Total Quality

Management
Dr. Naga Vamsi Krishna Jasti
BITS Pilani Asst. Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
Hyderabad Campus
 BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus

Statistical Process Control

 Scope
 Pareto Diagram
 Cause‐Effect Diagram
 Check Sheets
 Process Flow Diagram
 Scatter Diagram
 Histogram
 Control Charts
– Control charts for attributes
– Control charts for variables
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 Statistical Process Control

A methodology for monitoring a process to

identify special causes of variation and signal the
need to take corrective action when appropriate.

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 Seven Tools
 Pareto Diagram

 Cause‐Effect Diagram

 Check Sheets

 Process Flow Diagram

 Scatter Diagram

 Histogram

 Control Charts

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 The Pareto Principle
 Vilfredo Pareto was an economist who is credited with
establishing what is now widely known as the Pareto
Principle or 80/20 rule.
 When he discovered the principle, it established that
80% of the land in Italy was owned by 20% of the
population.
 Later, he discovered that the pareto principle was
valid in other parts of his life, such as gardening: 80%
of his garden peas were produced by 20% of the
peapods.

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 The Pareto Principle
 Some Sample 80/20 Rule Applications
– 80% of process defects arise from 20% of the
process issues.
– 20% of your sales force produces 80% of your
company revenues.
– 80% of delays in schedule arise from 20% of the
possible causes of the delays.
– 80% of customer complaints arise from 20% of
your products or services.
(The above examples are rough estimates.)

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 The Pareto Diagram
 Graph that ranks data classifications in descending
order from left to right
 Pareto diagrams are used to identify the most
important problems
 Advantage: Provide a visual impact of those vital few
characteristics that need attention
 Resources are then directed to take the necessary
corrective action

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 The Pareto Diagram
 Helps a team focus on causes that have the greatest
impact
 Displays the relative importance of problems in a
simple visual format
 Helps prevent “shifting the problem” where the
solution removes some causes but worsens others

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 Constructing a Pareto Diagram
Steps:
1. Determine the method of classifying the data: by
problem, cause, type of nonconformity, etc
2. Decide if dollars (best), weighted frequency, or
frequency is to be used to rank the characteristics
3. Collect data for an appropriate time interval
4. Summarize the data and rank order categories
from largest to smallest
5. Compute the cumulative percentage if it is to be
used
6. Construct the diagram and find the vital few
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 A Pareto Diagram

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 Cause-and-Effect Diagram
 It was developed by Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa in 1943
 Picture composed of lines and symbols designed to
represent a meaningful relationship between an
effect and its causes
 Effect (characteristics that need improvement) on the
right and causes on the left

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 Cause-and-Effect Diagram

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 Cause-and-Effect Diagram
 Enables a team to focus on the content of a problem,
not on the history of the problem or differing personal
interests of team members
 Creates a snapshot of collective knowledge and
consensus of a team; builds support for solutions
 Focuses the team on causes, not symptoms
 Used to investigate either a “bad” effect and to take
action to correct the causes or a “good” effect and to
learn those causes responsible

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 Cause-and-Effect Diagram
Steps
1. Identify the effect or quality problem
2. Determine the major causes
3. Determine all the minor causes. Request a
brainstorming session
4. Once the diagram is complete, evaluate it to
determine the most likely causes
5. Develop solutions

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 Cause-and-Effect Diagram
Advantages:
1. Analyzing actual conditions for the purpose of
product or service quality improvement
2. Elimination of conditions causing nonconforming
product or service and customer complaints
3. Standardization of existing and proposed operations
4. Education and training in decision‐making.

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 Cause-and-Effect Diagram
This fishbone diagram was drawn by a manufacturing team to try to
understand the source of periodic iron contamination.

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 Check Sheets
 The main purpose is to ensure that the data are
collected carefully and accurately by operating
personnel for process control and problem solving
 The form of the check sheet is individualized for each
situation and is designed by the project team
 Check sheets are designed to show location
 Creates easy‐to‐understand data
 Builds, with each observation, a clearer picture of the
facts

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 Check Sheets
 Forces agreement on the definition of each condition
or event of interest
 Patterns in the data become obvious quickly
 Creativity plays a major role in the design of a check
sheet

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 Check Sheets

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 Check Sheets

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 Process Flow Diagram
 It is a schematic diagram that shows the flow of the
product or service as it moves through the various
processing stations or operations
 Makes it easy to visualize the entire system, identify
potential trouble spots, and locate activities
 Compares and contrasts actual versus ideal flow of a
process

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 Process Flow Diagram
 Serves as a training tool
 Uses standardized symbols
 Shows unexpected complexity, problem areas,
redundancy, unnecessary loops, and where
simplification may be possible
 Allows a team to reach agreement on process steps
and identify activities that may impact performance
 Improvements to the process can be accomplished by
eliminating steps, combining steps, or making
frequently occurring steps more efficient

