . .; 0 A:
1
nr
Theorem 5.49 Let M be a m-dimensional smooth manifold, N be an n-dimensional

smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be smooth submersion (i.e., F is of constant rank
n). Then, for every p in M, there exist admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ in M
satisfying p 2 U and admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ in N satisfying FðpÞ 2 V
such that FðUÞ V, and for every ðx1 ; . . .; xn ; xnþ1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uðUÞ;

w F u1 ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ ðx1 ; . . .; xn Þ:
Proof Its proof is clear. h

Theorem 5.50 Let M be a m-dimensional smooth manifold, N be an n-dimen-
sional smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be smooth immersion (i.e., F is of
constant rank m).
Then, for every p in M, there exist admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ in

M satisfying p 2 U and admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ in N satisfying FðpÞ 2 V
such that FðUÞ V, and for every ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uðUÞ,
0 1

w F u1 ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ @x1 ; . . .; xm ; 0; . . .; 0 A: h
nm
Proof Its proof is clear. h

sional smooth manifold, F : M ! N be smooth, and M be connected. Then, the
following statements are equivalent:
1. For every p 2 M, there exist an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ in M satis-
fying p 2 U and an admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ in N satisfying FðpÞ 2 V
such that w F u1 behaves linearly, i.e., there exists a positive integer r such
that for every ðx1 ; . . .; xr ; xrþ1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uðUÞ,
0 1

nr
2. F has constant rank.
Proof 1 ) 2: Let us fix any p 2 M. By the condition 1, there exist an admissible

coordinate chart ðU; uÞ in M satisfying p 2 U, an admissible coordinate chart
ðV; wÞ in N satisfying FðpÞ 2 V, and a positive integer r such that for every
ðx1 ; . . .; xr ; xrþ1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uðUÞ,
0 1

nr
For every q 2 U,
!
o o o
; ; . . .; m
ox1 q ox2 q ox q
is the coordinate basis of Tq M corresponding to ðU; uÞ, where

!
o 1 o
d u uðqÞ :
oxi q oxi uðqÞ
For every r 2 V,

o o o
; ; . . .; n
oy1 r oy2 r oy r
is the coordinate basis of Tr N corresponding to ðV; wÞ, where

!
o 1 o
d w wðrÞ :
oyi r oyi wðrÞ
We know that for every q 2 U, the matrix representation of linear map dFq is the
following n m matrix:
2
6 ox 1 ox2
oðp2 ðw F u ÞÞ
6 2
6 ox1 ox2
6... . . .
6
ox 1
3 ox
2
1
oðp1 ðw F u ÞÞ
... ðuðqÞÞ 7
oxm 7
1
7
... ð uðqÞ Þ 7:
oxm 7
... ... 7
7
... ðuðqÞÞ
oxm
It follows that for every q 2 U, the rank of the matrix representation of the linear
map dFq is r. Since for every q 2 U, the rank of F at q is equal to the rank of the
matrix representation of the linear map dFq , and the rank of the matrix represen-
tation of the linear map dFq is r, the rank of F at q is r.
Thus, we have shown that, corresponding to each p 2 M, there exist a positive
integer r and an open neighborhood Up;r of p such that for every q 2 Up;r , the rank of
F at q is r. Observe that f[p2M Up;r : r ¼ 1; 2; . . .; minfm; ngg is a finite partition of
M into open sets. Since f[p2M Up;r : r ¼ 1; 2; . . .; minfm; ngg is a finite partition
of M into open sets, and M is connected, f[p2M Up;r : r ¼ 1; 2; . . .; minfm; ngg is a
singleton set. It follows that for every q 2 M, the rank of F at q is a constant. Thus,
F has constant rank.
2 ) 1: Let F has constant rank r. By the constant rank theorem, for every p in
M, there exist an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ in M satisfying p 2 U and an
admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ in N satisfying FðpÞ 2 V such that FðUÞ V,
and for every ðx1 ; . . .; xr ; xrþ1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uðUÞ,
0 1

w F u1 ðx1 ; . . .; xr ; xrþ1 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ @x1 ; . . .; xr ; 0; . . .; 0 A: h
nr
h
Definition Let X be a topological space. If for every x 2 X, there exist an open
neighborhood Ux of x and a compact set C such that Ux C, then we say that X is a
locally compact space. Clearly, every compact space is locally compact.
Note 5.52 Let M be an n-dimensional smooth manifold. We shall try to show that
M is locally compact space. For this purpose, let us take any p 2 M. By Lemma
4.49 of Chap. 4, there exists a countable collection fðU1 ; u1 Þ; ðU2 ; u2 Þ;
ðU3 ; u3 Þ; . . .g of admissible coordinate charts of M such that
2. each ui ðUi Þ is an open ball in Rn ,
Since fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is a basis of M, fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is a cover of M, and
hence, there exists a positive integer k such that p 2 Uk . By 3, Uk is a compact
subset of M. Further, Uk Uk . Hence, M is locally compact.
Note 5.53 Let X be a Hausdorff topological space. Then, we shall try to show that
the following statements are equivalent:
1. X is locally compact.
2. For every x 2 X, there exists an open neighborhood Ux of x such that Ux is
compact.
3. There exists a basis B of X such that for every U 2 B; U is compact.
3 ) 2: Let B be a basis of X such that for every U 2 B; U is compact. We
have to prove 2. For this purpose, let us take any x 2 X. Since x 2 X, and B is a
basis of X, there exists an open neighborhood Ux of x such that Ux 2 B, and Ux is

compact.
2 ) 1: Let us take any x 2 X. We have to find an open neighborhood Ux of
x and a compact set C such that Ux C. Since x 2 X, so by 2, there exists an open
neighborhood Ux of x such that Ux is compact. Also, Ux Ux .
1 ) 3: Let B be the collection of all open sets U for which U is compact. We
shall try to show that B is a basis. For this purpose, let us take any open neigh-
borhood G of x. Since x 2 X, and X is locally compact, there exist an open
neighborhood Ux of x and a compact set C such that Ux C. Since Ux and G are
open neighborhoods of x, Ux \ G is an open neighborhood of x. Clearly,
Ux \ G C. Since C is compact, and X is Hausdorff, C is closed, and hence,
C ¼ C. Since Ux \ G C, ðUx \ GÞ C ¼ C. Since ðUx \ GÞ C, C is
compact, and ðUx \ GÞ is closed, ðUx \ GÞ is compact. Since Ux \ G is open,
and ðUx \ GÞ is compact, Ux \ G is in B. Also, Ux \ G is an open neighborhood
of x. This shows that B is a basis.
If V 2 B, then, by the definition of B; V is compact.
Note 5.54 Let X be a locally compact Hausdorff space. Let G be a nonempty open
subset of X. Then, we shall try to show that G is locally compact Hausdorff. Since
the topology of X is Hausdorff, and G has subspace topology of X, the topology of
G is Hausdorff.
Now, we want to show that G is locally compact. For this purpose, let us take
any x in G. We have to find an open neighborhood Vx of x in G, and a compact
subset C1 of G such that Vx C1 .
Since x is in X, and X is locally compact, there exist an open neighborhood Ux of
x in X and a compact subset C of X such that Ux C. Since Ux is an open
neighborhood of x in X, Ux \ G is an open neighborhood of x in G.
Now, we want to show that ðUx \ GÞ \ G is compact in G. Since C is compact,
and X is Hausdorff, C is closed in X. Since C is closed in X, and Ux \ G C,
ðUx \ GÞ C. Since ðUx \ GÞ C, C is compact, and ðUx \ GÞ is closed,
ðUx \ GÞ is compact in X. Since ðUx \ GÞ is compact in X, and G is open in X,
ðUx \ GÞ \ G is compact in G.
It remains to be showed that Ux \ G ðUx \ GÞ \ G. Since Ux \ G
ðUx \ GÞ , and Ux \ G G, Ux \ G ðUx \ GÞ \ G.
Note 5.55 Let X be a locally compact Hausdorff space. Let F be a nonempty closed
subset of X. Then, we shall try to show that F is locally compact Hausdorff space.
Since the topology of X is Hausdorff, and F has subspace topology of X, the
topology of F is Hausdorff.
Now, we want to show that F is locally compact. For this purpose, let us take
any x in F. We have to find an open neighborhood Vx of x in F, and a compact
subset C1 of F such that Vx C1 .
Since x is in X, and X is locally compact, there exist an open neighborhood Ux of
x in X and a compact subset C of X such that Ux C. Since Ux is an open
neighborhood of x in X, Ux \ F is an open neighborhood of x in F.
Now, we want to show that ðUx \ FÞ \ F is compact in F. Since Ux C,

Ux \ F C \ F C. Since C is compact, and X is Hausdorff, C is closed in
X. Since C is closed in X, and Ux \ F C, ðUx \ FÞ C. Since ðUx \ FÞ and
F are closed in X, ðUx \ FÞ \ F is closed in X. Since ðUx \ FÞ \
F ðUx \ FÞ C, C is compact, and ðUx \ FÞ \ F is closed, ðUx \ FÞ \ F is
compact in X. Since ðUx \ FÞ \ F is compact in X, and ðUx \ FÞ \ F F,
ðUx \ FÞ \ F is compact in F.
It remains to be showed that Ux \ F ðUx \ FÞ \ F. Since Ux \ F
ðUx \ FÞ , and Ux \ F F, Ux \ F ðUx \ FÞ \ F.
Note 5.56 Let X be a locally compact Hausdorff space. Let x 2 X. Let G be an open
neighborhood of x. We shall try to show that there exists an open neighborhood Vx
of x such that Vx G, and Vx is compact.
Since X is a locally compact Hausdorff space, and G is a nonempty open subset
of X, by Note 5.54, G is a locally compact Hausdorff space. Since G is a locally
compact Hausdorff space, and x 2 G, there exist an open neighborhood Vx of x in
G and a compact subset C of G such that Vx C. Since Vx is open in G, and G is
open in X, Vx is open in X. Since Vx is open in X, and x 2 Vx , Vx is an open
neighborhood of x in G. Since C is a compact subset of G, and G X, C is a
compact subset of X. Since C is a compact subset of X, and X is a Hausdorff space,
C is a closed subset of X. Since C is a closed subset of X, and Vx C,
Vx C G. Since Vx C; Vx is closed, and C is a compact subset of X, Vx is a
compact subset of X.
This result is known as the shrinking lemma.
Note 5.57 Let X be a compact space. Let fFn g be a sequence of closed subsets of
T1Let each Fn be nonempty. Let F1 F2 TF13 . We shall try to show that
X.
n¼1 Fn is nonempty. If not, otherwise, let n¼1 Fn ¼ ;. We have to arrive at a
contradiction. T T1
Here, X ¼ ;c ¼ ð 1 c
n¼1 Fn Þ ¼
c
n¼1 ððFn Þ Þ. Further, since each Fn is closed,
S
each ðFn Þ is open. Since each ðFn Þ is open, and 1
c c
n¼1 ððF c c
n Þ Þ ¼ X, fðFn Þ g is an
c
open cover of X. Since fðFn Þ g is an open cover of X, and X is compact, there exist
S
positive integers n1 \n2 \ \nk such that kr¼1 ððFnr Þc Þ ¼ X.
Since F1 F2 F3 , ðF1 Þc ðF2 Þc ðF3 Þc . Now, since n1 \n2
S
\ \nk , ðFn1 Þc ðFn2 Þc ðFnk Þc , and hence, X ¼ kr¼1 ððFnr Þc Þ ¼ ðFnk Þc .
Since ðFnk Þc ¼ X, Fnk is empty, which contradicts the assumption that each Fn is
nonempty.
Theorem 5.58 Let X be a locally compact Hausdorff space.TLet fUn g be a
sequence of subsets of X. Let each Un be open and dense. Then, 1 n¼1 Un is dense.
T1 T1
Proof If not, otherwise, let n¼1 Un be not dense, that is, ð n¼1 Un Þ is a proper
T
subset of X. We have to arrive at a contradiction. Since ð 1
n¼1 Un Þ is a proper
T1
subset of X, there exists a 2 X such that a 62 ð n¼1 Un Þ . It follows that there exists
T
an open neighborhood Va of a such that Va \ ð 1 n¼1 Un Þ ¼ ;.
Since Va is an open neighborhood of a, and U1 is open, Va \ U1 is open. Since

Va is an open neighborhood of a, and U1 is dense, Va \ U1 is nonempty. Since
Va \ U1 is a nonempty open subset of X, and X is a locally compact Hausdorff
space, there exists a nonempty open set W1 such that W1 Va \ U1 , and W1 is
compact. Here, W1 W1 Va \ U1 .
Since W1 is a nonempty open subset of X, and U2 is open and dense, W1 \ U2 is
a nonempty open subset of X. Since W1 \ U2 is a nonempty open subset of X, and
X is a locally compact Hausdorff space, there exists a nonempty open set W2 such
that W2 W1 \ U2 , and W2 is compact. Clearly, W2 W1 W1 . Also, W1 ; W2
are nonempty closed sets. Here, W2 W2 W1 \ U2 ðVa \ U1 Þ \ U2 ¼ Va \
ðU1 \ U2 Þ.
Since W2 is a nonempty open subset of X, and U3 is open and dense, W2 \ U3 is
a nonempty open subset of X. Since W2 \ U3 is a nonempty open subset of X, and
X is a locally compact Hausdorff space, there exists a nonempty open set W3 such
that W3 W2 \ U3 , and W3 is compact. Clearly, W3 W2 W2 . Also,
W1 ; W2 ; W3 are nonempty closed sets. Here, W3 W3 W2 \ U3 ðVa \
ðU1 \ U2 ÞÞ \ U3 ¼ Va \ ðU1 \ U2 \ U3 Þ, etc.
Thus, we get a decreasing sequence fWn g of nonempty closed subsets of a
T
compact set W1 . Hence, by Note 5.57, 1
n¼1 ðWn Þ is nonempty. Since W V \

T1 1 a
U1 ; W2 Va \ ðU1 \ U2 Þ; W3 Va \ ðU1 \ U2 \ U3 Þ, etc., ; n¼1 ðWn Þ
T T1
Va \ ð 1 n¼1 Un Þ ¼ ;. It follows that

n¼1 ðWn Þ is empty, a contradiction. h
Definition Let X be a topological space. Let A be any subset of X. If A contains no
nonempty open set, then we say that A is nowhere dense.
Theorem 5.59 Let X be a locally compact Hausdorff
S space. Let fAn g be a
sequence of nowhere dense subsets of X. Then, 1
n¼1 An has no interior point.
Proof For every n, An is nowhere dense, so ; ¼ ððAn Þ Þo ¼ ððððAn Þ Þc Þ Þc , and
hence,TðððAn Þ Þc Þ ¼ X.S
It follows that ððAn Þ Þc is an open dense set.SSo, by Theorem
5.58, n¼1 ððAn Þ Þ ð¼ ð 1
1 c
ðA Þ Þc Þ is dense, and hence, X ¼ ðð 1 c
n¼1 ðAn Þ Þ Þ .
S1 n¼1 n c c S1 o
It follows that ; ¼ ððð n¼1 ðAn Þ Þ Þ Þ ¼ ð n¼1 ðAn Þ Þ . h
This theorem is known as Baire category theorem.

sional smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be smooth. Let F has constant rank r. Let
F : M ! N be onto. Then, F is a smooth submersion.
Proof We have to prove that rank F ¼ n. If not, otherwise, let r rank F\n. We
have to arrive at a contradiction. Here, r rank F\n, so n − r is a positive integer.
Let us take any p 2 M.
By the constant rank theorem, there exist an admissible coordinate chart ðUp ; up Þ
in M satisfying p 2 Up and an admissible coordinate chart ðVFðpÞ ; wFðpÞ Þ in
N satisfying FðpÞ 2 VFðpÞ , such that FðUp Þ VFðpÞ , and for every ðx1 ; . . .; xr ;
xrþ1 ; . . .; xm Þ in up ðUp Þ,
0 1

B C
wFðpÞ F u1 ðx1 ; . . .; xr ; xrþ1 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ @x1 ; . . .; xr ; 0; . . .; 0A
p |fflfflffl{zfflfflffl}
ð1 Þnr

2 wFðpÞ VFðpÞ :
By Lemma 4.47, there exists an open neighborhood Wp of p such that

Wp ðWp Þ Up , and ðWp Þ is compact. We shall try to show that FððWp Þ Þ is a
nowhere dense subset of N.
Since F : M ! N is smooth, F : M ! N is continuous. Since F : M ! N is
continuous, and ðWp Þ is compact, FððWp Þ Þ is a compact subset of N. Since
FððWp Þ Þ is a compact subset of N, and the topology of N is Hausdorff, FððWp Þ Þ
is a closed subset of N. Since FððWp Þ Þ is a closed subset of N,
ðFððWp Þ ÞÞ ¼ FððWp Þ Þ. It remains to be showed that FððWp Þ Þ has no interior
point.
Let us take any q 2 ðWp Þ . Since q 2 ðWp Þ ð Up Þ, q 2 Up , and hence,
up ðqÞ 2 up ðUp Þ. Put up ðqÞ ðy1 ; . . .; yr ; yrþ1 ; . . .; ym Þ. So

wFðpÞ ðFðqÞÞ ¼ wFðpÞ F u1
p up ðqÞ
0 1

B C
¼ wFðpÞ F u1 ðy1 ; . . .; yr ; yrþ1 ; . . .; ym Þ@y1 ; . . .; yr ; 0; . . .; 0A
p |fflfflffl{zfflfflffl}
ð1 Þnr
2 |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
R R f0g f0g :
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
r ð1 Þnr
Since q 2 Up , FðqÞ 2 FðUp Þ VFðpÞ . Since FðqÞ 2 VFðpÞ , and

0 1
B C
FðqÞ 2 w1 R R f0g f0g A ;
FðpÞ @|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
r ð1 Þnr
0 1
B C
FðqÞ 2 VFðpÞ \ w1 R R f0g f0g A :
r ð1 Þnr
It follows that
0 1
B C
F Wp VFðpÞ \ w1 R R f0g f0g A :
r ð1 Þnr
Clearly,
0 1
B C
VFðpÞ \ w1 R R f0g f0g A
r ð1 Þnr
has no interior point. (Reason: Here,

0 0 11
B B CC
wFðpÞ @VFðpÞ \ w1
FðpÞ @R R f0g f0gAA
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
r ð1 Þnr
0 0 11
B B CC
¼ wFðpÞ VFðpÞ \ wFðpÞ @w1
FðpÞ @R R f0g f0g AA
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
r ð1 Þnr
0 1 0 1
B C B C
wFðpÞ VFðpÞ \ @R R f0g f0g A @R
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} R f0g f0g A;
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
r ð1 Þnr r ð1 Þnr
and
0 1
B C
R R f0g f0g A
@|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
r ð1 Þnr
have no interior point, so

0 0 11
B B CC
wFðpÞ @VFðpÞ \ w1 R R f0g f0g A A
r ð1 Þnr
has no interior point. Since ðVFðpÞ ; wFðpÞ Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of N,

wFðpÞ is a homeomorphism from VFðpÞ onto wFðpÞ ðVFðpÞ Þ. Since wFðpÞ is a homeo-
morphism from VFðpÞ onto
0 0 11
B B CC
wFðpÞ VFðpÞ ; @VFðpÞ \ w1 R R f0g f0g AA VFðpÞ ;
r ð1 Þnr
and
0 0 11
B B CC
wFðpÞ @VFðpÞ \ w1 R R f0g f0g A A
r ð1 Þnr
has no interior point,

0 1
B C
r ð1 Þnr
has no interior point in VFðpÞ . Since

0 1
B C
r ð1 Þnr
has no interior point in VFðpÞ , and VFðpÞ is open in N,

0 1
B C
r ð1 Þnr
has no interior point in N.) Since

0 1
B C
r ð1 Þnr
has no interior point in N, and

0 1
B C
F Wp VFðpÞ \ w1 R R f0g f0g A ;
r ð1 Þnr
FððWp Þ Þ has no interior point. Thus, FððWp Þ Þ is a nowhere dense subset of N.

Here, fWp : p 2 Mg is an open cover of M. Since M is a smooth manifold, the
topology of M is second countable. Since M is a second countable space, and
fWp : p 2 Mg is an open cover of M, there exist p1 ; p2 ; p3 ; . . . in M such that

fWpn : n 2 Ng is an open cover of M. Since fWpn : n 2 Ng is a cover of M, and
F : M ! N is onto, fFðWpn Þ : n 2 Ng is a cover of N. Since Wpn ðWpn Þ ,
FðWpn Þ FððWpn Þ Þ. Since, for every n 2 N; FðWpn Þ FððWpn Þ Þ, and
S
fFððWpn Þ Þ : n 2 Ng is a cover of N, N ¼ 1
n¼1 FððWpn Þ Þ. Since N is a smooth
manifold, N is a Hausdorff locally compact space. Since N is a Hausdorff locally
compact space, and for every n 2 N; FððWp Þ Þ is a nowhere dense subset of N, by
S
Baire category theorem, 1
n¼1 FððWpn Þ Þð¼ NÞ has no interior point, and hence,
N has no interior point. This is a contradiction. h
sional smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be smooth. Let F has constant rank r. Let
F : M ! N be 1–1. Then, F is a smooth immersion.
Proof We have to prove that rank F ¼ m. If not, otherwise, let r rank F\m. We
have to arrive at a contradiction. Here, r rank F\m, so m − r is a positive
integer. Let us take any p 2 M.
By the constant rank theorem, there exist an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ
in M satisfying p 2 U and an admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ in N satisfying
FðpÞ 2 V such that FðUÞ V, and for every ðx1 ; . . .; xr ; xrþ1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uðUÞ,
0 1 0 1
B C B C
w F u1 @x1 ; . . .; xr ; xrþ1 ; . . .; xm A ¼ @x1 ; . . .; xr ; 0; . . .; 0A 2 wðVÞ:
|fflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} |fflfflffl{zfflfflffl}
ð1 Þmr ð0 Þnr
Since F : M ! N is 1–1, u1 is 1–1, and w is 1–1, their composite w F u1

from uðUÞ to V is 1–1. Put
0 1
B C
uðpÞ @a1 ; . . .; ar ; arþ1 ; . . .; am A:
ð1 Þmr
Since
0 1
B C
@a1 ; . . .; ar ; arþ1 ; . . .; am A ¼ uðpÞ 2 uðUÞ;
ð1 Þmr
and uðUÞ is an open subset of Rm , there exists e [ 0 such that
ða1 e; a1 þ eÞ ðar e; ar þ eÞ ðarþ1 e; arþ1 þ eÞ

ðam e; am þ eÞ uðUÞ:
Since
0 1 0 1
B C B C
Ba1 ; . . .; ar ; arþ1 ; . . .; am e C; Ba1 ; . . .; ar ; arþ1 ; . . .; am þ e C
@ A @ A
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl2} |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl2}
ð1 Þmr ð1 Þmr
2 ða1 e; a1 þ eÞ ðar e; ar þ eÞ ðarþ1 e; arþ1 þ eÞ

ðam e; am þ eÞ uðUÞ;
0 1
0 1
B C
eC @
w F u1 B@a1 ; . . .; ar ; arþ1 ; . . .; am 2A ¼ a1 ; . . .; ar ; 0; . . .; 0A
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} nr
ð1 Þmr
0 1
B eC
¼ w F u1 B
@a1 ; . . .; ar ; arþ1 ; . . .; am þ 2 A:
C
ð1 Þmr
Since
0 1
B eC
w F u1 B
@a1 ; . . .; ar ; arþ1 ; . . .; am 2A
C
ð1 Þmr
0 1
B eC
¼ w F u1 B
@a1 ; . . .; ar ; arþ1 ; . . .; am þ 2A
C
ð1 Þmr
and w F u1 is 1 1;
0 1 0 1
B C B C
Ba1 ; . . .; ar ; arþ1 ; . . .; am e C ¼ Ba1 ; . . .; ar ; arþ1 ; . . .; am þ e C;
@ A @ A
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl2} |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl2}
ð1 Þmr ð1 Þmr
5.7 Global Rank Theorem

sional smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be smooth. Let F has constant rank. Let
F : M ! N be 1–1 and onto. Then, F is a diffeomorphism.
Proof Since F : M ! N is onto, by Theorem 5.60, F is a smooth submersion.
Since F : M ! N is 1–1, by Theorem 5.61, F is a smooth immersion. Since F :
M ! N is submersion, and immersion, by Theorem 5.45, F : M ! N is a local
diffeomorphism. Since F : M ! N is a local diffeomorphism, 1–1, and onto, by
Note 5.43, F : M ! N is a diffeomorphism. h
Note 5.63 Theorems 5.60, 5.61, and 5.62 together are known as the global rank
theorem.
Definition Let X, Y be topological spaces. Let F : X ! Y be a mapping. If F is 1–1
and continuous map, and F is a homeomorphism from X onto F(X), where F(X) has
the subspace topology of Y, then we say that F is a topological embedding.
Note 5.64 Let X, Y be topological spaces. Let F : X ! Y be a mapping. Let F be
1–1 and continuous. Let F be an open mapping, that is, for every open subset U of
X, F(U) is open in Y. We shall try to show that F : X ! Y is a topological
embedding.
Here, let us take any open subset U of X. It remains to be proved that F(U) is
open in F(X). Since U is open in X, and F is an open mapping, F(U) is open in
Y. Since F(U) is open in Y, FðUÞ \ FðXÞ is open in F(X). Since FðUÞ FðXÞ,
FðUÞ \ FðXÞ ¼ FðUÞ. Since FðUÞ \ FðXÞ ¼ FðUÞ, and FðUÞ \ FðXÞ is open in F
(X), F(U) is open in F(X).
Note 5.65 Let X, Y be topological spaces. Let F : X ! Y be a mapping. Let F be
1–1 and continuous. Let F be a closed mapping, that is, for every closed subset A of
X, F(A) is closed in Y. We shall try to show that F : X ! Y is a topological
embedding.
Here, let us take any open subset U of X. It remains to be proved that F(U) is
open in F(X). Since U is open in X, the complement U c of U is closed in X. Since
U c is closed in X, and F is a closed mapping, FðU c Þ is closed in Y. Since FðU c Þ is
closed in Y, and FðU c Þ FðXÞ, FðU c Þ \ FðXÞð¼ FðU c ÞÞ is closed in F(X), and
hence, FðU c Þ is closed in F(X). Since FðU c Þ is closed in F(X), FðXÞ FðU c Þ is
open in F(X). Since F : X ! Y is 1–1, FðXÞ FðU c Þ ¼ FðX U c Þ ¼ FðUÞ. Since
FðXÞ FðU c Þ ¼ FðUÞ, and FðXÞ FðU c Þ is open in F(X), F(U) is open in F(X).
Note 5.66 Let X be a compact space and Y be a Hausdorff space. Let F : X ! Y be
a continuous mapping and F be 1–1. We shall try to show that F : X ! Y is a
topological embedding.
First of all, we shall try to show that F : X ! Y is a closed map. For this
purpose, let us take any closed subset A of X. We have to show that F(A) is closed
in Y. Since A is closed in the compact set X, A is compact. Since A is compact, and
5.7 Global Rank Theorem 383
F : X ! Y is continuous, F(A) is compact. Since F(A) is a compact subset of Y, and

Y is Hausdorff, F(A) is a closed subset of Y.
Thus, F : X ! Y is a closed map. Since F : X ! Y is 1–1, continuous, and
closed, by the above note, F : X ! Y is a topological embedding.
This result is known as closed map lemma.
Definition Let X, Y be topological spaces. Let F : X ! Y be a mapping. If for
every compact subset C of Y, F 1 ðCÞ is compact in X, then we say that F : X ! Y
is a proper map.
Note 5.67 Let X be a Hausdorff topological space and Y be a Hausdorff locally
compact space. Let F : X ! Y be a continuous mapping. Let F be a proper map.
We shall try to show that F is a closed mapping. For this purpose, let us take any
closed subset A of X. We have to show that F(A) is closed in Y. If not, otherwise, let
F(A) be not closed. We have to arrive at a contradiction.
Since F(A) is not closed, there exists b 2 Y such that b is a limit point of F(A),
and b 62 FðAÞ. Since b 2 Y, and Y is a Hausdorff locally compact space, there exists
an open neighborhood Ub of b such that Ub is compact. Clearly, b is a limiting
point of FðAÞ \ ðUb Þ:
(Reason: Let us take any open neighborhood Vb of b. It follows that Vb \ Ub is
an open neighborhood of b. Since Vb \ Ub is an open neighborhood of b, and b is a
limit point of F(A), there exists a point c 2 Vb \ Ub , and c 2 FðAÞ. Here,
c 2 Vb \ Ub , so c 2 Ub ð ðUb ÞÞ, and hence, c 2 ðUb Þ. Since c 2 ðUb Þ, and
c 2 FðAÞ, c 2 FðAÞ \ ðUb Þ. Also, since c 2 Vb \ Ub , c 2 Vb . Since c 2 FðAÞ, and
b 62 FðAÞ, c 6¼ b. This shows that b is a limiting point of FðAÞ \ ðUb Þ.)
Since F : X ! Y is a continuous mapping, F is a proper map, and Ub is a
compact subset of Y, F 1 ðUb Þ is a compact subset of X. Since F 1 ðUb Þ is a
compact subset of X, and the topology of X is Hausdorff, F 1 ðUb Þ is a closed
subset of X. Since F 1 ðUb Þ is a closed subset of X, and A is a closed subset of X,
F 1 ðUb Þ \ A is a closed subset of X. Since F 1 ðUb Þ \ A is a closed subset of
compact set F 1 ðUb Þ, F 1 ðUb Þ \ A is compact. Since F 1 ðUb Þ \ A is a compact
subset of X, and F : X ! Y is a continuous mapping, FðF 1 ðUb Þ \ AÞ is compact.
Clearly, FðF 1 ðUb Þ \ AÞ ¼ FðAÞ \ ðUb Þ:
(Reason: LHS ¼ FðF 1 ðUb Þ \ AÞ FðF 1 ðUb ÞÞ \ FðAÞ ðUb Þ \ FðAÞ ¼
FðAÞ\ ðUb Þ ¼ RHS. Next, let us take any y 2 FðAÞ \ ðUb Þ. We have to show that
y 2 FðF 1 ðUb Þ \ AÞ. Since y 2 FðAÞ \ ðUb Þ, y 2 ðUb Þ, and there exists x 2 A
such that FðxÞ ¼ y. Since FðxÞ ¼ y 2 ðUb Þ, x 2 F 1 ðUb Þ. Since x 2 F 1 ðUb Þ,
and x 2 A, x 2 F 1 ðUb Þ \ A. Therefore, y ¼ FðxÞ 2 FðF 1 ðUb Þ \ AÞ.)
Since FðF 1 ðUb Þ \ AÞ ¼ FðAÞ \ ðUb Þ, and FðF 1 ðUb Þ \ AÞ is compact,
FðAÞ \ ðUb Þ is compact. Since FðAÞ \ ðUb Þ is a compact subset of Y, and the
topology of Y is Hausdorff, FðAÞ \ ðUb Þ is closed. Since FðAÞ \ ðUb Þ is closed,
and b is a limiting point of FðAÞ \ ðUb Þ, b 2 FðAÞ \ ðUb Þð FðAÞÞ, and hence,
b 2 FðAÞ. This is a contradiction.

smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be smooth. If F is a smooth immersion, and
F : M ! N is a topological embedding, then we say that F is a smooth embedding
of M into N.
smooth manifold, P be a p-dimensional smooth manifold, F : M ! N be a smooth
embedding, and G : N ! P be a smooth embedding. We shall try to show that the
composite map G F : M ! P is a smooth embedding, that is,
1. G F : M ! P is a smooth immersion, and
2. G F : M ! P is a topological embedding.
For 1: We have to show that G F : M ! P is a smooth immersion. For this

purpose, let us take any a 2 M: We have to show that the linear map dðG FÞa :
Ta M ! TðGFÞðaÞ P is 1–1.
Since F : M ! N is a smooth embedding, F : M ! N is a smooth immersion.
Since F : M ! N is a smooth immersion, and a 2 M; the linear map dFa : Ta M !
TFðaÞ N is 1–1. Since G : N ! P is a smooth embedding, G : N ! P is a smooth
immersion. Since G : N ! P is a smooth immersion, and FðaÞ 2 N; the linear map
dGFðaÞ : TFðaÞ N ! TGðFðaÞÞ P is 1–1. Since dGFðaÞ : TFðaÞ N ! TGðFðaÞÞ P is 1–1, and
dFa : Ta M ! TFðaÞ N is 1–1, their composite ðdGFðaÞ Þ ðdFa Þð¼ dðG FÞa Þ is 1–1,
and hence, dðG FÞa is 1–1.
For 2: Here, we have to prove that G F : M ! P is a topological embedding,
that is,
(a) G F : M ! P is 1–1.
(b) G F : M ! P is continuous.
(c) G F is a homeomorphism from M onto ðG FÞðMÞ; where the topology of
ðG FÞðMÞ is the subspace topology of P.
For a: Since F : M ! N is a smooth embedding, F : M ! N is a topological

embedding, and hence, F : M ! N is 1–1. Similarly, G : N ! P is 1–1. Since
F : M ! N is 1–1, and G : N ! P is 1–1, their composite G F : M ! P is 1–1.
For b: Since F : M ! N is a smooth embedding, F : M ! N is a topological
embedding, and hence, F : M ! N is continuous. Similarly, G : N ! P is
continuous. Since F : M ! N is continuous, and G : N ! P is continuous, their
composite G F : M ! P is continuous.
For c: Since F : M ! N is a smooth embedding, F : M ! N is a topological
embedding, and hence, F is a homeomorphism from M onto F(M), where F
(M) has the subspace topology of N. Since G : N ! P is a smooth embedding,
G : N ! P is a topological embedding, and hence, G is a homeomorphism from
N onto G(N), where G(N) has the subspace topology of P. Since G is a
homeomorphism from N onto G(N), the restriction G|F(M) is a homeomorphism
from F(M) onto G(F(M)), where the topology of F(M) is the subspace topology
of N, and the topology of GðFðMÞÞ is the subspace topology of G(N). Since the
topology of GðFðMÞÞ is the subspace topology of GðNÞ; and the topology of G
(N) is the subspace topology of P, the topology of GðFðMÞÞ as the subspace
topology of G(N) and the topology of G(F(M)) as the subspace topology of
P are the same. It follows that G|F(M) is a homeomorphism from F(M) onto G(F
(M)), where the topology of F(M) is the subspace topology of N, and the
topology of G(F(M)) is the subspace topology of P. Since F is a homeomor-
phism from M onto F(M), where F(M) has the subspace topology of N, and
GjFðMÞ is a homeomorphism from F(M) onto G(F(M)), where the topology of F
(M) is the subspace topology of N, and the topology of G(F(M)) is the subspace
topology of P, the composite ðGjFðMÞ Þ F is a homeomorphism from M onto
GðFðMÞÞð¼ ðG FÞðMÞÞ; where the topology of ðG FÞðMÞ is the subspace
topology of P. Further, since ðGjFðMÞ Þ F ¼ G F; G F is a homeomorphism
from M onto (G F)(M), where the topology of (G F)(M) is the subspace
topology of P.

smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be a 1–1 smooth immersion. Let F be an open
map. We shall try to show that F : M ! N is a smooth embedding, that is, F is a
smooth immersion, and F : M ! N is a topological embedding. Since F : M ! N is
a smooth immersion, it suffices to show that F : M ! N is a topological embedding.
Since F : M ! N is a smooth map, so F : M ! N is continuous. Since F is 1–1,
continuous, and open, by Note 5.64, F : M ! N is a topological embedding.
smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be a 1–1 smooth immersion. Let F be a closed
map. We shall try to show that F : M ! N is a smooth embedding, that is, F is a
smooth immersion, and F : M ! N is a topological embedding. Since F : M ! N is
a smooth immersion, it suffices to show that F : M ! N is a topological embedding.
Since F : M ! N is a smooth map, F : M ! N is continuous. Since F is 1–1,
continuous, and closed, by Note 5.65, F : M ! N is a topological embedding.
smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be a 1–1 smooth immersion. Let F be a proper
map. We shall try to show that F : M ! N is a smooth embedding.
Since M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, M is a Hausdorff locally compact
space. Similarly, N is a Hausdorff locally compact space. Since F : M ! N is a
smooth map, F : M ! N is continuous. Further, since F is a proper map, by Note
5.67, F is a closed mapping.
Since F : M ! N is a 1–1 smooth immersion, and F is a closed map, by Note
5.70, F : M ! N is a smooth embedding.

smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be a 1–1 smooth immersion. Let M be compact.
We shall try to show that F : M ! N is a smooth embedding. We first try to show
that F : M ! N is proper map.
For this purpose, let us take any compact subset C of N. We have to show that
F 1 ðCÞ is compact in M. Since C is compact in N, and the topology of N is
Hausdorff, C is closed. Since F : M ! N is smooth, F : M ! N is continuous.
Since F : M ! N is continuous, and C is a closed subset of N, F 1 ðCÞ is closed in
M. Since F 1 ðCÞ is closed in M, and M is compact, F 1 ðCÞ is compact in M.
This shows that F : M ! N is proper map. Since F : M ! N is a 1–1 smooth
immersion, and F : M ! N is proper map, by Note 5.71, F : M ! N is a smooth
embedding.
smooth manifold, F : M ! N be a 1–1 smooth immersion, and m ¼ n: We shall try
to show that F : M ! N is a smooth embedding.
By Theorem 5.46, F : M ! N is a local diffeomorphism, and hence, by Note
5.40, F is an open map. Since F : M ! N is a 1–1 smooth immersion, and F is an
open map, by Note 5.69, F : M ! N is a smooth embedding.
sional smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be smooth. Suppose that for every p 2 M,
there exists an open neighborhood U of p such that the restriction FjU : U ! N is a
smooth embedding. Then, F : M ! N is a smooth immersion.
Proof We have to show that F : M ! N is a smooth immersion, that is, rank F ¼
m; that is, for every p 2 M; the rank of F at p is m.
For this purpose, let us take any p 2 M: By the given condition, there exists an
open neighborhood U of p such that the restriction FjU : U ! N is a smooth
embedding. Since FjU : U ! N is a smooth embedding, FjU : U ! N is a smooth
immersion. Since FjU : U ! N is a smooth immersion, and p 2 U, the linear map
dðFjU Þp : Tp U ! TðFjU ÞðpÞ N is 1–1, that is, dðFjU Þp : Tp U ! TFðpÞ N is 1–1. Since
U is an open neighborhood of p in M, by Note 5.16, Tp U and Tp M are essentially
the same. Since Tp U and Tp M are essentially the same, and dðFjU Þp : Tp U !
TFðpÞ N is 1–1, dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ N is 1–1. Since dFp : Tp M !FðpÞ N is 1–1,
ðrank of F at pÞ ¼ dimððdFp ÞðTp MÞÞ ¼ dimðTp MÞ ¼ dim M ¼ m: h
sional smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be a smooth immersion. Let p 2 M: Then,
there exists an open neighborhood U of p such that the restriction FjU : U ! N is a
smooth embedding.
Proof By Theorem 5.50, there exist an admissible coordinate chart ðU1 ; uÞ in

M satisfying p 2 U1 ; an admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ in N satisfying FðpÞ 2
V such that FðU1 Þ V; and for every ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uðU1 Þ;
0 1

wFu 1
ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ @x1 ; . . .; xm ; 0; . . .; 0 A:
nm
Here, ðU1 ; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart ðU1 ; uÞ in M satisfying p 2 U1 ; so

U1 is an open neighborhood of p in M. Since for every ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uðU1 Þ;
0 1

wFu 1
ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ @x1 ; . . .; xm ; 0; . . .; 0 A;
nm
and FðU1 Þ V; ðw F u1 Þ : uðU1 Þ ! wðVÞ and is 1–1. Since

ðw F u1 Þ; u; w1 are 1–1, their composite w1 ðw F u1 Þ uð¼ FjU1 Þ is
a 1–1 mapping from U1 to Vð NÞ: It follows that FjU1 : U1 ! N is 1–1. Since U1
is an open neighborhood of p in M, and M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold,
there exists an open neighborhood U of p such that U U U1 ; and U− is
compact. Here, U is a nonempty open subset of M and M is an m-dimensional
smooth manifold, U is also an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Now, since F :
M ! N is a smooth mapping, FjU : U ! N is a smooth map.
Now, it remains to be proved that FjU : U ! N is a smooth embedding, that is,
1. FjU : U ! N is a smooth immersion and
2. FjU : U ! N is a topological embedding.
For 1: Clearly, FjU : U ! N is a smooth immersion, that is, for every q 2 U; the
rank of F|U at q is m.
(Reason: For this purpose, let us take any q 2 U: Since F : M ! N is a smooth
immersion, and q 2 M, the linear map dFq : Tq M ! TFðqÞ N is 1–1. Since U is an
open neighborhood of q in M, Tq U and Tq M are essentially the same. Since Tq U
and Tq M are essentially the same, and dFq : Tq M ! TFðqÞ N is 1–1, dðFjU Þq :
Tq U ! TFðqÞ N is 1–1. Since the linear map dðFjU Þq : Tq U ! TFðqÞ N is 1–1,
ðrank of FjU at qÞ ¼ dimððdðFjU Þq ÞðTq UÞÞ ¼ dimðTq UÞ ¼ dimðTq MÞ ¼ dim M ¼
m: Hence, rank of FjU at q is m.)
For 2: First of all, we shall try to show that FjU : U ! N is a topological
embedding. Since FjU1 : U1 ! N is 1–1, and U U1 , FjU : U ! N is 1–1.
Since F : M ! N is smooth, F : M ! N is continuous, and hence, the
restriction FjU : U ! N is continuous. Further, since U is compact, and N is
a Hausdorff space, by closed map Lemma 5.66, FjU : U ! N is a topological
embedding. Since FjU : U ! N is a topological embedding, and U U ; the

restriction ðFjU ÞU : U ! N is a topological embedding. Since ðFjU ÞU : U !

