Chapter thirty three

Surface Roughness and measurement

(Friction, wear and lubrication)
Objective: To apply methods for measuring the surface roughness and to understand the
effect of the friction, wear and lubrication on the surface defects and finishing.
33.1 Introduction
Characterization of surface topography is important in applications involving friction,
lubrication, and wear. In general, it has been found that friction increases with average
roughness. Roughness parameters are, therefore, important in applications such as
automobile brake linings, floor surfaces, and tires. The effect of roughness on lubrication
has also been studied to determine its impact on issues regarding lubrication of sliding
surfaces, compliant surfaces, and roller bearing fatigue. Finally, some researchers have
found a correlation between initial roughness of sliding surfaces and their wear rate. Such
correlations have been used to predict failure time of contact surfaces.
33.2 Surface
This section describes the surface structure, surface defects, surface texture and
roughness measurement method and the symbols that used to defined the surface
roughness.
1- Surface structure:
The surface structure of the metal is consists of five different layers as shown in figure
(33.1). These layers are
1- Metal substrate (bulk metal): has structure depends on the composition of the metal
2- Worked hardened layer: layer that deformed plastically during manufacturing
3- Oxide layer: If the metal is kept in an inert environmental (oxygen free) and oxide
layer form over the work-hardened layer. This oxide layer is harder than the base metal,
more abrasive and effects on friction, wear and lubrication. The type of the oxide layer
depend the type of the metal for example:
a) Iron: has oxide layer of Fe2O3
b) Aluminum: has dense amorphous layer of AL2O3
c) Copper: The copper surface has bright, shine surface but when the oxide layer of CuO
occur, the metal surface has dull color.
d) Stainless steel: stainless steel produce chromium oxide layer which is projected layer
so that it prevent the metal from oxidization.
4- Adsorbed gas layer: Under normal environmental condition, surface oxide layer is
covered with adsorbed layer of gas and moisture
5- Contamination layer: The outer surface is covered with contamination as dirt, dust and
grease.

2- Surface defects:
There are eight different types of defects that are be found on the metal surface, these
defects are:
a) Crack: external or internal cracks occur on the surface layers
b) Crater: which is a shallow depression located on the surface
c) Heat effective zone: occur when the metal is subjected to thermal cycle without
melting
d) Inclusion: small nonmetallic elements found in the metal like dust, sand
e) Laps, folds, seams: results of overlapping of the material during processing.
f) Splatter: Small molten metal particles deposits on the surface for example during
welding
g) Surface plastic deformation: surface deformation caused by high stress caused by
friction, tool force, die geometry and tool wear.
h) Pits: due to chemical or physical attacks the metal surface
3- Surface texture and roughness
The surface has four different types of textures as illustrate in figure (33.2). These
textures are
a) Flaws or defects: such as cracks, scratches, holes, seams, tears and inclusions
b) Lay direction: The direction of the surface pattern, this direction is naked to eyes.
c) Roughness: defined as closely spaced on a small seals, it expressed in term of its
height, width and distance along the surface
d) Waviness: is a recurrent from the flat surface

4- Surface roughness
Three methods are used for measuring the surface roughness, these methods are
a) Arithmetic mean value (Ra)
A horizontal line (x) must be nearly divided the area so that area above the x-axis is
nearly equal to the area below the x-axis as shown in figure (33.3). Then read the height
of the selection points a, b, c, ……
a+ b+c +. .. .. .
Ra =
n (33.1)
Where n is the number of the selection points
b) Root-mean square roughness (Rq)

Rq =
√ a2 +b2 + c 2 +. .. .. .
n (33.2)
c) Maximum roughness height (Rt)
Measure only two values, the maximum height from the deepest point to the highest
peak, the objective of this method is to indicate how much the surface will be polishing to
get smooth surface so that
Rt = Maximum value - minimum value (33.3)

5- Stylus measurement (Surface profile meters)