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 Scatter Diagram
 The simplest way to determine if a cause and‐effect
relationship exists between two variables

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 Scatter Diagram
 Supplies the data to confirm a hypothesis that two
variables are related
 Provides both a visual and statistical means to test the
strength of a relationship
 Provides a good follow‐up to cause and effect
diagrams

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 Scatter Diagram
Steps
1. Data are collected as ordered pairs (x, y)
2. The horizontal and vertical scales are constructed
with the higher values on the right for the x‐axis and
on the top for the y‐axis
3. Plot the data
4. Once the diagram is complete, the relationship or
correlation between the two variables can be
evaluated

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 Histogram
 Graphically shows the process capability and, if
desired, the relationship to the specifications and the
nominal

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 Histogram
 Displays large amounts of data that are difficult to
interpret in tabular form
 Shows centering, variation, and shape
 Illustrates the underlying distribution of the data
 Provides useful information for predicting future
performance
 Helps to answer the question “Is the process capable
of meeting requirements?

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 Histogram

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 Control Charts
 Focuses attention on detecting and monitoring
process variation over time
 Distinguishes special from common causes of
variation
 Serves as a tool for on‐going control
 Provides a common language for discussion process
performance
 Two types:
– Control charts for variables
– Control charts for attributes
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 Control Charts– contd.,
 Dr. Shewhart was the first to suggest the use.
 Three basic uses of control charts.
– First control shows the degree and nature of variation over
time. Can be used to determine whether a process is in a
state of statistical control or is out‐ of‐ control. It allows for
process improvement
– Second control charts are used to estimate the parameters
(mean, variation) of a process. By knowing the parameters
of a process, the output and the variability of the output
can be predicted.
– Third control charts are used to improve a process. Once a
process is in control, efforts to produce process variability
can begin. By reducing the variability of the process, the
overall quality of the final product increases.
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How to Select a Control Chart

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How to Select a Control Chart

DATA TYPE CHARTS MONITORS APPLICATIONS

Variable X‐Bar and S Process average and High volume, single
standard deviation characteristic
Sample size 2 or
larger
Variable X‐Bar and R Process average and High volume, single
range characteristic
Sample size
between 2 and 6
Variable X and MR Process average and Sensitivity not
moving range required
Sampling is costly
Long cycle time
(Note: Normality of
data must be
considered.)

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How to Select a Control Chart
Attribute np Number of Pass/Fail Data
Defectives Constant Sample
Size
n > 3/p
Attribute p Proportion Pass/Fail Data
Defective Constant or
Variable Sample
Size
n > 3/p
Attribute c Number of Defects Multiple types of
defects on unit
Constant sample
size
n such that c > 7
Attribute u Number of Defects Multiple types of
per unit defects on unit
Constant or
variable sample
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size BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
 P Chart Vs u chart
 Use p charts when counting defective items & the sample size varies
 The p chart is one of four attribute control charts used to evaluate
the stability of a process over time using counted data. p charts are
sometimes confused with u charts.
– Defective Items ‐ p charts
• Each item is only counted once:

– car doors that need to be repainted

– bills that are wrong
– incomplete shipments
– Defects ‐ u charts
• Each item can have more than one defect:

– scratches on a car door

– errors on a bill
– missing products in a shipment

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 Control charts– contd.,
 The emphasis in using the control charts is on the
early detection and prevention of problems. By
preventing from occurring, productivity and profit
increases.
 Variable Control Charts:
 Used to monitor measurable quality characteristics of
a process. This may include temperature, viscosity,
weight, etc.,
 Main restriction is the a variables control chart can
monitor only one quality characteristic at a time.

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 Control charts– contd.,
 A variable charts monitors the mean value and the
variability of the quality characteristics being studied.
 Mean valued is monitored by X bar chart.
 Variability is measured via a range or moving range
(MR) chart or a standard deviation (S)
 The X bar chart with either R chart or an S chart
which measures within‐sample variability.
 R chart is used when the sample size is less than 8 and
S when it is greater than 8.

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Control Chart Basic Procedure

 Choose the appropriate control chart for your data.

 Determine the appropriate time period for collecting and
plotting data.
 Collect data, construct your chart and analyze the data.
 Look for “out‐of‐control signals” on the control chart. When
one is identified, mark it on the chart and investigate the
cause. Document how you investigated, what you learned, the
cause and how it was corrected.
 Continue to plot data as they are generated. As each new data
point is plotted, check for new out‐of‐control signals.
 When you start a new control chart, the process may be out of
control. If so, the control limits calculated from the first 20
points are conditional limits. When you have at least 20
sequential points from a period when the process is operating
in control, recalculate control limits.
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 Control charts– contd.,

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 Control charts– contd.,

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 Summary
 Pareto Diagram
 Cause‐Effect Diagram
 Check Sheets
 Process Flow Diagram
 Scatter Diagram
 Histogram
 Control Charts
– Control charts for attributes
– Control charts for variables
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