N is a topological embedding, and ðFjU ÞU ¼ FjU ; FjU : U ! N is a topological
embedding. h

sional smooth manifold, and p : M ! N be a smooth submersion. Let p 2 M: Then,
there exist an open neighborhood V of pðpÞ in N and a smooth map r : V ! M
such that p r ¼ IdV ; and rðpðpÞÞ ¼ p:
Proof Since p : M ! N is a smooth submersion, and p 2 M, by Theorem 5.49,
there exist admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ in M satisfying p 2 U; admissible
coordinate chart ðV; wÞ in N satisfying pðpÞ 2 V such that pðUÞ V; and for every
ðx1 ; . . .; xn ; xnþ1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uðUÞ;

w p u1 ðx1 ; . . .; xn ; xnþ1 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ ðx1 ; . . .; xn Þ:
Here, p 2 U; and ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart in M, so uðpÞ is an

element of the open subset uðUÞ of Rm : Put uðpÞ ða1 ; . . .; an ; anþ1 ; . . .; am Þ:
Here, ða1 ; . . .; an ; anþ1 ; . . .; am Þ is an element of the open subset uðUÞ of Rm ; so
there exists e [ 0 such that
ða1 e; a1 þ eÞ ðan e; an þ eÞ ðanþ1 e; anþ1 þ eÞ

ðam e; am þ eÞ uðUÞ:
For every ðx1 ; . . .; xn ; xnþ1 ; . . .; xm Þ 2 ða1 e; a1 þ eÞ ðan e; an þ eÞ

ðanþ1 e; anþ1 þ eÞ ðam e; am þ eÞ; we have ðw p u1 Þðx1 ; . . .; xn ;
xnþ1 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ ðx1 ; . . .; xn Þ 2 wðVÞ: It follows that

w p u1 ðða1 e; a1 þ eÞ ðan e; an þ eÞ
ðanþ1 e; anþ1 þ eÞ ðam e; am þ eÞÞÞÞ

¼ w p u1 ðða1 e; a1 þ eÞ ðan e; an þ eÞ
ðanþ1 e; anþ1 þ eÞ ðam e; am þ eÞÞ
¼ ða1 e; a1 þ eÞ ðan e; an þ eÞ 3 ða1 ; . . .; an Þ:
Hence,

ða1 ; . . .; an Þ ¼ w p u1 ða1 ; . . .; an ; anþ1 ; . . .; am Þ

¼ w p u1 ðuðpÞÞ ¼ wðpðpÞÞ
is an interior point of

ðanþ1 e; anþ1 þ eÞ ðam e; am þ eÞÞÞÞ:
Since wðpðpÞÞ is an interior point of

ðanþ1 e; anþ1 þ eÞ ðam e; am þ eÞÞÞÞ;

is an open neighborhood of wðpðpÞÞ: Since

is an open neighborhood of wðpðpÞÞ; and w is a homeomorphism from V onto

wðVÞ,

p u1 ðða1 e; a1 þ eÞ ðan e; an þ eÞ
ðanþ1 e; anþ1 þ eÞ ðam e; am þ eÞÞÞ
is an open neighborhood of pðpÞ. Put

V p u1 ðða1 e; a1 þ eÞ ðan e; an þ eÞ
ðanþ1 e; anþ1 þ eÞ ðam e; am þ eÞÞÞ:
Here, V is an open neighborhood of pðpÞ: Let us define r : V ! M as follows:

For every q in V ;
rðqÞ u1 ðp1 ðwðqÞÞ; . . .; pn ðwðqÞÞ; anþ1 ; . . .; am Þ:
Since w; u1 ; and all projection maps pi are smooth, r is smooth. Here, we want to
prove that p r ¼ IdV ; that is;for every q 2 V ; pðrðqÞÞ ¼ q.

LHS ¼ pðrðqÞÞ ¼ p u1 ðp1 ðwðqÞÞ; . . .; pn ðwðqÞÞ; anþ1 ; . . .; am Þ

¼ p u1 ðp1 ðwðqÞÞ; . . .; pn ðwðqÞÞ; anþ1 ; . . .; am Þ

¼ w1 w p u1 ðp1 ðwðqÞÞ; . . .; pn ðwðqÞÞ; anþ1 ; . . .; am Þ
¼ w1 ðp1 ðwðqÞÞ; . . .; pn ðwðqÞÞÞ ¼ w1 ðwðqÞÞ ¼ q ¼ RHS:
It remains to be proved that rðpðpÞÞ ¼ p:
LHS ¼ rðpðpÞÞ

¼ u1 p1 w p u1 ðuðpÞÞ ; . . .; pn w p u1 ðuðpÞÞ ; anþ1 ; . . .; am

¼ u1 p1 w p u1 ða1 ; . . .; an ; anþ1 ; . . .; am Þ ; . . .; pn w p u1
ða1 ; . . .; an ; anþ1 ; . . .; am ÞÞ; anþ1 ; . . .; am Þ
¼ u1 ðp1 ða1 ; . . .; an Þ; . . .; pn ða1 ; . . .; an Þ; anþ1 ; . . .; am Þ
¼ u1 ða1 ; . . .; an ; anþ1 ; . . .; am Þ ¼ u1 ðuðpÞÞ ¼ p ¼ RHS: h

sional smooth manifold, and p : M ! N be a smooth map. If for every p 2 M; there
exist an open neighborhood V of pðpÞ in N and a smooth map r : V ! M such that
p r ¼ IdV ; and rðpðpÞÞ ¼ p; then p : M ! N is a smooth submersion.
Proof We have to prove that p : M ! N is a smooth submersion, that is, for every
p 2 M; the linear map dpp : Tp M ! TpðpÞ N is onto. For this purpose, let us take any
p 2 M: By the given condition, there exist an open neighborhood V of pðpÞ in N a
smooth map r : V ! M such that p r ¼ IdV ; and rðpðpÞÞ ¼ p: Since V is an
open neighborhood of pðpÞ in N, TpðpÞ V and TpðpÞ N are essentially the same. Now,
since p; r are smooth maps,
IdTpðpÞ N ¼ IdTpðpÞ V ¼ dðIdV ÞpðpÞ ¼ dðp rÞpðpÞ

¼ dprðpðpÞÞ drpðpÞ ¼ dpp drpðpÞ :
Since

dpp drpðpÞ ¼ IdTpðpÞ N ; so dpp : Tp M ! TpðpÞ N
is onto. h
Note 5.78 If we combine the Theorems 5.76, and 5.77, then we get the result: Let
M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, N be an n-dimensional smooth manifold,
and p : M ! N be a smooth map.
p : M ! N is a smooth submersion if and only if for every p 2 M, there exist an
open neighborhood V of π(p) in N and a smooth map r : V ! M such that p r ¼
IdV and rðpðpÞÞ ¼ p.
sional smooth manifold, and p : M ! N be a smooth submersion. Then, p : M !
N is an open map.
Proof Let G be a nonempty open subset of M. We have to show that π(G) is open
in N.
For this purpose, let us take any pðpÞ 2 pðGÞ; where p 2 G: Since p 2 M; and
p : M ! N is a smooth submersion, by Theorem 5.76, there exist an open
neighborhood V of π(p) in N and a smooth map r : V ! M such that p r ¼ IdV ;

and rðpðpÞÞ ¼ p: Since r : V ! M is smooth, r : V ! M is continuous. Since
r : V ! M is continuous, and G is an open neighborhood of pð¼ rðpðpÞÞÞ in M,
r1 ðGÞ is an open neighborhood of pðpÞ in V. Since r1 ðGÞ is an open neigh-
borhood of π(p) in V, and V is open, r1 ðGÞ is an open neighborhood of π(p) in N.
Now, it suffices to show that r1 ðGÞ pðGÞ: For this purpose, let us take any
q 2 r1 ðGÞ: Since q 2 r1 ðGÞ V; q ∊ V. Since q ∊ V, q ¼ IdV ðqÞ ¼
ðp rÞðqÞ ¼ pðrðqÞÞ: Since q 2 r1 ðGÞ; rðqÞ 2 G: Since rðqÞ 2 G; pðrðqÞÞ 2
pðGÞ: Since pðrðqÞÞ 2 pðGÞ; and pðrðqÞÞ ¼ q; q 2 pðGÞ: Thus, we have shown
that r1 ðGÞ pðGÞ: h
Definition Let X be a topological space and Y be a nonempty set. Let F : X ! Y be
any onto map. Let O be the collection of all subsets G of Y such that F 1 ðGÞ is
open in X. We shall try to show that O is a topology over Y.
1. Since F 1 ð;Þ ¼ ;; and ; is open in X, ; 2 O: Since F 1 ðYÞ ¼ X; and X is open

in X, Y 2 O:
2. Let G1 ; G2 2 O: We have to show that G1 \ G2 2 O; that is, F 1 ðG1 \ G2 Þ is
open in X. Since G1 2 O; F 1 ðG1 Þ is open in X. Similarly, F 1 ðG2 Þ is open in
X. It follows that F 1 ðG1 Þ \ F 1 ðG2 Þð¼ F 1 ðG1 \ G2 ÞÞ is open in X, and
hence, F 1 ðG1 \ G2 Þ is open in X.
3. Let Gi 2 O for every i 2 I: We have to show that [i2I Gi 2 O; that is,
F 1 ð[i2I Gi Þ is open in X. Since, for every i 2 I; Gi 2 O; F 1 ðGi Þ is open in
X. It follows that [i2I ðF 1 ðGi ÞÞð¼ F 1 ð[i2I Gi ÞÞ is open in X, and hence,
F 1 ð[i2I Gi Þ is open in X.
Thus, we have shown that O is a topology over Y. The topology O is called the
quotient topology on Y determined by F.
Definition Let X; Y be topological spaces. Let F : X ! Y be any continuous, onto
mapping. If the quotient topology on Y determined by F is the topology of Y, then
we say that F is a quotient map.
sional smooth manifold, and p : M ! N be a smooth submersion. Let p : M ! N
be onto. Then, p : M ! N is a quotient map.
Proof For this purpose, let G be any nonempty subset of N such that p1 ðGÞ is
open in M. It suffices to show that G is open in N.
Since p : M ! N is a smooth submersion, by Theorem 5.79, p : M ! N is an
open map. Since p : M ! N is an onto map, and G is a subset of N, pðp1 ðGÞÞ ¼
G: Since p : M ! N is an open map, and π-1(G) is open in M, pðp1 ðGÞÞð¼ GÞ is
open in N, and hence, G is open in N. h

sional smooth manifold, and P be a p-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p : M !
N be a smooth submersion. Let p : M ! N be onto. Let F : N ! P be any map
such that F p : M ! P is smooth. Then, F : N ! P is smooth.
Proof We have to prove that F : N ! P is smooth, that is, for every q in N, there
exists an open neighborhood Vq of q in N such that FjVq : Vq ! P is smooth.
For this purpose, let us take any q in N. Since q is in N, and π : M ! N is onto,
there exists p 2 M such that pðpÞ ¼ q: Since p : M ! N is a smooth submersion,
and p 2 M; by Theorem 5.76, there exist an open neighborhood Vq of pðpÞ in N and
a smooth map r : Vq ! M such that p r ¼ IdVq ; and rðpðpÞÞ ¼ p: Since r :
Vq ! M is smooth, and F p : M ! P is smooth, their composite ðF pÞ r :
Vq ! P is smooth. Here, ðF pÞ r ¼ F ðp rÞ ¼ F IdVq ¼ FjVq : Since FjVq ¼
ðF pÞ r; and ðF pÞ r is smooth, FjVq is smooth. h
5.8 Properly Embedded
Definition Let X; Y be any nonempty sets. Let F : X ! Y be any mapping. Let

b 2 Y: The set F 1 ðbÞ is called the fiber of F over b. Clearly, X is partitioned into
fibers of F.
sional smooth manifold, and P be a p-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p : M !
N be a smooth submersion. Let π : M ! N be onto. Let F : M ! P be any smooth
map. Let F be constant on fibers of π, that is, if pðxÞ ¼ pðyÞ, then FðxÞ ¼ FðyÞ:
^ : N ! P such that F
Then, there exists a unique smooth map F ^ p ¼ F:
Proof Existence: We first try to show that F p1 is a function. For this purpose,
let ðx; yÞ 2 F p1 ; and ðx; zÞ 2 F p1 : We have to show that y ¼ z:
Since ðx; yÞ 2 F p1 ; there exists u such that ðx; uÞ 2 p1 ; and ðu; yÞ 2 F:
Since ðx; uÞ 2 p1 ; ðu; xÞ 2 p: Since ðx; zÞ 2 F p1 ; there exists v such that
ðx; vÞ 2 p1 ; and ðv; zÞ 2 F: Since ðx; vÞ 2 p1 ; ðv; xÞ 2 p: Since ðv; xÞ 2 p; pðvÞ ¼
x: Similarly, pðuÞ ¼ x: It follows that pðuÞ ¼ pðvÞ: Since pðuÞ ¼ pðvÞ; and F is
constant on fibers of π, FðuÞ ¼ FðvÞ: Since ðv; zÞ 2 F; FðvÞ ¼ z: Since ðu; yÞ 2 F;
FðuÞ ¼ y: Since FðuÞ ¼ y; FðvÞ ¼ z; and FðuÞ ¼ FðvÞ; y ¼ z: This proves that
F p1 is a function.
Since π : M ! N is onto, and F : M ! P; dom ðF p1 Þ ¼ N; and
ran ðF p1 Þ P: Since F p1 is a function, dom ðF p1 Þ ¼ N; and
ran ðF p1 Þ P; we can write F p1 : N ! P:
Put F^ F p1 : Since F^ ¼ F p1 ; and F p1 : N ! P; F ^ : N ! P: Now,
^ 1 1 1
F p ¼ ðF p Þ p ¼ F ðp pÞ: Clearly, F ðp pÞ ¼ F:
5.8 Properly Embedded 393
(Reason: Let ðx; yÞ 2 LHS ¼ F ðp1 pÞ: So there exist u, v such that
ðx; uÞ 2 p; ðu; vÞ 2 p1 ; and ðv; yÞ 2 F: Since ðu; vÞ 2 p1 ; ðv; uÞ 2 p: It follows
that pðvÞ ¼ u; pðxÞ ¼ u; and hence, pðxÞ ¼ pðvÞ: Since pðxÞ ¼ pðvÞ; and F is
constant on fibers of π, FðxÞ ¼ FðvÞ: Since ðv; yÞ 2 F; FðvÞ ¼ y: Since FðvÞ ¼ y;
and FðxÞ ¼ FðvÞ; FðxÞ ¼ y; and hence, ðx; yÞ 2 F ¼ RHS: Hence, LHS RHS:
Next, let ðx; yÞ 2 RHS ¼ F: Since ðx; yÞ 2 F; and F : M ! P; x 2 M; and y 2 P:
Since x 2 M; and p : M ! N; there exists u 2 N such that ðx; uÞ 2 p: Since ðx; uÞ 2
p; ðu; xÞ 2 p1 : Since ðx; uÞ 2 p; ðu; xÞ 2 p1 ; and ðx; yÞ 2 F; ðx; yÞ 2
F ðp1 pÞ ¼ LHS: Hence, RHS LHS: Since LHS RHS; and RHS
LHS; LHS ¼ RHS:) Thus, F ^ p ¼ F:
1
Since F p : N ! P; and F ^ ¼ F p1 ; F
^ : N ! P: It remains to be showed
^ ^
that F is smooth. Since F p ¼ F; and F is a smooth map, F ^ p is smooth. Since
^ : N ! P is a map, and F
F ^ p is smooth, by Theorem 5.81, F ^ is smooth.
This completes the proof of existence part.
Uniqueness: Let F1 : N ! P be a smooth mapping such that F1 p ¼ F; and let
F2 : N ! P be a smooth mapping such that F2 p ¼ F: We have to show that
F1 ¼ F2 :
Since p : M ! N is onto, p p1 ¼ IdN : Since F1 p ¼ F; F p1 ¼
ðF1 pÞ p1 ¼ F1 ðp p1 Þ ¼ F1 IdN ¼ F1 : Thus, F1 ¼ F p1 : Similarly,
F2 ¼ F p1 : It follows that F1 ¼ F2 : This proves the uniqueness part. h
sional smooth manifold, and P be a p-dimensional smooth manifold. Let p1 : M !
N be a smooth submersion onto map. Let p2 : M ! P be a smooth submersion onto
map. Let p1 be constant on fibers of p2 ; and p2 be constant on fibers of p1 : Then,
there exists a unique diffeomorphism F : N ! P such that F p1 ¼ p2 :
Proof Existence: We first try to show that p2 p1 1 is a function. For this purpose,
let ðx; yÞ 2 p2 p11 ; and ðx; zÞ 2 p2 p 1
1 : We have to show that y ¼ z:
Since ðx; yÞ 2 p2 p1 1 ; there exists z such that ðx; zÞ 2 p1
1 ; and ðz; yÞ 2 p2 :
1 1
Since ðx; zÞ 2 p1 ; ðz; xÞ 2 p1 : Since ðx; zÞ 2 p2 p1 ; there exists w such that
ðx; wÞ 2 p1 1
1 ; and ðw; zÞ 2 p2 : Since ðx; wÞ 2 p1 ; ðw; xÞ 2 p1 : Since ðw; zÞ 2 p2 ;
p2 ðwÞ ¼ z: Similarly, p2 ðzÞ ¼ y; p1 ðwÞ ¼ x; and p1 ðzÞ ¼ x: Since p1 ðwÞ ¼ x ¼
p1 ðzÞ; and p2 is constant on fibers of p1 ; p2 ðwÞ ¼ p2 ðzÞ: Since z ¼ p2 ðwÞ ¼
p2 ðzÞ ¼ y; y ¼ z: This proves that p2 p1 1 is a function.
Since p1 : M ! N is onto, and p2 : M ! P is onto, dom ðp2 p1 1 Þ ¼ N; and
1 1 1
ran ðp2 p1 Þ P: Since p2 p1 is a function, dom ðp2 p1 Þ ¼ N; and
ran ðp2 p1 1
1 Þ P; we can write p2 p1 : N ! P:
Put F p2 p1 : Since F ¼ p2 p1
1 1
1 ; and p2 p1 : N ! P; F : N ! P:
Now, F p1 ¼ ðp2 p1 1 1
1 Þ p1 ¼ p2 ðp1 p1 Þ: Clearly, p2 ðp1 p1 Þ ¼ p2 :
1
(Reason: Let ðx; yÞ 2 LHS ¼ p2 ðp1 p1 Þ: So there exist u; v such that
ðx; uÞ 2 p1 ; ðu; vÞ 2 p1 1
1 ; and ðv; yÞ 2 p2 : Since ðu; vÞ 2 p1 ; ðv; uÞ 2 p1 : It follows
that p1 ðvÞ ¼ u; and p1 ðxÞ ¼ u; and hence, p1 ðvÞ ¼ p1 ðxÞ: Since p1 ðvÞ ¼ p1 ðxÞ; and
p2 is constant on fibers of p1 ; p2 ðvÞ ¼ p2 ðxÞ: Since ðv; yÞ 2 p2 ; p2 ðvÞ ¼ y: Since
p2 ðvÞ ¼ y; and p2 ðvÞ ¼ p2 ðxÞ; p2 ðxÞ ¼ y; and hence, ðx; yÞ 2 p2 ¼ RHS: Hence,
LHS RHS: Next, let ðx; yÞ 2 RHS ¼ p2 : Since ðx; yÞ 2 p2 and p2 : M ! P;
x 2 M; and y 2 P: Since x 2 M; and p1 : M ! N; there exists u 2 N such that
ðx; uÞ 2 p1 : Since ðx; uÞ 2 p1 ; ðu; xÞ 2 p1 1
1 : Since ðx; uÞ 2 p1 ; ðu; xÞ 2 p1 ; and
ðx; yÞ 2 p2 ; ðx; yÞ 2 p2 ðp11 p1 Þ ¼ LHS: Hence, RHS LHS: Since LHS
RHS; and RHS LHS; LHS ¼ RHS:) Thus, F p1 ¼ p2 :
Since p2 p1 1
1 : N ! P; and F ¼ p2 p1 ; F : N ! P: Now, we want to show
that F is 1–1, that is, p2 p1 is 1–1, that is, if ðx; zÞ 2 p2 p1
1
1 ; and
ðy; zÞ 2 p2 p1
1 , then x ¼ y: For this purpose, let ðx; zÞ 2 p2 p 1
1 ; and ðy; zÞ 2
1
p2 p1 : We have to show that x ¼ y:
Since ðx; zÞ 2 p2 p1 1
1 ; there exists u such that ðx; uÞ 2 p1 ; and ðu; zÞ 2 p2 :
1 1
Since ðx; uÞ 2 p1 ; ðu; xÞ 2 p1 : Since ðy; zÞ 2 p2 p1 ; there exists v such that
ðy; vÞ 2 p1 1
1 ; and ðv; zÞ 2 p2 : Since ðy; vÞ 2 p1 ; ðv; yÞ 2 p1 : Since ðv; yÞ 2 p1 ;
p1 ðvÞ ¼ y: Similarly, p1 ðuÞ ¼ x; p2 ðuÞ ¼ z; and p2 ðvÞ ¼ z: Since p2 ðuÞ ¼ z ¼
p2 ðvÞ; and p1 is constant on fibers of p2 ; p1 ðuÞ ¼ p1 ðvÞ: Since x ¼ p1 ðuÞ ¼
p1 ðvÞ ¼ y; x ¼ y: Thus, we have shown that F : N ! P is 1–1.
Now, we want to show that F : N ! P is onto. For this purpose, let us take any
c 2 P: We have to find y 2 N such that ðy; cÞ 2 Fð¼ p2 p1 1 Þ:
Since p2 : M ! P is onto, and c 2 P; there exists z 2 M such that ðz; cÞ 2 p2 :
Since z 2 M; and p1 : M ! N; there exists y 2 N such that ðz; yÞ 2 p1 ; and hence,
ðy; zÞ 2 p1 1 1
1 : Since ðy; zÞ 2 p1 ; and ðz; cÞ 2 p2 ; ðy; cÞ 2 p2 p1 : Thus, we have
shown that F : N ! P is onto.
Now, we want to show that F : N ! P is smooth. Since F p1 ¼ p2 ; and p2 is
smooth, F p1 is smooth. Since p1 : M ! N is a smooth submersion onto map,
and F p1 is smooth, by Theorem 25, F is smooth.
Lastly, we have to show that F 1 : P ! N is smooth. Since F p1 ¼ p2 ; and
F is 1–1 onto, F 1 p2 ¼ p1 : Since F 1 p2 ¼ p1 ; and p1 is smooth, F 1 p2 is
smooth. Since p2 : M ! P is a smooth submersion onto map, and F 1 p2
is smooth, by Theorem 5.81, F 1 is smooth. Thus, we have shown that F : N ! P
is a diffeomorphism such that F p1 ¼ p2 :
This completes the proof of existence part.
Uniqueness: Let F1 : N ! P be a smooth mapping such that F1 p1 ¼ p2 ; and
let F2 : N ! P be a smooth mapping such that F2 p1 ¼ p2 : We have to show that
F1 ¼ F2 :
Since p1 : M ! N is onto, p1 p1 1 ¼ IdN : Since F1 p1 ¼ p2 ; p2 p1 ¼
1
1 1 1
ðF1 p1 Þ p1 ¼ F1 ðp1 p1 Þ ¼ F1 IdN ¼ F1 : Thus, F1 ¼ p2 p1 : Simi-
larly, F2 ¼ p2 p1 1 : It follows that F1 ¼ F2 : This proves the uniqueness part. h
Note 5.84 Before going ahead, let us recall the definition of open submanifold of M:
Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, whose topology is O; and differential
structure is A: Let G be a nonempty open subset of M. Let O1 be the subspace
topology over G inherited from M, that is, O1 ¼ fG1 : G1 G; and G1 2 Og:
M is a Hausdorff space, and G is a subspace of M, G with the subspace topology is a
Hausdorff space. Since M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, M is a second
countable space. Since M is a second countable space, and G is a subspace of M,
G with the subspace topology is a second countable space. Put
AG fðU; uÞ : ðU; uÞ 2 A; and U Gg:
Now, we shall try to show that AG is an atlas on G, that is,

1. [fU : ðU; uU Þ is in AG g ¼ G;
2. all pairs of members in AG are C 1 compatible.
For (1): By the definition of AG ; it is clear that [fU : ðU; uÞ is in AG g G:
So, it remains to be proved that G [fU : ðU; uÞ is in AG g: For this purpose,
let us take any p in G. Since p is in G, and G is a subset of M, p is in M. Since
p is in M, and M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, there exists ðU; uÞ in A
such that p is in U.
Since ðU; uÞ is in A; U is an open subset of M. Since U is open, and G is open,
U \ G is open. Thus, U \ G is an open neighborhood of p: We shall try to show that
ðU \ G; ujðU\GÞ Þ is in AG ; that is, ðU \ G; ujðU\GÞ Þ 2 A; and U \ G G: Since
U \ G G; it remains to be showed that ðU \ G; ujðU\GÞ Þ 2 A:
Since ðU; uÞ is in A; ðU; uU Þ is an admissible coordinate chart of M. Now,
since U \ G is a nonempty open subset of U, by the Lemma 1, ðU \ G; ujðU\GÞ Þ is
an admissible coordinate chart of M, and hence, ðU \ G; ujðU\GÞ Þ 2 A:
For (2): Let us take any ðU; uÞ; ðV; wÞ 2 AG : We have to show that ðU; uÞ
andðV; wÞ are C1 compatible.
Since ðU; uÞ 2 AG , by the definition of AG ; ðU; uÞ 2 A: Similarly, ðV; wÞ 2 A:
Since ðU; uÞ 2 A; ðV; wÞ 2 A; and A is a differential structure, ðU; uÞ and ðV; wÞ
are C 1 compatible. Thus, we have shown that AG is an atlas on G. Hence, AG
determines a unique smooth structure on G. Thus, the open subset G of smooth
manifold M becomes an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Here, G is called an open
submanifold of M:
Note 5.85 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold with smooth structure A:
Let G be a nonempty open subset of M. In the open submanifold G of M; the
smooth structure of G is determined by the atlas fðU; uÞ : ðU; uÞ 2 A; and U Gg
of G. Thus, G becomes an m-dimensional smooth manifold.
We shall try to show that the inclusion map i : G ! M (that is, for every x in G,
iðxÞ x) is a smooth embedding.
Since i : G ! M is the identity mapping IdG ; and IdG is smooth, i : G ! M is
smooth.
Now, we want to show that i : G ! M is a smooth immersion, that is, for every
p 2 G; the linear map dip : Tp G ! TiðpÞ M is 1–1. For this purpose, let us fix any
p 2 G: We have to show that the linear map dip : Tp G ! TiðpÞ M is 1–1. Clearly,
Tp G ¼ Tp M; and TiðpÞ M ¼ Tp M: So we have to show that the linear map dip :
Tp M ! Tp M is 1–1. Here, i ¼ IdG ; so we have to show that the linear map
dðIdG Þp : Tp M ! Tp M is 1–1.
Since dðIdG Þp ¼ IdTp G ¼ IdTp M ; and IdTp M : Tp M ! Tp M is 1–1, dðIdG Þp :
Tp M ! Tp M is 1–1. Thus, we have shown that i : G ! M is a smooth immersion.
Also, clearly i : G ! M is 1–1.
Since G is open in M, i : G ! M is an open map. Since i : G ! M is a 1–1
immersion, and open, by Note 5.69, i : G ! M is a smooth embedding.
Conclusion: Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let G be a nonempty
subset of M.
If G is open in M, then there exists an m-dimensional smooth structure on G such
that the inclusion map i : G ! M is a smooth embedding. Now, we want to prove
its converse part:
Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let G be a nonempty subset of
M. Let G be endowed with the subspace topology of M.
Suppose there exists an m-dimensional smooth structure A on G such that the
inclusion map i : G ! M is a smooth embedding. We shall try to show that G is
open in M.
Since i : G ! M is a smooth embedding, i : G ! M is a smooth immersion.
Since G; M are m-dimensional smooth manifolds, and i : G ! M is a smooth
immersion, by Theorem 5.46, i : G ! M is a local diffeomorphism. Since i : G !
M is a local diffeomorphism, by Note 5.38, i : G ! M is an open map. Since
i : G ! M is an open map, Gð¼ iðGÞÞ is an open subset of M.
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let S be a nonempty
subset of M. Let S be endowed with the subspace topology of M. Let k be a
nonnegative integer.
If there exists an (m − k)-dimensional smooth structure A on S; such that the
inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth embedding, then we say that S is an embedded
submanifold of M with codimension k. Here, we also say that M is an ambient
manifold for S.
From the Note 5.85, we can write:
Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let S be a nonempty subset of
M. Let S be endowed with the subspace topology of M. S is open in M if and only if
S is an embedded submanifold of M with codimension 0. In this sense, we say that
the open submanifolds of M are exactly the embedded submanifolds of M with
codimension 0.
Note 5.86 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold with smooth structure A,

N be an n-dimensional smooth manifold with smooth structure B, and F : N ! M
be a smooth embedding. Let FðNÞð MÞ be endowed with the subspace topology
of M.
Since F : N ! M is a smooth embedding, F : N ! M is a topological embed-
ding, and hence, F : N ! FðNÞ is a homeomorphism. Since F : N ! FðNÞ is a
homeomorphism, N is homeomorphic to F(N). Since N is an n-dimensional smooth
manifold, N is an n-dimensional topological manifold. Since N is an n-dimensional
topological manifold, and N is homeomorphic to F(N), F(N) is an n-dimensional
topological manifold.
Let us take any ðU; uÞ 2 B: We shall try to show that ðFðUÞ; u ðF 1 ÞÞ is a
coordinate chart of F(N). Clearly, F(U) is open in F(N). (Reason: Since ðU; uÞ 2 B;
and B is a smooth structure on N, U is open in N. Since F : N ! FðNÞ is a
homeomorphism, and U is open in N, F(U) is open in F(N).) Here, ðU; uÞ 2 B; and
B is a smooth structure on N, uðUÞ is open in Rn :
Since u : U ! uðUÞ; U N; and F : N ! M is 1–1, u ðF 1 Þ is a function
whose domain is FðUÞ: Since u : U ! uðUÞ is onto, U N; and F : N ! M is
1–1, the range of u ðF 1 Þ is uðUÞ: Since u : U ! uðUÞ is 1–1, U N; and
F : N ! M is 1–1, u ðF 1 Þ : FðUÞ ! uðUÞ is 1–1.
Thus, we see that u ðF 1 Þ is a 1–1 mapping from open subset FðUÞ of FðNÞ
onto open subset uðUÞ of Rn : Now, we shall try to show that u ðF 1 Þ : FðUÞ !
uðUÞ is continuous.
Since F : N ! M is a topological embedding, F is a homeomorphism from
N onto F(N), and hence, F 1 : FðNÞ ! N is continuous and 1–1. Since F 1 :
1
FðNÞ ! N is continuous and 1–1, its restriction ðF Þ FðUÞ : FðUÞ ! U is contin-

uous. Since F : N ! M is 1–1, ðF 1 ÞFðUÞ ¼ ðFjU Þ1 : Since ðF 1 ÞFðUÞ ¼ ðFjU Þ1 ;

and ðF 1 ÞFðUÞ : FðUÞ ! U is continuous, ðFjU Þ1 : FðUÞ ! U is continuous.
Since ðFjU Þ1 : FðUÞ ! U is continuous, and u : U ! uðUÞ is continuous, their
composite u ððFjU Þ1 Þ : FðUÞ ! uðUÞ is continuous. Further, since u
ððFjU Þ1 Þ ¼ u ðF 1 Þ; u ðF 1 Þ : FðUÞ ! uðUÞ is continuous.
Now, we shall try to show that F ðu1 Þ : uðUÞ ! FðUÞ is continuous. Since
ðU; uÞ 2 B; and B is a smooth structure on N; u1 : uðUÞ ! U is continuous and
1–1. Since F : N ! M is a smooth embedding, F : N ! M is continuous. Since
F : N ! M is continuous, and u1 : uðUÞ ! U is continuous and 1–1, F ðu1 Þ :
uðUÞ ! FðUÞ is continuous. Also, ðu ðF 1 ÞÞ1 ¼ F ðu1 Þ: It follows that
ðu ðF 1 ÞÞ1 : uðUÞ ! FðUÞ is continuous.
Thus, we have shown that ðFðUÞ; u ðF 1 ÞÞ is a coordinate chart of F(N).
Conclusion: Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold with smooth structure
A, N be an n-dimensional smooth manifold with smooth structure B, and F : N !
M be a smooth embedding. Let FðNÞð MÞ be endowed with the subspace topology
of M. If ðU; uÞ 2 B; then ðFðUÞ; u ðF 1 ÞÞ is a coordinate chart of FðNÞ:

of M.
M is a Hausdorff space, and F(N) is a subspace of M, F(N) with the subspace
topology is a Hausdorff space. Since M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, M is
a second countable space. Since M is a second countable space, and F(N) is a
subspace of M, F(N) with the subspace topology is a second countable space. Put

AF FðUÞ; u F 1 : ðU; uÞ 2 B :
From the Note 5.86, we see that AF is a collection of coordinate charts of F(N).
Now, we shall try to show that AF is an n-dimensional atlas on F(N), that is,
1. [fFðUÞ : ðU; uÞ 2 Bg ¼ FðNÞ;
2. all pairs of members in AF are C1 compatible.
For 1: Let us take any ðU; uÞ 2 B: Since ðU; uÞ 2 B; and B is a smooth

structure of N; U N: Since U N; and F : N ! M; FðUÞ FðNÞ: Hence,
[fFðUÞ : ðU; uÞ 2 Bg FðNÞ:
Now, it remains to be showed that FðNÞ [fFðUÞ : ðU; uÞ 2 Bg: For this
purpose, let us take any FðpÞ 2 FðNÞ; where p 2 N: Since p 2 N; and N is an n-
dimensional smooth manifold with smooth structure B, there exists ðV; wÞ 2 B such
that p 2 V: Since p 2 V; FðpÞ 2 FðVÞ [fFðUÞ : ðU; uÞ 2 Bg: Hence,
FðNÞ [fFðUÞ : ðU; uÞ 2 Bg:
For 2: Let ðFðUÞ; u ðF 1 ÞÞ 2 AF ; and ðFðVÞ; w ðF 1 ÞÞ 2 AF ; where
ðU; uÞ 2 B; and ðV; wÞ 2 B: Let FðUÞ \ FðVÞ 6¼ ;: We have to show that
ðw ðF 1 ÞÞ ðu ðF 1 ÞÞ1 is smooth. Here,
1
w F 1 u F 1 ¼ w F 1 F u1

¼ w F 1 F u1
¼ w IdN u1 ¼ w u1 :
Since F : N ! M is 1–1, FðU \ VÞ ¼ FðUÞ \ FðVÞ 6¼ ;; and hence, U \ V 6¼

;: Since U \ V 6¼ ;; ðU; uÞ 2 B; ðV; wÞ 2 B; and B is a smooth structure on N;
w u1 ð¼ ðw ðF 1 ÞÞ ðu ðF 1 ÞÞ1 Þ is smooth, and hence, ðw ðF 1 ÞÞ
ðu ðF 1 ÞÞ1 is smooth.
Thus, we have shown that AF is an n-dimensional atlas on FðNÞ; and hence, F
(N) is an n-dimensional smooth manifold, whose differential structure is determined
by the atlas AF :

of M:
From the Note 5.87, FðNÞ is an n-dimensional smooth manifold, whose dif-
ferential structure is determined by the atlas AF fðFðUÞ; u ðF 1 ÞÞ :
ðU; uÞ 2 Bg:
Now, we want to show that F : N ! FðNÞ is a diffeomorphism, that is,
1. F : N ! FðNÞ is a homeomorphism,
2. F : N ! FðNÞ is smooth, and F 1 : FðNÞ ! N is smooth.
For 1: Since F : N ! M is a smooth embedding, F : N ! M is a

homeomorphism.
For 2: Let us take any p 2 N: Let ðU; uÞ 2 B; where p 2 U: Let
ðFðVÞ; w ðF 1 ÞÞ 2 AF ; where ðV; wÞ 2 B; and FðpÞ 2 FðVÞ: We have to
show that ðw ðF 1 ÞÞ F u1 and u F 1 ðw ðF 1 ÞÞ1 are smooth.
Here, ðw ðF 1 ÞÞ F u1 ¼ w ððF 1 Þ FÞ u1 ¼ w IdN u1 ¼ w u1 ; and
u F 1 ðw ðF 1 ÞÞ1 ¼ u F 1 ðF w1 Þ ¼ u ðF 1 FÞ w1 ¼ u IdN
w1 ¼ u w1 : Since FðpÞ 2 FðVÞ; there exists q 2 V such that FðpÞ ¼ FðqÞ:
Since FðpÞ ¼ FðqÞ; and F is 1–1, p ¼ qð2 VÞ; and hence, p 2 U [ V: Since p 2
U [ V; U [ V 6¼ ;: Since U [ V 6¼ ;; ðU; uÞ 2 B; ðV; wÞ 2 B; and B is a smooth
structure on N, w u1 ð¼ ðw ðF 1 ÞÞ F u1 Þ; and u w1 ð¼ u F 1
ðw ðF 1 ÞÞ1 Þ are smooth, and hence ðw ðF 1 ÞÞ F u1 ; and u F 1 ðw
ðF 1 ÞÞ1 are smooth.
Thus, we have shown that F : N ! FðNÞ is a diffeomorphism.
of M.
From Note 5.87, F(N) is an n-dimensional smooth manifold, whose differential
structure is determined by the atlas AF fðFðUÞ; u ðF 1 ÞÞ : ðU; uÞ 2 Bg: Also,
by Note 5.88, F : N ! FðNÞ is a diffeomorphism.
Now, we want to show that the n-dimensional smooth manifold FðNÞ; with atlas
AF ð¼ fðFðUÞ; u ðF 1 ÞÞ : ðU; uÞ 2 BgÞ; is an embedded submanifold of M, that
is, the inclusion map i : FðNÞ ! M is a smooth embedding.
Clearly, i ¼ F F 1 : From the Note 5.88, F : N ! FðNÞ is a diffeomorphism,
so F 1 : FðNÞ ! N is a diffeomorphism. Since F 1 is a diffeomorphism, and
F : N ! M is a smooth embedding, their composition F F 1 ð¼ iÞ is a smooth
embedding, and hence, ι is a smooth embedding.
Thus, we have shown that F(N) is an embedded submanifold of M with codi-
mension m − n.
Note 5.90 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold with smooth structure A;

and N be an n-dimensional smooth manifold with smooth structure B: Here, the
collection
fðU V; ðuU wV ÞÞ : ðU; uU Þ 2 A; ðV; wV Þ 2 Bg
is an atlas of the ðm þ nÞ-dimensional product manifold M N: Let us fix any

p 2 N:
Now, consider the mapping F : M ! M N defined as follows: For every x 2
M; FðxÞ ðx; pÞ: We shall try to show that F : M ! M N is a smooth embed-
ding. For this purpose, it suffices to show that
1. F is 1–1,
2. F is a closed map, and
3. F is a smooth immersion.
For 1: It is clear that F is 1–1.