Stylus diamond instruments are based on the principle of running a probe across a surface
in order to detect variations in height as a function of distance as shown in figure (33.4).
The stylus instrument was to incorporate a transducer, which converted vertical
displacement into an electrical signal. This signal can then be processed by the instrument
electronics to calculate a suitable roughness parameter. The type of transducer used
largely affects instrument performance. A piezoelectric crystal is often used as the
transducer in the less expensive instruments. The stylus path is called cut off.
6- Surface symbols:
The surface symbol consists of the following parameters, the maximum waviness height,
the maximum waviness width, maximum and minimum R a, roughness width cut off,
maximum roughness width and the lay direction. The surface symbols are shown in
figure (33.5) and the types of the lay direction are illustrated in figure (33.6).
33.3 Friction
The friction has two main effects on the material process
1- Dissipated energy: since the friction generated heat which effect on the operation
process.
2- Impedes free movement at the interfaces which effect on the deformation and the flow
of the material.
The coefficient of friction is always measured experimentally; the accepted test is called
the ring compression test. The ring has initially height (ho), outside diameter (Do) and
inside diameter (Di). The ring is compressed between two flat plates so that the ring
initial height is reduced to final height (hf) and the initial outside diameter is increases to
(Dof) while the initial inside diameter is reduced to (Dif) as shown in figure (33.7). By
calculating the reduction in height (Δh) and the reduction in inside diameter (ΔDi), then
from figure (33.8), the coefficient of friction can be obtained where
ho −hf
Δh=
ho (33.4)
D i −D if
ΔD i=
Di (33.5)

Example 1
In a ring compression test, a specimen 10 mm in height with outside diameter of 30 mm
and inside diameter of 15 mm is reduced to thickness by 50%. Find the coefficient of
friction if the outer diameter is 38 mm after deformation.
Solution:
Using volume continuity
V before = V after
π 2 2 π 2 2
(3 0 −15 )(10)= (3 8 −I D )(5)
4 4
 ID = 9.7 mm
15−9 .7
Δ ID= =0 . 35=35 %
15
Δh = 50%
From figure (33.8), after interpolation => (0.2-x)/(0.2-0.3)=(33-35)/(33-45) =>the friction
coefficient μ = 0.21
33.4 Wear
- Change the shape of tools dies so that it will effect on the tool life , tool size and
production quality
- Wear types:
1- adhesive wear
This type of wear occurs as a result of a tangential force between two materials, one
material is hard while the other is soft. When this two material are sliding on each other a
tangential force (shear force) occur between the interfaces resulting a transfer metal from
the soft metal attached to the hard metal. It has four different types
-This attached metal describe above is called fragment as shown in figure (33.9). Because
of this fragment, this type is also called wear fragment.
-Wear particle: if the fragment is detached during further rubbing at interface
-severe wear: if the material is strongly bonded (very hard and has very high strength) +
very high load is applied, this wear is described as scuffing and seaming
- Mild wears: due to oxide film on the surface which consists of small wear particles.

2- Abrasive wear: caused by hard, rough surface sliding on soft material, this hard
material will leave grooves or scratches on the soft material surface. This type of wear
occurs during processes such as filing, grinding, ultrasonic machining and water jet
machine as shown in figure (33.10). It has two types
- Two body wear: two sliding material or hard particles in contact with soft material
- Three body wear: two sliding hard and soft materials and there is lubrication between
them, but the lubrication has contamination particles. To avoid this type of wear, the
lubrication must be filtered.
3- Corrosive wear (oxidation or chemical wear) caused chemical or electro chemical
reaction between the surfaces and environment. This type of wear can be reduced by
- select material that will resist environmental attack
- controlling the environment
- reduce operation temperature to lower the chemical reaction.
4- Fatigue wear (surface fatigue) (surface fracture fatigue): due to cycle loading on the
surface such as rolling contact in bearing. To reduce this type of wear by
- lowering contact stress
- reduce thermal cycling
- remove the impurities, inclusion from the material (improve material quality).
5- Other types of wear
- Errosion: caused by loose abrasive particles abrading a surface
- Fretting corrosion: at interface that is subjected to reciprocal movement
- Impact wear: removal of small amounts of material from surface
33.5 Lubrication (metal working fluid)
The objective of using lubrication is reducing friction between the interfaces of metals
and to reduce the required (applied force) and reduce the temperature between the contact
metals that occur due high friction. In addition, the lubrication is also used to reduce
wear, improve material flow in tool, die and molds and acts as a release so that it helps in
removed or injection of parts from die or mold.
Lubrication types:
1- Oils:
- Very effective in reducing friction force and wear
- Oils have low thermal conductivity and low specific heat
- Difficult and costly to remove oils from surfaces that to be painted or welded
2- Emulsion:
- Mixture of two immiscible liquids (oil + water)
- Milky appearance
- It has two different types (1) direct; mineral oil dispersed in water in the form of
very small droplet (2) indirect; water is dispersed in oil used in high speed
machining that required high cooling capacity.
3- Synthetic and semi synthetic solution:
Consist of chemical fluid not containing mineral oil
4- Soap, greases and wax
Soap: used for thick layer at die-work part interface
Grease: they are highly viscous and adhere well to metal surface
Wax: less greasy than grease, more brittle, its limited in metal working.