• was able to and alternative forms

• can, may, might

• can’t have, could have, may have, might have
• had better, should/ ought to

A. was able to and Alternative Forms

Compare these sentences:

1. He could reach the books on the top shelf because he was tall.
2. He wasn’t tall enough to reach the books on the top shelf, but when he got
a ladder, he was able to get the one he wanted.
3. When he got a ladder, he was able to reach the book he wanted.
managed to reach
succeeded in reaching

▪ Exercise
Change these sentences to each of the other two forms given. Be careful of word
order.
1. After queuing for hours, I finally managed to get a ticket.
2. After several days’ negotiations, they were eventually able to persuade the
workers to return to work.
3. He was thrown overboard when the boat was a mile out to sea but he
eventually succeeded in swimming to the shore.
4. After a morning spent at the post office, we were finally able to find out what
had happened to the parcels.
5. He spent years in his laboratory working on the disease but he eventually
managed to find a cure.

B. Can, may, might

Compare these sentences:

1. We always think of Spain as hot and sunny but it can rain heavily there at
times.
2. It may/ might rain this afternoon.

• Can refers to a possibility that is always present.

• May refers to a possibility in a particular case
• Might to refers to possibility existing but being less likely

▪ Exercise
Complete the following dialogues with can, may, or might
1. A. I’m sure I’m right.
B. You _________ be right. I’m in no position to say. But everyone _________
make mistakes. Why don’t you show the results to someone else? They
_________ be able to confirm your opinion.
A. The problem in that I don’t know anyone sufficiently qualified to tell me. I
suppose I _________ find someone if I rang the Central Laboratories. But
it’s unlikely. No one has done this sort of work there before.
2. A. what’s the weather like? Is it going to be sunny this afternoon?

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 B. I’m not sure. It should, and ought not to be, but we _________ get a storm.
I admit that it doesn’t look like it at the moment, but the trouble is that
storms _________ spring up so quickly round here that you never know
when to expect them. But we _________ be lucky. There’s no sign of
trouble at the moment. It _________ be wise not to go sailing, though. It’ll
probably be alright, but you shouldn’t take any risk.

C. can’t have, could have, may have, might have

Compare these responses to A’s question:

A. Why hasn’t she arrived?
B. She can’t have got lost, can she? → It’s impossible, isn’t it?
She may have got lost. → Perhaps she (has) got lost.
She might have got lost. → But it seems unlikely if she had a map.
She could have got lost. → Perhaps she got lost.

The past form of may, might, can, and could, referring to possibility, are formed
with have and the past participle of the main verb. Since can (affirmative) is only
used for something that is always possible, it can only appear in the Past in negative
form (can’t have).

▪ Exercise
In this exercise, think of as many explanations as you can for what may have
happened. If they are unlikely, use might have. If they are impossible, use can’t have.
Harry is a businessman, but he usually comes home on time, unless he has a lot
of work to do or he has visitors. If he goes out in the evening with customers he

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 usually phones his wife but she was out from 4.00 till 6.00 at a friend’s house.
She didn’t tell him she was going to have tea with her friend.
Harry has not arrived home for dinner as usual at 7 o’clock. His wife is worried
about him. She thinks of various reasons why he is late. What possibilities does
she consider?
e.g. Harry may have had a lot of work to do.

D. Had better, should/ ought to

Compare these sentences:

1. I feel tired. I’d better go to bed.
2. You don’t look very well. You’d better go and see the doctor.
3. You always look tired these days. You should go to bed earlier.
4. You don’t look very well. You ought to see the doctor (but I don’t suppose
you will).

• Had better means ‘I think I (you, he, etc.) should or ‘It would be sensible (right)
if I (you, he, etc.)…
• Had better is always followed by the infinitives without to.
• The negative form had better not is used in the same way.
5. He looks angry. I’d better not interrupt him.
6. He’d be annoyed if he was you doing that. You’d better not do it again.

Should is preferable to had better when we are speaking in general terms. The
negative form shouldn’t is used in the same way:
7. You shouldn’t interrupt him when he’s working. It always makes him angry.
Note:
• You’d better not interrupt him means that you haven’t interrupted him yet, but
• You’d shouldn’t interrupt him means that you already have, or frequently do so.

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• Ought to = should, and ought not to = shouldn’t
• However, compared with had better, it suggests that the sensible idea will not
be carried out.
8. You ought to take more exercise (but I don’t expect you will)

▪ Exercise
Complete the following sentences with a form of had better or should/ ought to,
choose whichever seems most appropriate to the context.
1. I’ve lost my passport.
You _________ go to the consulate and report it.
2. I’ve cut myself shaving again.
You _________ be more careful.
3. I’ve never been to Paris before so I _________buy a map of the Metro.
4. He’s always getting lost when he goes out in the car. He _________to buy a
map. I’ve told him so hundreds of times.
5. You _________ (negative) say anything about the boss. He’s over there and
he might hear you.
6. You _________ (negative) criticise the boss in front of other people. It gives
them a bad impression of the firm.
7. I know I _________ (negative) argue with him because it raises his blood
pressure, but somehow I can’t help it.
8. I _________ (negative) argue with him. He looks dangerous.

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