For 2: Let A be a closed subset of M. We have to show that F(A) is closed in
M × N. Here, FðAÞ ¼ A fpg ¼ ðM NÞ ððAc NÞ [ ðM fpgc ÞÞ: Since
A is a closed subset of M, Ac is open in M, and hence, Ac × N is open in
M × N. Since N is an n-dimensional smooth manifold, the topology of N is
Hausdorff. Since the topology of N is Hausdorff, and p 2 N; fpg is a closed
subset of N, and hence, fpgc is open in N. It follows that M fpgc is open in
M N: Since M fpgc is open in M N; and Ac N is open in M N;
ðAc NÞ [ ðM fpgc Þ is open in M × N, and hence, ðM NÞ
ððAc NÞ [ ðM fpgc ÞÞð¼ FðAÞÞ is closed in M × N. Thus, F(A) is closed in
M × N.
For 3: We have to show that F : M ! M N is an immersion, that is, for every
q 2 M; the linear map dFq : Tq M ! TFðqÞ ðM NÞ is 1–1.
For this purpose, let us fix any q 2 M: We have to show that the linear map
dFq : Tq M ! TFðqÞ ðM NÞ is 1–1. Since q 2 M; and M is an m-dimensional
smooth manifold, there exists an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ of M such that
q 2 U: Since p 2 N; and N is an n-dimensional smooth manifold, there exists an
admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ of N such that p 2 V:
For every r 2 U;

o o o
; ; . . .; m
ox1 ox2
r r ox
r
is the coordinate basis of Tr M corresponding to ðU; uÞ; where

!
o 1 o
d u uðrÞ :
oxi r oxi uðrÞ
Here, ðU V; ðu wÞÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of M N such that

FðqÞ ¼ ðq; pÞ 2 U V: For every ðs; tÞ 2 U V;
!
o o o o o
; ; . . .; m ; mþ1 ; . . .; mþn
oy1 ðs;tÞ oy2 ðs;tÞ oy ðs;tÞ oy ðs;tÞ oy ðs;tÞ
is the coordinate basis of Tðs;tÞ ðM NÞ corresponding to ðU V; ðu wÞÞ; where

!
o o
d ðu wÞ1 :
oyi ðs;tÞ ðuwÞðs;tÞ oyi ðuwÞðs;tÞ
Observe that for every u 2 U;

ðu wÞ F u1 ðuðuÞÞ ¼ ððu wÞ F ÞðuÞ
¼ ðu wÞðFðuÞÞ ¼ ðu wÞðu; pÞ
¼ ðuðuÞ; wðpÞÞ:
Hence, the matrix representation of linear map dFq is the following ðm þ nÞ m

matrix:
2 3
1 0 0 0
60 1 0 07
6 .. 7
6 7
6 . 7
6 7
60 0 0 17
6 7:
60 0 0 07
6 7
60 0 0 07
6 .. 7
4 . 5
0 0 0 0
Clearly,
2 3
1 0 0 0
60 1 0 07
6 .. 7
6 7
6 . 7
6 7
60 0 0 17
rank 6 7 ¼ m;
60 0 0 07
6 7
60 0 0 07
6 .. 7
4 . 5
0 0 0 0
Hence, dFq : Tq M ! TFðqÞ ðM NÞ is 1–1. Thus, F is a smooth immersion.

Since F : M ! M N is a smooth embedding, by Note 5.89, FðNÞð¼ M fpgÞ

is an embedded submanifold of M × N with codimension ðm þ nÞ n ð¼ mÞ; and F
(N) is diffeomorphic to M. Thus, we have shown that M fpg is an embedded
submanifold of M × N with codimension m, and M fpg is diffeomorphic to M. In
words, we say that a “slice” of a product manifold M × N is an embedded sub-
manifold of M × N, and each slice is diffeomorphic to M.
collection
fðU V; ðu wÞÞ : ðU; uÞ 2 A; ðV; wÞ 2 Bg
is an atlas of the ðm þ nÞ-dimensional product manifold M N:
Let G be an open subset of M, and f : G ! N be a smooth map. Put Cðf Þ

fðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 Gg (called the graph of f). Now, consider the mapping F : G !
M N defined as follows: For every x 2 G; FðxÞ ðx; f ðxÞÞ: Clearly, FðGÞ ¼
Cðf Þ: We shall try to show that F : G ! M N is a smooth embedding. For this
purpose, it suffices to show that
1. F is 1–1,
2. F 1 : Cðf Þ ! G is continuous,
3. F : G ! M N is a smooth map, and
4. F is a smooth immersion.
For 1: It is clear that F is 1–1.

For 2: Clearly, F 1 ¼ p1 Cðf Þ ; where p1 : M N ! M is defined by p1 ðx; yÞ
x; for every
ðx; yÞ 2 M N: Since p1 : M N ! M is continuous, its restric-
1
tion p Cðf Þ ð¼ F 1 Þ is continuous, and hence, F 1 : Cðf Þ ! G is continuous.
For 3: Let us take any p 2 G: Since p 2 G; and G is an open submanifold of
manifold M, there exists ðU; uÞ 2 A satisfying p 2 U G: Here, p 2 G; and
f : G ! N; so f ðpÞ 2 N: Since f ðpÞ 2 N; and N is an n-dimensional smooth
manifold with smooth structure B; there exists ðV; wÞ 2 B satisfying f ðpÞ 2 V:
Thus, ðU V; ðu wÞÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of ðm þ nÞ-dimen-
sional product manifold M N satisfying FðpÞ ¼ ðp; f ðpÞÞ 2 U V: We have
to show that ðu wÞ F u1 is smooth. Let us observe that, for every q 2 U;
ððu wÞ F u1 ÞðuðqÞÞ ¼ ðu wÞðFðqÞÞ ¼ ðu wÞðq; f ðqÞÞ ¼ ðuðqÞ; wðf ðqÞÞÞ ¼
ðuðqÞ; ðw f ÞðqÞÞ ¼ ðuðqÞ; ðw f u1 ÞðuðqÞÞÞ: Thus, for every q 2 U;
ððu wÞ F u1 ÞðuðqÞÞ ¼ ðuðqÞ; ðw f u1 ÞðuðqÞÞÞ: Now, since f :
G ! N is a smooth map, w f u1 is smooth, and hence, ðu wÞ F u1
is smooth.
For 4: We have to show that F : G ! M N is an immersion, that is, for every
q 2 G; the linear map dFq : Tq M ! TFðqÞ ðM NÞ is 1–1.
For this purpose, let us fix any q 2 G: We have to show that the linear map
dFq : Tq M ! TFðqÞ ðM NÞ is 1–1. Since q 2 Gð MÞ; and M is an m-dimensional
smooth manifold, there exists an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ of M such that
q 2 U: Since q 2 U; f ðqÞ 2 N: Since f ðqÞ 2 N; and N is an n-dimensional smooth
manifold, there exists an admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ of N such that f ðqÞ 2
V: For every r 2 U;

o o o
; ; . . .; m
ox1 ox2 r ox
r r

!
o 1 o
d u uðrÞ :
oxi r oxi uðrÞ
Here, ðU V; ðu wÞÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of M N such that

FðqÞ ¼ ðq; f ðqÞÞ 2 U V: For every ðs; tÞ 2 U V;
!
o o o o o
; ; . . .; m ; mþ1 ; . . .; mþn
oy1 ðs;tÞ oy2 ðs;tÞ oy ðs;tÞ oy ðs;tÞ oy ðs;tÞ
is the coordinate basis of Tðs;tÞ ðM NÞ corresponding to ðU V; ðu wÞÞ; where

!
o o
1
d ðu wÞ :
oyi ðs;tÞ ðuwÞðs;tÞ oyi ðuwÞðs;tÞ
Observe that for every u 2 U;

ðu wÞ F u1 ðuðuÞÞ ¼ ððu wÞ F ÞðuÞ ¼ ðu wÞðFðuÞÞ
¼ ðu wÞðu; FðuÞÞ ¼ ðuðuÞ; wðFðuÞÞÞ

¼ uðuÞ; w F u1 ðuðuÞÞ :
Hence, the matrix representation of linear map dFq is the following ðm þ nÞ m

matrix:
2 3
1 0 0
60 7
6 1 0 7
6. .. .. 7
6. 7
6. . . 7
6 7
60 0 7
6 1 7
6 oðp ðw F u1 ÞÞ oðp1 ðw F u1 ÞÞ oðp1 ðw F u1 ÞÞ 7
6 1
ðuðqÞÞ ðuðqÞÞ ... ðuðqÞÞ 7
6 7:
6 ox1 ox2 oxm 7
6 7
6 oðp2 ðw F u1 ÞÞ 1
6 ðuðqÞÞ ðuðqÞÞ ðuðqÞÞ 7
6 ox1 ox2 oxm 7
6 7
6. .. .. 7
6 .. . . 7
6 7
4 oðp ðw F u1 ÞÞ oðpn ðw F u1 ÞÞ 1
n
ðuðqÞÞ ðuðqÞÞ ðuðqÞÞ
ox1 ox2 oxm
Clearly,
2 3
1 0 0
60 7
6 1 0 7
6. .. .. 7
6. 7
6. . . 7
6 7
60 0 7
6 1 7
6 oðp ðw F u1 ÞÞ oðp1 ðw F u1 ÞÞ 1
oð p 1 ð w F u Þ Þ 7
6 1
ðuðqÞÞ ðuðqÞÞ ð uðqÞ Þ 7
rank6
6 ox1 ox2 oxm
7 ¼ m;
7
6 1 1 1 7
6 oð p 2 ð w F u Þ Þ oð p 2 ð w F u Þ Þ oð p 2 ð w F u Þ Þ 7
6 ðuðqÞÞ ðuðqÞÞ ðuðqÞÞ 7
6 ox1 ox2 oxm 7
6 7
6. .. .. 7
6 .. . . 7
6 7
4 oðp ðw F u1 ÞÞ oðpn ðw F u1 ÞÞ 1
oð p n ð w F u Þ Þ 5
n
ðuðqÞÞ ðuðqÞÞ ð uðqÞ Þ
ox1 ox2 oxm
Hence, dFq : Tq M ! TFðqÞ ðM NÞ is 1–1. Thus, F is a smooth immersion.

Thus, we have shown that F : G ! M N is a smooth embedding. Since F :
G ! M N is a smooth embedding, by Note 5.90, FðGÞð¼ Cðf ÞÞ is an embedded
submanifold of M N with codimension ðm þ nÞ mð¼ nÞ; and F(N) is diffeo-
morphic to M.
Thus, we have shown that Cðf Þ is an embedded submanifold of M × N with
codimension n, and Cðf Þ is diffeomorphic to G.
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let S be a nonempty
subset of M. Let S be endowed with the subspace topology of M. Let k be a
nonnegative integer. Let S be an embedded submanifold of M with codimension
k. If the inclusion map i : S ! M is a proper map, then we say that S is properly
embedded.
Note 5.92 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let S be a nonempty subset
of M. Let S be properly embedded. We shall try to show that S is a closed subset of M.
Since M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, M is a Hausdorff locally compact
space. Since S is a nonempty subset of M, and the topology of M is Hausdorff, the
subspace topology of S is Hausdorff. Since S is properly embedded, i : S ! M is a proper
map. Since S is a Hausdorff topological space, M is a Hausdorff locally compact space,
i : S ! M is a continuous mapping, and ι is a proper map, by Note 5.67, i : S ! M is a
closed mapping, and hence, iðSÞð¼ SÞ is closed in M. Thus, S is closed in M.
Note 5.93 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let S be a nonempty
closed subset of M. Let S be an embedded submanifold of M. We shall try to show
that S is properly embedded, that is, the inclusion map i : S ! M is a proper map,
that is, for every compact subset C of M, i1 ðCÞð¼ C \ SÞ is compact in S.
For this purpose, let us take any compact subset C of M. We have to show that
C \ S is compact in S. Let fGi gi2I be any open cover of C \ S: Here each Gi is open
in S; there exists an open subset Hi of M such that Gi ¼ Hi \ S: Since for each i 2 I;
Gi ¼ Hi \ S; and S is a closed subset of M, fHi gi2I [ fSc g is an open cover of C in M.
Since fHi gi2I [ fSc g is an open cover of C in M, and C is a compact subset of M,

there exist i1 ; . . .; ik 2 I such that C Hi1 [ [ Hik [ Sc ; and hence, C \ S
ðHi1 [ [ Hik [ Sc Þ \ S ¼ ðHi1 \ SÞ [ [ ðHik \ SÞ [ðSc \ SÞ ¼ ðHi1 \ SÞ [
[ðHik \ SÞ ¼ Gi1 [ [ Gik : This shows that C \ S is compact in S.
Thus, we have shown that S is properly embedded.
compact subset of M. Let S be an embedded submanifold of M. We shall try to
show that S is properly embedded.
Since M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, the topology of M is Hausdorff.

Since the topology of M is Hausdorff, and S is a nonempty compact subset of M,
S is closed in M. Since S is closed in M, by the Note 5.92, S is properly embedded.
collection
fðU V; ðu wÞÞ : ðU; uÞ 2 A; ðV; wÞ 2 Bg
is an atlas of the ðm þ nÞ-dimensional product manifold M N:

Let f : M ! N be a smooth map. Here, the graph of f is given by Cðf Þ
fðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 Mg: By Note 5.91, Cðf Þ is an embedded submanifold of M N
with codimension n; and Cðf Þ is diffeomorphic to M. Now, we want to show that
Cðf Þ is a closed subset of M N; that is ðCðf ÞÞc is open in M N:
For this purpose, let us take any point ðx; yÞ 2 ðCðf ÞÞc : Since ðx; yÞ 2 ðCðf ÞÞc ;
ðx; yÞ 62 Cðf Þ ¼ fðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 Mg: It follows that y 6¼ f ðxÞ: Here, y; f ðxÞ are
distinct points of N, and in the topology of N, there exist an open neighborhood V1
of y, and an open neighborhood V of f(x) such that V1 and V are disjoint. Since
f : M ! N is a smooth map, f : M ! N is a continuous map. Since f : M ! N is a
continuous map, and V is an open neighborhood of f(x), there exists an open
neighborhood U of x such that f ðUÞ V: Here, U is an open neighborhood of x,
and V1 is an open neighborhood of y, U × V1 is an open neighborhood of (x, y) in
M × N. Clearly, U × V1 is disjoint with Cðf Þ: (Reason: If not, otherwise, let
ða; bÞ 2 U V1 ; and ða; bÞ 2 Cðf Þ: Since ða; bÞ 2 Cðf Þ; f ðaÞ ¼ b: Since ða; bÞ 2
U V1 ; a 2 U; and b 2 V1 : Since f ðaÞ ¼ b 2 V1 ; f ðaÞ 2 V1 : Since a 2 U; f ðaÞ 2
f ðUÞ V; and hence, f ðaÞ 2 V: Since f ðaÞ 2 V1 ; and f ðaÞ 2 V; V1 and V are not
disjoint, a contradiction.) Since U × V1 is disjoint with Cðf Þ; the open neighborhood
U × V1 of (x, y) contained in ðCðf ÞÞc : Thus, (x, y) is an interior point of ðCðf ÞÞc :
Hence, ðCðf ÞÞc is open in M × N.
Thus, Cðf Þ is a closed subset of M × N. Since Cðf Þ is an embedded submanifold
of M × N, and Cðf Þ is a closed subset of M × N, by Note 5.93, Cðf Þ is properly
embedded.
Conclusion: Let M; N be smooth manifolds. Let f : M ! N be a smooth map.
Then, Cðf Þ is properly embedded in M N:
5.9 Regular Level Sets
Definition Let M be a five-dimensional smooth manifold, andlet ðU;uÞ

be an
5
admissible coordinate chart of M. Any set among the following 10 ¼ types:
2
u1 ðfðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x3 ¼ const; x4 ¼ const; x5 ¼ constgÞ;

u1 ðfðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x2 ¼ const; x4 ¼ const; x5 ¼ constgÞ;
u1 ðfðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x2 ¼ const; x3 ¼ const; x5 ¼ constgÞ; etc.
is called a two-slice of U. Observe that
u1 ðfðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x3 ¼ const; x4 ¼ const; x5 ¼ constgÞ

6¼ u1 ðfðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x2 ¼ const; x4 ¼ const; x5 ¼ constgÞ:
(Reason: Since uðUÞ is a nonempty open subset of R5 ; fðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 2 u

ðUÞ : x3 ¼ const; x4 ¼ const; x5 ¼ constg 6¼ fðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x2 ¼
const; x4 ¼ const; x5 ¼ constg: Now, since φ is 1–1, u1 ðfðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 2
uðUÞ : x3 ¼ const; x4 ¼ const; x5 ¼ constgÞ 6¼ u1 ðfðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 2 uðUÞ :
x2 ¼ const; x4 ¼ const; x5 ¼ constgÞ:)
Also, if ðc3 ; c4 ; c5 Þ 6¼ ðd3 ; d4 ; d5 Þ; then fðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x3 ¼ c3 ; x4 ¼
c4 ; x5 ¼ c5 g 6¼ fðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x3 ¼ d3 ; x4 ¼ d4 ; x5 ¼ d5 g: Now, since
u is 1–1, u1 ðfðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x3 ¼ c3 ; x4 ¼ c4 ; x5 ¼ c5 gÞ 6¼ u1 ðfðx1 ;
x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x3 ¼ d3 ; x4 ¼ d4 ; x5 ¼ d5 gÞ; etc.
Definition Let M be a five-dimensional smooth manifold, and let S be a nonempty
subset of M. If for every p in S, there exists an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ of
M such that p 2 U; and U \ Sð UÞ is equal to a two-slice of U, then we say that
S satisfies local two-slice condition (see Fig. 5.2).
Fig. 5.2 Admissible coordinate chart

5.9 Regular Level Sets 407
Note 5.96 Let M be a five-dimensional smooth manifold. Let S be a nonempty

subset of M. Suppose that S satisfies local two-slice condition. Let S has the sub-
space topology inherited from M. We shall try to show that S is a two-dimensional
topological manifold.
Since M is a smooth manifold, its topology is Hausdorff. Since the topology of
M is Hausdorff, and S has the subspace topology inherited from M, the topology of
S is Hausdorff. Since M is a smooth manifold, its topology is second countable.
Since the topology of M is second countable, and S has the subspace topology
inherited from M, the topology of S is second countable.
Next, let us take any p ∊ S. Since S satisfies local two-slice condition, there exists
an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ of M satisfying p 2 U; and U \ S is a two-
slice of U. Since ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of M, U is open in M, and
hence, U \ S is open in S. Since ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of five-
dimensional smooth manifold M; uðUÞ is an open subset of R5 : Since U \ S is a
two-slice of U, for definiteness, let U \ S ¼ u1 ðfðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x3 ¼
a3 ; x4 ¼ a4 ; x5 ¼ a5 gÞ; where a3 ; a4 ; a5 are constants. It follows that uðU \ SÞ ¼
fðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x3 ¼ a3 ; x4 ¼ a4 ; x5 ¼ a5 g:
Let us define p : R5 ! R2 fa3 g fa4 g fa5 g as follows: For every
ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 2 R5 ; pðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ ðx1 ; x2 ; a3 ; a4 ; a5 Þ: Clearly, p is an open
mapping. Since uðUÞ is an open subset of R5 ; and p : R5 ! R2 fa3 g fa4 g
fa5 g is open, pðuðUÞÞð¼ fpðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ : ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 2 uðUÞg ¼
fðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x3 ¼ a3 ; x4 ¼ a4 ; x5 ¼ a5 g ¼ uðU \ SÞÞ is open in
R2 fa3 g fa4 g fa5 g; and hence, uðU \ SÞ is open in R2 fa3 g fa4 g
fa5 g: Let us define a function j : R2 fa3 g fa4 g fa5 g ! R2 as follows: For
every ðx1 ; x2 ; a3 ; a4 ; a5 Þ 2 R2 fa3 g fa4 g fa5 g; jðx1 ; x2 ; a3 ; a4 ; a5 Þ ðx1 ; x2 Þ:
Clearly, j is a diffeomorphism. Since j : R2 fa3 g fa4 g fa5 g ! R2 is a diffe-
omorphism, j : R2 fa3 g fa4 g fa5 g ! R2 is a homeomorphism. Since j :
R2 fa3 g fa4 g fa5 g ! R2 is a homeomorphism, and uðU \ SÞ is open in
R2 fa3 g fa4 g fa5 g; jðuðU \ SÞÞð¼ ðj uÞðU \ SÞÞ is open in R2 ; and hence,
ðj uÞðU \ SÞ is open in R2 : Clearly, ðj uÞðU \ SÞ ¼ fðx1 ; x2 Þ : ðx1 ; x2 ; a3 ;
a4 ; a5 Þ 2 uðUÞg: (Reason: ðj uÞðU \ SÞ ¼ jðuðU \ SÞÞ ¼ jðfðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 ; x5 Þ 2
uðUÞ : x3 ¼ a3 ; x4 ¼ a4 ; x5 ¼ a5 gÞ ¼ jðfðx1 ; x2 ; a3 ; a4 ; a5 Þ : ðx1 ; x2 ; a3 ; a4 ; a5 Þ 2
uðUÞg ¼ fjðx1 ; x2 ; a3 ; a4 ; a5 Þ : ðx1 ; x2 ; a3 ; a4 ; a5 Þ 2 uðUÞgÞ ¼ fðx1 ; x2 Þ :ðx1 ; x2 ; a3 ;
a4 ; a5 Þ 2 uðUÞg:)
Now, we shall try to show that j ðujU\S Þ is a homeomorphism from U \ S onto
ðj uÞðU \ SÞ; that is,
1. j ðujU\S Þ is 1–1
2. ðj ðujU\S ÞÞðU \ SÞ ¼ ðj uÞðU \ SÞ;
3. ðj ðujU\S ÞÞ : U \ S ! ðj uÞðU \ SÞ is continuous,
4. ðj ðujU\S ÞÞ : U \ S ! ðj uÞðU \ SÞ is an open mapping.
For 1: Since j is a homeomorphism, j is 1–1. Since ðU; uÞ is an admissible

coordinate chart of M; u : U ! uðUÞ is 1–1, and hence, ujU\S is 1–1. Since
ujU\S is 1–1, and j is 1–1, their composite j ðujU\S Þ is 1–1.
For 2: Here,

LHS ¼ j ujU\S ðU \ SÞ ¼ j ujU\S ðU \ SÞ
¼ jðuðU \ SÞÞ ¼ ðj uÞðU \ SÞ ¼ RHS:
For 3: Since j is a homeomorphism, j is continuous. Since ðU; uÞ is an

admissible coordinate chart of M, u : U ! uðUÞ is continuous, and hence,
ujU\S is continuous. Since ujU \ S is continuous, and j is continuous, their
composite ðj ðujU\S ÞÞ is continuous.
For 4: Since j is a homeomorphism, j is open. Since ðU; uÞ is an admissible
coordinate chart of M, u : U ! uðUÞ is open, and hence, ujU\S is open. Since
ujU\S is open, and j is open, their composite ðj ðujU\S ÞÞ is open.
Thus, the ordered pair ðU \ S; j ðujU\S ÞÞ is a coordinate chart of S. Also, p 2
U \ S: Hence, S is a two-dimensional topological manifold. Put

A U \ S; j ujU\S : ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of M :
We want to show that A is an atlas for S.

For this purpose, let us take any ðU \ S; ðj1 uÞjU\S Þ; ðV \ S; ðj2 wÞjV\S Þ 2 A;
where ðU; uÞ; ðV; wÞ are admissible coordinate charts of M, and
ðU \ SÞ \ ðV \ SÞ 6¼ ;: We have to prove that
1
j2 wjV\S j1 ujU\S : j1 ujU\S ððU \ SÞ \ ðV \ SÞÞ

! j2 wjV\S ððU \ SÞ \ ðV \ SÞÞ
is smooth, that is,

1
j2 wjV\S j1 ujU\S : j1 ujU\S ððU \ V Þ \ SÞ

! j2 wjV\S ððU \ V Þ \ SÞ
is smooth, that is,

1
j2 wjV\S j1 ujU\S : ðj1 uÞððU \ V Þ \ SÞ
! ðj2 wÞððU \ V Þ \ SÞ
is smooth, that is,

1
j2 wjV\S ujU\S ðj1 Þ1 : ðj1 uÞððU \ V Þ \ SÞ
is smooth, that is,

1
j2 wjV\S ujU\S ðj1 Þ1 : ðj1 uÞððU \ V Þ \ SÞ
is smooth, that is,

j2 w u1 uððU\V Þ\SÞ ðj1 Þ1 : ðj1 uÞððU \ V Þ \ SÞ
is smooth. Here, ; 6¼ ðU \ SÞ \ ðV \ SÞ U \ V; so U \ V 6¼ ;: Since U \ V 6¼

;; and ðU; uÞ; ðV; wÞ are admissible coordinate charts of M, w u1 : uðU \ VÞ !
wðU \ VÞ is smooth, and hence, the restriction ðw u1 ÞuððU\VÞ\SÞ is smooth.

Since j2 ; ðw u1 Þ ; ðj1 Þ1 are smooth, their composite
uððU\VÞ\SÞ

j2 w u1 uððU\V Þ\SÞ ðj1 Þ1 : ðj1 uÞððU \ V Þ \ SÞ
is smooth. Thus, we have shown that A is an atlas for S. Let i : S ! M be the

inclusion map of S.
We want to show that i : S ! M is a smooth embedding, that is,
(a) i : S ! M is smooth,
(b) i : S ! M is a topological embedding, and
(c) i : S ! M is a smooth immersion.
For a: Let us take any p 2 S: So there exists ðU \ S; j ðujU\S ÞÞ 2 A; where
ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of M, and p 2 U \ S: Since p ¼ iðpÞ 2
M; there exists an admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ of M satisfying p ¼
iðpÞ 2 V: We have to show that
1 1 1 1
w i j ujU \ S ¼ w j ujU \ S ¼ w ujU \ S j
1 1 1
¼ w ujU \ S j1 ¼ w ujU \ S j

¼ w u1 uððU \ V Þ \ SÞ j1

is smooth, that is, ðw u1 ÞuððU\VÞ\SÞ j1 is smooth. Here, U \ V 6¼ ;: Since
U \ V 6¼ ;; and ðU; uÞ; ðV; wÞ are admissible coordinate charts of M; w u1 :

uðU \ VÞ ! wðU \ VÞ is smooth, and hence, its restriction ðw u1 ÞuððU\VÞ\SÞ

is smooth. Since ðw u1 ÞuððU\VÞ\SÞ is smooth, and j1 is smooth, their

composite ðw u1 ÞuððU\VÞ\SÞ j1 is smooth.
For b: Since S has the subspace topology inherited from M; i : S ! M is a
topological embedding.
For c: Let us take any p 2 S: We have to show that the linear map dip : Tp S !
TiðpÞ M is 1–1, that is, the linear map dip : Tp S ! Tp M is 1–1.
Since p 2 S; there exists ðU \ S; j ðujU\S ÞÞ 2 A; where ðU; uÞ is an admis-
sible coordinate chart of M, and p 2 U \ S: Here, ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordi-
nate chart of M satisfying iðpÞ 2 U: For every q 2 U \ S;
!
o o
;
ox1 q ox2 q
is the coordinate basis of Tq S corresponding to ðU \ S; j ðujU\S ÞÞ; where

!
o 1 o
d j ujU\S :
oxi q ðjðujU\S ÞÞðqÞ oxi ðjðujU\S ÞÞðqÞ
For every r 2 U;

o o o o o
; ; ; ;
oy1 r oy2 r oy3 r oy4 r oy5 r

!
o 1 o
d u uðrÞ :
oyi r oyi uðrÞ
Observe that for every q 2 U \ S;

1
u i j ujU\S j ujU\S ðqÞ ¼ uðiðqÞÞ ¼ uðqÞ

¼ ujU\S ðqÞ ¼ j1 j ujU\S ðqÞ :
Also clearly, j1 : R2 ! R2 fa3 g fa4 g fa5 g is such that for every ðx1 ; x2 Þ in
R2 ; j1 ðx1 ; x2 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; a3 ; a4 ; a5 Þ: Hence, for every q 2 U \ S; the matrix rep-
resentation of linear map diq is the following 5 × 2 matrix:
2 3
1 0
60 17
6 7
60 07
6 7:
40 05
0 0
Since the
2 3
1 0
60 17
6 7
rank 6
60 077
40 05
0 0
is 2, the linear map dip : Tp S ! Tp M is 1–1. Thus, we have shown that i : S ! M is

a smooth embedding. Hence, S is an embedded submanifold of M.
Since for every q 2 U \ S; the matrix representation of linear map diq is the
matrix
2 3
1 0
60 17
6 7
60 07
6 7;
40 05
0 0
! ! ! !
o o o o
diq ¼1 þ0 þ0
ox1 q oy1 iðqÞ oy2 iðqÞ oy3 iðqÞ
! !
o o o o
þ0 þ0 ¼ 1 ¼ 1 :
oy4 iðqÞ oy5 iðqÞ oy iðqÞ oy q
Thus, for every q 2 U \ S;

!
o o
diq ¼ 1 :
ox1 q oy q
Similarly, for every q 2 U \ S;

!
o o
diq ¼ :
ox2 q oy2 q
Now, since
! !!
o o

diq ; diq
ox1 q ox2 q
is a basis of the real linear subspace ðdiq ÞðTq SÞ of Tq M;

!
o o
;
oy1 q oy2 q
is a basis of ðdiq ÞðTq SÞ; while

!
o o o o o
; ; ; ;
oy1 q oy2 q oy3 q oy4 q oy5 q
is the coordinate basis of Tq M: Conclusion: For every q 2 U \ S; if

!
o o o o o
; ; ; ;
oy1 q oy2 q oy3 q oy4 q oy5 q
is the coordinate basis of Tq M; then

!
o o
;
oy1 q oy2 q
is a basis of ðdiq ÞðTq SÞ:

Note 5.97 As in Note 5.96, we can prove the following result:
Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let S be a nonempty subset of

M. Suppose that S satisfies local k-slice condition. Let S has the subspace topology
inherited from M. Then, S is a k-dimensional topological manifold. Also, there
exists a smooth structure on S such that M becomes a k-dimensional embedded
submanifold of M.
smooth manifold, and U : M ! N be a map. Any set of the form U1 ðcÞ; where
c 2 N; is called a level set of U:
Note 5.98 Let M be a three-dimensional smooth manifold, N be a four-dimensional
smooth manifold, and U : M ! N be a smooth map. Let 2 be the rank of U: Let c 2 N:
We shall try to show that the level set U1 ðcÞ satisfies local two-slice condition.
By the constant rank Theorem 5.48, for every p 2 U1 ðcÞðthat is; UðpÞ ¼ cÞ
there exist admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ in M satisfying p 2 U; and admis-
sible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ in N satisfying UðpÞ 2 V; such that UðUÞ V; and
for every ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ in uðUÞ;

w U u1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ:
Now, we shall try to show that
U1 ðcÞ \ U ¼ u1 ðfðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x1 ¼ ðp1 wÞðcÞ; x2 ¼ ðp2 wÞðcÞgÞ;
that is,

u U1 ðcÞ \ U ¼ fðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x1 ¼ ðp1 wÞðcÞ; x2 ¼ ðp2 wÞðcÞg:
Let q 2 U1 ðcÞ \ U: It follows that UðqÞ ¼ c; and q 2 U: Since q 2 U; uðqÞ 2

uðUÞ: Put uðqÞ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ: Hence, ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ uðqÞ 2 uðUÞ: Also,

ðx1 ; x2 ; 0; 0Þ ¼ w U u1 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ

¼ w U u1 ðuðqÞÞ ¼ wðUðqÞÞ ¼ wðcÞ
¼ ððp1 wÞðcÞ; ðp2 wÞðcÞ; ðp3 wÞðcÞ; ðp4 wÞðcÞÞ:
Hence, x1 ¼ ðp1 wÞðcÞ; and x2 ¼ ðp2 wÞðcÞ: Thus, U1 ðcÞ \ U u1 ðfðx1 ;
x2 ; x3 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x1 ¼ ðp1 wÞðcÞ; x2 ¼ ðp2 wÞðcÞgÞ: Next, let q 2 u1 ðfðx1 ; x2 ;
x3 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x1 ¼ ðp1 wÞðcÞ; x2 ¼ ðp2 wÞðcÞgÞ: We have to show that q 2 U1
ðcÞ \ U; that is, UðqÞ ¼ c; and q 2 U: Since q 2 u1 ðfðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x1 ¼
ðp1 wÞðcÞ; x2 ¼ ðp2 wÞðcÞgÞ U; q 2 U:
Since uðqÞ 2 uðUÞ; ððp1 wÞðcÞ; ðp2 wÞðcÞ; ðp3 wÞðcÞ; ðp4 wÞðcÞÞ ¼ wðcÞ
¼ wðUðqÞÞ ¼ ðw U u1 ÞðuðqÞÞ ¼ ððp1 uÞðqÞ; ðp2 uÞðqÞ; 0; 0Þ; and hence,
ðp3 wÞðcÞ ¼ 0 ¼ ðp4 wÞðcÞ: Since q 2 u1 ðfðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x1 ¼ ðp1 wÞ
ðcÞ; x2 ¼ ðp2 wÞðcÞgÞ; uðqÞ 2 fðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x1 ¼ ðp1 wÞðcÞ; x2 ¼ ðp2
wÞðcÞg; and hence, ðp1 uÞðqÞ ¼ ðp1 wÞðcÞ; and ðp2 uÞðqÞ ¼ ðp2 wÞðcÞ:
Since ðp1 uÞðqÞ ¼ ðp1 wÞðcÞ; ðp2 uÞðqÞ ¼ ðp2 wÞðcÞ; ðp3 wÞ ðcÞ ¼ 0 ¼
ðp4 wÞðcÞ; and wðUðqÞÞ ¼ ððp1 uÞðqÞ; ðp2 uÞðqÞ; 0; 0Þ; wðUðqÞÞ ¼ ððp1 wÞ
ðcÞ; ðp2 wÞ ðcÞ; 0; 0Þ ¼ ððp1 wÞðcÞ; ðp2 wÞðcÞ; ðp3 wÞ ðcÞ; ðp4 wÞðcÞÞ ¼
wðcÞ: Since wðUðqÞÞ ¼ wðcÞ; UðqÞ ¼ c:
Thus, uðU1 ðcÞ \ UÞ ¼ fðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ 2 uðUÞ : x1 ¼ ðp1 wÞðcÞ; x2 ¼ ðp2 wÞ
ðcÞg: Hence, the level set U1 ðcÞ satisfies the local 2-slice condition. Now, by Note
5.97, if U1 ðcÞ has the subspace topology inherited from M; then U1 ðcÞ is an
embedded submanifold of M. Since U : M ! N is a smooth map, U : M ! N is
continuous. Since U : M ! N is continuous, and fcg is a closed subset of N;
U1 ðcÞ is a closed subset of M. Since U1 ðcÞ is a closed subset of M, and U1 ðcÞ is
an embedded submanifold of M, by Note 5.93, U1 ðcÞ is a properly embedded

submanifold of M, and its codimension is 2.
Note 5.99 The following result can be proved as in Note 5.98:
Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, N be an n-dimensional smooth
manifold, and U : M ! N be a smooth map. Let r be the rank of U: Let c 2 N:
Then, the level set U1 ðcÞ is a properly embedded submanifold of M, and its
codimension is r.
smooth manifold, and U : M ! N be a smooth submersion. Let c 2 N: We shall try
to show that the level set U1 ðcÞ is a properly embedded submanifold of M, and its
codimension is n.
Since U : M ! N is a smooth submersion, U : M ! N is a smooth map, and
rank U ¼ n: Since U : M ! N is a smooth map, and rank U ¼ n; by Note 5.99, the
level set U1 ðcÞ is a properly embedded submanifold of M, and its codimension is n.
smooth manifold, and U : M ! N be a smooth map. Let p 2 M:
If dUp : Tp M ! TUðpÞ N is onto (that is, the rank of U at p is n), then we say that
p is a regular point of U: If p is not a regular point of U; then we say that p is a
critical point of U:
smooth manifold, and U : M ! N be a smooth map. Clearly, U is a smooth sub-
mersion if and only if every point of M is a regular point of U:
smooth manifold, and U : M ! N be a smooth map. Let m < n. We shall try to
show that every point of M is a critical point of U:
If not, otherwise, let there exists p ∊ M such that p is not a critical point of U: Since
p is not a critical point of U; p is a regular point of U; and hence, the linear map
dUp : Tp M ! TUðpÞ N is onto. Since the linear map dUp : Tp M ! TUðpÞ N is onto,
n ¼ dim N ¼ dim TUðpÞ N dim Tp M ¼ dim M ¼ m: Thus, m¥n; a contradiction.
Thus, every point of M is a critical point of U:
smooth manifold, and U : M ! N be a smooth map. Let G be the set of all regular
points of U: We shall try to show that G is an open subset of M.
For this purpose, let us take any p ∊ G. Since p ∊ G, p is a regular point of U:
Since p is a regular point of U; the linear map dUp : Tp M ! TUðpÞ N is onto. Since
the linear map dUp : Tp M ! TUðpÞ N is onto, by Theorem 4.7, there exists an open
neighborhood W of p such that for every q ∊ W, the linear map dFq : Tq M ! TFðqÞ N
is onto, and hence, the open neighborhood W of p is contained in G. It follows that

p is an interior point of G.
Thus, we have shown that G is an open subset of M.
smooth manifold, and U : M ! N be a smooth map. Let G be the set of all regular
points of U: Let c 2 N:
If U1 ðcÞ G; then we say that c is a regular value of U; and U1 ðcÞ is a
regular value set. If c is not a regular value of U; then we say that c is a critical
value of U: If c is a regular value of U; then U1 ðcÞ is called a regular level set.
Clearly, if U1 ðcÞ ¼ ;; then c is a regular value of U:
smooth manifold, and U : M ! N be a smooth map. Letc 2 N: Let U1 ðcÞ be a
nonempty regular level set. We shall try to show that U1 ðcÞ is a properly
embedded submanifold of M, and its codimension is n.
Let G be the set of all regular points of U: We know that G is an open subset of
M. Let O1 be the subspace topology over G inherited from M, that is, O1 ¼
fG1 : G1 G; and G1 2 Og: Let A be the differential structure of M. Put
AG fðU; uÞ : ðU; uÞ 2 A; and U Gg:
We know that AG is an atlas on G. Thus, G becomes an m-dimensional smooth

manifold (called open submanifold of M). Also, G is an embedded submanifold of
M with codimension 0. Since U : M ! N is a smooth map, and G is an open
submanifold of M, UjG : G ! N is a smooth map.
Let us take any p 2 G: We want to show that the linear map dðUjG Þp : Tp G !
TðUjG ÞðpÞ N is onto. Since p 2 G; p is a regular point of M, and hence, the linear map
dUp : Tp M ! TUðpÞ N is onto. Since p ∊ G, and G is an open submanifold of M,
TpM is equal to TpG. Also, ðUjG ÞðpÞ ¼ UðpÞ: It follows that the linear map
dðUjG Þp : Tp G ! TðUjG ÞðpÞ N is onto.
Now, we want to show that U1 ðcÞ is an embedded submanifold of M. Since for
every p 2 G; the linear map dðUjG Þp : Tp G ! TðUjG ÞðpÞ N is onto, UjG : G ! N is a
smooth submersion. Since UjG : G ! N is a smooth submersion, and c 2 N; by
Note 5.100, the level set ðUjG Þ1 ðcÞ is a properly embedded submanifold of G, and
its codimension is n. Clearly, ðUjG Þ1 ðcÞ ¼ U1 ðcÞ:
(Reason: Let p 2 ðUjG Þ1 ðcÞ: So p 2 G; and ðUjG ÞðpÞ ¼ c: Since p 2 G; c ¼
ðUjG ÞðpÞ ¼ UðpÞ; and hence, p 2 U1 ðcÞ: Thus, ðUjG Þ1 ðcÞ U1 ðcÞ: Next, let
p 2 U1 ðcÞ: Since p 2 U1 ðcÞ; UðpÞ ¼ c: Since U1 ðcÞ is a regular value set,
U1 ðcÞ G: Since p 2 U1 ðcÞ G; p 2 G; and hence, ðUjG ÞðpÞ ¼ UðpÞ ¼ c: It
follows that p 2 ðUjG Þ1 ðcÞ: Thus, U1 ðcÞ ðUjG Þ1 ðcÞ:)
Since ðUjG Þ1 ðcÞ ¼ U1 ðcÞ; and the level set ðUjG Þ1 ðcÞ is a properly embed-
ded submanifold of G with its codimension n, U1 ðcÞ is a properly embedded
submanifold of G with its codimension n. Since U1 ðcÞ is an embedded subman-
ifold of G, the inclusion map i1 : U1 ðcÞ ! G is a smooth embedding. Since G is
an embedded submanifold of M, the inclusion map i2 : G ! M is a smooth
embedding. Since i1 : U1 ðcÞ ! G is a smooth embedding, and i2 : G ! M is a
smooth embedding, their composite i2 i1 : U1 ðcÞ ! M is a smooth embedding.
Since i2 i1 ¼ i; where idenotes the inclusion map from U1 ðcÞ to M; and i2 i1 :
U1 ðcÞ ! M is a smooth embedding, the inclusion map i : U1 ðcÞ ! M is a
smooth embedding. This shows that U1 ðcÞ is an embedded submanifold of M.
Now, we want to show that U1 ðcÞ is a properly embedded submanifold of
M. For this purpose, let us take any compact set K in M. We have to show that
ði2 i1 Þ1 ðKÞ is compact in U1 ðcÞ: Here, ði2 i1 Þ1 ðKÞ ¼ ðði1 Þ1 ði2 Þ1 ÞðKÞ ¼
ði1 Þ1 ðK \ GÞ ¼ ðK \ GÞ \ U1 ðcÞ ¼ K \ U1 ðcÞ: Since K is compact in M, and
U1 ðcÞ is closed in M, K \ U1 ðcÞ is compact in M. Since K \ U1 ðcÞ is compact
in M, and K \ U1 ðcÞ U1 ðcÞ; K \ U1 ðcÞð¼ ði2 i1 Þ1 ðKÞÞ is compact in
U1 ðcÞ; and hence ði2 i1 Þ1 ðKÞ is compact in U1 ðcÞ:
Thus, U1 ðcÞ is a properly embedded submanifold of M with codimension n.
5.10 Smooth Submanifolds
Definition Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold and S be a nonempty

subset of M. If there exists a topology O over S with respect to which S becomes an
n-dimensional topological manifold, and there exists a smooth structure on S with
respect to which the topological manifold S becomes an n-dimensional smooth
manifold such that the inclusion map i : S ! M is smooth immersion, then we say
that S is an immersed submanifold (or smooth submanifold) of M with codimension
m − n.
Note 5.105 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold and S be a nonempty
subset of M. Let k 2 f0; 1; . . .; m 1g: Let S be an embedded submanifold of
M with codimension k. We shall try to show that S is an immersed submanifold of
M with codimension k.
Put O fG \ S : G is open in Mg: We know that O (called the subspace
topology of S) is a topology over S. Since S is an embedded submanifold of M with
codimension k, O is a topology over S with respect to which S becomes a (m − k)-
dimensional topological manifold. Also, there exists a smooth structure A on S,
with respect to which the topological manifold S becomes an (m − k)-dimensional
smooth manifold such that the inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth embedding,
and hence, i : S ! M is a smooth immersion.
5.10 Smooth Submanifolds 417
Hence, S is an immersed submanifold of M with codimension kð¼ m ðm kÞÞ:

This completes the proof. In short, every embedded submanifold is a smooth
submanifold.
be a 1–1 smooth immersion. Put
O fFðVÞ : V is open in N g:
Clearly, O is a topology over FðNÞ; and F is a homeomorphism from N onto F(N).

Since F is a homeomorphism from N onto F(N), N is homeomorphic onto F(N).
Since N is an n-dimensional smooth manifold, N is an n-dimensional topological
manifold. Since N is an n-dimensional topological manifold, and N is homeo-
morphic onto F(N), F(N) is an n-dimensional topological manifold. Since N is an n-
dimensional smooth manifold with smooth
structure B; and F is a homeomorphism
from N onto F(N), fðFðVÞ; w ðF 1 FðVÞ ÞÞ : ðV; wÞ 2 Bg is a smooth structure on
F(N). Thus, F(N) becomes an n-dimensional smooth manifold, and F is a diffeo-
morphism from N onto F(N). It is clear that w ðF 1 FðVÞ Þ ¼ w ðF 1 Þ: It follows
that the smooth structure on F(N) is fðFðVÞ; w ðF 1 ÞÞ : ðV; wÞ 2 Bg:
Now, we want to prove that the inclusion map i : FðNÞ ! M is a smooth map.
Clearly, i ¼ F F 1 : Since F : N ! FðNÞ is a diffeomorphism, F 1 : FðNÞ ! N
is a diffeomorphism. Since F 1 is a diffeomorphism, and F : N ! M is a 1–1
smooth immersion, their composition F F 1 ð¼ iÞ is a 1–1 smooth immersion,
and hence, i is a smooth immersion. It follows that F(N) is a smooth submanifold of
M with codimension m − n.
Conclusion: Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold with smooth structure
A, N be an n-dimensional smooth manifold with smooth structure B, and F : N !
M be a 1–1 smooth immersion. Then, F(N) is a smooth submanifold of M with
codimension m − n.
subset of M. Let S be a smooth submanifold of M with codimension 0. We shall try
to show that S is an embedded submanifold of M with codimension 0.
Since S is a smooth submanifold of M with codimension 0, by its definition,
there exists a topology O over S with respect to which S becomes an m-dimensional
topological manifold, and there exists a smooth structure on S with respect to which
the topological manifold S becomes an m-dimensional smooth manifold such that
the inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth immersion. Here, S is an m-dimensional
smooth manifold, M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, and the inclusion map
i : S ! M is a 1–1 smooth immersion, so by Note 5.73, i : S ! M is a smooth
embedding. Since i : S ! M is a smooth embedding, the inclusion map i : S ! M
is a topological embedding, and hence, i is a homeomorphism from S onto
iðSÞð¼ SÞ; where iðSÞ has the subspace topology inherited from M. It follows that
O is equal to the subspace topology of S inherited from M. Since S is endowed with
the subspace topology inherited from M, and the inclusion map i : S ! M is a

smooth embedding, and the smooth structure on S is m-dimensional, by the defi-
nition of embedded submanifold, S is an embedded submanifold of M with codi-
mension 0.
subset of M. Let S be a smooth submanifold of M with codimension k. Let the
inclusion map i : S ! M be proper.
We shall try to show that S is an embedded submanifold of M with codimension k.
Since S is a smooth submanifold of M with codimension k; by its definition,
there exists a topology O over S with respect to which S becomes an (m − k)-
dimensional topological manifold, and there exists a smooth structure on S with
respect to which the topological manifold S becomes an ðm kÞ-dimensional
smooth manifold such that the inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth immersion.
Here, S is an (m − k)-dimensional smooth manifold, M is an m-dimensional smooth
manifold, the inclusion map i : S ! M is a 1–1 smooth immersion, and the
inclusion map i : S ! M is proper, so by Note 5.71, i : S ! M is smooth
embedding. Since i : S ! M is a smooth embedding, the inclusion map i : S ! M
is a topological embedding, and hence, i is a homeomorphism from S onto
iðSÞð¼ SÞ; where ι(S) has the subspace topology inherited from M. It follows that O
is equal to the subspace topology of S inherited from M. Since S is endowed with
the subspace topology inherited from M, the inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth
embedding, and the smooth structure on S is (m − k)-dimensional, by the definition
of embedded submanifold, S is an embedded submanifold of M with codimension k.
subset of M. Let S be a smooth submanifold of M with codimension k. Let S be
compact. We shall try to show that S is an embedded submanifold of M with
codimension k.
Since S is a smooth submanifold of M with codimension k, by its definition,
there exists a topology O over S with respect to which S becomes an (m − k)-
dimensional topological manifold, and there exists a smooth structure on S with
respect to which the topological manifold S becomes an (m − k)-dimensional
smooth manifold such that the inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth immersion.
Here, S is an (m − k)-dimensional smooth manifold, M is an m-dimensional smooth
manifold, the inclusion map i : S ! M is a 1–1 smooth immersion, and S is
compact, so by Note 5.72, i : S ! M is a smooth embedding. Since i : S ! M is a
smooth embedding, the inclusion map i : S ! M is a topological embedding, and
hence, ι is a homeomorphism from S onto iðSÞð¼ SÞ; where ι(S) has the subspace
topology inherited from M. It follows that O is equal to the subspace topology of
S inherited from M. Since S is endowed with the subspace topology inherited from
M, the inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth embedding, and the smooth structure
on S is (m − k)-dimensional, by the definition of embedded submanifold, S is an
embedded submanifold of M with codimension k.

subset of M. Let S be a smooth submanifold of M with codimension k. Let p ∊ S.
We shall try to show that there exists an open neighborhood U of p in S such that
U is an embedded submanifold of M with codimension k.
Since S is a smooth submanifold of M with codimension k, there exists a
topology O over S with respect to which S becomes a (m − k)-dimensional topo-
logical manifold, and there exists a smooth structure on S with respect to which the
topological manifold S becomes a (m − k)-dimensional smooth manifold such that
the inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth immersion. Since i : S ! M is a smooth
immersion, and p ∊ S, by Theorem 5.75, there exists an open neighborhood U of p in
S such that the restriction ijU : U ! M is a smooth embedding. Since ijU : U ! M is
a smooth embedding, ijU : U ! M is a topological embedding, and hence, ι|U is a
homeomorphism from U onto ðijU ÞðUÞð¼ UÞ; where (ι|U)(U) has the subspace
topology inherited from M. It follows that the topology over U is the subspace
topology inherited from M. Here, S is a (m − k)-dimensional smooth manifold, and
U is an open neighborhood of p, so U is a (m − k)-dimensional smooth manifold.
Since U is a (m − k)-dimensional smooth manifold, the topology over U is the
subspace topology inherited from M, and the inclusion map ijU : U ! M is a smooth
embedding, U is an embedded submanifold of M with codimension k.
smooth manifold, and F : M ! N be a smooth map. Let S be a nonempty subset of
M. Let S be a smooth submanifold of M. We shall try to show that the restriction
FjS : S ! N is smooth.
Let the codimension of S be k. Since S is a smooth submanifold of M, there
exists a topology O over S with respect to which S becomes an (m − k)-dimensional
topological manifold, and there exists a smooth structure A on S with respect to
which the topological manifold S becomes an (m − k)-dimensional smooth mani-
fold such that the inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth immersion. Since i : S ! M
is a smooth immersion, i : S ! M is smooth. Since i : S ! M is smooth, and
F : M ! N is a smooth map, their composite F i : S ! N is smooth. Since F i :
S ! N is smooth, and FjS ¼ F i; FjS : S ! N is smooth.
smooth manifold, and S be a nonempty subset of M. Let S be a smooth submanifold
of M with codimension k. Let F : N ! M be a smooth map, and FðNÞ S: Let
F : N ! S be continuous. We shall try to show F : N ! S is smooth.
Let us fix any p 2 N: Since p 2 N; FðpÞ 2 FðNÞ S; and hence, FðpÞ 2 S:
Since S is a smooth submanifold of M, there exists a topology O over S with respect
to which S becomes an ðm kÞ-dimensional topological manifold, and there exists
a smooth structure A on S with respect to which the topological manifold
S becomes an (m − k)-dimensional smooth manifold such that the inclusion map
i : S ! M is a smooth immersion. Since the inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth
immersion, by Theorem 5.46, i : S ! M is a local diffeomorphism. Since i : S !
M is a local diffeomorphism, and FðpÞ 2 S; there exists an open neighborhood U of
F(p) in S such that ι(U) is open in M, and the restriction ijU : U ! iðUÞ is a
diffeomorphism, and hence, ðijU Þ1 : iðUÞ ! U is smooth. Since U is an open
neighborhood of F(p) in S, and F : N ! S is continuous, there exists an open
neighborhood V of p in N such that F(V) ⊂ U. Since V is open in N, V is an open
submanifold of N, and hence, V is an embedded submanifold of N. Since V is an
embedded submanifold of N, V is a smooth submanifold of N. Since V is a smooth
submanifold of N, and F : N ! M is a smooth map, by Note 5.111, FjV : V ! M is
a smooth map. Since FjV : V ! M is a smooth map, ðijU Þ1 : iðUÞ ! U is smooth,
and ðFjV ÞðVÞ ¼ FðVÞ U ¼ iðUÞ; their composite ððijU Þ1 Þ ðFjV Þ : V ! U is
smooth. Since ððijU Þ1 Þ ðFjV Þ : V ! U is smooth, and ððijU Þ1 Þ ðFjV Þ ¼ FjV ;
FjV : V ! U is smooth. Since FjV : V ! U is smooth, and V is an open neigh-
borhood of p in N, F : N ! S is smooth at the point p. It follows that F : N ! S is
smooth.
smooth manifold, and S be a nonempty subset of M. Let S be an embedded sub-
manifold of M with codimension k. Let F : N ! M be a smooth map, and FðNÞ
S: Let F : N ! S be continuous. We shall try to show F : N ! S is smooth.
Since S is an embedded submanifold of M with codimension k, by Note 5.105,
S is a smooth submanifold of M with codimension k. Since F : N ! M is a smooth
map, F : N ! M is continuous. Since S is an embedded submanifold of M, the
topology over S is the subspace topology inherited from M. Since F : N ! M is
continuous, FðNÞ S M; and the topology over S is the subspace topology
inherited from M, F : N ! S is continuous. It follows, from Note 5.112, that F :
N ! S is smooth.
subset of M. Suppose that S satisfies local k-slice condition.
Since S satisfies local k-slice condition, by Note 5.97, S is an embedded sub-
manifold of M. Since S is an embedded submanifold of M, the topology over S is
the subspace topology inherited from M, and there exists a smooth structure A on
S with respect to which S becomes a k-dimensional smooth manifold such that the
inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth embedding.
Now, we want to show that such a differential structure A is unique. For this
purpose, let A1 be a smooth structure on S with respect to which S becomes a k-
dimensional smooth manifold such that the inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth
embedding. Next, let A2 be a smooth structure on S with respect to which
S becomes a k-dimensional smooth manifold such that the inclusion map i : S ! M
is a smooth embedding. We have to prove that A1 ¼ A2 :
Let O be the topology over M; and let B be the smooth structure of M: Since the
inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth embedding from smooth manifold ðS; A1 Þ to
ðM; BÞ; the inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth map from smooth manifold
ðS; A1 Þ to ðM; BÞ: Since the inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth map from smooth
manifold ðS; A1 Þ to ðM; BÞ; ðS; A2 Þ is an embedded submanifold of M; and i :
S ! S is continuous, by Lemma 5.113, i : ðS; A1 Þ ! ðS; A2 Þ is smooth. Similarly,
i : ðS; A2 Þ ! ðS; A1 Þ is smooth. Since i : ðS; A1 Þ ! ðS; A2 Þ is smooth, and

ði1 ¼Þi : ðS; A2 Þ ! ðS; A1 Þ is smooth, i : ðS; A1 Þ ! ðS; A2 Þ is a diffeomorphism.
Hence, A1 ¼ A2 :
subset of M. Suppose that S is a smooth submanifold of M.
Since S is a smooth submanifold of M, there exists a topology O over S, and a
smooth structure A on S with respect to which S becomes a k-dimensional smooth
manifold such that the inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth immersion.
Now, we want to show that for fixed O; the differential structure A is unique. Let
us fix the topology O over S. Next, let A1 be a smooth structure on S with respect to
which S becomes a k-dimensional smooth manifold such that the inclusion map
i : S ! M is a smooth immersion. Next, let A2 be a smooth structure on S with
respect to which S becomes a k-dimensional smooth manifold such that the
inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth immersion. We have to prove that A1 ¼ A2 :
Let O be the topology over M, and let B be the smooth structure of M: Since the
inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth immersion from smooth manifold ðS; A1 Þ to
ðM; BÞ; the inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth map from smooth manifold ðS; A1 Þ
to ðM; BÞ: Since the inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth map from smooth manifold
ðS; A1 Þ to ðM; BÞ; ðS; A2 Þ is a smooth submanifold of M; and i : S ! S is continuous,
by Lemma 5.113, i : ðS; A1 Þ ! ðS; A2 Þ is smooth. Similarly, i : ðS; A2 Þ ! ðS; A1 Þ
is smooth. Since i : ðS; A1 Þ ! ðS; A2 Þ is smooth, and ði1 ¼Þi : ðS; A2 Þ ! ðS; A1 Þ
is smooth, i : ðS; A1 Þ ! ðS; A2 Þ is a diffeomorphism. Hence, A1 ¼ A2 :
5.11 Tangent Space to a Submanifold

subset of M. Let S be an embedded submanifold of M.
Since S is an embedded submanifold of M, the inclusion map i : S ! M is a
smooth embedding, and hence, i : S ! M is a smooth immersion. Since i : S ! M
is a smooth immersion, for every p 2 S, the linear map dip : Tp S ! TiðpÞ M is 1–1.
Now, since iðpÞ ¼ p, for every p 2 S, the linear map dip : Tp S ! Tp M is 1–1, and
hence, the image set ðdip ÞðTp SÞ is a subspace of the real linear space Tp M. Also,
since dip : Tp S ! Tp M is 1–1, dimððdip ÞðTp SÞÞ ¼ dimðTp SÞ ¼ dimðSÞ. That is
why, we adopt the convention of not to distinguish between ðdip ÞðTp SÞ and Tp S.
Lemma 5.117 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let S be a nonempty
subset of M. Let S be an embedded submanifold of M. Let p 2 S. Let v 2 Tp M. If
there exists a smooth curve c : ðe; eÞ ! M whose image is contained in S, which
is also smooth as a map into S, such that cð0Þ ¼ p, and c0 ð0Þ ¼ v, then v 2 Tp S.
Proof Let c : ðe; eÞ ! M be a smooth curve whose image is contained in S, which

is also smooth as a map into S, such that cð0Þ ¼ p, and c0 ð0Þ ¼ v. We have to show
that v 2 Tp S.
Since c : ðe; eÞ ! S is a smooth map from one-dimensional smooth manifold
ðe; eÞ into smooth manifold S, and 0 2 ðe; eÞ, dc0 : T0 ðe; eÞ ! Tcð0Þ S. Now, since

d
Tcð0Þ S ¼ Tp S, dc0 : T0 ðe; eÞ ! Tp S, and hence, v ¼ c0 ð0Þ ¼ ðdc0 Þð Þ 2 Tp S. h
dt 0
subset of M. Let S be an embedded submanifold of M. Let p 2 S. Let v 2 Tp M. If
v 2 Tp S, then there exists a smooth curve c : ðe; eÞ ! M whose image is con-
tained in S, which is also smooth as a map into S, such that cð0Þ ¼ p, and
c0 ð0Þ ¼ v.
Proof Let v 2 Tp S. Here, S is an embedded submanifold of M, so S is a smooth
manifold. Let k be the dimension of smooth manifold S. Since p 2 S, and S is a
smooth manifold, there exists an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ of S such that
p 2 U, and uðpÞ ¼ 0 2 Rk . For every q 2 U; let
!
o o
; . . .; k
ox1 q ox q
be the coordinate basis of Tq S corresponding to ðU; uÞ, where

!
o 1 o
d u uðqÞ :
oxi q oxi uðqÞ
Here,
!
o o
; . . .; k
ox1 p ox p
is the coordinate basis of Tp S, and v 2 Tp S, so there exist real numbers v1 ; . . .; vk

such that
! ! !
o o o
v¼v 1
þ þ v k
¼v i
:
ox1 p oxk p oxi p
Since ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of S, φ is a mapping from U onto

uðUÞ, where uðUÞ is an open neighborhood of uðpÞð¼ 0Þ in Rk . Since
t 7! ðtv1 ; . . .; tvk Þ is a continuous map from R to Rk , and uðUÞ is an open neigh-
borhood of uðpÞð¼ ð0; . . .; 0Þ ¼ ð0v1 ; . . .; 0vk ÞÞ in Rk , there exists e [ 0 such that
5.11 Tangent Space to a Submanifold 423
for every t 2 ð0 e; 0 þ eÞ, we have ðtv1 ; . . .; tvk Þ 2 uðUÞ, and hence, for every
t 2 ðe; eÞ, we have u1 ðtv1 ; . . .; tvk Þ 2 U. Now, let us define c : ðe; eÞ !
Uð S MÞ as follows: For every t 2 ðe; eÞ; cðtÞ u1 ðtv1 ; . . .; tvk Þ.
Here, ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of S, so U is open in S. Here,
cð0Þ ¼ u1 ð0v1 ; . . .; 0vk Þ ¼ u1 ð0Þ ¼ u1 ðuðpÞÞ ¼ p. Thus, cð0Þ ¼ p. We shall
try to show that γ as a function from ðe; eÞ to smooth manifold S is smooth.
Since ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of S, φ is a diffeomorphism from
U onto uðUÞ, and hence, u1 is smooth. Since u1 is smooth, and t 7! ðtv1 ; . . .; tvk Þ
is smooth, their composite t 7! u1 ðtv1 ; . . .; tvk Þð¼ cðtÞÞ is smooth, and hence, γ as
a mapping from ðe; eÞ to S is smooth.
Now, we want to show that γ is smooth as a map from smooth manifold ðe; eÞ
to smooth manifold M. For this purpose, let us take any t0 2 ðe; eÞ. Here,
cðt0 Þ ¼ u1 ðt0 v1 ; . . .; t0 vk Þ 2 U.
Since S is an embedded submanifold of M, there exists a smooth structure A on
S such that the inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth embedding (i.e., i : S ! M is
smooth, and smooth immersion.). Let ðW; wÞ be any admissible coordinate chart of
M such that cðt0 Þ 2 W. We have to show that w c ðIdðe;eÞ Þ1 is smooth.
Since i : S ! M is smooth, ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of S satis-
fying cðt0 Þ 2 U, and ðW; wÞ is any admissible coordinate chart of M such that
ðiðcðt0 ÞÞ ¼Þcðt0 Þ 2 W, w u1 is smooth. Further, since t 7! ðtv1 ; . . .; tvk Þ is
smooth, t 7! ðw u1 Þðtv1 ; . . .; tvk Þ is smooth. For every t 2 ðe; eÞ,
1 1
w c Idðe;eÞ ðtÞ ¼ ðw cÞ Idðe;eÞ ðtÞ ¼ ðw cÞðtÞ ¼ wðcðtÞÞ

¼ w u1 tv1 ; . . .; tvk ¼ w u1 tv1 ; . . .; tvk ;
and t 7! ðw u1 Þðtv1 ; . . .; tvk Þ is smooth, so w c ðIdðe;eÞ Þ1 is smooth. For

every t 2 ðe; eÞ, we have

ðpi ðu cÞÞðtÞ ¼ pi ðuðcðtÞÞÞ ¼ pi u u1 tv1 ; . . .; tvm

¼ pi tv1 ; . . .; tvm ¼ tvi ¼ vi t;
so
d ð pi ð u c Þ Þ
ð0Þ ¼ vi :
dt
Now, we shall try to show that c0 ð0Þ ¼ v: Here,

! ! !
d ð p ð u c Þ Þ o o o
c0 ð0Þ ¼
i
ð0Þ ¼ vi ¼ vi ¼ v:
dt oxi cð0Þ oxi cð0Þ oxi p
Hence, c0 ð0Þ ¼ v. h

subset of M. Let S be an embedded submanifold of M. Let p 2 S. Let v 2 Tp S. Let
f 2 C 1 ðMÞ satisfying f jS ¼ 0. Then, vðf Þ ¼ 0.
Proof Since f 2 C 1 ðMÞ, f jS 2 C 1 ðSÞ. (Reason: Since f 2 C 1 ðMÞ, f : M ! R is
smooth. Here, S is an embedded submanifold of M, so the inclusion map i : S ! M
is smooth. Since i : S ! M is smooth, and f : M ! R is smooth, their composite
ð f jS ¼Þf i : S ! R is smooth, and hence, f jS 2 C 1 ðSÞ.) Since, by Note 5.116,
we do not distinguish between ðdip ÞðTp SÞ and Tp S, and v 2 Tp S, v 2 ðdip ÞðTp SÞ,
and hence, there exists w 2 Tp S such that ðdip ÞðwÞ ¼ v. Now, vðf Þ ¼
ððdip ÞðwÞÞðf Þ ¼ wðf iÞ ¼ wð f jS Þ ¼ wð0Þ ¼ 0. h
subset of M. Let S be an embedded k-dimensional submanifold of M. Then, S
satisfies the local k-slice condition.
Proof Let us take any p in S. Since S is an embedded submanifold of M, there
exists a smooth structure A on S such that the inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth
embedding (i.e., i : S ! M is smooth, and smooth immersion). Since i : S ! M is a
smooth immersion, and p 2 S, by Theorem 4.13, there exist admissible coordinate
chart ðU; uÞ in S satisfying p 2 U and admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ in
M satisfying ðp ¼ÞiðpÞ 2 V such that uðpÞ ¼ 0; ðwðpÞ ¼ÞwðiðpÞÞ ¼ 0, and for
every ðx1 ; . . .; xk Þ in uðUÞ,
0 1

wu 1
ðx1 ; . . .; xk Þ ¼ w i u1 ðx1 ; . . .; xk Þ ¼ @x1 ; . . .; xk ; 0; . . .; 0A:
mk
Further, we may assume uðUÞ ¼ Cek ð0Þ, and wðVÞ ¼ Cem ð0Þ for some e [ 0. Since
ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart in S satisfying p 2 U, U is an open
neighborhood of p in S, and hence, there exists an open neighborhood W of p in
M such that W \ S ¼ U. Since W is an open neighborhood of p in M, and V is an
open neighborhood of p in M, their intersection V \ W is an open neighborhood of
p in M. Since V \ Wð VÞ is an open neighborhood of p in M, and ðV; wÞ is an
admissible coordinate chart in M satisfying p 2 V, ðV \ W; wjV\W Þ is an admissible
coordinate chart in M satisfying p 2 V \ W. It suffices to show that
08 0 10 1
1 <

ðV \ W Þ \ S ¼ wjV \ W @ @x1 ; . . .; xk ; 0; . . .; 0A:@x1 ; . . .; xk ; 0; . . .; 0A
: |fflfflffl{zfflfflffl} |fflfflffl{zfflfflffl}
mk mk

2 wjV \ W ðV \ W Þ ;
that is,
80 10 1
<
wjV \ W ððV \ W Þ \ SÞ ¼ @x1 ; . . .; xk ; 0; . . .; 0A:@x1 ; . . .; xk ; 0; . . .; 0 A
: |fflfflffl{zfflfflffl} |fflfflffl{zfflfflffl}
mk mk

2 wjV \ W ðV \ W Þ ;
that is,
80 1 0 1 9
< =
wððV \ W Þ \ SÞ ¼ @x1 ; . . .; xk ; 0; . . .; 0A : @x1 ; . . .; xk ; 0; . . .; 0A 2 wðV \ W Þ ;
: |fflfflffl{zfflfflffl} |fflfflffl{zfflfflffl} ;
mk mk
that is,
80 1 0 1 9
< =
wðU \ V Þ ¼ @x1 ; . . .; xk ; 0; . . .; 0 A : @x1 ; . . .; xk ; 0; . . .; 0 A 2 wðV \ W Þ :
mk mk
Let wðqÞ 2 LHS, where q 2 U \ V. Since q 2 U \ V, q 2 U, and hence,

uðqÞ 2 uðUÞ. Put uðqÞ ðy1 ; . . .; yk Þ. Thus, ðy1 ; . . .; yk Þ 2 uðUÞ, and hence,
0 1
1
wðqÞ ¼ w u ðy1 ; . . .; yk Þ ¼ w u1 ðy1 ; . . .; yk Þ ¼ @y1 ; . . .; yk ; 0; . . .; 0A:
mk
Since q 2 U \ V, q 2 V. Since q 2 U, and W \ S ¼ U, q 2 W. Since q 2 W, and

q 2 V, q 2 V \ W, and hence,
0 1
@y1 ; . . .; yk ; 0; . . .; 0A ¼ wðqÞ 2 wðV \ W Þ:
mk
Thus,
0 1 80 1
<
LHS ¼ wðqÞ ¼ @y1 ; . . .; yk ; 0; . . .; 0 A 2 @x1 ; . . .; xk ; 0; . . .; 0A :
|fflfflffl{zfflfflffl} : |fflfflffl{zfflfflffl}
mk mk
0 1 9
=
@x1 ; . . .; xk ; 0; . . .; 0A 2 wðV \ W Þ ¼ RHS:
|fflfflffl{zfflfflffl} ;
mk
Thus, LHS RHS. Next, let

0 1
LHS ¼ wðqÞ @y1 ; . . .; yk ; 0; . . .; 0A 2 RHS;
mk
where q 2 V \ W. We have to show that wðqÞ 2 wðU \ VÞ. It suffices to show that
q 2 U. Here, q 2 V \ W, so
0 1
@y1 ; . . .; yk ; 0; . . .; 0 A ¼ wðqÞ 2 wðVÞ ¼ C m ð0Þ
|fflfflffl{zfflfflffl} e
mk
¼ ðe; eÞ ðe; eÞ ðe; eÞ ðe; eÞ ;
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
k mk
and hence,
ðy1 ; . . .; yk Þ 2 ðe; eÞ ðe; eÞ ¼ Cek ð0Þ ¼ uðUÞ:

|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
k
Since ðy1 ; . . .; yk Þ 2 uðUÞ, u1 ðy1 ; . . .; yk Þ 2 U, and

0 1
1
w u ðy1 ; . . .; yk Þ ¼ w u1 ðy1 ; . . .; yk Þ ¼ @y1 ; . . .; yk ; 0; . . .; 0 A ¼ wðqÞ:
mk
Now, since ψ is 1–1, q ¼ u1 ðy1 ; . . .; yk Þ 2 U. h

subset of M. Let S be an embedded k-dimensional submanifold of M. There exists a
unique smooth structure over S with respect to which S is an embedded k-dimen-
sional submanifold of M.
Proof Since S is an embedded submanifold of M, the topology over S is the
subspace topology inherited from M, and there exists a smooth structure A on
S with respect to which S becomes a k-dimensional smooth manifold such that the
inclusion map i : S ! M is a smooth embedding.
By Lemma 5.120, S satisfies the local k-slice condition. Since S satisfies the local
k-slice condition, by Note 5.114, the smooth structure A is unique. h
subset of M. Let S be an embedded k-dimensional submanifold of M. Let p 2 S. Let
v 2 Tp M. Let ðf 2 C1 ðMÞ satisfying f jS ¼ 0Þ implies vðf Þ ¼ 0. Then, v 2 Tp S.
Proof By Lemma 5.121, there exists a unique smooth structure A over S with
respect to which S is an embedded k-dimensional submanifold of M. Thus, the
topology of S is the subspace topology of M, and ðS; AÞ is a k-dimensional smooth

manifold. Since S is an embedded k-dimensional submanifold of M, by Lemma
5.120, S satisfies the local k-slice condition. Since S satisfies the local k-slice
condition, and p 2 S, there exists an admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ of M such
that p 2 V, and V \ Sð VÞ is equal to a k-slice of V. For definiteness, let
V \ S ¼ w1 ðfðx1 ; . . .; xk ; xkþ1 ; . . .; xm Þ 2 wðVÞ : xkþ1 ¼ 0; . . .; xm ¼ 0gÞ;
that is,
wðV \ SÞ ¼ fðx1 ; . . .; xk ; xkþ1 ; . . .; xm Þ 2 wðVÞ : xkþ1 ¼ 0; . . .; xm ¼ 0g;
that is,
80 1 0 1 9
< =
wðV \ SÞ ¼ @x1 ; . . .; xk ; 0; . . .; 0A : @x1 ; . . .; xk ; 0; . . .; 0A 2 wðVÞ :
mk mk
Since ðV; wÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of M such that p 2 V, for every

q 2 V,
!
o o o o
; . . .; k ; kþ1 ; . . . m
oy1 q oy q oy q oy q
is the coordinate basis of Tq M corresponding to ðV; wÞ, where

!
o 1 o
d w wðqÞ :
oyi q oyi wðqÞ
By Note 5.96, there exists a smooth structure B on S such that S becomes a k-

dimensional embedded submanifold of M, and
!
o o
; . . .; k
oy1 q oy q
is a basis of ðdiq ÞðTq SÞ, where i : S ! M denotes the inclusion map of S. Now,
since A is unique, A ¼ B. Since p 2 V,
!
o o o o
; . . .; k ; kþ1 ; . . . m
oy1 p oy p oy p oy p
is a basis of the real linear space Tp M. Now, since v 2 Tp M, there exist real
numbers v1 ; . . .; vk ; vkþ1 ; . . .; vm such that
! ! ! !
o o o o
v¼v 1
þ þ v k
þv kþ1
þ þ v m
:
oy1 p oyk p oykþ1 p oym p
We shall try to show that vkþ1 ¼ 0. Here, w : V ! wðVÞð Rm Þ is smooth, so

the ðk þ 1Þth projection map pkþ1 w : V ! R of ψ is smooth. Here, V is an open
neighborhood of p in M, and M is a smooth manifold, there exists an open
neighborhood W of p such that p 2 W W V. By Lemma 4.58, there exists a
smooth function v : M ! ½0; 1 such that
1. for every x in W ; vðxÞ ¼ 1,
2. supp v V.
If x 2 ðM ðsupp vÞÞ \ V, then x 2 ðM ðsupp vÞÞ, and hence, by the defi-
nition of support, vðxÞ ¼ 0. It follows that if x 2 ðM ðsupp vÞÞ \ V, then
ðvðxÞÞððpkþ1 wÞðxÞÞ ¼ ð0Þððpkþ1 wÞðxÞÞ ¼ 0. This shows that the following
function f : M ! R defined as follows: For every x 2 M,
ðvðxÞÞððpkþ1 wÞðxÞÞ if x2V

f ðxÞ
0 if M ðsupp vÞ;
is well defined. Since V is open, x 7! vðxÞ is smooth, and x 7! ðpkþ1 wÞðxÞ is

smooth, their product x 7! ðvðxÞÞððpkþ1 wÞðxÞÞ is smooth on V. Also, the constant
function x 7! 0 is smooth on the open set M ðsupp vÞ. Now, from the definition of
f : M ! R; f is smooth, that is, f 2 C 1 ðMÞ. From the definition of f : M ! R, we
can write: For every x 2 M,
ðvðxÞÞððpkþ1 wÞðxÞÞ if x2V
f ðxÞ
0 if x 62 V:
Clearly, f jS ¼ 0. (Reason: Let us take any x 2 S. We have to show that f ðxÞ ¼ 0.

For this purpose, it suffices to show that ðpkþ1 wÞðxÞ ¼ 0 whenever x 2 V. For
this purpose, let x 2 V. Since x 2 V, and x 2 S, x 2 V \ S. Since x 2 V \ S,
80 10 1 9
< =
wðxÞ 2 wðV \ SÞ ¼ @x1 ; . . .; xk ; 0; . . .; 0A:@x1 ; . . .; xk ; 0; . . .; 0A 2 wðVÞ ;
mk mk
and hence, there exist real numbers x1 ; . . .; xk , such that

0 1
wðxÞ ¼ @x1 ; . . .; xk ; 0; . . .; 0 A 2 wðVÞ:
mk
It follows that
0 1
ðpkþ1 wÞðxÞ ¼ pkþ1 ðwðxÞÞ ¼ pkþ1 @x1 ; . . .; xk ; 0; . . .; 0A ¼ 0:
mk
Thus, ðpkþ1 wÞðxÞ ¼ 0.) Since f 2 C1 ðMÞ, and f jS ¼ 0, by the assumption,

vðf Þ ¼ 0.
Since W V, for every x 2 W, we have x 2 V, and vðxÞ ¼ 1. Hence, for every
x 2 W, f ðxÞ ¼ ðvðxÞÞððpkþ1 wÞðxÞÞ ¼ ð1Þððpkþ1 wÞðxÞÞ ¼ ðpkþ1 wÞðxÞ. Thus,
f jW ¼ ðpkþ1 wÞjW . Now, since W is an open neighborhood of p,
0 ¼ 0ðpÞ ¼ ðvð f ÞÞðpÞ

! ! !
o o o
¼ v 1
þ þ v k
þv kþ1
oy1 p oyk p oykþ1 p
!! ! ! !
o o
þ þ vm ð f Þ ðpÞ ¼ v 1 ðfÞ

oym p oy1 p
! ! ! !
o o
þ þ v k
ðfÞ þ v kþ1
ðfÞ
oyk p oykþ1 p
! !!! ! !
o o
þ þ v m
ðfÞ ðpÞ ¼ v 1
f jW
oym p oy1 p
! ! ! !
o o
þ þ v k
f jW þv kþ1
f jW
oyk p oykþ1 p
! !!! ! !
o o
þ þ v m
f jW ðpÞ ¼ v 1
ðpkþ1 wÞjW
oym p oy1 p
! ! ! !
o o
þ þ v k
ðpkþ1 wÞjW þv kþ1
ðpkþ1 wÞjW
oyk p oykþ1 p
! !!!
o
þ þ v m
ðpkþ1 wÞjW ðpÞ:
oym p
Now, since
! !!
o o
ðpkþ1 wÞjW ¼ d w1 wðpÞ ðpkþ1 wÞjW
oy p
i oy wðpÞ
i
! !
o o

¼ ðpkþ1 wÞjW w1 ¼ ðpkþ1 Þ
oyi wðpÞ oyi wðpÞ
0 if i 6¼ k þ 1
¼
1 if i ¼ k þ 1;

0 ¼ v1 ð0Þ þ þ vk ð0Þ þ vkþ1 ð1Þ þ þ vm ð0Þ ðpÞ ¼ vkþ1 ð1ðpÞÞ ¼ vkþ1 1
¼ vkþ1 :
Thus, vkþ1 ¼ 0.
Similarly, vkþ2 ¼ 0; ; vm ¼ 0. Hence,
! ! ! !
o o o o
v¼v 1
þ þ v k
þ0 þ þ 0
oy1 p oyk p oykþ1 p oym p
! ! !
o o o o
¼ v1 þ þ v k
2 span ; . . .; k ¼ dip Tp S :
oy p
1 oy p
k oy p
1 oy p
Thus, v 2 ðdip ÞðTp SÞ. Now, since we do not distinguish between ðdip ÞðTp SÞ and
Tp S, we can write v 2 Tp S. h
Chapter 6
Sard’s Theorem
The root of Sard’s theorem lies in real analysis. It is one of the deep results in real
analysis. How this result can be generalized into the realm of smooth manifold
theory is only a later development. Its importance in manifold theory is for a
definite reason. Upon applying Sard’s theorem, Whitney was able to prove a
startling property about smooth manifolds: For every smooth manifold, ambient
space can be constructed, etc. For pedagogical reasons, we have given its proof in
step-by-step manner using Taylor’s inequality. Largely, this chapter is self-
contained.
6.1 Measure Zero in Manifolds
Lemma 6.1 Let A be any nonempty compact subset of R4 : For every k ¼ 1; 2; 3; 4;

let lk denote the k-dimensional (Lebesgue) measure over Rk .
If for every real c; l3 ðfðy; z; wÞ : ðc; y; z; wÞ 2 AgÞ ¼ 0, then l4 ðAÞ ¼ 0.
Proof Since A is compact in R4 , by the Henie-Borel theorem, A is bounded and
closed. Since A is bounded, there exist real numbers a; b; a2 ; b2 ; a3 ; b3 ; a4 ; b4 such
that a\b; a2 \b2 ; a3 \b3 ; a4 \b4 , and A ½a; b ½a2 ; b2 ½a3 ; b3 ½a4 ; b4
½a; b R R R ¼ ½a; b R3 : Thus, A ½a; b R3 .
Let us fix any d1 [ 0: Put d 2ðbaÞ d1
ð [ 0Þ: It suffices to find a finite collection
of four-dimensional rectangles that covers A; and sum of their l4 -measures is less
than d1 :
Next let us fix any real c 2 ½a; b:
Clearly, fðy; z; wÞ : ðc; y; z; wÞ 2 Ag is a compact subset of R3 .
(Reason: Let us define a function f : R4 ! R3 as follows: For every ðx; y; z; wÞ
in R4 ; f ðx; y; z; wÞ ðy; z; wÞ: Clearly, f : R4 ! R3 is continuous. It is clear that
fcg R3 is a closed subset of R4 : Since fcg R3 is a closed subset of R4 ; and A is
a closed subset of R4 ; their intersection A \ ðfcg R3 Þ is a closed subset of
the compact set A; and hence, A \ ðfcg R3 Þ is compact. Since A \ ðfcg R3 Þ is

432 6 Sard’s Theorem
compact, and f : R4 ! R3 is continuous, the f -image set f ðA \ ðfcg R3 ÞÞ

ð¼ ff ðc; y; z; wÞ : ðc; y; z; wÞ 2 Ag ¼ fðy; z; wÞ : ðc; y; z; wÞ 2 AgÞ is compact in R3 ;
and hence, fðy; z; wÞ : ðc; y; z; wÞ 2 Ag is compact in R3 ).
Since the three-dimensional measure l3 fðy; z; wÞ : ðc; y; z; wÞ 2 Ag ¼ 0, and
d [ 0; by the definition of measure, there exists a countable collection
fC1 ; C2 ; C3 ; . . .g of open cubes in R3 such that fðy; z; wÞ : ðc; y; z; wÞ 2 Ag C1 [
C2 [ C3 [ ; and l3 ðC1 Þ þ l3 ðC2 Þ þ l3 ðC3 Þ þ \d: Since fðy; z; wÞ :
ðc; y; z; wÞ 2 Ag is a compact subset of R3 ; and fC1 ; C2 ; C3 ; . . .g is an open cover of
fðy; z; wÞ : ðc; y; z; wÞ 2 Ag; there exists a positive integer kc such that fðy; z; wÞ :
ðc; y; z; wÞ 2 Ag C1 [ C2 [ [ Ckc ; and l3 ðC1 Þ þ l3 ðC2 Þ þ þ l3 ðCkc Þ
l3 ðC1 Þ þ l3 ðC2 Þ þ l3 ðC3 Þ þ \d:
We claim that there exists a positive integer n such that A \ ððc 1n ; c þ 1nÞ
R3 Þ ðc 1n ; c þ 1nÞ ðC1 [ C2 [ [ Ckc Þ:
If not, otherwise, let for every positive integer n; A \ ððc 1n ; c þ 1nÞ R3 Þ 6
ðc 1n ; c þ 1nÞ ðC1 [ C2 [ [ Ckc Þ: We have to arrive at a contradiction.
Thus, for every positive integer n; there exists ðxn ; yn ; zn ; wn Þ 2 A \
ððc 1n ; c þ 1nÞ R3 Þð AÞ and ðxn ; yn ; zn ; wn Þ 62 ðc 1n ; c þ 1nÞ ðC1 [ C2 [
[ Ckc Þ: Since fðx1 ; y1 ; z1 ; w1 Þ; ðx2 ; y2 ; z2 ; w2 Þ; ðx3 ; y3 ; z3 ; w3 Þ; . . .g is a sequence in the
compact set A; there exists a subsequence fðxn1 ; yn1 ; zn1 wn1 Þ; ðxn2 ; yn2 ; zn2 ; wn2 Þ;
ðxn3 ; yn3 ; zn3 ; wn3 Þ; . . .g of fðx1 ; y1 ; z1 ; w1 Þ; ðx2 ; y2 ; z2 ; w2 Þ; ðx3 ; y3 ; z3 ; w3 Þ; . . .g such
that fðxn1 ; yn1 ; zn1 wn1 Þ; ðxn2 ; yn2 ; zn2 ; wn2 Þ; ðxn3 ; yn3 ; zn3 ; wn3 Þ; . . .g is convergent, and
hence, there exist real numbers a1 ; a2 ; a3 ; a4 such that limi!1 ðxni ; yni ; zni wni Þ ¼
ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; a4 Þ: It follows that limi!1 xni ¼ a1 ; limi!1 yni ¼ a2 , limi!1 zni ¼ a3 ,
limi!1 wni ¼ a4 . Since each ðxn ; yn ; zn ; wn Þ 2 A \ ððc 1n ; c þ 1nÞ R3 Þ; each xn 2
ðc 1n ; c þ 1nÞ; and hence, limn!1 xn ¼ c: Since limn!1 xn ¼ c; a1 ¼ limi!1 xni ¼ c:
Since a1 ¼ c; and limi!1 ðxni ; yni ; zni ; wni Þ ¼ ða1 ; a2 ; a3 ; a4 Þ; limi!1 ðxni ; yni ; zni ; wni Þ ¼
1 1
ðc; a2 ; a3 ; a4 Þ: Since ðxn ; yn ; zn ; wn Þ 62 ðc ; c þ Þ ðC1 [ C2 [ [ Ckc Þ; and xn 2
n n
ðc 1n ; c þ 1nÞ; ðyn ; zn ; wn Þ 62 ðC1 [ C2 [ [ Ckc Þ: Since limi!1 ðxni ; yni ; zni wni Þ ¼
ðc; a2 ; a3 ; a4 Þ; limi!1 ðyni ; zni wni Þ ¼ ða2 ; a3 ; a4 Þ: Since each ðyni ; zni wni Þ is in the
closed set ðC1 [ C2 [ [ Ckc Þc ; ða2 ; a3 ; a4 Þ ¼ ðlimi!1 ðyni ; zni wni ÞÞ 2 ðC1 [ C2 [
[ Ckc Þc ; and hence, ða2 ; a3 ; a4 Þ 62 ðC1 [ C2 [ [ Ckc Þð fðy; z; wÞ : ðc; y; z; wÞ 2 AgÞ: It
follows that ða2 ; a3 ; a4 Þ 62 fðy; z; wÞ : ðc; y; z; wÞ 2 Ag; and hence, ðc; a2 ; a3 ; a4 Þ 62 A.
Since limi!1 ðxni ; yni ; zni wni Þ ¼ ðc; a2 ; a3 ; a4 Þ; and each ðxni ; yni ; zni wni Þ is in the
closed set A; ðc; a2 ; a3 ; a4 Þ ¼ ðlimi!1 ðxni ; yni ; zni wni ÞÞ 2 A; which is a contradiction.
So our claim is true.
Thus, for every c 2 ½a; b; there exist a positive integer nc and an open subset
Gc ð C1 [ C2 [ [ Ckc Þ of R3 such that A \ ððc n1c ; c þ n1c Þ R3 Þ
ðc n1c ; c þ n1c Þ Gc : If we shrink ðc n1c ; c þ n1c Þ into another open interval J; that
is, J ðc n1c ; c þ n1c Þ; then clearly A \ ðJ R3 Þ J Gc . (Reason: Let
ðx; y; z; wÞ 2 LHS ¼ A \ ðJ R3 Þ. It follows that x 2 J and ðx; y; z; wÞ 2 A: Since
x 2 J ðc n1c ; c þ n1c Þ; x 2 ðc n1c ; c þ n1c Þ: Since x 2 ðc n1c ; c þ n1c Þ; and
6.1 Measure Zero in Manifolds 433
ðx; y; z; wÞ 2 A; ðx; y; z; wÞ 2 A \ ððc n1c ; c þ n1c Þ R3 Þ ðc n1c ; c þ n1c Þ Gc ;

and hence, ðy; z; wÞ 2 Gc : Since x 2 J; and ðy; z; wÞ 2 Gc ; ðx; y; z; wÞ 2 J Gc ¼
RHS: Thus, LHS RHS).
Here, l3 ðGc1 Þ ¼ l3 ðC1 [ [ Ckc1 Þ l3 ðC1 Þ þ þ l3 ðCkc1 Þ\d: Thus,
l3 ðGc1 Þ\d: Similarly, l3 ðGc1 Þ\d; etc.
Since ½a; b is compact, and fðc n1c ; c þ n1c Þ : c 2 ½a; bg is an open cover of
½a; b; there exist finite many c1 ; . . .; cl in ½a; b such that ½a; b
ðc1 n1c ; c1 þ n1c Þ [ [ ðcl n1c ; cl þ n1c Þ: From the above observation, there
1 1 l l
exist open intervals J1 ; . . .; Jl such that J1 ðc1 n1c ; c1 þ n1c Þ; . . .; Jl

1 1
ðcl n1c ; cl þ n1c Þ; ½a; b J1 [ [ Jl ; and l1 ðJ1 Þ þ þ l1 ðJl Þ 2ðb aÞ:

l l
Further, since A ½a; b R3 , so

A ¼ A \ ½a; b R3 A \ ðJ1 [ [ Jl Þ R3 ¼ A \ J1 R3 [ [ Jl R3

¼ A \ J1 R3 [ [ A \ Jl R3 ðJ1 Gc1 Þ [ [ ðJl Gcl Þ:
Further, since J1 Gc1 ¼ J1 ðC1 [ [ Ckc1 Þ ¼ ðJ1 C1 Þ [ [ ðJ1 Ckc1 Þ and
J1 C1 ; . . .; J1 Ckc1 are rectangles in R4 ; J1 Gc1 is a finite union of rectangles.
Similarly, J1 Gc2 is a finite union of rectangles, etc. Now, since A
ðJ1 Gc1 Þ [ [ðJl Gcl Þ; A is covered by a finite collection of rectangles in
R4 : Here, l4 ðJ1 Gc1 Þ þ þ l4 ðJl Gcl Þ ¼ l1 ðJ1 Þ l3 ðGc1 Þ þ þ l1 ðJl Þ l3 ðGcl Þ
\l1 ðJ1 Þ d þ þ l1 ðJl Þ d ¼ ðl1 ðJ1 Þ þ þ l1 ðJl ÞÞd 2ðb aÞ d ¼ 2ðb aÞ
2ðbaÞ ¼ d1 : h
d1
Note 6.2 The Lemma 6.1 can be generalized as follows:

Let A be any nonempty compact subset of Rn : For every k ¼ 1; . . .; n; let lk
denote the k-dimensional measure over Rk :
If for every real c; ln1 ðfðx2 ; . . .; xn Þ : ðc; x2 ; . . .; xn Þ 2 AgÞ ¼ 0, then ln ðAÞ ¼ 0:
Lemma 6.3 Let A be a nonempty compact subset of R: Let f : A ! R be contin-
uous. For every k ¼ 1; 2; let lk denote the k-dimensional measure over Rk :
Then, l2 ðfðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 AgÞ ¼ 0:
In short, the graph of a continuous function has measure 0 in R2 :
Proof A is a compact subset of R1 ð¼ RÞ: We have to prove that
l2 ðfðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 AgÞ ¼ 0:
We want to apply the result of 6.2. Clearly, fðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 Ag is a compact
subset of R2 :
(Reason: First of all, we shall try to show that fðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 Ag is a closed
subset of R2 : For this purpose, let us take a convergent sequence fðxn ; f ðxn ÞÞg in
fðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 Ag: Let limn!1 ðxn ; f ðxn ÞÞ ¼ ða; bÞ: We have to show that ða; bÞ 2
fðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 Ag; that is, a 2 A and f ðaÞ ¼ b: Since limn!1 ðxn ; f ðxn ÞÞ ¼ ða; bÞ;
limn!1 xn ¼ a; and limn!1 f ðxn Þ ¼ b: Since fðxn ; f ðxn ÞÞg is in fðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 Ag;
for each positive integer n; xn 2 A: Since A is compact, A is closed. Since A is
closed, for each positive integer n; xn 2 A; and limn!1 xn ¼ a; a ¼ ðlimn!1 xn Þ 2

A; and hence, a 2 A: Since fxn g is a convergent sequence in A; limn!1 xn ¼ a 2
A; and f : A ! R is continuous, b ¼ limn!1 f ðxn Þ ¼ f ðaÞ: Thus, we have shown
that fðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 Ag is a closed subset of R2 : Clearly, fðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 Ag
A f ðAÞ: Since A is compact, and f : A ! R is continuous, f ðAÞ is compact. Since
A is compact, and f ðAÞ is compact, their Cartesian product A f ðAÞ is compact.
Thus, fðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 Ag is a closed subset of the compact set A f ðAÞ; and hence,
fðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 Ag is compact.)
For every real c; fx2 : ðc; x2 Þ 2 fðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 Agg ¼ ; or ff ðcÞg; so l1 ðfx2 :
ðc; x2 Þ 2 fðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 AggÞ ¼ l1 ð;Þð¼ 0Þ or l1 ðff ðcÞgÞð¼ 0Þ; and hence, l1 ðfx2 :
ðc; x2 Þ 2 fðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 AggÞ ¼ 0. Now, we can apply Lemma 6.1. It follows that
l2 ðfðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 AgÞ ¼ 0: h
Lemma 6.4 Let A be a nonempty compact subset of R2 : Let f : A ! R be con-
tinuous. For every k ¼ 1; 2; 3; let lk denote the k-dimensional measure over Rk :
Then, l3 ðfðx; y; f ðx; yÞÞ : ðx; yÞ 2 AgÞ ¼ 0:
Proof We have to prove that l3 ðfðx; y; f ðx; yÞÞ : ðx; yÞ 2 AgÞ ¼ 0 (see Fig. 6.1).
Clearly, fðx; y; f ðx; yÞÞ : ðx; yÞ 2 Ag is a compact subset of R3 :
(Reason: First of all, we shall try to show that fðx; y; f ðx; yÞÞ : ðx; yÞ 2 Ag is a
closed subset of R3 : For this purpose, let us take any convergent sequence
fðxn ; yn ; f ðxn ; yn ÞÞg in fðx; y; f ðx; yÞÞ : ðx; yÞ 2 Ag: Let limn!1 ðxn ; yn ; f ðxn ; yn ÞÞ ¼
ða; b; cÞ: We have to show that ða; b; cÞ 2 fðx; y; f ðx; yÞÞ : ðx; yÞ 2 Ag; that is,
ða; bÞ 2 A: Since limn!1 ðxn ; yn ; f ðxn ; yn ÞÞ ¼ ða; b; cÞ; limn!1 xn ¼ a; limn!1 yn ¼
b; and limn!1 f ðxn ; yn Þ ¼ c: Here, fðxn ; yn ; f ðxn ; yn ÞÞg is a sequence in
fðx; y; f ðx; yÞÞ : ðx; yÞ 2 Ag; so each ðxn ; yn ; f ðxn ; yn ÞÞ 2 fðx; y; f ðx; yÞÞ : ðx; yÞ 2 Ag;
and hence, each ðxn ; yn Þ 2 A: Since A is compact, A is closed. Since limn!1 xn ¼ a;
and limn!1 yn ¼ b; limn!1 ðxn ; yn Þ ¼ ða; bÞ: Since each ðxn ; yn Þ 2 A; limn!1
ðxn ; yn Þ ¼ ða; bÞ; and A is closed, ða; bÞ ¼ ðlimn!1 ðxn ; yn ÞÞ 2 A; and hence, ða; bÞ 2
A: Since each ðxn ; yn Þ 2 A; limn!1 ðxn ; yn Þ ¼ ða; bÞ 2 A; and f : A ! R is continu-
ous, c ¼ limn!1 f ðxn ; yn Þ ¼ f ða; bÞ: Since ða; bÞ 2 A; ða; b; cÞ ¼ ða; b; f ða; bÞÞ 2
fðx; y; f ðx; yÞÞ : ðx; yÞ 2 Ag: Thus, we have shown that fðx; y; f ðx; yÞÞ : ðx; yÞ 2 Ag is
closed. Here, fðx; y; f ðx; yÞÞ : ðx; yÞ 2 Ag A f ðAÞ: Since f : A ! R is continu-
ous, and A is compact, f ðAÞ is compact. Since A is compact, and f ðAÞ is compact,
Fig. 6.1 fðx; y; f ðx; yÞÞ : ðx; yÞ 2 Ag is a compact subset of R3

A f ðAÞ is compact in R3 : Since fðx; y; f ðx; yÞÞ : ðx; yÞ 2 Ag is a closed subset of

the compact set A f ðAÞ; fðx; y; f ðx; yÞÞ : ðx; yÞ 2 Ag is compact.)
Now, by 6.2, it suffices to show that for every real c;
l2 ðfðs; tÞ : ðc; s; tÞ 2 fðx; y; f ðx; yÞÞ : ðx; yÞ 2 AggÞ ¼ 0:
For this purpose, let us fix any real c. Since A is a nonempty compact subset of
R2 ; clearly fs : ðc; sÞ 2 Ag is a compact subset of R: (See the proof of Lemma 6.1)
Let us define a function fc : fs : ðc; sÞ 2 Ag ! R as follows: for every s 2
fs : ðc; sÞ 2 Ag; fc ðsÞ f ðc; sÞ: Since fc is the composite of continuous function
s 7! ðc; sÞ; and continuous function f : A ! R; fc : fs : ðc; sÞ 2 Ag ! R is a con-
tinuous function. Also, the domain of fc ; that is, fs : ðc; sÞ 2 Ag is compact. It
follows, by Lemma 6.3, that l2 ðfðx; fc ðxÞÞ : x 2 fs : ðc; sÞ 2 AggÞ ¼ 0: Now, it
suffices to show that fðs; tÞ : ðc; s; tÞ 2 fðx; y; f ðx; yÞÞ : ðx; yÞ 2 Agg ¼ fðx; fc ðxÞÞ :
x 2 fs : ðc; sÞ 2 Agg:
Let us take any ðg; 1Þ 2 LHS. It follows that ðc; g; 1Þ 2 fðx; y; f ðx; yÞÞ : ðx; yÞ
2 Ag; and hence, ðc; gÞ 2 A; and 1 ¼ f ðc; gÞ ¼ fc ðgÞ: Since ðc; gÞ 2 A; g 2
fs : ðc; sÞ 2 Ag; and hence, ðg; 1Þ ¼ ðg; fc ðgÞÞ 2 RHS: Thus, LHS RHS: Next,
let us take any ðg; 1Þ 2 RHS: It follows that there exists a real x such that ðg; 1Þ ¼
ðx; fc ðxÞÞ: Since ðg; 1Þ ¼ ðx; fc ðxÞÞ; g ¼ x; and 1 ¼ fc ðxÞ ¼ f ðc; xÞ: Since 1 ¼ f ðc; xÞ;
and f : A ! R; ðc; xÞ 2 A; and hence, ðc; g; 1Þ ¼ ðc; x; 1Þ ¼ ðc; x; f ðc; xÞÞ 2
fðx; y; f ðx; yÞÞ : ðx; yÞ 2 Ag: Since ðc; g; 1Þ 2 fðx; y; f ðx; yÞÞ : ðx; yÞ 2 Ag; ðg; 1Þ 2
LHS: Thus, RHS LHS: Since RHS LHS; and LHS RHS; LHS ¼ RHS: h
Note 6.5 The Lemma 6.4 can be generalized as follows:
Let n 2 f2; 3; 4; . . .g: Let A be a nonempty compact subset of Rn1 : Let f :
A ! R be continuous. For every k ¼ 1; . . .; n; let lk denote the k-dimensional
measure over Rk : Then, ln ðfðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 AgÞ ¼ 0.
Lemma 6.6 Let X be a second countable, locally compact Hausdorff space. Then,
there exists a sequence fKn g of compact subsets of X such that
1. fKn g is a cover of X;
2. K1 ðK2 Þo K2 ðK3 Þo K3 ðK4 Þo K4 :
Proof Since X is a locally compact Hausdorff space, there exists a basis B of X

such that if U 2 B then U is compact. Since B is a basis of X, B is an open cover
of X. Since B is an open cover of X; and X is a second countable space, there exists
a countable collection fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g of members of B which also covers X.
Since fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g covers X; and for each positive integer n; Un ðUn Þ ,
fðU1 Þ ; ðU2 Þ ; ðU3 Þ ; . . .g also covers X: Put K1 ðU1 Þ : Since U1 2 B,
ðU1 Þ ð¼ K1 Þ is compact, and hence, K1 is compact. Since K1 is compact, and
fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is an open cover of K1 , there exists a positive integer n1 [ 1 such
that K1 U1 [ [ Un1 . Here, ðU1 [ [ Un1 Þ ¼ ðU1 Þ [ [ ðUn1 Þ . Since
ðU1 Þ ; . . .; ðUn1 Þ are compact, ðU1 Þ [ [ ðUn1 Þ ð¼ ðU1 [ [ Un1 Þ Þ is
compact, and hence, ðU1 [ [ Un1 Þ is compact. Put K2 ðU1 [ [ Un1 Þ .
Since ðU1 [ [ Un1 Þ ð¼ K2 Þ is compact, K2 is compact. Since U1 [ [ Un1 is an

open set, and ðU1 [ [ Un1 Þ ðU1 [ [ Un1 Þ ¼ K2 , K1 ðU1 [ [ Un1 Þ
ðK2 Þo K2 . Thus, K1 ; K2 are compact sets satisfying K1 ðK2 Þo K2 . Since K2
is compact, and fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is an open cover of K2 , there exists a positive integer
n2 [ n1 such that K2 U1 [ [ Un1 [ [ Un2 . Here, ðU1 [ [ Un2 Þ ¼
ðU1 Þ [ [ ðUn2 Þ . Since ðU1 Þ ; . . .; ðUn2 Þ are compact, ðU1 Þ [ [
ðUn2 Þ ð¼ ðU1 [ [ Un2 Þ Þ is compact, and hence, ðU1 [ [ Un2 Þ is compact.
Put K3 ðU1 [ [ Un2 Þ . Since ðU1 [ [ Un2 Þ ð¼ K3 Þ is compact, K3 is
compact. Since U1 [ [ Un2 is an open set, and ðU1 [ [ Un2 Þ ðU1 [
[Un2 Þ ¼ K3 , K2 ðU1 [ [ Un2 Þ ðK3 Þo K3 . Thus, K1 ; K2 ; K3 are compact
sets satisfying K1 ðK2 Þo K2 ðK3 Þo K3 , etc. This proves 2. Since
1\n1 \n2 \n3 \ , U1 K1 , U1 [ [ Un1 K2 ; U1 [ [Un2 K3 , etc., and
fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g covers X, fK1 ; K2 ; K3 ; . . .g is a cover of X: This proves 1. h
Lemma 6.7 Let n 2 f2; 3; 4; . . .g. Let A be a nonempty open subset of Rn1 . Let
f : A ! R be continuous. For every k ¼ 1; . . .; n; let lk denote the k-dimensional
measure over Rk . Then, ln ðfðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 AgÞ ¼ 0.
Proof Since Rn1 is a second countable space, and A is a nonempty subset of Rn1 ,
A is a second countable space. Since Rn1 is locally compact Hausdorff space, and
A is a nonempty open subset of Rn1 ; by Note 5.54, A is a locally compact
Hausdorff. Since A is a second countable, locally compact Hausdorff space, by
Lemma 6.6, there exists a sequence fKn g of compact subsets of X such that fKn g is
a cover of X. Hence, by Note 6.5,
( )!
[
1
0 ln ðfðx; f ð xÞÞ : x 2 AgÞ ln ðx; f ð xÞÞ : x 2 Kn
n¼1
!
[
1 X
1
¼ ln fðx; f ð xÞÞ : x 2 Kn g ln ðfðx; f ð xÞÞ : x 2 Kn gÞ
n¼1 n¼1
X
1 n o X1
¼ ln x; f jKn ð xÞ : x 2 Kn ¼ 0 ¼ 0:
n¼1 n¼1
Hence, ln ðfðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 AgÞ ¼ 0: h

Lemma 6.8 Let n 2 f2; 3; 4; . . .g: Let A be a nonempty closed subset of Rn1 : Let
f : A ! R be continuous. For every k ¼ 1; . . .; n; let lk denote the k-dimensional
measure over Rk : Then, ln ðfðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 AgÞ ¼ 0:
Proof Since Rn1 is a second countable space, and A is a nonempty subset of Rn1 ;
A is a second countable space. Since Rn1 is locally compact Hausdorff space, and
A is a nonempty closed subset of Rn1 ; by Note 5.55, A is a locally compact
Hausdorff. Since A is a second countable, locally compact Hausdorff space, by
Lemma 6.6, there exists a sequence fKn g of compact subsets of X such that fKn g is
a cover of X: Hence, by Note 6.5,
( )!
[
1
0 ln ðfðx; f ð xÞÞ : x 2 AgÞ ln ðx; f ð xÞÞ : x 2 Kn
n¼1
!
[
1 X
1
¼ ln fðx; f ð xÞÞ : x 2 Kn g ln ðfðx; f ð xÞÞ : x 2 Kn gÞ
n¼1 n¼1
X
1 n o X1
¼ ln x; f jKn ð xÞ : x 2 Kn ¼ 0 ¼ 0:
n¼1 n¼1
Hence, ln ðfðx; f ðxÞÞ : x 2 AgÞ ¼ 0: h

Definition Let V be any n-dimensional real linear space. Any subset of V of the
form a þ S; where S is a linear subspace of V; and a 2 V; is called an affine
subspace of V parallel to S and passing through a:
Note 6.9 In real linear space R3 ; let a þ S be an affine subspace of R3 parallel to S
and passing through a: Let the dimension of the subspace S be 2. We want to show
that l3 ða þ SÞ ¼ 0: Since the dimension of the subspace S is 2, there exist
ðb1 ; b2 ; b3 Þ; ðc1 ; c2 ; c3 Þ 2 R3 such that S ¼ fsðb1 ; b2 ; b3 Þ þ tðc1 ; c2 ; c3 Þ : s; t 2 Rg.
Let a ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ: Hence,
a þ S ¼ ða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ þ fsðb1 ; b2 ; b3 Þ þ tðc1 ; c2 ; c3 Þ : s; t 2 Rg

¼ fða1 ; a2 ; a3 Þ þ sðb1 ; b2 ; b3 Þ þ tðc1 ; c2 ; c3 Þ : s; t 2 Rg
¼ fðx; y; zÞ : x ¼ b1 s þ c1 t þ a1 ; y ¼ b2 s þ c2 t þ a2 ; z ¼ b3 s þ c3 t þ a3 g:
If ðx; y; zÞ 2 a þ S; then there exist real numbers s; t such that

8
< b1 s þ c 1 t ¼ x a 1
b s þ c 2 t ¼ y a2
: 2
b3 s þ c 3 t ¼ z a3 :
From the first two equations, we have

b1 c 1 b1 c 1
s ¼ x a1 c1 and t ¼ b1 x a1 :
b2 c 2 y a2 c 2 b2 c 2 b2 y a2
Now, from the third equation,

x a1 c 1 b1 x a1 b1 c 1

b3
þ c3
¼ ð z a3 Þ :
y a2 c 2 b2 y a2 b2 c 2
Clearly, this takes the form A1 x þ A2 y þ A3 z ¼ A4 ; and not all A1 ; A2 ; A3 are

zero. For definiteness, let A3 6¼ 0: It follows that

A4 A1 A2
aþS¼ x; y; x y : ðx; yÞ 2 R2 :
A1 A3 A3
Now, we can apply Lemma 6.8. It follows that

A4 A1 A2
l 3 ð a þ S Þ ¼ l3 x; y; x y : ðx; yÞ 2 R ¼ 0:
2
h
A1 A3 A3
We can easily generalize the above result as the following:

Lemma 6.10 Let n 2 f2; 3; 4; . . .g: Let A be an affine subspace of Rn such that
A 6¼ Rn : For every k ¼ 1; . . .; n; let lk denote the k-dimensional measure over Rk :
Then, ln ðAÞ ¼ 0:
Proof Its proof is similar to the proof given in the Note 6.9. h
sional smooth manifold. Let A be a nonempty subset of M: Let F : A ! N be any
map. If for every p 2 A; there exist an open neighborhood W of p in M; and a
~ : W ! N such that for every x 2 W \ A; FðxÞ
function F ~ ~ :W !N
¼ FðxÞ; and F
is a smooth function, then we say that F : A ! N is smooth on A:
Lemma 6.11 Let A be a nonempty subset of R3 : For every k ¼ 1; 2; 3; let lk denote
the k-dimensional measure over Rk : Let l3 ðAÞ ¼ 0: Let F : A ! R3 be smooth on
A: Then, l3 ðFðAÞÞ ¼ 0:
Proof Let us take any p ðp1 ; p2 ; p3 Þ 2 A: Since F : A ! R3 is smooth on A; and
p 2 A; there exist an open neighborhood Wp ðp1 ep ; p1 þ ep Þ
ðp2 ep ; p2 þ ep Þ ðp3 ep ; p3 þ ep Þ of p in R3 ; and a function Fp : Wp ! R3
such that for every x 2 Wp \ A; Fp ðxÞ ¼ FðxÞ; and Fp : Wp ! R3 is a smooth
function. Since A is a nonempty subset of R3 ; and R3 is a second countable space, A
is a second countable space. Since A is a second countable space, and

1 1 1 1
p1 e p ; p1 þ e p p2 e p ; p2 þ e p
2 2 2 2

1 1
p3 e p ; p3 þ e p : p ð p1 ; p2 ; p3 Þ 2 A
2 2
is an open cover of A; there exists a countable collection of points

ðnÞ ðnÞ ðnÞ
pðnÞ p1 ; p2 ; p3 2 Aðn ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .Þ
such that

ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1
p1 epðnÞ ; p1 þ epðnÞ p2 epðnÞ ; p2 þ epðnÞ
2 2 2 2

ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1
p3 epðnÞ ; p3 þ epðnÞ : n ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .
2 2
is an open cover of A: It follows that

1 ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1
A [ p1 epðnÞ ; p1 þ epðnÞ p2 epðnÞ ; p2 þ epðnÞ
n¼1 2 2 2 2

ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1
p3 epðnÞ ; p3 þ epðnÞ ;
2 2
and hence,

1
A¼A\ p1 epðnÞ ; p1 þ epðnÞ p2 epðnÞ ; p2 þ epðnÞ
[
n¼1 2 2 2 2

ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1
p3 epðnÞ ; p3 þ epðnÞ
2 2

¼ [ A \ p1 epðnÞ ; p1 þ epðnÞ p2 epðnÞ ; p2 þ epðnÞ
n¼1 2 2 2 2

ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1
p3 epðnÞ ; p3 þ epðnÞ :
2 2
Hence,

FðAÞ ¼ F [ A \ p1 epðnÞ ; p1 þ epðnÞ p2 epðnÞ ; p2 þ epðnÞ
n¼1 2 2 2 2

ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1
2 2

¼ [ F A \ p1 epðnÞ ; p1 þ epðnÞ p2 epðnÞ ; p2 þ epðnÞ
n¼1 2 2 2 2

ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1
p3 epðnÞ ; p3 þ epðnÞ :
2 2
It follows that

1 ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1
0 l3 ðFðAÞÞ ¼ l3 [ F A \ p1 epðnÞ ; p1 þ epðnÞ
n¼1 2 2

2 2 2 2
X1
ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1
l3 F A \ p1 epðnÞ ; p1 þ epðnÞ
n¼1
2 2

2 2 2 2
X1
ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1
¼ l3 F A \ p1 epðnÞ ; p1 þ epðnÞ
n¼1
2 2

2 2 2 2
Hence, it suffices to show that for every n ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .,

l3 FpðnÞ A \ p1 epðnÞ ; p1 þ epðnÞ p2 epðnÞ ; p2 þ epðnÞ
2 2 2 2

ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1
p3 epðnÞ ; p3 þ epðnÞ ¼ 0:
2 2
For this purpose, let us take any d [ 0.

Since

ðnÞ ðnÞ ðnÞ ðnÞ
FpðnÞ : p1 epðnÞ ; p1 þ epðnÞ p2 epðnÞ ; p2 þ epðnÞ

ðnÞ ðnÞ
! R3
is a smooth function, by a result similar to Theorem 3.33,

0 ðnÞ ðnÞ

ðnÞ ðnÞ


ðnÞ ðnÞ
p 3 e p ð nÞ ; p 3 þ e p ð nÞ

! L R3 ; R3
is continuous. Since

4 4 4 4
ðnÞ 3 ðnÞ 3
4 4
is a compact subset of the domain of the continuous function ðFpðnÞ Þ0 , its image
under ðFpðnÞ Þ0 is compact in the metric space LðR3 ; R3 Þ and hence is bounded. Thus,
there exists a positive real number C such that
n 0 3 3 3 3
ðnÞ ðnÞ ðnÞ ðnÞ
sup FpðnÞ ð xÞ : x 2 p1 epðnÞ ; p1 þ epðnÞ p2 epðnÞ ; p2 þ epðnÞ
4 4 4 4

ðnÞ 3 ðnÞ 3
p3 epðnÞ ; p3 þ epðnÞ C:
4 4
Since

4 4 4 4
ðnÞ 3 ðnÞ 3
4 4
! R3
is a smooth function, by a result similar to Theorem 3.28, for every x; y in

ðnÞ3 ðnÞ 3 ðnÞ 3 ðnÞ 3
4 4 4 4

3 3
p3 epðnÞ ; p3 þ epðnÞ ; FpðnÞ ð yÞ FpðnÞ ð xÞ jy xjC:
ðnÞ ðnÞ
4 4
Since

A\ p1 epðnÞ ; p1 þ epðnÞ p2 epðnÞ ; p2 þ epðnÞ
2 2 2 2

ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1
p3 epðnÞ ; p3 þ epðnÞ A;
2 2
and

0 l3 A \ p1 epðnÞ ; p1 þ epðnÞ p2 epðnÞ ; p2 þ epðnÞ
2 2 2 2

ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1
p3 epðnÞ ; p3 þ epðnÞ l3 ðAÞ ¼ 0;
2 2
so

l3 A \ p1 epðnÞ ; p1 þ epðnÞ p2 epðnÞ ; p2 þ epðnÞ
2 2 2 2

ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1
p3 epðnÞ ; p3 þ epðnÞ ¼ 0:
2 2
Since

l3 A \ p1 epðnÞ ; p1 þ epðnÞ p2 epðnÞ ; p2 þ epðnÞ
2 2 2 2

ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1
p3 epðnÞ ; p3 þ epðnÞ ¼ 0;
2 2
there exists a countable collection of open cubes Bdk ðk ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .Þ of side length

dk ð [ 0Þ such that

A\ p1 epðnÞ ; p1 þ epðnÞ p2 epðnÞ ; p2 þ epðnÞ
2 2 2 2

ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1 1
p3 epðnÞ ; p3 þ epðnÞ [ Bdk ;
2 2 k¼1
and
X
1
d
l3 ðBdk Þ\ pffiffiffi 3 :
k¼1 2 3C
Here, for every k ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .,

diam FpðnÞ ðBdk Þ ¼ sup js tj : s; t 2 FpðnÞ ðBdk Þ

¼ sup FpðnÞ ð yÞ FpðnÞ ð xÞ : x; y 2 Bd
k
supfjy xjC : x; y 2 Bdk g

pffiffiffi
¼ C supfjy xj : x; y 2 Bdk g ¼ C diam Bdk ¼ C 3dk ;
so,
3
l3 FpðnÞ ðBdk Þ 2 diam FpðnÞ ðBdk Þ
pffiffiffi 3 pffiffiffi 3 pffiffiffi 3
2C 3dk ¼ 2 3C ðdk Þ3 ¼ 2 3C l3 ðBdk Þ:
It follows that

0 l3 FpðnÞ A \ p1 epðnÞ ; p1 þ epðnÞ p2 epðnÞ ; p2 þ epðnÞ
2 2 2 2

ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1 1
p3 epðnÞ ; p3 þ epðnÞ l3 FpðnÞ [ Bdk
2 2 k¼1
X 1 pffiffiffi 3
1 1 X
¼ l3 [ FpðnÞ ðBdk Þ l3 FpðnÞ ðBdk Þ 2 3C l3 ðBdk Þ
k¼1
k¼1 k¼1
pffiffiffi 3 X
1
¼ 2 3C l3 ðBdk Þ\d:
k¼1
It follows that

l3 FpðnÞ A \ p1 epðnÞ ; p1 þ epðnÞ p2 epðnÞ ; p2 þ epðnÞ
2 2 2 2

ðnÞ 1 ðnÞ 1
p3 epðnÞ ; p3 þ epðnÞ ¼ 0: h
2 2
We can easily generalize the above result as the following:

Lemma 6.12 Let A be a nonempty subset of Rn : For every k ¼ 1; . . .; n; let lk
denote the k-dimensional measure over Rk : Let ln ðAÞ ¼ 0: Let F : A ! Rn be
smooth on A: Then, ln ðFðAÞÞ ¼ 0:
Proof Its proof is similar to the proof given in Lemma 6.11. h
Definition Let M be an n-dimensional smooth manifold. Let A be a nonempty
subset of M: For every k ¼ 1; . . .; n; let lk denote the k-dimensional measure over
Rk : If for every admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ for M; ln ðuðA \ UÞÞ ¼ 0; then
we say that A has measure zero in M:
subset of M: For every k ¼ 1; . . .; m; let lk denote the k-dimensional measure over
Rk : Let fðU
S i ; ui Þ : i 2 Ig be a collection of admissible coordinate charts for M such
that A i2I Ui ; and for every i 2 I; lm ðui ðA \ Ui ÞÞ ¼ 0: Then, A has measure
zero in M:
Proof Let us take any admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ for M: We have to prove
that lm ðuðA \ UÞÞ ¼ 0: Since M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, M is a
second countable space. Since M is a second countable space, and A is a nonempty
subset of M; A is a second countable space. Since A is a second countable space,
and fUi : i 2 Ig is an open cover of A; there exists Sa countable subcollection
fUn : n ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .g of fUi : i 2 Ig such that A 1 n¼1 Un ; and hence, A ¼
S S1 S1
A\ð 1 U Þ ¼ ðA \ U Þ: It follows that uðA \ UÞ ¼ uðð n¼1 ðA \ Un ÞÞ\
S1 n
n¼1 n¼1 n
S1
UÞ ¼ uð n¼1 ðA \ Un \ UÞÞ ¼ n¼1 ðuðA \ Un \ UÞÞ; and hence, 0 lm ðuðA\
S P1
UÞÞ ¼ lm ð 1 n¼1 ðuðA \ Un \ UÞÞÞ n¼1 lm ðuðA \ Un \ UÞÞ: Now, it suffices to
show that for each positive integer n; lm ðuðA \ Un \ UÞÞ ¼ 0:
If not, otherwise, let there exists a positive integer n such that 0\lm ðuðA\ Un \
UÞÞ: We have to arrive at a contradiction. Since 0\lm ðuðA \ Un \ UÞÞ;
uðA \ Un \ UÞ 6¼ ;; and hence, A \ Un \ U 6¼ ;: It follows that Un \ U 6¼ ;: Since
Un \ U 6¼ ; and ðUn ; un Þ; ðU; uÞ are admissible coordinate charts for M; u
ððun Þ1 Þ : un ðUn \ UÞ ! uðUn \ UÞ is smooth. Here, A \ Un \ U 6¼ ;; so
un ðA \ Un \ UÞ is a nonempty subset of un ðUn \ UÞð Rm Þ: Since un ðA \ Un \ UÞ
is a nonempty subset of un ðUn \ UÞ; and u ððun Þ1 Þ : un ðUn \ UÞ ! uðUn \ UÞ
is smooth, the restriction ðu ððun Þ1 ÞÞjun ðA \ Un \ UÞ is smooth. Since ðUn ; un Þ 2
fðUi ; ui Þ : i 2 Ig, 0 lm ðun ðA \ Un \ UÞÞ lm ðun ðA \ Un ÞÞ ¼ 0, and hence
lm ðun ðA \ Un \ UÞÞ ¼ 0. Now, we can apply Lemma 6.12. It follows that

lm ðuðA \ Un \ U ÞÞ ¼ lm u ðun Þ1 ðun ðA \ Un \ U ÞÞ
un ðA\Un \U Þ
¼ 0;
Lemma 6.14 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let fAn g be a col-
lection of nonempty subsets of M: For every k ¼ 1; . . .; m; let lk denote the k-
S
dimensional measure over Rk : Let each An has measure zero in M: Then, 1 n¼1 An
has measure zero in M:
Proof For this purpose, let us takeS any admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ S1for M:
We have to prove that lm ðuðð 1 A Þ \ UÞÞ ¼ 0: Here, 0 l ðuðð n¼1 An Þ
S n¼1S n
P1 m
\UÞÞ ¼ lm ðuð 1 ðA
n¼1 n \ UÞÞÞ ¼ l m ð 1
n¼1 ðuðA n \ UÞÞÞ l
n¼1 m ðuðAn \ UÞÞ;
so it suffices to show that for each positive integer n; lm ðuðAn \ UÞÞ ¼ 0: If not,
otherwise, let there exists a positive integer n such that 0\lm ðuðAn \ UÞÞ: We
have to arrive at a contradiction. Since An has measure zero in M; and ðU; uÞ is an
admissible coordinate chart for M, lm ðuðAn \ UÞÞ ¼ 0; a contradiction. h
subset of M: For every k ¼ 1; . . .; m; let lk denote the k-dimensional measure over
Rk : Let A has measure zero in M: Then, Ac ð M AÞ is a dense subset of M:
Proof We have to show that Ac is dense in M; that is, ðAc Þ ¼ M; that is,
ððAc Þ Þc ð¼ Ao Þ ¼ ;: If not, otherwise, let Ao 6¼ ;: We have to arrive at a contra-
diction. Since Ao 6¼ ;; there exists a point p 2 A such that p is an interior point of A:
Since p is an interior point of A; there exists an open neighborhood G of p in M
such that p 2 G A: Since p 2 A M; and M is an m-dimensional smooth
manifold, there exists an admissible coordinate chart ðU; uÞ for M such that p 2 U:
Clearly, U \ Gð UÞ is an open neighborhood of p: Since U \ Gð UÞ is an open
neighborhood of p; and ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart for M;
ðU \ G; ujU\G Þ is an admissible coordinate chart for M: Here, uðpÞ is an interior
point of the subset ðujU\G ÞðU \ GÞð¼ uðU \ GÞÞ of Rm ; and hence, lm ðu
ðU \ GÞÞ [ 0: Since ðU \ G; ujU\G Þ is an admissible coordinate chart for M; and A

has measure zero in M;

0 ¼ lm ujU\G ðA \ ðU \ GÞÞ ¼ lm ðuðA \ ðU \ GÞÞÞ
¼ lm ðuðU \ ðA \ GÞÞÞ ¼ lm ðuðU \ GÞÞ:
This is a contradiction. h
Lemma 6.16 Let M be an n-dimensional smooth manifold, N be an n-dimensional
smooth manifold, F : M ! N be a smooth map, and A be a nonempty subset of M:
Let A has measure zero in M: Then, FðAÞ has measure zero in N:
Proof We have to prove that FðAÞ has measure zero in N: For this purpose, let us
take an admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ for N such that ðFðAÞÞ \ V 6¼ ;: We
have to show that ln ðwððFðAÞÞ \ VÞÞ ¼ 0; where ln denotes the n-dimensional
measure over Rn : Clearly, FðA \ F 1 ðVÞÞ ¼ ðFðAÞÞ \ V:
(Reason: LHS ¼ FðA \ F 1 ðVÞÞ ðFðAÞÞ \ ðFðF 1 ðVÞÞÞ ðFðAÞÞ \ V ¼
RHS: So, LHS RHS: Next, let us take any q 2 RHS ¼ ðFðAÞÞ \ V: It follows that
there exists p 2 A such that FðpÞ ¼ q 2 V: Since FðpÞ 2 V; p 2 F 1 ðVÞ: Since
p 2 F 1 ðVÞ; and p 2 A; p 2 A \ F 1 ðVÞ; and hence, q ¼ FðpÞ 2 FðA \ F 1 ðVÞÞ ¼
LHS: Hence, RHS LHS).
Since M is an n-dimensional smooth manifold, by Lemma 4.47, there exists a
countable collection fðU1 ; u1 Þ; ðU2 ; u2 Þ; ðU3 ; u3 Þ; . . .g of admissible coordinate
charts for M such that fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is a basis of M:
Let us take any p 2 A \ F 1 ðVÞ: Since p 2 A \ F 1 ðVÞ; p 2 F 1 ðVÞ; and hence,
FðpÞ 2 V: Thus, V is an open neighborhood of FðpÞ in N: Since F : M ! N is a
smooth map, F : M ! N is continuous. Since F : M ! N is continuous, and V is an
open neighborhood of FðpÞ; F 1 ðVÞ is an open neighborhood of p in M: Since F 1 ðVÞ
is an open neighborhood of p in M; and fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is a basis of M; there exists a
positive integer kðpÞ such that p 2 UkðpÞ F 1 ðVÞ; and hence, A \ UkðpÞ A \
F 1 ðVÞ: Since p 2 A \ F 1 ðVÞ; p 2 A: Since p 2 A; and p 2 UkðpÞ ; p 2 A \ UkðpÞ : It
follows that for every p 2 A \ F 1 ðVÞ; there exists a positive integer kðpÞ such that
p 2 A \ UkðpÞ A \ F 1 ðVÞ, and hence, A \ F 1 ðVÞ ¼ [fA \ UkðpÞ : p 2 A\
F 1 ðVÞg: Now, ðFðAÞÞ \ V ¼ FðA \ F 1 ðVÞÞ ¼ Fð[fA \ UkðpÞ : p 2 A \ F 1 ðVÞgÞ ¼
[fFðA \ UkðpÞ Þ : p 2 A \ F 1 ðVÞg; and hence wððFðAÞÞ \ VÞ ¼ wð[fFðA \ UkðpÞ Þ :
p 2 A \ F 1 ðVÞgÞ ¼ [fwðFðA \ UkðpÞ ÞÞ : p 2 A \ F 1 ðVÞg ¼ [fðw FÞðA [ U
kðpÞÞ : p 2 A \ F 1 ðVÞg. Thus, wððFðAÞÞ \ VÞ is the union of countable many sets
ðw FÞðA \ UkðpÞ Þ; where p 2 A \ F 1 ðVÞ: Here, fkðpÞ : p 2 A \ F 1 ðVÞg
f1; 2; 3; . . .g; so fkðpÞ : p 2 A \ F 1 ðVÞg can be written as fk1 ; k2 ; k3 ; . . .g: It fol-
lows that

Ukð pÞ : p 2 A \ F 1 ðV Þ ¼ fUk1 ; Uk2 ; Uk3 ; . . .g;
and hence,
[1
[ ðw F Þ A \ Ukð pÞ : p 2 A \ F 1 ðV Þ ¼ ðw F Þ A \ Ukj :
j¼1
It follows that

ln ðwððFðAÞÞ \ V ÞÞ ¼ ln [ ðw F Þ A \ Ukð pÞ : p 2 A \ F 1 ðV Þ
!
[
1 X
1
¼ ln ð w F Þ A \ U kj ln ðw F Þ A \ Ukj
j¼1 j¼1
1
X
1
¼ ln w F ukj ukj A \ Ukj :
j¼1
Now, it suffices to show that each

1

ln w F ukj ukj A \ Ukj is 0:
Since F : M ! N is a smooth map, w F ðukj Þ1 is smooth. Also, since A has

measure zero in M; ln ððukj ÞðA \ Ukj ÞÞ ¼ 0: Now, we can apply Lemma 6.12. It
follows that
1

ln w F u kj ukj A \ Ukj ¼ 0: h
Note 6.17 In the following discussion, if a ða1 ; . . .; an Þ 2 Rn ; and e [ 0; then

1 1 1 1 n 1
a e; a þ e a e; a þ e
1 n
2 2 2 2
will be denoted by Ce ðaÞ; and
1 1 1 1
a1 e; a1 þ e an e; an þ e
2 2 2 2
will be denoted by Ce ½a: Here, Ce ðaÞ will be called an open cube of side length e;
and Ce ½a will be called a closed cube of side length e:
Let G be a nonempty open subset of Rn : Let 0\e: We shall try toSshow that
there exists a countable collection fUn g of open cubes such that 1 n¼1 Un ¼
S1
G; n¼1 ðUn Þ ¼ G; and side length of each Un is strictly less than e:
Let us take any a ða1 ; . . .; an Þ 2 G: Since a 2 G; and G is open in Rn ; there
exists a positive rational number r such that Cr ðaÞ G; and r\e: Now, since the
collection fs : s 2 Rn ; and all coordinates of s are rational numbersg is dense in Rn ;

there exists s ðs1 ; . . .; sn Þ 2 Rn such that s 2 C2r ðaÞ; and all coordinates of s are
rational numbers. Since s 2 C2r ðaÞ; for every i ¼ 1; . . .; n;
i
a s i ¼ s i ai \ r ;
4
and hence, a 2 C2r ðsÞ: Now, clearly C2r ½s Cr ðAÞ: (Reason: Let us take any x
ðx1 ; . . .; xn Þ 2 C2r ½s: It follows that for every i ¼ 1; . . .; n; jxi si j 4r : Now, for
every i ¼ 1; . . .; n;
i
x ai xi si þ si ai r þ si ai \ r þ r ¼ r ;
4 4 4 2
and hence, x 2 Cr ðaÞ:Þ Thus, for every a 2 G; there exist a positive rational number
r; and s 2 Rn such that all coordinates of s are rational numbers, and

a 2 C2r ðsÞ C2r ðsÞ ¼ C2r ½s Cr ðAÞ G:
Now, since the collection of all open cubes of the form C2r ðsÞ; where r is a positive
rational number, and all coordinates of sð2 Rn Þ are rational numbers, is aScountable
set, there exists a countable collection fUn g of open cubes such that 1 n¼1 Un ¼
S
G; 1 n¼1 ðUn Þ
¼ G; and side length of each Un is strictly less than e: h
Note 6.18 Let G be a nonempty open subset of Rn : Let 0\e: We shall try to show
that there exist a countable collection fUn g of open S1 cubes, and S a countable col-
1
lection fVn g of open cubes such that Un ¼ G, n¼1 ðUn Þ ¼ G,
S1
n¼1
n¼1 Vn ¼ G, Un ðUn Þ Vn ðn ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .Þ, and side length of each Vn is
strictly less than e:
Let us take any a ða1 ; . . .; an Þ 2 G: Since a 2 G; and G is open in Rn ; there
exists a positive rational number r such that Cr ðaÞ G; and r\e: Now, since the
collection fs : s 2 Rn ; and all coordinates of s are rational numbersg is dense in
Rn ; there exists s ðs1 ; . . .; sn Þ 2 Rn such that s 2 C4r ðaÞ; and all coordinates of s
are rational numbers. Since s 2 C4r ðaÞ; for every i ¼ 1; . . .; n;
i
a s i ¼ s i ai \ r ;
8
and hence, a 2 C4r ðsÞ: Now, clearly C4r ½s C2r ðaÞ: (Reason: Let us take any x
ðx1 ; . . .; xn Þ 2 C4r ½s: It follows that for every i ¼ 1; . . .; n; jxi si j 8r : Now, for
every i ¼ 1; . . .; n;
i
x ai xi si þ si ai r þ si ai \ r þ r ¼ r ;
8 8 8 4
and hence, x 2 C2r ðAÞ:) Also, it is clear that C2r ½s Cr ðAÞ: (Reason: Let us take any
x ðx1 ; . . .; xn Þ 2 C2r ½s: It follows that for every i ¼ 1; . . .; n; jxi si j 4r : Now,
for every i ¼ 1; . . .; n;
i
x ai x i s i þ s i ai r þ s i ai \ r þ r \ r ;
4 4 8 2
and hence, x 2 Cr ðAÞ:) Thus, for every a 2 G; there exist a positive rational number
r; and s 2 Rn such that all coordinates of s are rational numbers, and

a 2 C4r ðsÞ C4r ðsÞ ¼ C4r ½s C2r ½s Cr ðAÞ G:
Now, since the collection of all open cubes of the form C4r ðsÞ; where r is a positive
rational number, and all coordinates of sð2 Rn Þ are rational numbers, is a countable
set, there exist a countable collection S fUn g of open Scubes, and a countable
S1 col-
lection fVn g of open cubes such that 1 n¼1 U n ¼ G; 1
n¼1 ðUn Þ
¼ G, n¼1 Vn ¼
G, Un ðUn Þ Vn ðn ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .Þ, and side length of each Vn is strictly less
than e: h
6.2 Taylor’s Inequality
Note 6.19 We want to prove the following result:

Let p 2 U R2 : Let U be an open set. Let S U; and S be star shaped with respect
to point p ðp1 ; p2 Þ 2 S. Let f : U ! R be C 1 on U: Let x ðx1 ; x2 Þ 2 S: Then,
!
Z1of
f ðxÞ ¼ f ð pÞ þ x p
1 1
0
ox1
!
2 Z1 of
þ x p 2
0
ox2
0 1
1@ X i
¼ f ð pÞ þ x p ððDi f Þð pÞÞA
i
1! i2f1;2g
0 1
1@ X i Z1
þ x pi x j p j ð1 tÞDij ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ dtA
1! ði;jÞ2f1;2gf1;2g 0
0 1
1@ X i
¼ f ð pÞ þ x p ððDi f Þð pÞÞA
i
1! i2f1;2g
0 1
1@ X i
þ x pi x j p j Dij f ð pÞ A
2!
ði;jÞ2f1;2g2
0 1
1@ X i j k 1
þ x p x p x p
i j k Z
ð1 tÞ Dijk ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ dtA
2
3! 3 0
ði;j;k Þ2f1;2g
¼
6.2 Taylor’s Inequality 449
Proof Let us take any t satisfying 0 t 1: Now, since S is star shaped with
respect to point p; and x 2 S; ð1 tÞp þ tx is in S; and hence, f ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ is a
real number. Here,
d d
f ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ ¼ f p1 þ t x1 p1 ; p2 þ t x2 p2
dt dt

of d 1 1
¼ ð ð1 t Þp þ txÞ p þ t x p 1
ox1 dt

of d 2 2
þ ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ p þt x p 2
ox2 dt

of
¼ ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ x1 p1
ox 1

of 2
þ ðð 1 t Þp þ tx Þ x p2 ;
ox 2
Hence,

Z1
of 2 1 of
2 Z
x1 p 1 ðð 1 t Þp þ tx Þ dt þ x p ðð 1 t Þp þ tx Þ dt
0
ox1 0
ox2

Z1 of 1 of 2
¼ ð ð1 t Þp þ txÞ x p 1
þ ðð 1 t Þp þ tx Þ x p 2
dt
0
ox1 ox2
¼ f ðð1 tÞp þ txÞjt¼1
t¼0 ¼ f ð xÞ f ð pÞ:
Now,
!
of Z1
f ð x Þ ¼ f ð pÞ þ x 1 p 1
ox1
!
0

2 Z1 of
þ x p 2
ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ dt :
0
ox2
On applying integration by parts, we get

!
Z1
f ðxÞ ¼ f ð pÞ þ x1 p1 ððD1 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞdt
0
!
Z1
þ x p 2 2
ððD2 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞdt
0

¼ f ð pÞ þ x1 p1 ðtððD1 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞÞjt¼1
t¼0

Z1 d
t ððD11 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞ ð1 tÞp1 þ tx1
0
dt

d
þððD12 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞ ð1 tÞp þ tx
2 2
dt
dt

t¼1
þ x2 p2 ðtððD2 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞÞjt¼0 dt

Z1 d
t ððD21 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞ ð1 tÞp1 þ tx1
0
dt

d
þððD22 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞ ð1 tÞp þ tx
2 2
dt
dt
Z1
¼ f ð pÞ þ x1 p1 ððD1 f Þð xÞ t ððD11 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞ x1 p1
0

þððD12 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞ x p2 dt 2
Z1
þ x2 p2 ððD2 f Þð xÞ t ððD21 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞ x1 p1
0

þððD22 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞ x2 p2 dt

¼ f ð pÞ þ x1 p1 ððD1 f Þð xÞÞ þ x2 p2 ððD2 f Þð xÞÞ
2 Z1
x1 p1 tðððD11 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞÞdt
0
Z1
2 x1 p 1
x 2 p2 tððD12 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞdt
0
2 Z1
x 2 p2 tðððD22 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞÞdt
0
Z1
¼ f ð pÞ þ x1 p1 ðD1 f Þð pÞ þ x1 p1 ðD11 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞdt
0
!
Z1
þ x2 p2 ðD12 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞdt
0
Z1
þ x2 p2 ðD2 f Þð pÞ þ x1 p1 ðD21 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞdt
0
!!
Z1
þ x2 p2 ðD22 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞdt
0
1
1 2Z
x1 p tðððD11 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞÞdt
0
Z1
2 x1 p1 x2 p2 tððD12 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞdt
0
1
2 2Z
x2 p tðððD22 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞÞdt
0

¼ f ð pÞ þ x1 p1 ðD1 f Þð pÞ þ x2 p2 ðD2 f Þð pÞ
2 Z1
þ x1 p1 ððD11 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞ tðððD11 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞÞÞdt
0
Z1
þ 2 x1 p1 x2 p2 ððD12 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞ tððD12 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞÞdt
0
1
2 2Z
þ x p 2
ððD22 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞ tðððD22 f Þðð1 tÞp þ txÞÞÞÞdt
0

1 1 of 2
2 of
¼ f ð pÞ þ x p1 ð p Þ þ x p ð pÞ
1! ox1 ox2
!
1 1 1
1 2Z o2 f
þ x p ð1 t Þ ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ dt
1! 0 oðx1 Þ2

Z1 o2 f
þ 2 x1 p 1 x2 p 2 ð1 tÞ 1 2 ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ dt
0
ox ox
! !
2 1
2 2Z o f
2
þ x p ð1 tÞ ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ dt
0 oðx2 Þ2
0 1
1@ X i
¼ f ð pÞ þ x pi ððDi f Þð pÞÞA
1! i2f1;2g
0 1
1@ X i Z1
þ x pi x j p j ð1 tÞDij ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ dtA:
1! ði;jÞ2f1;2gf1;2g 0
Similarly,
0 1
1@ X i
f ð x Þ ¼ f ð pÞ þ x pi ððDi f Þð pÞÞA
1! i2f1;2g
0 1
1@ X i
2! 2
ði;jÞ2f1;2g
0 1
1@ X i j k 1
þ x p x p x p
i j k Z
ð1 tÞ Dijk ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ dtA
2
2! 3 0
ði;j;k Þ2f1;2g
¼
This result can be generalized in Rn ; and is known as Taylor’s theorem.

Note 6.20 Let p 2 U Rn : Let U be an open set. Let S U; and S be star shaped
with respect to point p ðp1 ; . . .; pn Þ 2 S. Let f : U ! R be C 1 on U: Let x
ðx1 ; . . .; xn Þ 2 S: Let all the third-order partial derivatives of f be bounded in
absolute value by a constant M on S: Then,
8 0 1
<
X
f ðxÞ f ð pÞ þ 1 @ xi pi ððDi f Þð pÞÞA
:
1! i2f1;...;ng
0 19
1@ X i =
2! ;
ði;jÞ2f1;...;ng2
0 1

1 X i Z1
¼ @ x p x p x p
i j j k k
ð1 tÞ Dijk ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ dt
2 A
2! ði;j;kÞ2f1;...;ng3 0

X Z1
1 i
x pi x j p j xk pk ð1 tÞ2 Dijk ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ dt
2! 3
0

ði;j;k Þ2f1;...;ng

X i 1
¼
1 x pi x j p j xk pk Z ð1 tÞ2 Dijk ðð1 tÞp þ txÞ dt
2! 3
0
ði;j;k Þ2f1;...;ng
1 X i 1
x pi x j p j xk pk Z j1 tj2 Dijk ðð1 tÞp þ txÞdt
2! 0
ði;j;k Þ2f1;...;ng3
1 X i 1
x pi x j p j xk pk Z 1Dijk ðð1 tÞp þ txÞdt
2! 0
1 X i 1
x pi x j p j xk pk Z Mdt
2! 0
1 X i
¼ x pi x j p j xk pk M
2!
1 X
jx pjjx pjjx pjM
2!
1 X 1
¼ M j x pj3 ¼ ðn n n Þ M j x pj 3
2! 3!
1 3
¼ n M j x pj 3 :
2!
Thus
8 0 1
< X
1
f ð xÞ f ð pÞ þ @ xi pi ððDi f Þð pÞÞA
:
1! i2f1;...;ng
0 19
1@ X i =
þ x p x p
i j j
Dij f ð pÞ A
2! 2
;
ði;jÞ2f1;...;ng
1
n3 jx pj3 M;
2!
etc.
Conclusion: Let p 2 U Rn : Let U be an open set. Let S U; and S be star

shaped with respect to point p ðp1 ; . . .; pn Þ 2 S. Let f : U ! R be C 1 on U: Let
x ðx1 ; . . .; xn Þ 2 S: Let all the third-order partial derivatives of f be bounded in
absolute value by a constant M on S: Then,
8 0 1
< X
1
f ð xÞ f ð pÞ þ @ x p ððDi f Þð pÞÞA
i i
:
1! i2f1;...;ng
0 19
1 X =
þ @ xi pi x j p j Dij f ð pÞ A
2! 2
;
ði;jÞ2f1;...;ng
1
n3 jx pj3 M:
2!
In the following discussion, we shall use this inequality.
6.3 Sard’s Theorem on Rn
Lemma 6.21 Let G be an open subset of Rð¼ R1 Þ: Let F : G ! R3 be a smooth

function. Let F ðF1 ; F2 ; F3 Þ: For every k ¼ 1; 2; 3; let lk denote the k-dimen-
sional measure over Rk : Then,
0 08 2 3 91 1
< ðD1 F1 Þð xÞ =
l3 @F @ x : x 2 G; and rank4 ðD1 F2 Þð xÞ 5 ¼ 0 AA ¼ 0:
: ;
ðD1 F3 Þð xÞ
Proof Put
8 2 3 9
< ðD1 F1 Þð xÞ =
C x : x 2 G; and rank4 ðD1 F2 Þð xÞ 5 ¼ 0 :
: ;
ðD1 F3 Þð xÞ
We have to show that l3 ðFðCÞÞ ¼ 0: Here,

8 2 3 9
>
< ð D 1 F 1 Þ ð xÞ >
=
6 7
C ¼ x : x 2 G; and rank4 ðD1 F2 Þð xÞ 5 ¼ 0
>
: >
;
ð D 1 F 3 Þ ð xÞ
¼ fx : x 2 G; and ðD1 F1 Þð xÞ ¼ 0; ðD1 F2 Þð xÞ ¼ 0; ðD1 F3 Þð xÞ ¼ 0g
¼ fx : x 2 G; and ðD1 F1 Þð xÞ ¼ 0g \ fx : x 2 G; and ðD1 F2 Þð xÞ ¼ 0g
\ fx : x 2 G; and ðD1 F3 Þð xÞ ¼ 0g
¼ ðD1 F1 Þ1 ðf0gÞ \ ðD1 F2 Þ1 ðf0gÞ \ ðD1 F3 Þ1 ðf0gÞ:
Since F : G ! R3 is a smooth function, D1 F1 : G ! R is continuous. Since D1

F1 : G ! R is continuous, and f0g is closed, ðD1 F1 Þ1 ðf0gÞ is closed in G: Simi-
larly, ðD1 F2 Þ1 ðf0gÞ; ðD1 F3 Þ1 ðf0gÞ are closed in G: It follows that ðD1 F1 Þ1
ðf0gÞ \ ðD1 F2 Þ1 ðf0gÞ \ ðD1 F3 Þ1 ðf0gÞð¼ CÞ is closed in G; and hence, C is
closed in G: Put
C1 fx : x 2 G; and 0 ¼ ðD1 F1 Þð xÞ ¼ ðD1 F2 Þð xÞ ¼ ðD1 F3 Þð xÞg:
Clearly, C1 ¼ C; and C1 is closed in G: Put
C2 fx : x 2 G; and 0 ¼ ðD1 F1 Þð xÞ ¼ ðD1 F2 Þð xÞ ¼ ðD1 F3 Þð xÞ ¼ ðD11 F1 Þð xÞ

¼ ðD11 F2 Þð xÞ ¼ ðD11 F3 Þð xÞg:
Clearly, C2 C1 ; and C2 is closed in G: Similarly, we define C3 fx : x 2 G;

and 0 ¼ ðD1 Fi ÞðxÞ ¼ ðD11 Fi ÞðxÞ ¼ ðD111 Fi ÞðxÞfor every i ¼ 1; 2; 3g; etc. Clearly,
C4 C3 C2 C1 ¼ C; and each Ci is closed in G.
Now, we shall try to show that l3 ðFðC1 ÞÞ ¼ 0: Since G is an open subset S of R; there
exists a countable collection fUn g of open bounded intervals such that 1 n¼1 Un ¼ G;
S
and 1 ðU Þ
¼ G: Now, FðC Þ ¼ Fðfx : x 2 G; and 0 ¼ ðD F ÞðxÞ ¼ ðD1 F2 Þ
n¼1 n
S
1 1 1
ðxÞ ¼ ðD1 F3 ÞðxÞgÞ ¼ Fðfx : x 2 1 ðU Þ
; and 0 ¼ ðD F ÞðxÞ ¼ ðD 1 F2 ÞðxÞ ¼
S n¼1 n 1 1
ðD1 F3 ÞðxÞgÞ ¼ Fð 1 fx : x 2 ðU Þ
; and 0 ¼ ðD F ÞðxÞ ¼ ðD F ÞðxÞ ¼ ðD1 F3 Þ
S1 n¼1

n 1 1 1 2
ðxÞgÞ ¼ n¼1 Fðfx : x 2 ðUn Þ ; and 0 ¼ ðD1 F1 ÞðxÞ ¼ ðD1 F2 ÞðxÞ ¼ ðD1 F3 ÞðxÞgÞ
S S1 P1
¼ 1
n¼1 FðC1 \ ððUn Þ ÞÞ; so 0 l3 ðFðC1 ÞÞ ¼ l3 ð n¼1 FðC1 \ ððUn Þ ÞÞÞ

n¼1
l3 ðFðC1 \ ððUn Þ ÞÞÞ: Hence, it suffices to show that each l3 ðFðC1 \ ððUn Þ ÞÞÞ ¼ 0:
Let us first try to show that l3 ðFðC1 \ ððU1 Þ ÞÞÞ ¼ 0:
Since D11 F1 : G ! R is continuous, and ðU1 Þ is compact, ðD11 F1 ÞððU1 Þ Þ is
compact, and hence, ðD11 F1 ÞððU1 Þ Þ is bounded. Similarly, ðD11 F2 ÞððU1 Þ Þ;
ðD11 F3 ÞððU1 Þ Þ are bounded. It follows that ðD11 F1 ÞððU1 Þ Þ [ ðD11 F2 ÞððU1 Þ Þ [
ðD11 F3 ÞððU1 Þ Þ is bounded, and hence, there exists a positive number K such that
ðD11 F1 ÞððU1 Þ Þ [ ðD11 F2 ÞððU1 Þ Þ [ ðD11 F3 ÞððU1 Þ Þ is contained in ½K; K:
Case I: when C1 \ ððU1 Þ Þ ¼ ;: In this case,
6.3 Sard’s Theorem on Rn 455
l3 ðF ðC1 \ ððU1 Þ ÞÞÞ ¼ l3 ðF ð;ÞÞ ¼ l3 ð;Þ ¼ 0:
Thus, l3 ðFðC1 \ ððU1 Þ ÞÞÞ ¼ 0:

Case II: when C1 \ ððU1 Þ Þ 6¼ ;. Now, let R be the length of closed interval ðU1 Þ :
Let us fix any positive integer N [ 1: Let us subdivide the closed interval ðU1 Þ into N
closed intervals E1 ; E2 ; . . .; EN such that each Ei is of length NR : Thus, ðU1 Þ ¼

E1 [ E2 [ [ EN : It follows that C1 \ ððU S1 Þ Þ ¼ C1 \ ðE1 [ E2 [ [ EN Þ ¼
ðC1 \ E1 Þ [ ðC1 \ E2S Þ [ [ ðC1 \ EN Þ ¼ fC1 \SEk : C1 \ Ek 6¼ ;g: Hence, F
ðC1 \ ððU1 Þ ÞÞ ¼ Fð fC1 \ Ek : C1 \ Ek 6¼ ;gÞ S ¼ fFðC1 \ Ek Þ : C1 \ Ek 6¼ ;g; P
and hence, 0 l3 ðFðC1 \ ððU1 Þ ÞÞÞ ¼ l3 ð fFðC1 \ Ek Þ : C1 \ Ek 6¼ ;gÞ
fl3 ðFðC1 \ Ek ÞÞ : C1 \ Ek 6¼ ;g: Now, it suffices to show that if C1 \ Ek 6¼ ;; then
l3 ðFðC1 \ Ek ÞÞ ¼ 0: For this purpose, let C1 \ Ek 6¼ ;: Since C1 \ Ek 6¼ ;; there
exists a 2 C1 \ Ek : Since a 2 C1 \ Ek ; a 2 Ek :
Now, by Taylor’s theorem, for every x 2 Ek ;
jF1 ð xÞ F1 ðaÞj ¼ jF1 ð xÞ fF1 ðaÞ þ 0gj

2 !
1 R
¼ jF1 ð xÞ fF1 ðaÞ þ ðD1 F1 ÞðaÞgj K :
1! N
Thus, for every x 2 Ek ;

2 !
1 R
jF1 ð xÞ F1 ðaÞj K :
1! N
Similarly, for every x 2 Ek ;

2 ! 2 !
1 R 1 R
jF2 ð xÞ F2 ðaÞj K and jF3 ð xÞ F3 ðaÞj K :
1! N 1! N
It follows that for every x 2 Ek ;
jF ð xÞ FðaÞj ¼ jðF1 ð xÞ; F2 ð xÞ; F3 ð xÞÞ ðF1 ðaÞ; F2 ðaÞ; F3 ðaÞÞj

¼ jðF1 ð xÞ F1 ðaÞ; F2 ð xÞ F2 ðaÞ; F3 ð xÞ F3 ðaÞÞj
jF1 ð xÞ F1 ðaÞj þ jF2 ð xÞ F2 ðaÞj þ jF3 ð xÞ F3 ðaÞj
2 ! 2 ! 2 !
1 R 1 R 1 R
K þ K þ K
1! N 1! N 1! N
2 !!
1 R
¼3 K :
1! N
Hence, for every x 2 Ek ;

2 !!
1 R
jF ð xÞ FðaÞj 3 K :
1! N
Thus,
F ðC1 \ Ek Þ F ðEk Þ B 1 ðFðaÞÞ;

K ðNR Þ
2
3 1!
and hence,
2 !!!!3
1 R
0 l3 ðF ðC1 \ Ek ÞÞ l3 B 1 ðFðaÞÞ 2 3 K
K ðNR Þ
2
3 1! 1! N
! 0 as N ! 1:
This shows that l3 ðFðC1 \ Ek ÞÞ ¼ 0: Hence, l3 ðFðC1 \ ððU1 Þ ÞÞÞ ¼ 0:

Thus, in all cases, l3 ðFðC1 \ ððU1 Þ ÞÞÞ ¼ 0: Similarly, l3 ðFðC1 \ ððU2 Þ ÞÞÞ ¼
0; l3 ðFðC1 \ ððU3 Þ ÞÞÞ ¼ 0; etc. Thus, l3 ðFðCÞÞ ¼ l3 ðFðC1 ÞÞ ¼ 0: h
Note 6.22 Similar to Lemma 6.21, we can prove the following result:
Let G be an open subset of Rð¼ R1 Þ: Let F : G ! Rn be a smooth function. Let
F ðF1 ; . . .; Fn Þ: For every k ¼ 1; . . .; n; let lk denote the k-dimensional measure
over Rk : Then,
0 08 2 3 9 11
>
< ðD1 F1 Þð xÞ >
=
B B 6 7 CC
ln @F @ x : x 2 G; and rank4 ... 5 ¼ 0 AA ¼ 0:
>
: >
;
ðD1 Fn Þð xÞ
Lemma 6.23 Let m; n be positive integers satisfying m n: Let G be a nonempty

open subset of Rm : Let f : G ! Rn be a smooth function, and f ðf1 ; . . .fn Þ: Let l
denote the Lebesgue measure over Rn : Let C be the collection of all critical points
of f ; that is,
8 2 3 9
>
< ðD1 f1 Þð xÞ ðDm f1 Þð xÞ >
=
6 .. . 7
C x : x 2 G; and rank4 ... . .. 5\n :
>
: >
;
ðD1 fn Þð xÞ ðDm fn Þð xÞ
Then, lðf ðCÞÞ ¼ 0:
S1 of R ; there
m
Proof Since G is a nonempty open subset S exists acountable collection
fCn g of open cubes in R such that n¼1 Cn ¼ G, 1
m
n¼1 ðCn Þ ¼ G; and for each
n ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .; the side length Rn of Cn is \1: Now,
08 2 3 91
>
> ðD1 f1 Þð xÞ ðDm f1 Þð xÞ >
>
B< 6. .. . 7 =C
B
f ðC Þ ¼ f @ x : x 2 G; and rank4 . 6 . ... 7 \n C
> 5 > A
>
: >
;
08 2 3 91
>
>
B< [
1 6. .. . 7 =C
B
¼ f@ x : x 2
ðCn Þ ; and rank4 . 6 . ... 7 \n C
> 5 > A
>
: n¼1 >
;
0 8 2 3 91
>
>
B[ 1 < 6. .. . 7 =C
¼ fB@ > x : x 2 ð Cn Þ
; and rank 6
4. . . .
.
7
5\n C
A
n¼1>
>
>
: ;
08 2 3 91
>
>
[ B
1 < 6. .. . 7 = C
¼ fB@> x : x 2 ð C n Þ
; and rank 6
4. . . .
.
7
5 \n C
A
> >
>
n¼1 : ;
[1
¼ f ðC \ðCn Þ Þ:
n¼1
S1
Since f ðCÞ ¼ n¼1 f ðC \ ðCn Þ Þ;
!
[
1

X
1
0 lðf ðC ÞÞ ¼ l f ðC \ ðCn Þ Þ lðf ðC \ ðCn Þ ÞÞ:
n¼1 n¼1
Hence, it suffices to show that each lðf ðC \ ðCn Þ ÞÞ ¼ 0:

We first try to show that lðf ðC \ ðC1 Þ ÞÞ ¼ 0: Since f : G ! Rn is a smooth
function, each ðDij fk Þ : G ! R is a smooth function, and hence, each ðDij fk Þ : G !
R is continuous. Since ðDij fk Þ : G ! R is continuous, and ðC1 Þ is a compact
subset of G; ðDij fk ÞððC1 Þ Þ is compact, and hence, ðDij fk ÞððC1 Þ Þ is bounded. Since
ðDij fk ÞððC1 Þ Þ is bounded, there exists a real Mijk [ 0 such that for every
z 2 ðC1 Þ , jðDij fk ÞðzÞj Mijk :
Put M maxfMijk : 1 i m; 1 j m; 1 k ng: Since f : G ! R is a
smooth function, each Di fj : G ! R is a smooth function, and hence, each Di fj :
G ! R is continuous. Since Di fj : G ! R is continuous, and ðC1 Þ is a compact
subset of G; ðDi fj ÞððC1 Þ Þ is compact, and hence, ðDi fj ÞððC1 Þ Þ is bounded. Since
ðDi fj ÞððC1 Þ Þ is bounded, there exists a real Mij [ 0 such that for every z 2 ðC1 Þ ;
jðDi fj ÞðzÞj Mij :
Put M0 maxfMij : 1 i m; 1 j ng: Let us fix any positive integer N [ 1:
Let us subdivide the closed cube ðC1 Þ into N m closed cubes E1 ; E2 ; . . .; EN m such
that each Ei is of length RN1 : Thus, ðC1 Þ ¼ E1 [ E2 [ [ EN m : It follows that C \
ðC1 Þ ¼ C \ ðE1 [ E2 [ [ EN m Þ ¼ ðC \ E1 Þ [ ðC \ E2 Þ [ S[ ðC \ EN m Þ ¼
S
fC \ Ek : C \ Ek 6¼ ;; 1 k N m g: Hence, f ðC \ ðC1 Þ Þ ¼ f ð fC \ Ek : C \
S
Ek 6¼ ;; 1 k N m gÞS¼ ff ðC \ Ek Þ : C \ Ek 6¼ ;; 1 k N m g, Pand hence, 0 l
ðf ðC \ ðC1 Þ ÞÞ ¼ lð ff ðC \ Ek Þ : C \ Ek 6¼ ;; 1 k N m gÞ flðf ðC \ Ek ÞÞ
: C \ Ek 6¼ ;; 1 k N m g.
Let us take any positive integer k satisfying 1 k N m ; and C \ Ek 6¼ ;. Now,
by Taylor’s theorem, for every x ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ 2 Ek , and y ðy1 ; . . .; ym Þ 2 Ek ;
jf ð yÞ ðf ðxÞ þ ðf 0 ð xÞÞðy xÞÞj

2 3 02 3 2 32 31
f 1 ð yÞ f1 ð xÞ ðD1 f1 Þð xÞ ðDm f1 Þð xÞ y 1 x1

6 . 7 B6 . 7 6. .. . 76 . 7C
6
¼ 4 . . 7 B 6 . 7 6 . . 7 6 . 7 C
5 @4 . 5þ 4. .. 54 . 5A

f n ð yÞ fn ð xÞ ðD1 fn Þð xÞ ðDm fn Þð xÞ y m xm
2 3 02 3 2 3 1
f 1 ð yÞ f1 ð xÞ ððD1 f1 Þð xÞÞðy1 x1 Þ þ þ ððDm f1 Þð xÞÞðym xm Þ

6 . 7 B6 . 7 6. 7 C
¼ 64.. 7 B6 .
5 @4 .
7þ 6.
5 4.
7 C
5 A

f n ð yÞ fn ð xÞ ððD1 fn Þð xÞÞðy1 x1 Þ þ þ ððDm fn Þð xÞÞðym xm Þ
2 3
f1 ð yÞ ðf1 ð xÞ þ ððD1 f1 Þð xÞÞðy1 x1 Þ þ þ ððDm f1 Þð xÞÞðym xm ÞÞ

6 . 7
¼ 64.. 7
5

fn ð yÞ ðfn ð xÞ þ ðððD1 fn Þð xÞÞðy1 x1 Þ þ þ ððDm fn Þð xÞÞðym xm ÞÞÞ
jf1 ð yÞ ðf1 ðxÞ þ ððD1 f1 ÞðxÞÞðy1 x1 Þ þ þ ððDm f1 ÞðxÞÞðym xm ÞÞj þ
þ jfn ð yÞ ðfn ð xÞ þ ðððD1 fn Þð xÞÞðy1 x1 Þ þ þ ððDm fn Þð xÞÞðym xm ÞÞÞj
!
1 2 pffiffiffiffi R1 2 1 2 pffiffiffiffi R1 2 1 2 pffiffiffiffi R1 2
m m M þ þ m m M¼n m m M
1! N 1! N 1! N
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
n
1
¼ nm M 2 ðR1 Þ2
3
N
3 1
\ nm M 2 :
N
Thus, for every x; y 2 Ek ;
1
jf ð yÞ ðf ð xÞ þ ðf 0 ð xÞÞðy xÞÞj\ nm3 M 2 :
N
Since C \ Ek 6¼ ;; there exists a 2 C \ Ek 6¼ ;; and hence, for every y 2 C \ Ek ,
1
jf ð yÞ ðf ðAÞ þ ðf 0 ðAÞÞðy aÞÞj\ nm3 M 2 :
N
Again, by Taylor’s theorem, for every x ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ; y ðy1 ; . . .; ym Þ 2 Ek ;

2 3 2 3 2 3
f 1 ð yÞ f1 ð xÞ f1 ð yÞ f1 ð xÞ

6 . 7 6. 7 6 . 7
jf ð yÞ f ð xÞj ¼ 64 ..
7 6.
5 4.
7 ¼ 6 .
5 4 .
7
5

f n ð yÞ fn ð xÞ fn ð yÞ fn ð xÞ
jf1 ð yÞ f1 ð xÞj þ þ jfn ð yÞ fn ð xÞj

1 pffiffiffiffi R1 1 1 pffiffiffiffi R1 1
m1 m M0 þ þ m1 m M0
0! N 0! N
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
n
1 1
¼ nm 3=2
M0 R1 \nm3=2 M0 :
N N
Hence, for every y 2 C \ Ek , jf ðyÞ f ðaÞj\nm3=2 M0 N1 : It follows that

f ðC \ Ek Þ is contained in an open ball of radius nm3=2 M0 N1 with center f ðaÞ: Since
a 2 C \ Ek ; so a 2 C; and hence,
2 3
ðD1 f1 ÞðaÞ ðDm f1 ÞðaÞ
6 . 7
rank4 ... . . ..
. 5\n:
ðD1 fn ÞðaÞ ðDm fn ÞðaÞ
So, the range space of f 0 ðaÞ : Rm ! Rn is contained in an ðn 1Þ-dimensional

subspace, say V; of Rn : It follows that for every y 2 C \ Ek , f ðaÞ þ ðf 0 ðaÞÞðy aÞ
contained in f ðaÞ þ V: Since for every y 2 C \ Ek ,
1
jf ð yÞ ðf ðaÞ þ ðf 0 ðaÞÞðy aÞÞj\ nm3 M 2 ;
N
so all points of f ðC \ Ek Þ is at most ðnm3 MÞ N12 distance “above” or “below” the

affine hyperplane f ðaÞ þ V: Thus, f ðC \ Ek Þ contained in a “box” whose height is

1
2 nm3 M 2 ;
N
and ðn 1Þ-dimensional base area is

n1
1
2 nm M03=2
;
N
and hence,
n1 !
1 3 1
lð f ð C \ E k Þ Þ 3=2
2 nm M0 2 nm M 2
N N
3ðnþ1Þ
1
¼ 2n nn m 2 ðM0 Þn1 M :
N nþ1
It follows that
X
lðf ðC \ ðC1 Þ ÞÞ flðf ðC \ Ek ÞÞ : C \ Ek 6¼ ;; 1 k N m g
3ðnþ1Þ
1
2n nn m 2 ðM0 Þn1 M N m ! 0 as N ! 1;
N nþ1
because m n: Thus, lðf ðC \ ðC1 Þ ÞÞ ¼ 0: Similarly, lðf ðC \ ðC2 Þ ÞÞ ¼ 0; etc.

Thus, lðf ðCÞÞ ¼ 0: h
Lemma 6.24 Let m; n be any positive integers. Let G be a nonempty open subset of
Rm : Let f : G ! Rn be a smooth function, and f ðf1 ; . . .fn Þ: Let C be the col-
lection of all critical points of f ; that is,
8 2 3 9
>
< ðD1 f1 Þð xÞ ðDm f1 Þð xÞ >
=
6 .. .. . 7
C x : x 2 G; and rank4 . . .. 5\n :
>
: >
;
Let for every i ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .;
Ci fx: x 2 G; and all 1st; 2nd; . . .; ith order partial derivatives of f at x are zerog:
Then,
1. C4 C3 C2 C1 C G;.
2. each Ci and C are closed in G:
Proof
1. This is clear from the definitions of Ci and C:
2. Since f : G ! Rn is smooth, each Dj fi : G ! R is continuous. Since each Dj fi :
G ! R is continuous, and f0g is closed in R; each ðDj fi Þ1 ðf0gÞ is closed in G:
It follows that
\ 1
Dj fi ðf0gÞ ¼ x : x 2 G; and 0 ¼ Dj fi ð xÞ for every j 2 f1; . . .; kg;
j 2 f1; . . .; k g
i 2 f1; . . .; ng
and for every i 2 f1; . . .; ngg ¼ C1 Þ
is closed in G; and hence, C1 is closed in G: Similarly, C2 ; C3 ; . . . are closed in G:

Here,
8 2 3 9
>
> ðD1 f1 Þð xÞ ðDk f1 ÞðxÞ >
>
< 6. .. . 7 =
C ¼ x : x 2 G; and rank6 4 .
. . .
.
7\n
5
>
> >
>
: ;
ðD1 fn Þð xÞ ðDk fn ÞðxÞ
8 2 3 9
>
> ðDi1 f1 ÞðxÞ ðDin f1 ÞðxÞ >
>
\ < 6. .. . 7 =
¼ 6
x : x 2 G; and det4 .. . .. 7 ¼ 0 :
> 5 >
i1 ; . . .; in 2 f1; . . .; k g; >
:
ðDi1 fn ÞðxÞ ðDin fn ÞðxÞ
>
;
i1 ; . . .; in are distinct
Now, since each Dj fi : G ! R is continuous, each

8 2 3 9
>
< ðDi1 f1 Þð xÞ ðDin f1 Þð xÞ >
=
6 .. .. . 7
x : x 2 G; and det4 . .
.. 5¼0
>
: >
;
ðDi1 fn Þð xÞ ðDin fn Þð xÞ
is closed in G; and hence,

8 2 3 9
>
< ðDi1 f1 Þð xÞ ðDin f1 Þð xÞ >
=
\ 6 .. . 7
x : x 2 G; and det4 ... . .. 5¼0
> >
i1 ; . . .; in 2 f1; . . .; k g; : ðDi1 fn Þð xÞ ðDin fn Þð xÞ
;
i1 ; . . .; in are distinct
is closed in G: This shows that C is closed in G: h
Lemma 6.25 Let m; n be any positive integers. For every k ¼ 1; . . .; n; let lk

denote the k-dimensional measure over Rk : Let G be a nonempty open subset of
Rm : Let f : G ! Rn be a smooth function, and f ðf1 ; . . .; fn Þ: Let C be the col-
8 2 3 9
>
< ð D 1 f 1 Þ ð x Þ ð D m f 1 Þ ð xÞ >
=
6 .. .. . 7
C x : x 2 G; and rank4 . .
.. 5\n :
>
: >
;
ð D 1 f n Þ ð x Þ ð D m f n Þ ð xÞ
Let, for every i ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .;
Ci fx : x 2 G; and all 1st; 2nd; . . .; ith order partial derivatives of f at x are zerog:
Then,

ln f C½m ¼ 0;
n
where ½mn denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to n:

m
Proof Since G is a nonemptyS open subset ofSRm ; there exists a countable collection
fUl g of open cubes such that 1 l¼1 Ul ¼ G,
1
l¼1 ðUl Þ ¼ G; and side length of each
Ul is strictly less than 1: It follows that

1 1
C½m ¼ C½m \ G ¼ C½m \ [ ðUl Þ ¼ [ C½m \ ðUl Þ ;
n n n l¼1 l¼1 n
and hence,
!
1
[ 1
[

f C½m ¼ f C½m \ ðUl Þ ¼ f C½m \ ðUl Þ :
n n n
l¼1 l¼1
Thus,
!
1
[ X
1

0 ln f C½m ¼ ln f C½m \ ðUl Þ ln f C½m \ ðUl Þ ;
n n n
l¼1 l¼1
and therefore, it suffices to show that each

ln f C½m \ ðUl Þ is zero:
n
For this purpose, let us fix a positive integer l: We have to show that

ln f C½m \ ðUl Þ ¼ 0:
n
Let us fix any positive integer N [ 1: Let us subdivide the closed cube ðUl Þ
into N m closed cubes E1 ; E2 ; . . .; EN m such that each Ei is of length

N ðside length of Ul Þ: For simplicity, let the side length of Ul be 1. Thus, ðUl Þ ¼
1
E1 [ E2 [ [ EN m : It follows that
C½m \ ðUl Þ ¼ C½m \ ðE1 [ E2 [ [ EN m Þ

n n
¼ C½m \ E1 [ C½m \ E2 [ [ C½m \ EN m

[n o
n n n
¼ C½m \ Ek : C½m \ Ek 6¼ ;; 1 k N m :
n n
Hence,
[n o
f C½m \ ðUl Þ ¼ f C½m \ Ek : C½m \ Ek 6¼ ;; 1 k N m
[n o
n n n
¼ f C½m \ Ek : C½m \ Ek 6¼ ;; 1 k N m ;
n n
and hence,
[n o
0 ln f C½m \ ðUl Þ ¼ ln f C½m \ Ek : C½m \ Ek 6¼ ;; 1 k N m
Xn o
n n n
ln f C½m \ Ek : C½m \ Ek 6¼ ;; 1 k N :
m
n n
Let us take any positive integer k satisfying 1 k N m ; and C½mn \ Ek 6¼ ;:

Let all the ð½mn þ 1Þ th order partial derivatives of f be bounded in absolute value by
a constant M on the compact set ðUl Þ :
Now, by Taylor’s theorem, for every x ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ 2 C½mn \ Ek ; and
y ðy1 ; . . .; ym Þ 2 C½mn \ Ek ;
jf ð xÞ f ð yÞj ¼ jðf1 ð xÞ; . . .; fn ð xÞÞ ðf1 ð yÞ; . . .; fn ð yÞÞj

¼ jðf1 ð xÞ f1 ð yÞ; . . .; fn ð xÞ fn ð yÞÞj
jf1 ð xÞ f1 ð yÞj þ þ jfn ð xÞ fn ð yÞj
( )

1 1 1
¼ f1 ð xÞ f1 ð yÞ þ ð0Þ þ ð0Þ þ þ m ð0Þ þ
1! 2! n !
( )

1 1 1
þ fn ð xÞ fn ð yÞ þ ð0Þ þ ð0Þ þ þ m ð0Þ
1! 2! n !
1 1
m m½ n þ1 jx yj½ n þ1 M þ þ m m½ n þ1 jx yj½ n þ1 M
m m m m
n ! n !
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
n
!
1
¼ n m m½ n þ1 jx yj½ n þ1 M
m m
n !
m !
1 ½mnþ1 pffiffiffiffi 1 ½ n þ1
n m m m M :
n !
N
It follows that f ðC½mn \ Ek Þ is contained in a closed ball of radius

m !
n m m m M ;
n !
N
and hence,
m !!!n
1 pffiffiffiffi 1 ½ n þ1
ln f C½m \ Ek 2 n m m½ n þ1
m
m M :
n !
n N
Thus,
m !!!n !
0 ln f C½m \ ðUl Þ N m 2 n m m m M
n !
n N
! 0 as N ! 1;
because
hmi m hmi
m\ þ1 n that is; \ þ1 :
n n n
Thus,

ln f C½m \ ðUl Þ ¼ 0: h
n
Lemma 6.26 Let m; n be any positive integers. For every k ¼ 1; . . .; n; let lk

denote the k-dimensional measure over Rk : Let G be a nonempty open subset of
Rm : Let f : G ! Rn be a smooth function, and f ðf1 ; . . .; fn Þ: Let C be the col-
8 2 3 9
>
< ð D 1 f 1 Þ ð x Þ ð D m f 1 Þ ð xÞ >
=
6 .. . 7
C x : x 2 G; and rank4 ... . .. 5\n :
>
: >
;
ð D 1 f n Þ ð x Þ ð D m f n Þ ð xÞ
Then, ln ðf ðCÞÞ ¼ 0:
Proof (Induction on m): By Lemma 6.23, the theorem is true for m ¼ 1:
Case I: when m n. By Lemma 6.23, ln ðf ðCÞÞ ¼ 0:
Case II: when n\m: For i ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . .; put
Ci fx : x 2 G; and all partial derivatives of f at x upto ith order are zerog;
and C0 C: By Lemma 6.24, C4 C3 C2 C1 C G: It follows that

C ¼ ðC C1 Þ [ ðC1 C2 Þ [ ðC2 C3 Þ [ [ C½m1 C½m [ C½m ;
n n n
and hence,

f ðCÞ ¼ f ðC C1 Þ [ ðC1 C2 Þ [ ðC2 C3 Þ [ [ C½m1 C½m [ C½m

n n n
¼ f ðC C1 Þ [ f ðC1 C2 Þ [ f ðC2 C3 Þ [ [ f C½m1 C½m [ f C½m :

n n n
It follows that
0 ln ðf ðCÞ ¼ ln ðf ðC C1 Þ [ f ðC1 C2 Þ [ f ðC2 C3 Þ

[ [ f C½m1 C½m [ f C½m
n n n
ln ðf ðC C1 ÞÞ þ ln ðf ðC1 C2 ÞÞ þ ln ðf ðC2 C3 ÞÞ

þ þ ln f C½m1 C½m þ ln f C½m :
n n n
Since, by Lemma 6.25, ln ðf ðC½mn ÞÞ ¼ 0; it suffices to show that

1. 0 ¼ ln ðf ðC1 C2 ÞÞ ¼ ln ðf ðC2 C3 ÞÞ ¼ ¼ ln ðf ðC½mn1 C½mn ÞÞ;
2. ln ðf ðC C1 ÞÞ ¼ 0:
For 1: For simplicity of discussion, here we shall assume 3 for n: Since Rm is
a second countable space, there exists a countable basis B of Rm : SinceC2 is
closed in the open set G; G C2 is open in Rm : Since C2 C1 G,
C1 C2 G C2 G:
Let us take any a 2 C1 C2 : It follows that a 2 C1 ; and a 62 C2 : Since a 2 C1 ;
for every i 2 f1; . . .; mg; and for every j 2 f1; 2; 3g, ðDi fj ÞðaÞ ¼ 0: Further, since
a 62 C2 ; there exist i1 ; i2 2 f1; . . .; mg; and j1 2 f1; 2; 3g such that ðDi1 i2 fj1 ÞðaÞ 6¼ 0:
For simplicity, let ðD11 f1 ÞðaÞ 6¼ 0; that is, ðD1 ðD1 f1 ÞÞðaÞ 6¼ 0: Observe that D1 f1 :
G ! R is a smooth function.
Let us define a function ðF 1 ; F 2 ; . . .; F m Þ F : G C2 ! Rm as follows: For
every x ðx1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm Þ 2 G C2 ;

F 1 x1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm ; F 2 x1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; F m x1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm ¼ F x1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm
1
ðD1 f1 Þ x ; . . .; xm ; x2 ; . . .; xm :
Clearly, FðC1 C2 Þ f0g Rm1 : (Reason: For every x ðx1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm Þ 2

C1 C2 ð G C2 GÞ; we have x 2 C1 ; and hence, FðxÞ ¼ ððD1 f1 ÞðxÞ; x2 ;
. . .; xm Þ ¼ ð0; x2 ; . . .; xm Þ 2 f0g Rm1 :) Since ðD1 f1 Þ : G ! R is a smooth func-
tion, F : ðG C2 Þ ! Rm is smooth. Here,
2 3
ðD1 ðD1 f1 ÞÞðaÞ ðD2 ðD1 f1 ÞÞðaÞ ðDm ðD1 f1 ÞÞðaÞ
6 0 1 .. 0 7
detðF 0 ðaÞÞ ¼ det6
4 ... .. . .. 7
5
. .
0 0 1 mm
¼ ðD1 ðD1 f1 ÞÞðaÞ;
which is nonzero. So, by Theorem 4.1, there exists an open neighborhood Ua of a

such that Ua is contained in G C2 ; FðUa Þ is open in Rm ; and F has a smooth
inverse on FðUa Þ: Thus, F : Ua ! FðUa Þ is a diffeomorphism, and F 1 : FðUa Þ !
Ua is a diffeomorphism. Since F 1 : FðUa Þ ! Ua is a diffeomorphism, Ua

G C2 G; and f : G ! R3 is smooth, their composite f ðF 1 Þ : FðUa Þ ! R3
is a smooth function.
Since Ua is an open neighborhood of a in Rm , there exists an open set Va 2 B
such that a 2 Va ðVa Þ Ua , and ðVa Þ is compact. Since ðVa Þ Ua
G C2 ; C2 \ ðVa Þ ¼ ;:
Let us observe that ðC1 C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ is compact.
(Reason: Since C1 G; C1 is closed in G; and G is open in Rm ; C1 [ ðGc Þ is closed
in Rm : Since C1 [ ðGc Þ is closed in Rm ; and ðVa Þ ð Ua GÞ is compact, their
intersection ðC1 [ ðGc ÞÞ \ ððVa Þ Þð¼ C1 \ ððVa Þ ÞÞ is compact, and hence, C1 \
ðVa Þ is compact. Since C1 \ ðVa Þ is compact, and ðC1 C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ ¼ ðC1 \
ðVa Þ Þ ðC2 \ ðVa Þ Þ ¼ ðC1 \ ðVa Þ Þ ; ¼ C1 \ ðVa Þ ; ðC1 C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ is
compact).
Since f : G ! R3 is a continuous function, and ðC1 C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ is compact,
f ððC1 C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ Þ is compact. We shall try to show that l3 ðf ððC1 C2 Þ \
ðVa Þ ÞÞ ¼ 0: Now, since f ððC1 C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ Þ is compact, by Lemma 6.1, for
every real c; l2 ðfðy1 ; y2 Þ : ðc; y1 ; y2 Þ 2 f ððC1 C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ ÞgÞ ¼ 0. For this pur-
pose, let us fix any real c. We have to show that l2 ðfðy1 ; y2 Þ : ðc; y1 ; y2 Þ 2
f ððC1 C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ ÞgÞ ¼ 0; that is, l2 ðfðf2 ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ; f3 ðx1 ; . . .; xm ÞÞ : ðx1 ; . . .;
xm Þ 2 ðC1 C2 Þ\ ðVa Þ ; andf1 ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ cgÞ ¼ 0.
Let us take any u ðu1 ; u2 ; . . .; um Þ 2 FðUa Þ: Since F 1 : FðUa Þ ! Ua is a
diffeomorphism, the rank of ðF 1 Þ0 ðyÞ for every y 2 FðUa Þ is m. Now, since u 2
FðUa Þ; the rank of ðF 1 Þ0 ðuÞ is m. Since the rank of ðF 1 Þ0 ðuÞ is m, and
0 1 0
ðD1 f1 ; f2 ; f3 Þ F 1 ðuÞ ¼ ðD1 f1 ; f2 ; f3 Þ0 F 1 ðuÞ F ð uÞ ;
0
rank ðD1 f1 ; f2 ; f3 Þ F 1 ðuÞ ¼ rank ðD1 f1 ; f2 ; f3 Þ0 F 1 ðuÞ :
Since u 2 FðUa Þ; and F is 1–1 over Ua ; there exists a unique x ðx1 ; x2 ;

. . .; xm Þ 2 Ua such that FðxÞ ¼ u; and hence, F 1 ðuÞ ¼ x: Also, since ððD1 f1 Þðx1 ;
x2 ; . . .; xm Þ; x2 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ Fðx1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ FðxÞ ¼ u ¼ ðu1 ; u2 ; . . .; um Þ; ðD1 f1 ÞðxÞ
¼ ðD1 f1 Þðx1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ u1 ; x2 ¼ u2 ; . . .; xm ¼ um : Now,

ðD1 f1 ; f2 ; f3 Þ F 1 u1 ; u2 ; . . .; um ¼ ðD1 f1 ; f2 ; f3 Þ F 1 u1 ; u2 ; . . .; um

¼ ðD1 f1 ; f2 ; f3 Þ F 1 ðuÞ ¼ ðD1 f1 ; f2 ; f3 Þð xÞ

¼ ððD1 f1 Þð xÞ; f2 ð xÞ; f3 ð xÞÞ ¼ u1 ; f2 ð xÞ; f3 ð xÞ

¼ u1 ; f2 F 1 ðuÞ ; f3 F 1 ðuÞ

¼ u1 ; f2 F 1 ðuÞ; f3 F 1 ðuÞ

¼ u1 ; f2 F 1 u1 ; u2 ; . . .; um ; f3 F 1 u1 ; u2 ; . . .; um :
Hence, for every ðu1 ; u2 ; . . .; um Þ 2 FðUa Þ;


ðD1 f1 ; f2 ; f3 Þ F 1 u1 ; u2 ; . . .; um

¼ u1 ; f2 F 1 u1 ; u2 ; . . .; um ; f3 F 1 u1 ; u2 ; . . .; um :
It follows that for every u ðu1 ; u2 ; . . .; um Þ 2 FðUa Þ;

0
rank ðD1 f1 ; f2 ; f3 Þ0 F 1 ðuÞ ¼ rank ðD1 f1 ; f2 ; f3 Þ F 1 ðuÞ
2 3
1 0 0
6 . 7
¼ rank4 ðD1 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðuÞ ðD2 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðuÞ . . ðDm ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðuÞ 5:
ðD1 ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðuÞ ðD2 ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðuÞ ðDm ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðuÞ
Now, let x ðx1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm Þ 2 ðC1 C2 Þ \ Ua : It follows that x 2 ðC1 C2 Þ \

Ua ðC1 C2 Þ; and hence, FðxÞ 2 FððC1 C2 Þ \ Ua Þ FðUa Þ: Thus,
2 3
ðD1 ðD1 f1 ÞÞð xÞ ðDm ðD1 f1 ÞÞð xÞ
6 .. 7
3 [ 1 rank4 0 .0 5
0 0
2 33m
ðD 1 ðD 1 f 1 ÞÞð x Þ ð D m ðD 1 f 1 ÞÞð x Þ
6 .. 7
¼ rank4 ðD1 f2 Þð xÞ . ðDm f2 Þð xÞ 5
ðD1 f3 Þð xÞ ðDm f3 Þð xÞ
3m
¼ rank ðD1 f1 ; f2 ; f3 Þ0 ð xÞ

¼ rank ðD1 f1 ; f2 ; f3 Þ0 F 1 ðF ð xÞÞ
2 3
1 0 0
6 . 7
¼ rank4 ðD1 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ ðD2 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ . . ðDm ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ 5:
ðD1 ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ ðD2 ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ ðDm ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ
It follows that
2 3
1 0 0
6 7
0 ¼ det4 ðD1 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ ðD2 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ ðD3 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ 5
ðD1 ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ ðD2 ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ ðD3 ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ
ðD2 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ ðD3 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ
¼ det ;
2 3
1 0 0
6 7
¼ det ;
etc. Hence, for every x ðx1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm Þ 2 ðC1 C2 Þ \ Ua ;

ðD2 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ ðD3 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ . . ðDm ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ðxÞÞ
rank . \2:
ðD2 ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ ðD3 ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ ðDm ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ðxÞÞ
Thus, for every u ðu1 ; u2 ; . . .; um Þ 2 FððC1 C2 Þ \ Ua Þ;
ðD2 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðuÞ ðD3 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðuÞ . . ðDm ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðuÞ

rank . \2:
Since FðUa Þ is open in Rm ; fðy2 ; . . .; ym Þ : ð0; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ 2 FðUa Þg is open in

Rm1 :
Let us define a function fc : fðy2 ; . . .; ym Þ : ð0; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ 2 FðUa Þg ! R2 as
follows: For every ðy2 ; . . .; ym Þ satisfying ð0; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ 2 FðUa Þ;

fc y2 ; . . .; ym ¼ f2 F 1 0; y2 ; . . .; ym ; f3 F 1 0; y2 ; . . .; ym :
Since ðy2 ; . . .; ym Þ 7! ð0; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ is smooth, and ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞ : FðUa Þ ! R is

smooth, their composite ðy2 ; . . .; ym Þ 7! ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞð0; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ is smooth. Simi-
larly, ðy2 ; . . .; ym Þ 7! ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞð0; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ is smooth. It follows that fc :
fðy2 ; . . .; ym Þ : ð0; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ 2 FðUa Þg ! R2 is smooth.
For every u ðu2 ; . . .; um Þ satisfying ð0; u2 ; . . .; um Þ 2 FðUa Þ; we have ðD1
ðfc Þ1 Þðu2 ; . . .; um Þ ¼ ðD2 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞð0; u2 ; . . .; um Þ; ðD2 ðfc Þ1 Þðu2 ; . . .; um Þ ¼ ðD3
ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞð0; u2 ; . . .; um Þ; etc., and hence,
" #
0 D1 ðfc Þ1 ðuÞ D2 ðfc Þ1 ðuÞ . . Dm1 ðfc Þ1 ðuÞ
ðfc Þ0 ðuÞ ¼ ðfc Þ u2 ; . . .; u m
¼ .
D1 ðfc Þ2 ðuÞ D2 ðfc Þ2 ðuÞ Dm1 ðfc Þ2 ðuÞ
ðD2 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞð0; u2 ; . . .; um Þ ðD3 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞð0; u2 ; . . .; um Þ
¼
. . ðDm ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞð0; u2 ; . . .; um Þ
. :
ðDm ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞð0; u2 ; . . .; um Þ
Clearly, every point of fðy2 ; . . .; ym Þ : ð0; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ 2 FððC1 C2 Þ \ Ua Þg is a

critical point of fc : (Reason: Take any u ðu2 ; . . .; um Þ 2 fðy2 ; . . .; ym Þ : ð0; y2 ; . . .;
ym Þ 2 FððC1 C2 Þ \ Ua Þg: It follows that ð0; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ 2 FððC1 C2 Þ \ Ua Þ
FðUa Þ; and

rank ðfc Þ0 ðuÞ ¼ rank
. . ðDm ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞð0; u2 ; . . .; um Þ
. \2:
ðDm ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞð0; u2 ; . . .; um Þ
Now, by induction hypothesis, l2 ðfc ðfðy2 ; . . .; ym Þ : ð0; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ 2 FððC1

C2 Þ \Ua ÞgÞÞ ¼ 0: Now, since ðVa Þ Ua ;

0 l2 f2 F 1 0; y2 ; . . .; ym ; f3 F 1 0; y2 ; . . .; ym

: 0; y2 ; . . .; ym 2 F ððC1 C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ Þ

l2 f2 F 1 0; y2 ; . . .; ym ; f3 F 1 0; y2 ; . . .; ym

: 0; y2 ; . . .; ym 2 F ððC1 C2 Þ \ Ua Þ
2
¼ l2 fc y ; . . .; ym : 0; y2 ; . . .; ym 2 F ððC1 C2 Þ \ Ua Þ ¼ 0;
and hence,

l2 f2 F 1 0; y2 ; . . .; ym ; f3 F 1 0; y2 ; . . .; ym

: 0; y2 ; . . .; ym 2 F ððC1 C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ Þ ¼ 0:
It suffices to show that

1
f2 x ; . . .; xm ; f3 x1 ; . . .; xm : x1 ; . . .; xm

2 ðC1 C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ ; and ðD1 f1 Þ x1 ; . . .; xm ¼ c

f2 F 1 0; y2 ; . . .; ym ; f3 F 1 0; y2 ; . . .; ym : 0; y2 ; . . .; ym
2 F ððC1 C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ Þg:
Let us take any ðf2 ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ; f3 ðx1 ; . . .; xm ÞÞ 2 LHS; where ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ 2
ðC1 C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ ; and f1 ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ c. Now, since ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ 2 ðC1 C2 Þ\
ðVa Þ ;
2
0; x ; . . .; xm ¼ ðD1 f1 Þ x1 ; . . .; xm ; x2 ; . . .; xm ¼ F x1 ; . . .; xm
2 F ððC1 C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ Þ;
and hence, F 1 ð0; x2 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ: It follows that

1
f2 x ; . . .; xm ; f3 x1 ; . . .; xm ¼ f2 F 1 0; x2 ; . . .; xm ; f3 F 1 0; x2 ; . . .; xm

¼ f2 F 1 0; x2 ; . . .; xm ; f3 F 1 0; x2 ; . . .; xm 2 RHS:
Thus, LHS RHS:

We have shown that for every a 2 C1 C2 ; there exists an open neighborhood Va
2 B of a such that l3 ðf ððC1 C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ ÞÞ ¼ 0; and a 2 Va ðVa Þ S G: Here,
[fðC1 C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ : a 2 ðC1 SC2 Þg ¼ ðC1 C2 Þ; so f ðC1 C2 Þ ¼ f ð fðC1
C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ : a 2 ðC1 C2 ÞgÞ ¼ ff ððC1 C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ Þ : a 2 ðC1 C2 Þg: Since
each Va 2 B; and B is a countable collection, ff ððC1 C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ Þ : a 2
S
ðC1 C2 Þg is a countable collection, and hence, l3 ðf ðC1 C2 ÞÞ ¼ l3 ð ff ððC1 C2 Þ\
P P
ðVa Þ Þ : a 2 ðC1 C2 ÞgÞ countable l3 ðf ððC1 C2 Þ \ ðVa Þ ÞÞ ¼ countable 0 ¼ 0:
Thus, l3 ðf ðC1 C2 ÞÞ ¼ 0: Similarly,

0 ¼ l3 ðf ðC2 C3 ÞÞ ¼ ¼ l3 f C½m1 C½m :
n n
For 2: For simplicity of discussion, here, we shall assume 3 for n. Since Rm is a

second countable space, there exists a countable basis B of Rm .
Since C1 is closed in the open set G; G C1 is open in Rm : Since C1 C G;
C C1 G C1 G: Now, since f : G ! R3 is a smooth function, f jðGC1 Þ :
ðG C1 Þ ! R3 is smooth. Clearly, the collection of all critical points of f jðGC1 Þ is
C C1 ; that is,
8 2 3 9
< ðD1 f1 Þð xÞ . ðDm f1 Þð xÞ =
C C1 ¼ x : x 2 G C1 ; and rank4 ðD1 f2 Þð xÞ . . ðDm f2 Þð xÞ 5\3 :
: ;
Let us take any a 2 C C1 : Since a 2 C C1 G; a 2 G: Now, since a 62

C1 ¼ fx : x 2 G; and all first order partial derivatives of F at x are zerog; there exists
j 2 f1; 2; . . .; mg; and i 2 f1; 2; 3g such that ðDj fi ÞðaÞ 6¼ 0: For simplicity, let i ¼
j ¼ 1: Thus, ðD1 f1 ÞðaÞ 6¼ 0: Let us define a function ðF 1 ; F 2 ; . . .; F m Þ F :
ðG C1 Þ ! Rm as follows: For every x ðx1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm Þ 2 G C1 ;

F 1 x1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm ; F 2 x1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm ; . . .; F k x1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm ¼ F x1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm

f1 x1 ; . . .; xm ; x2 ; . . .; xm :
Since f : G ! R3 is a smooth function, f1 : G ! R is a smooth function, and

hence, F : ðG C1 Þ ! Rk is smooth. Here,
2 3
ðD1 f1 ÞðAÞ ðD2 f1 ÞðAÞ ðDm f1 ÞðAÞ
6 0 1 .. 0 7
detðF 0 ðAÞÞ ¼ det6
4 ... .. . .. 7
5 ¼ ðD1 f1 ÞðAÞ;
. .
0 0 1 mm
which is nonzero. So, by Theorem 4.1, there exists an open neighborhood Ua of a

such that Ua is contained in ðG C1 Þ; FðUa Þ is open in Rm ; and F has a smooth
inverse on FðUa Þ: Thus, F : Ua ! FðUa Þ is a diffeomorphism, and F 1 : FðUa Þ !
Ua is a diffeomorphism. Since F 1 : FðUa Þ ! Ua is a diffeomorphism, Ua
ðG C1 Þ G; and f : G ! R3 is smooth, their composite f ðF 1 Þ : FðUa Þ !
R3 is a smooth function. Since Ua is an open neighborhood of a in Rm ; there exists
an open set Va 2 B such that a 2 Va ðVa Þ Ua ðG C1 Þ; and ðVa Þ is
compact.
Let us observe that ðC C1 Þ \ ðVa Þ is compact.
(Reason: Since C G; C is closed in G; and G is open in Rm ; C [ ðGc Þ is

closed in Rm : Since C [ ðGc Þ is closed in Rm ; and ðVa Þ ð Ua ðG C1 Þ GÞ
is compact, their intersection ðC [ ðGc ÞÞ \ ððVa Þ Þð¼ C \ ððVa Þ ÞÞ is compact,
and hence, C \ðVa Þ is compact. Since C \ðVa Þ is compact, and ðC C1 Þ \
ðVa Þ ¼ ðC \ ðVa Þ Þ ðC1 \ ðVa Þ Þ ¼ ðC \ ðVa Þ Þ ; ¼ C \ ðVa Þ ; ðC C1 Þ
\ðVa Þ is compact.) Since f : G ! R3 is a continuous function, and ðC C1 Þ \
ðVa Þ ð ðVa Þ GÞ is compact, f ððC C1 Þ \ðVa Þ Þ is compact. We shall try to
show that l3 ðf ððC C1 Þ \ ðVa Þ ÞÞ ¼ 0:
Now, since f ððC C1 Þ \ ðVa Þ Þ is compact, by Lemma 6.1, it suffices to show
that for every real c; l2 ðfðy1 ; y2 Þ : ðc; y1 ; y2 Þ 2 f ððC C1 Þ \ ðVa Þ ÞgÞ ¼ 0. For
this purpose, let us fix any real c. We have to show that l2 ðfðy1 ; y2 Þ : ðc; y1 ; y2 Þ
2 f ððC C1 Þ \ ðVa Þ ÞgÞ ¼ 0, that is, l2 ðfðf2 ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ; f3 ðx1 ; . . .; xm ÞÞ :
ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ 2 ðC C1 Þ \ ðVa Þ ; and f1 ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ cgÞ ¼ 0:
Let us take any u ðu1 ; u2 ; . . .; um Þ 2 FðUa Þ: Since F 1 : FðUa Þ ! Ua is a
diffeomorphism, the rank of ðF 1 Þ0 ðyÞ for every y 2 FðUa Þ is m. Now, since u 2
FðUa Þ; the rank of ðF 1 Þ0 ðuÞ is m. Since the rank of ðF 1 Þ0 ðuÞ is m, and
0 1 0
f F 1 ðuÞ ¼ f 0 F 1 ðuÞ F ð uÞ ;
0
rank f F 1 ðuÞ ¼ rank f 0 F 1 ðuÞ :
Since u 2 FðUa Þ; and F is 1–1 over Ua ; there exists a unique x ðx1 ; x2 ;

. . .; xm Þ 2 Ua such that FðxÞ ¼ u; and hence, F 1 ðuÞ ¼ x: Also, since ðf1 ðx1 ;
x2 ; . . .; xm Þ; x2 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ Fðx1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ FðxÞ ¼ u ¼ ðu1 ; u2 ; . . .; um Þ; f1 ðxÞ ¼
f1 ðx1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ u1 ; x2 ¼ u2 ; . . .; xm ¼ um : Now, ðf ðF 1 ÞÞðu1 ; u2 ; . . .; um Þ ¼
f ðF 1 ðu1 ; u2 ; . . .; um ÞÞ ¼ f ðF 1 ðuÞÞ ¼ f ðxÞ ¼ ðf1 ðxÞ; f2 ðxÞ; f3 ðxÞÞ ¼ ðu1 ; f2 ðxÞ; f3
ðxÞÞ ¼ ðu1 ; f2 ðF 1 ðuÞÞ; f3 ðF 1 ðuÞÞÞ ¼ ðu1 ; ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞðuÞ; ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞðuÞÞ ¼
ðu ; ðf2 ðF ÞÞðu1 ; u2 ; . . .; um Þ; ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞðu1 ; u2 ; . . .; um ÞÞ: Hence, for every ðu1 ;
1 1
u2 ; . . .; um Þ 2 FðUa Þ;

f F 1 u1 ; u2 ; . . .; um ¼ u1 ; f2 F 1 u1 ; u2 ; . . .; um ;

f3 F 1 u1 ; u2 ; . . .; um :
It follows that for every u ðu1 ; u2 ; . . .; um Þ 2 FðUa Þ;

0
rank f 0 F 1 ðuÞ ¼ rank f F 1 ðuÞ
2 3
1 0 0
6 . 7
¼ rank4 ðD1 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðuÞ ðD2 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðuÞ . . ðDm ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðuÞ 5
Now, let x ðx1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm Þ 2 ðC C1 Þ \ Ua : It follows that x 2 ðC C1 Þ \

Ua ðC C1 Þ; and hence, FðxÞ 2 FððC C1 Þ \ Ua Þ FðUa Þ: Thus,
2 3
6 . 7
3 [ rank4 ðD1 f2 Þð xÞ . . ðDm f2 Þð xÞ 5 ¼ rankðf 0 ð xÞÞ ¼ rank f 0 F 1 ðF ð xÞÞ
ðD1 f3 Þð xÞ ðDm f3 Þð xÞ 3m
2 3
1 0 0
6 . 7
¼ rank4 ðD1 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ ðD2 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ . . ðDm ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ 5:
ðD1 ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ ðD2 ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ ðDm ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ
It follows that
2 3
1 0 0
6 7
¼ det ;
2 3
1 0 0
6 7
¼ det ;
etc. Hence, for every x ðx1 ; x2 ; . . .; xm Þ 2 ðC C1 Þ \ Ua ;
ðD2 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ ðD3 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ . . ðDm ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ðxÞÞ
rank . \2:
ðD2 ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ ðD3 ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ð xÞÞ ðDm ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðF ðxÞÞ
Thus, for every u ðu1 ; u2 ; . . .; um Þ 2 FððC C1 Þ \ Ua Þ;
ðD2 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðuÞ ðD3 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðuÞ . . ðDm ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðuÞ

rank . \2:
Since FðUa Þ is open in Rk ; fðy2 ; . . .; ym Þ : ðc; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ 2 FðUa Þg is open in

R :
m1
Let us define a function fc : fðy2 ; . . .; ym Þ : ðc; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ 2 FðUa Þg ! R2 as fol-

lows: For every ðy2 ; . . .; ym Þ satisfying ðc; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ 2 FðUa Þ;

fc y2 ; . . .; ym ¼ f2 F 1 c; y2 ; . . .; ym ; f3 F 1 c; y2 ; . . .; ym :
Since ðy2 ; . . .; ym Þ 7! ðc; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ is smooth, and ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞ : FðUa Þ ! R is

smooth, their composite ðy2 ; . . .; ym Þ 7! ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞðc; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ is smooth. Simi-
larly, ðy2 ; . . .; ym Þ 7! ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞðc; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ is smooth. It follows that fc : fðy2 ;
. . .; ym Þ : ðc; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ 2 FðUa Þg ! R2 is smooth.
For every u ðu2 ; . . .; um Þ satisfying ðc; u2 ; . . .; um Þ 2 FðUa Þ; ðD1 ðfc Þ1 Þðu2 ; . . .;
um Þ ¼ ðD2 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðc; u2 ; . . .; um Þ; ðD2 ðfc Þ1 Þðu2 ; . . .; um Þ ¼ ðD3 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðc;
u2 ; . . .; um Þ; etc., and hence,
" #
0 0 2 D1 ðfc Þ1 ðuÞ D2 ðfc Þ1 ðuÞ . . Dk1 ðfc Þ1 ðuÞ
ðfc Þ ðuÞ ¼ ðfc Þ u ; . . .; u ¼
m
.
D1 ðfc Þ2 ðuÞ D2 ðfc Þ2 ðuÞ Dk1 ðfc Þ2 ðuÞ
ðD2 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðc; u2 ; . . .; um Þ ðD3 ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðc; u2 ; . . .; um Þ
¼
. . ðDk ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðc; u2 ; . . .; um Þ
. :
ðDk ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðc; u2 ; . . .; um Þ
Clearly, every point of fðy2 ; . . .; ym Þ : ðc; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ 2 FðC \ Ua Þg is a critical

point of fc . (Reason: Take any u ðu2 ; . . .; um Þ 2 fðy2 ; . . .; ym Þ : ð0; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ
2 FððC1 C2 Þ \ Ua Þg. It follows that ð0; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ 2 FððC C1 Þ \ Ua Þ
FðUa Þ; and

rank ðfc Þ0 ðuÞ
¼ rank
. . ðDk ðf2 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðc; u2 ; . . .; um Þ
. \2:Þ
ðDk ðf3 ðF 1 ÞÞÞðc; u2 ; . . .; um Þ
Now, by induction hypothesis, l2 ðfc ðfðy2 ; . . .; ym Þ : ðc; y2 ; . . .; ym Þ 2 FððC C1 Þ

\ Ua ÞgÞÞ ¼ 0: Since ðVa Þ Ua ;

0 l2 f2 F 1 c; y2 ; . . .; ym ; f3 F 1 c; y2 ; . . .; ym

: c; y2 ; . . .; ym 2 F ððC C1 Þ \ ðVa Þ Þ

l2 f2 F 1 c; y2 ; . . .; ym ; f3 F 1 c; y2 ; . . .; ym

: c; y2 ; . . .; ym 2 F ðC \ Ua Þ
2
¼ l2 fc y ; . . .; ym : c; y2 ; . . .; ym 2 F ððC C1 Þ \ Ua Þ ¼ 0;
and hence,

l2 f2 F 1 c; y2 ; . . .; ym ; f3 F 1 c; y2 ; . . .; ym

: c; y2 ; . . .; ym 2 F ððC C1 Þ \ ðVa Þ Þ ¼ 0:
It suffices to show that
1
f2 x ; . . .; xm ; f3 x1 ; . . .; xm : x1 ; . . .; xm 2 ðC C1 Þ \ ðVa Þ ;

and f1 x1 ; . . .; xm ¼ c

f2 F 1 c; y2 ; . . .; ym ; f3 F 1 c; y2 ; . . .; ym

: c; y2 ; . . .; ym 2 F ððC C1 Þ \ ðVa Þ Þ :
Let us take any ðf2 ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ; f3 ðx1 ; . . .; xm ÞÞ 2 LHS; where ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ 2

ðC C1 Þ \ ðVa Þ ; and f1 ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ c: Now, since ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ 2 ðC C1 Þ
\ðVa Þ ;

c; x2 ; . . .; xm ¼ f1 x1 ; . . .; xm ; x2 ; . . .; xm ¼ F x1 ; . . .; xm

2 F ððC C1 Þ \ ðVa Þ Þ;
and hence F 1 ðc; x2 ; . . .; xm Þ ¼ ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ: It follows that
1
f2 x ; . . .; xm ; f3 x1 ; . . .; xm

¼ f2 F 1 c; x2 ; . . .; xm ; f3 F 1 c; x2 ; . . .; xm

¼ f2 F 1 c; x2 ; . . .; xm ; f3 F 1 c; x2 ; . . .; xm 2 RHS:
Hence, LHS RHS:

Thus, we have shown that for every a 2 ðC C1 Þ; there exists an open
neighborhood Va 2 BSof a such that l3 ðf ððC C1 Þ \ ðVa Þ ÞÞ ¼ 0; and a 2 Va
ðVa Þ G: SHere, fðC C1 Þ \ ðVa Þ : a 2 ðC C S1 Þg ¼ ðC C1 Þ; so f ððC
C1 ÞÞ ¼ f ð fðC C1 Þ \ ðVa Þ : a 2 ðC C1 ÞgÞ ¼ ff ððC C1 Þ \ ðVa Þ Þ :
a 2 ðC C1 Þg: Since each Va 2 B; and B is a countable collection, ff ððC C1 Þ

\ðVa Þ Þ : a 2 ðC C1 Þg is a countable collection, and hence,
[
l3 ðf ðC C1 ÞÞ ¼ l3 ff ððC C1 Þ \ ðVa Þ Þ : a 2 ðC C1 Þg
X X
l3 ðf ððC C1 Þ \ðVa Þ ÞÞ ¼ 0 ¼ 0:
countable countable
Thus, l3 ðf ðC C1 ÞÞ ¼ 0: h
6.4 Sard’s Theorem on Manifolds 475
6.4 Sard’s Theorem on Manifolds
Theorem 6.27 Let m; n be positive integers such that m\n: Let M be an

m-dimensional smooth manifold, and N be an n-dimensional smooth manifold. Let
f : M ! N be a smooth mapping. Then, f ðMÞ has measure zero in N:
Proof For simplicity, let n ¼ m þ 1: Let us define a mapping F : M R ! N
as follows: For every p 2 M; and t 2 R; Fðp; tÞ f ðpÞ: Clearly, F is smooth.
(Reason: We know that the mapping ðp; tÞ 7! p from product manifold M R to M
is smooth. Since ðp; tÞ 7! p from M R to M is smooth, and f : M ! N is smooth,
their composite ðp; tÞ 7! f ðpÞð¼ Fðp; tÞÞ from M R to N is smooth, and hence, F
is smooth).
Observe that fðp; 0Þ : p 2 Mgð M RÞ is of measure zero in M R: (Reason:
Let ðU R; ðu IdR ÞÞ be an admissible coordinate chart of the product manifold
M R; where ðU; uÞ is an admissible coordinate chart of M; and ðR; IdR Þ is an
admissible coordinate chart of R: We know that M R is an ðm þ 1Þ-dimensional
smooth manifold. We have to show that lmþ1 ððu IdR Þðfðp; 0Þ : p 2 Mg \
ðU RÞÞÞ ¼ 0; where lmþ1 denotes the ðm þ 1Þ-dimensional Lebesgue measure
over Rmþ1 : Here,
lmþ1 ððu IdR Þðfðp; 0Þ : p 2 M g \ ðU RÞÞÞ

¼ lmþ1 ððu IdR Þðfðp; 0Þ : p 2 U gÞÞlmþ1 ððuð pÞ IdR ð0ÞÞ : p 2 U Þ
¼ lmþ1 ððuð pÞ; 0Þ : p 2 U Þ lmþ1 ðRm f0gÞ ¼ 0Þ:
Since F : M R ! N is smooth, and fðp; 0Þ : p 2 Mgð M RÞ is of measure

zero in M R, by Lemma 6.16, Fðfðp; 0Þ : p 2 MgÞð¼ fFðp; 0Þ : p 2 Mg ¼
ff ðpÞ : p 2 Mg ¼ f ðMÞÞ has measure zero in N; and hence, f ðMÞ has measure zero
in N: h
Theorem 6.28 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold, and N be an n-
dimensional smooth manifold. Let f : M ! N be a smooth mapping. Let C be the
collection of all critical points of f . Then, f ðCÞ has measure zero in N.
Proof Let us take any admissible coordinate chart ðV; wÞ for N: We have to show
that
ln ðwððf ðC ÞÞ \ V ÞÞ ¼ 0;
where ln denotes the n-dimensional Lebesgue measure over Rn : Since M is an m-

dimensional smooth manifold, by Lemma 4.49, there exists a countable collection
fðU1 ; u1 Þ; ðU2 ; u2 Þ; ðU3 ; u3 Þ; . . .g of admissible coordinate charts of M such that
fU1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . .g is a basis of M: Here, C M ¼ U1 [ U2 [ U3 [ ; so
0 ln ðwððf ðCÞÞ \ V ÞÞ
¼ ln ðwððf ððC \ U1 Þ [ ðC \ U2 Þ [ ðC \ U3 Þ [ ÞÞ \ V ÞÞ
¼ ln ðwðððf ðC \ U1 ÞÞ [ ðf ðC \ U2 ÞÞ [ ðf ðC \ U3 ÞÞ [ Þ \ V ÞÞ
¼ ln ðwðððf ðC \ U1 ÞÞ \ V Þ [ ððf ðC \ U2 ÞÞ \ V Þ [ ððf ðC \ U3 ÞÞ \ V Þ [ ÞÞ
¼ ln ðwððf ðC \ U1 ÞÞ \ V Þ [ wððf ðC \ U2 ÞÞ \ V Þ [ wððf ðC \ U3 ÞÞ \ V Þ [ Þ
ln ðwððf ðC \ U1 ÞÞ \ V ÞÞ þ ln ðwððf ðC \ U2 ÞÞ \ V ÞÞ
þ ln ðwððf ðC \ U3 ÞÞ \ V ÞÞ þ :
Since
0 ln ðwððf ðCÞÞ \ V ÞÞ
ln ðwððf ðC \ U1 ÞÞ \ V ÞÞ
þ ln ðwððf ðC \ U2 ÞÞ \ V ÞÞ
þ ln ðwððf ðC \ U3 ÞÞ \ V ÞÞ þ ;
it suffices to show that for each k ¼ 1; 2; . . .;
ln ðwððf ðC \ Uk ÞÞ \ V ÞÞ ¼ 0:
Let us try to show that
ln ðwððf ðC \ U1 ÞÞ \ V ÞÞ ¼ 0:
Since u1 is a diffeomorphism from open set U1 onto open set u1 ðU1 Þ; and w is a
diffeomorphism from open set V onto the open set wðVÞ; the collection of all critical
points of f in U1 is equal to ðu1 Þ1 ðthe collection of all critical points of ðw f
ðu1 Þ1 Þin u1 ðU1 ÞÞ. Since f : M ! N is a smooth mapping, w f ðu1 Þ1 is smooth.
Since w f ðu1 Þ1 is smooth, by Lemma 6.26, 0 ¼ ln ððw f ðu1 Þ1 Þ ðthe
collection of all critical points of ðw f ðu1 Þ1 Þ in u1 ðU1 ÞÞÞ ¼ ln ððw f Þ
ððu1 Þ1 ðthe collection of all critical points of ðw f ðu1 Þ1 Þin u1 ðU1 ÞÞÞÞ ¼ ln
ððw f Þðcollection of all critical points of f in U1 ÞÞ ¼ ln ðwðf ðcollection of all
critical points of f in U1 ÞÞÞ ¼ ln ðwððf ðC \ U1 ÞÞ \ VÞÞ: Thus, ln ðwððf ðC\ U1 ÞÞ \
VÞÞ ¼ 0: Similarly,
ln ðwððf ðC \ U2 ÞÞ \ V ÞÞ ¼ 0; ln ðwððf ðC \ U3 ÞÞ \ V ÞÞ ¼ 0; etc.

h
Theorem 6.28 is known as Sard’s theorem.

Chapter 7
Whitney Embedding Theorem
This is the smallest chapter of this book, because it contains only two theorems
which are due to Whitney. These theorems have three serious reasons to study.
Firstly, in its proof the celebrated Sard’s theorem got an application. Secondly, the
statement of Whitney embedding theorem was contrary to the common belief that a
smooth manifold may not have any ambient space. Thirdly, in its proof, Whitney
used almost all tools of smooth manifolds developed at that time. Fortunately, in
this chapter we have all the prerequisite for its proof in the special case of compact
smooth manifolds. For the general case, which is more difficult, one can find its
proof somewhere else.
7.1 Compact Whitney Embedding in RN
Lemma 7.1 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let M be compact.

Then, there exists a positive integer N such that M is embedded in the Euclidean
space RN :
Proof Since M is an open cover of M, by Lemma 4.52, there exists a countable
collection ðU1 ; u1 Þ; ðU2 ; u2 Þ; ðU3 ; u3 Þ; . . . of admissible coordinate charts of
M such that
1. U1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . . covers M,
2. U1 ; U2 ; U3 ; . . . is locally finite,
3. Each un ðUn Þ is equal to the open ball B3(0),
4. u1 1 1
1 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; u2 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; u3 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; . . . is an open cover of M.
Since u1 1 1
1 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; u2 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; u3 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; . . . is an open cover of M, and M is
compact, there exists a positive integer k such that u1 1
1 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; . . .; uk ðB1 ð0ÞÞ is
1
an open cover of M. For every i ¼ 1; . . .; k; ui is continuous, and B1 ½0 is com-
pact, so u1 1
i ðB1 ½0Þ is compact. ui ðB1 ½0Þ is compact in M, and M is Hausdorff, so
ui ðB1 ½0Þ is a closed subset of M. Since u1
1
i ðB1 ½0Þ is a closed subset of M,

478 7 Whitney Embedding Theorem
u1 1 1
i ðB2 ð0ÞÞ is an open subset of M, and ui ðB1 ½0Þ ui ðB2 ð0ÞÞ, by Lemma
4.58, there exists a smooth function wi : M ! ½0; 1 such that
a. for every x in u1
i ðB1 ½0Þ; wi ðxÞ ¼ 1;
b. supp wi u1i ðB2 ð0ÞÞ:
Here, u1 : U1 ! u1 ðU1 Þð Rm Þ; so let u1 ðu11 ; . . .; u1m Þ; where each u1i :

U1 ! R: Similarly, let u2 ðu21 ; . . .; u2m Þ; where each u2i : U2 ! R; etc.
Take any p 2 U1 \ ðu1 c
1 ðB2 ½0ÞÞ : Clearly, w1 ðpÞu11 ðpÞ ¼ 0: (Reason: Since
supp w1 is contained in u1 ðB2 ð0ÞÞ; w1 ðxÞ ¼ 0 for every x 62 u1
1
1 ðB2 ð0ÞÞ: Since
1 c 1 1
p 2 U1 \ ðu1 ðB2 ½0ÞÞ ¼ U1 ðu1 ðB2 ½0ÞÞ U1 ðu1 ðB2 ð0ÞÞÞ; w1 ðpÞ ¼ 0;
and hence, w1 ðpÞu11 ðpÞ ¼ 0 u11 ðpÞ ¼ 0: This shows that the following definition
of function is well-defined.
Let us define a function u^ 11 : M ! R as follows: for every p 2 M;

w1 ð pÞu11 ð pÞ if p 2 U
1 c
^ 11 ð pÞ
u
0 if p 2 u11 ðB2 ½0Þ :
Now we want to show that u ^ 11 : M ! R is a smooth function. Since ðU1 ; u1 Þ is

an admissible coordinate chart of M; u1 : U1 ! u1 ðU1 Þ is a diffeomorphism, and
hence, u1 : U1 ! u1 ðU1 Þ is smooth. Since ðu11 ; . . .; u1m Þ u1 : U1 !
u1 ðU1 Þð Rm Þ is smooth, u11 : U1 ! R is smooth. Since u11 : U1 ! R is smooth,
w1 : M ! ½0; 1 is smooth, and U1 is an open subset of M, their product
p 7! w1 ðpÞu11 ðpÞ is smooth over open set U1 : Also the constant function p 7! 0 is
smooth over the open set ðu1 c
1 ðB2 ½0ÞÞ : Now since u ^ 11 is well-defined, u^ 11 :
M ! R is smooth. Since the function u ^ 11 : M ! R is well-defined, for every
p 2 M;
1
w1 ð pÞu11 ð pÞ if p 2 u
1 ðB2 ½0Þ c
^ 11 ð pÞ
u
0 if p 2 u11 ðB2 ½0Þ :
^ 12 : M ! R defined as follows: for every p 2 M;

Similarly, the function u
1
1 1ðB2 ½0Þ c
^ 12 ð pÞ
u
0 if p 2 u1 ðB2 ½0Þ
^ 21 : M ! R is defined as follows: for every

is smooth, etc. Further the function u
p 2 M;
1
2 1ðB2 ½0Þ c
^ 21 ð pÞ
u
0 if p 2 u2 ðB2 ½0Þ
^ 22 : M ! R is defined as follows: for every

is smooth. Similarly, the function u
p 2 M;
7.1 Compact Whitney Embedding in RN 479
1
2 1ðB2 ½0Þ c
^ 22 ð pÞ
u
0 if p 2 u2 ðB2 ½0Þ
is smooth, etc. Now let us define a function

0 1
B ! !C
B C
B R R |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
F: M ! B |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} R R C C
@ m m A
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
0 1 k

@|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
R R A ¼ Rkðmþ1Þ
k
as follows: for every p 2 M;
F ð pÞ ððu ^ 1m ð pÞÞ; . . .; ðu
^ 11 ð pÞ; . . .; u ^ k1 ð pÞ; . . .; u
^ km ð pÞÞ; ðw1 ð pÞ; . . .; wk ð pÞÞÞ:
Since each component function of F is smooth, F : M ! RN is smooth, where

N kðm þ 1Þ: We shall try to show that
1. F : M ! RN is 1–1,
2. F : M ! RN is a smooth immersion, that is, for every p 2 M; the linear map
dFp : Tp M ! TFðpÞ RN ð¼ RN Þ is 1–1.
For 1: Let FðpÞ ¼ FðqÞ; where p; q 2 M: We have to show that p ¼ q: Here,

ðð^ ^ 1m ðpÞÞ; . . .; ð^
u11 ðpÞ; . . .; u uk1 ðpÞ; . . .; u^ km ðpÞÞ; ðw1 ðpÞ; . . .; wk ðpÞÞÞ ¼ FðpÞ ¼
FðqÞ ¼ ðð^ u11 ðqÞ; . . .; u^ 1m ðqÞÞ; . . .; ð^ ^ km ðqÞÞ; ðw1 ðqÞ; . . .; wk ðqÞÞÞ;
uk1 ðqÞ; . . .; u
so ðw1 ðpÞ; . . .; wk ðpÞÞ ¼ ðw1 ðqÞ; . . .; wk ðqÞÞ; and for each i ¼ 1; . . .; k;
^ im ðpÞÞ ¼ ð^
ui1 ðpÞ; . . .; u
ð^ ^ im ðqÞÞ:
ui1 ðqÞ; . . .; u Since p 2 M ¼ u1 1 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ
1
[ [ uk ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; there exists a positive integer l such that 1 l k; and
p 2 u1 l ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; and hence, wl ðpÞ ¼ 1: Since 1 l k; and
ðw1 ðpÞ; . . .; wk ðpÞÞ ¼ ðw1 ðqÞ; . . .; wk ðqÞÞ; 1 ¼ wl ðpÞ ¼ wl ðqÞ: Since wl ðpÞ ¼
wl ðqÞ; and wl ðpÞ ¼ 1; wl ðqÞ ¼ 1: Since wl ðpÞ 6¼ 0; and supp wl is contained in
u1 1 1
l ðB2 ð0ÞÞ; p 2 ul ðB2 ð0ÞÞð ul ðB2 ½0ÞÞ; and hence, p 2 ul ðB2 ½0Þ: Since
1
1
p 2 ul ðB2 ½0Þ; u ^ l1 ðpÞ ¼ wl ðpÞul1 ðpÞ ¼ 1ul1 ðpÞ ¼ ul1 ðpÞ; . . .; u ^ lm ðpÞ ¼ wl ðpÞulm ðpÞ
¼ 1ulm ðpÞ ¼ ulm ðpÞ: Similarly, u ^ l1 ðqÞ ¼ ul1 ðqÞ; . . .; u^ lm ðqÞ ¼ ulm ðqÞ: Since
ul ðpÞ ¼ ðul1 ðpÞ; . . .; ulm ðpÞÞ ¼ ð^ ^ lm ðpÞÞ ¼ ð^
ul1 ðpÞ; . . .; u ^ lm ðqÞÞ ¼
ul1 ðqÞ; . . .; u
ðul1 ðqÞ; . . .; ulm ðqÞÞ ¼ ul ðqÞ; ul ðpÞ ¼ ul ðqÞ: Since ul ðpÞ ¼ ul ðqÞ; and ul is
1–1, p ¼ q:
For 2: Let us take any p 2 M: We have to show that the linear map dFp :
Tp M ! RN is 1–1. For this purpose, let ðdFp ÞðvÞ ¼ 0; where v 2 Tp M: We have
to show that v ¼ 0:
Since p 2 M ¼ u1 1
1 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ [ [ uk ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; there exists a positive integer l
such that 1 l k; and p 2 u1 l ðB1 ð0ÞÞ: It follows that for every x 2
u1
l ðB1 ð0ÞÞð u 1
l ðB 2 ½0ÞÞ; we have wl ðxÞ ¼ 1; and ð^ ^ lm ðxÞÞ ¼
ul1 ðxÞ; . . .; u
ðwl ðxÞul1 ðxÞ; . . .; wl ðxÞulm ðxÞÞ ¼ ð1ul1 ðxÞ; . . .; 1ulm ðxÞÞ ¼ ul ðxÞ: For simplicity,
let l ¼ 1: Thus, for every x 2 u1 1 ðB1 ð0ÞÞ; we have ð^ ^ 1m ðxÞÞ ¼ u1 ðxÞ:
u11 ðxÞ; . . .; u
Here, 0 ¼ ðdFp ÞðvÞ ¼ ððdð^ u1 Þp ÞðvÞ; . . .; ðdðûk Þp ÞðvÞ; ðdðw1 Þp ÞðvÞ; . . .; ðdðwk Þp ÞðvÞÞ ¼
ððdðu1 Þp ÞðvÞ; . . .; ðdðûk Þp ÞðvÞ; ðdðw1 Þp ÞðvÞ; . . .; ðdðwk Þp ÞðvÞÞ; so ðdðu1 Þp ÞðvÞ ¼ 0:
Since u1 is a diffeomorphism, dðu1 Þp is an isomorphism. Since dðu1 Þp is an iso-
morphism, and ðdðu1 Þp ÞðvÞ ¼ 0; v ¼ 0:
Since F : M ! RN is 1–1, F : M ! RN is a smooth immersion, and M is
compact, by Note 5.72, F : M ! RN is a smooth embedding. h
Note 7.2 The above Lemma 7.1 is known as the compact Whitney embedding in
RN :
7.2 Compact Whitney Embedding in R2mþ1
Lemma 7.3 Let M be an m-dimensional smooth manifold. Let M be compact.

Then, there exists an embedding F : M ! R2mþ1 :
Proof By Lemma 7.1, there exists a positive integer N such that M is embedded in
the Euclidean space RN : Since M is embedded in the Euclidean space RN ; there
exists a smooth embedding f : M ! RN : h
Case I when N\2m þ 1. Let us not distinguish between ðx1 ; . . .; xN Þð2 RN Þ

and
0 1
B C
@x1 ; . . .; xN ; 0; . . .; 0 A 2 R2mþ1 :
|fflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflffl} |fflfflffl{zfflfflffl}
N ð2mþ1ÞN
Thus, RN R2mþ1 ; RN is an N-slice of R2mþ1 ; and RN satisfies local N-slice

condition. It follows, by Note 5.97, that RN is an N-dimensional embedded sub-
manifold of R2mþ1 ; and hence, there exists a smooth embedding g : RN ! R2mþ1 :
Since f : M ! RN is a smooth embedding, and g : RN ! R2mþ1 is a smooth
embedding, their composite map g f : M ! R2mþ1 is a smooth embedding.
Case II when 2m þ 1\N. Since M is an m-dimensional smooth manifold, and R
is a 1-dimensional smooth manifold, the product M M R is a
ð2m þ 1Þ-dimensional smooth manifold. Let us define a mapping a :
M M R ! RN as follows: for every p; q 2 M; and t 2 R,
7.2 Compact Whitney Embedding in R2mþ1 481
aðp; q; tÞ tðf ð pÞ f ðqÞÞ:
Clearly, a is smooth. (Reason: Since ðp; q; tÞ 7! p is smooth, and f : M ! RN is

smooth, their composite ðp; q; tÞ 7! f ðpÞ is smooth. Similarly, ðp; q; tÞ 7! f ðqÞ is
smooth. Since ðp; q; tÞ 7! f ðpÞ is smooth, and ðp; q; tÞ 7! f ðqÞ is smooth,
ðp; q; tÞ 7! ðf ðpÞ; f ðqÞÞ from M M R to RN RN is smooth. Since
ðp; q; tÞ 7! ðf ðpÞ; f ðqÞÞ from M M R to RN RN is smooth, and ðx; yÞ 7! ðx yÞ
from RN RN to RN is smooth, their composite ðp; q; tÞ 7! ðf ðpÞ f ðqÞÞ from M
M R to RN is smooth. Since ðp; q; tÞ 7! t from M M R to R is smooth, and
ðp; q; tÞ 7! ðf ðpÞ f ðqÞÞ from M M R to RN is smooth, ðp; q; tÞ 7!
ðt; ðf ðpÞ f ðqÞÞÞ from M M R to R RN is smooth. Since ðp; q; tÞ 7!
ðt; ðf ðpÞ f ðqÞÞÞ from M M R to R RN is smooth, and ðt; xÞ 7! tx from R
RN to RN is smooth, their composite ðp; q; tÞ 7! tðf ðpÞ f ðqÞÞ ð¼ aðp; q; tÞÞ from
M M R to RN is smooth, and hence, a : M M R ! RN is smooth.)
Since a : M M R ! RN is smooth, and dimðM M RÞ ¼ 2m þ 1\N ¼
dimðRN Þ, by Theorem 6.27, lN ðaðM M RÞÞ ¼ 0; where lN denotes the N-
dimensional Lebesgue measure over RN :
Let us define a mapping b : TM ! RN as follows: for every ðp; vÞ 2
‘
TMð¼ r2M Tr MÞ; where p 2 M; and v 2 Tp M;
bðp; vÞ ¼ ðdfp ÞðvÞ:
Recall that TM, the tangent bundle of M, is a 2m-dimensional smooth manifold.

Clearly, a is smooth. (Reason: Since f : M ! RN is smooth, by Theorem 5.24,
‘ ‘
ðp; vÞ 7! ðf ðpÞ; ðdfp ÞðvÞÞ from TM to TRN ð¼ r2RN ðTr RN Þ ¼ r2RN RN ¼
fðr; xÞ : r 2 RN and x 2 RN g ¼ RN RN Þ is smooth. Since ðp; vÞ 7! ðf ðpÞ;
ðdfp ÞðvÞÞ from TM to RN RN is smooth, and ðx; yÞ 7! y from RN RN to RN is
smooth, their composite ðp; vÞ 7! ðdfp ÞðvÞð¼ bðp; vÞÞ from TM to RN is smooth, and
hence, b : TM ! RN is smooth.) Since b : TM ! RN is smooth, and
dimðTMÞ ¼ 2m\2m þ 1\N ¼ dimðRN Þ, by Theorem 6.27, lN ðbðTMÞÞ ¼ 0: Since
aðM M RÞ RN ; bðTMÞ RN ; lN ðaðM M RÞÞ ¼ 0; and lN ðbðTMÞÞ ¼ 0;
0 lN ððaðM M RÞÞ [ ðbðTM ÞÞÞ lN ðaðM M RÞÞ þ lN ðbðTM ÞÞ

¼ 0 þ 0 ¼ 0;
and hence, lN ððaðM M RÞÞ [ ðbðTMÞÞÞ ¼ 0: This shows that RN

ððaðM M RÞÞ [ ðbðTMÞÞÞ is nonempty, and hence, there exists a 2 RN such
that a 62 aðM M RÞ; a 62 bðTMÞ; and jaj 6¼ 0:
Let Ha ðf v : v 2 RN ; v a ¼ 0gÞ denotes the orthogonal complement of a. We
know that Ha is a “hyperplane” of RN ; so we shall not distinguish between Ha and
RN1 : Let us define a function Pa : RN ! RN1 as follows: for every v 2 RN ;
!
ðv aÞ
Pa ðvÞ v a
jaj2
is the orthogonal projection of v on the hyperplane Ha : Clearly, Pa : RN ! RN1 is

linear, and smooth, and therefore, dðPa Þv ¼ Pa for every v in RN : Since f : M ! RN
is smooth, and Pa : RN ! RN1 is smooth, their composite ðPa f Þ : M ! RN1 is
smooth. Now we shall try to show that
1. ðPa f Þ : M ! RN1 is 1–1,
2. ðPa f Þ : M ! RN1 is an immersion, that is, for every p 2 M; the linear map
dðPa f Þp : Tp M ! TðPa f ÞðpÞ ðRN1 Þð¼ RN1 Þ is 1–1, that is, for every p 2 M;
ðdðPa f Þp ÞðwÞ ¼ 0 implies w ¼ 0:
For 1: Let ðPa f ÞðpÞ ¼ ðPa f ÞðqÞ; where p; q 2 M: We have to show that
p ¼ q: We claim that p ¼ q: If not, otherwise, let p 6¼ q: We have to arrive at a
contradiction. Since p 6¼ q; and f : M ! RN is a smooth embedding (and hence,
f is 1–1), f ðpÞ 6¼ f ðqÞ: Since Pa ðf ðpÞÞ ¼ ðPa f ÞðpÞ ¼ ðPa f ÞðqÞ ¼ Pa ðf ðqÞÞ;
and Pa : RN ! RN1 is linear,
ð f ð pÞ f ð qÞ Þ a
ð f ð pÞ f ð qÞ Þ a ¼ Pa ðf ð pÞ f ðqÞÞ ¼ 0:
jaj2
Since
ð f ð pÞ f ð qÞ Þ a
ð f ð pÞ f ð qÞ Þ a ¼ 0;
jaj2
and f ðpÞ 6¼ f ðqÞ; ðf ðpÞ f ðqÞÞ a 6¼ 0; and hence,

!
j aj 2 jaj2
a¼ ðf ð pÞ f ðqÞÞ ¼ a p; q;
ðf ð pÞ f ðqÞÞ a ð f ð pÞ f ð qÞ Þ a
2 aðM M RÞ:
Thus, a 2 aðM M RÞ; which is a contradiction. So our claim is true, that is,
p ¼ q: Thus, ðPa f Þ : M ! RN1 is 1–1.
For 2: Let us take any p 2 M: Let ðdðPa f Þp ÞðwÞ ¼ 0 where w 2 Tp M: We
have to show that w ¼ 0: If not, otherwise, let w 6¼ 0: We have to arrive at a
contradiction. Since f : M ! RN is a smooth embedding (and hence, f : M !
RN is an immersion), and p 2 M; the linear map dfp : Tp M ! Tf ðpÞ ðRN Þð¼ RN Þ
is 1–1. Since the linear map dfp : Tp M ! RN is 1–1, and 0 6¼ w 2 Tp M;
ðdfp ÞðwÞ 6¼ 0: Here,
7.2 Compact Whitney Embedding in R2mþ1 483

dfp ðwÞ a
dfp ðwÞ 2
a ¼ Pa dfp ðwÞ ¼ Pa dfp ðwÞ
j aj

¼ d ðPa ÞF ð pÞ dfp ðwÞ

¼ d ðPa f Þp ðwÞ ¼ 0; so dfp ðwÞ

dfp ðwÞ a
¼ a:
jaj2
Since

dfp ðwÞ a
dfp ðwÞ ¼ a;
jaj2
and ðdfp ÞðwÞ 6¼ 0; ððdfp ÞðwÞÞ a 6¼ 0; and hence,

!
jaj2 j aj 2
a ¼ dfp ðwÞ ¼ dfp w
dfp ðwÞ a dfp ðwÞ a
!
2
j aj
¼ b p; w 2 bðTM Þ:
dfp ðwÞ a
Thus, a 2 bðTMÞ; which is a contradiction. Hence, w ¼ 0:

Since ðPa f Þ : M ! RN1 is 1–1, ðPa f Þ : M ! RN1 is an immersion, and
M is compact, by Note 5.72, ðPa f Þ : M ! RN1 is a smooth embedding.
Continuing this construction repeatedly for finite number of times, we get a map
F : M ! R2mþ1 ; which is an embedding. h
Note 7.4 The Lemma 7.3 is known as the compact Whitney embedding in R2mþ1 :
Bibliography
Apostol, T.M.: Mathematical Analysis, 2nd edn. Addison-Wesley, Reading (1974)

Boothby, W.M.: An Introduction to Differentiable Manifolds and Riemannian Geometry, 2nd edn.
Academic Press, Orlando (1986)
Lee, J.M.: Introduction to Smooth Manifolds, 2nd edn. Springer, New York (2013)
Loring, W.Tu.: An Introduction to Manifolds, 2nd edn. Springer, New York (2012)
Rudin, W.: Principles of Mathematical Analysis, 3rd edn. McGraw-Hill, New York (1976)
Spivak, M.: Calculus on Manifolds. Westview Press, USA (1998)

R. Sinha, Smooth Manifolds, DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2104-3

Smooth Manifolds (PDFDrive)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Smooth Manifolds (PDFDrive)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Rajnikant Sinha

ISBN 978-81-322-2103-6 ISBN 978-81-322-2104-3 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014948765

Springer New Delhi Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

© Springer India 2014

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

The theory of smooth manifolds is a frequently discussed area in modern mathe-

3 Multivariable Differential Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

4 Topological Properties of Smooth Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

4.5 Partitions of Unity Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

5 Immersions, Submersions, and Embeddings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

6 Sard’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431

7 Whitney Embedding Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

Rajnikant Sinha is former professor of mathematics at Magadh University, Bodh

1.1 Topological Manifolds

Deﬁnition Let M be a Hausdorff topological space. Let m be a positive integer. If,

© Springer India 2014 1

Hence, for every x in U; uU ðxÞ is in Rm : So there exist real numbers u1 ; . . .; um

Here, we say that ui ði ¼ 1; . . .; mÞ are the local coordinates of the point x. In

Lemma 1.1 Let M be an m-dimensional topological manifold. Let ðU; uU Þ; ðV; uV Þ

Next, let x be in uU ðU \ VÞ: We want to prove that x is in domðuV ðuU Þ1 Þ:

Fig. 1.1 m-dimensional topological manifold

Proof of 3 Since ðU; uU Þ is a coordinate chart of M, uU is a 1–1 function, and

1.2 Smooth Manifolds

Deﬁnition Let M be an m-dimensional topological manifold. Let ðU; uU Þ; ðV; uV Þ

is a homeomorphism from uU ðU \ VÞ onto uV ðU \ VÞ; where uU ðU \ VÞ and

For every ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uU ðU \ VÞ; put

where ðy1 ; . . .; ym Þ is in uV ðU \ VÞ; and

Since uV ðuU Þ1 is continuous, each f i : uU ðU \ VÞ ! R is continuous.

Dj f i : uU ðU \ VÞ ! R is continuous, then we say that f i is C 1 :

For ﬁxed i; and for every j; k ¼ 1; . . .; m; if Dk ðDj f i Þ ð Dkj f i Þ exists at every

either ðU \ V is an empty setÞ;

A fðU; uU Þ; ðV; uV Þ; ðW; uW Þ; . . .g

be a nonempty collection of coordinate charts of M: If

A fðU; uU Þ; ðV; uV Þ; ðW; uW Þ; . . .g

be a nonempty collection of coordinate charts of M satisfying

Now we want to prove that B is a Cr -differentiable structure on M; that is,

where ðy1 ; . . .; ym Þ is in uV ðU \ VÞ; and

We have to show that f i ; gi are C r for every i ¼ 1; . . .; m:

Now for every ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uU ðU \ V \ WÞ

Since g12 ; and each f1k ðk ¼ 1; . . .; mÞ are Cr ;

exists and is continuous. It follows that

exists and is continuous. Similarly, of ðxox;...;x Þ 1 1 m

each f i is C r : Similarly, each gi is C r : Thus, we have shown that, in all cases,

coordinate chart ðU; uU Þ of M such that ðU; uU Þ is not a member of B; and

Theorem 1.3 Let M be an m-dimensional topological manifold. Let

A fðU; uU Þ; ðV; uV Þ; ðW; uW Þ; . . .g

be a nonempty collection of coordinate charts of M satisfying

where ðy1 ; . . .; ym Þ is in uV ðU \ VÞ; and

It is enough to show that f i ; gi are C1 for every i ¼ 1; . . .; m:

Let M be an m-dimensional topological manifold. Let r; s be positive integers

A fðU; uU Þ; ðV; uV Þ; ðW; uW Þ; . . .g

be a nonempty collection of coordinate charts of M satisfying

A fðU; uU Þ; ðV; uV Þ; ðW; uW Þ; . . .g

be a nonempty collection of coordinate charts of M: If

Here, members of A are called admissible coordinate charts of M:

where ðy1 ; . . .; ym Þ is in uV ðU \ VÞ; and

We have to show that f i ; gi are C 1 for every i ¼ 1; . . .; m:

Now for every ðx1 ; . . .; xm Þ in uU ðU \ V \ WÞ

Since g12 ; and each f1k ðk ¼ 1; . . .; mÞ are C1 ;

exists and is continuous. It follows that

exists and is continuous. Similarly, of ðxox;...;x Þ

Next, let x be in uU ðU \ VÞ: We want to prove that x is in domðuV ðuU Þ1 Þ:

Since uV ðuU Þ1 is continuous, each f i : uU ðU \ VÞ ! R is continuous.

It follows that t 7! ðp1 ðp1

is open in R2 fð0; 0Þg; that is,

is open in R2 fð0; 0Þg; that is, either

is open in R2 fð0; 0Þg:

and R2 fð0; x2 Þ : x2 is any realg is open in R2 ; [fftðx1 ; x2 Þ : t 6¼ 0g :

Now since u1 ðU1 \ U2 Þ ¼ R f0g ¼ u2 ðU1 \ U2 Þ; ðu2 ðu1 Þ1 Þ : m 7! m1

ðuU wV Þ : U V ! ððuU ðU ÞÞ ðwV ðV ÞÞÞ

as follows: for every ðx; yÞ in U V;

ðuU wV Þðx; yÞ ðuU ð xÞ; wV ð yÞÞ:

It remains to prove that ðuU wV Þ is a homeomorphism, that is,

ðuU wV Þ : U V ! ððuU ðU ÞÞ ðwV ðV ÞÞÞ

ðuU wV Þ : U V ! ððuU ðU ÞÞ ðwV ðV ÞÞÞ

ðuU wV ÞðG H Þ ¼ ðuU ðGÞ wV ðH ÞÞ:

ðuU wV Þ : U V ! ððuU ðU ÞÞ ðwV ðV ÞÞÞ

fðU V; ðuU wV ÞÞ : ðU; uU Þ 2 A; ðV; wV Þ 2 Bg

is C 1 : Here, ðU V; ðuU wV ÞÞ is in C; so ðU; uU Þ 2 A and ðV; wV Þ 2 B: