ELECTRONICS

TRANSISTORS
 TRANSISTOR

• The transistor controls current flow in a circuit

with the use of a low power signal
• It can be used as a current or voltage amplifier or as a switch
• It is an three-terminal device

• The inventors of the transistor and the first transistor (1947)

 WORKING OF TRANSISTOR

• Simple circuit with supply voltage V and series resistance R

• Current flowing through the device (and therefore voltage drop
and power dissipated on R and transistor as well as output
volltage V0)
are controlled by input signal Vi
• Depending on transistor type, input signal can be current or
voltage type
 TRANSISTOR TYPES

• Bipolar - 2 types of carriers (holes and electrons)

• BJT – bipolar junction transistor
• Unipolar – 1 type of carriers
• FET – field effect transistor
• Complex
• IGBT – insulated gate bipolar transistor
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
(BJT)
 BIPOLAR JUNCTIN TRANSISTOR (BJT)

• Exploits properties of npn or pnp junction

• Arrangement of regions
resembles two
back-to-back diodes,
but operation
is much different!

• Terminals
• C - collector
• B - base
• E - emitter

BJT symbols
BJT WORKING VIDEO (arrow points
current direction)
 NPN BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR

• Collector is the largest region

• Emitter is heavily doped
• Base is thin and lightly doped
• Two depletion regions are present
 BJT BIASING I

• Two pn junctions
• Collector-base CB
• Base-emiter BE

• Transistor without bias

• No charge mobility is possible

• Positive collector-base bias

• CB pn junction is reverse biased
• Still no current flow
 CUTOFF REGION OPERATION

• Transistor does not conduct current

• Base is not biased or reverse biased, IB=0
• Negligible current flows in collector, denoted ICE0
• Transistor can be seen
as open switch
(very high resistance)

RC
IC
IB
VCE VCC

VBE IE
 BJT BIASING II

• Positive base-emitter bias is added

• BE junction is forward biased
• Electrons can move from emitter
to base
• Electrons are attracted to collector,
which is positively biased
• Most of the current is flowing
directly from emitter to collector
• Some electrons recombine with
holes in base region
• To maintain current flow electrons
must be removed from base (this
is about 1% of current flow)
 CURRENT FLOW

• Collector current IC is
few dozens to few
hundered Times larger
than base current IB
• Base current controls
collector current
• Emitter current is their sum
 BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR GAIN

• Bipolar junction transistor implements a current gain

• Relation of collector current IC and base current IB is almost
linear

• Current gain is denoted 𝜷 = 𝐼𝐼𝐶

𝐵

• 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵
• 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 = (𝛽 + 1)𝐼𝐵

• Typical β values
• 50
• 100
• 200
 ACTIVE REGION OPERATION

• CB and BE junctiona are forward biased

• Collector current is linearly dependent on base current
• Transistor can be seen as controlled resistance
• This region is used in amplifier operation

RC
IC
IB
VCE VCC

VBE IE
 SATURATION REGION OPERATION

• State, when collector current IC reaches maximum

• Current is limited by external resistance further increase in IB will
not result in increase of IC
• Collector-emitter voltage is at minimum, denoted VCESAT
(typically about 0.3V)
• Transistor can be seenas closed
switch (very small resistance)

RC
IC
IB
VCE VCC

VBE IE
 INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

• Input terminal is transistor base

• If emitter is grounded, input voltage is base-emiter voltage VBE

• Base-emitter junction is a pn junction

• Base current IB as a function of base-emiter voltage VBE
is a diode curve

• Collector current IC follows base current with β multiplier

• Non-linear relations between input voltage and transistor currents
 OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
• Collector current curves are shown for different base currents
with respect to output voltage across transistor VCE
• In active region collector current IC is β times higher than base
current IB and almost independent on VCE
• In saturation region VCE is very low
• In cutoff region (for IB=0) collector current IC is negligible
 GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS - OUTPUT

• Load line is drawn for supply voltage VCC and collector resistor
RC
• Draw output characteristic for base current IB calculated
previously
• Find collector current IC and collector-emitter voltage VCE
 SWITCH-MODE OPERATION

• Using only saturation and cutoff is called switch mode operation

• Transistor is used as a on-off switch

• Output voltage is either „high” or „low”

• Input vs output levels are inverted

+VCC +VCC

IC
RC IC(sat) RC IC(sat)

Saturation RB C
IC(sat) +
+VBB
IB – E

+ VCC +VCC

RC IC = 0 RC

RB C
0V
IB = 0 Cutoff IB = 0 E
V CE
0 VCE(sat) VCC
 PNP VS NPN TRANSISTOR

• Pnp tansistor related to npn has

• Different biasing
• Different current flow
 DARLINGTON PAIR

• Two BJTs cascaded, commonly available in discrete packages

• These transistors typically have high gain and input impedance
• beta ratings in the tens of thousands
• base input impedance in the high kΩ to low MΩ range

Notice there are two voltage drops

resulting from BE junctions
 EQUIVALENT MODEL

• Generalized h-parameter model – current controlled current

source
with input and outpud impedances considered
• hie, the input impedance of the transistor.
• hre, usually very small and is often neglected assumed to be zero.
• hfe, the current-gain of the transistor. This parameter is often
specified as hFE or the DC current-gain (βDC) in datasheets.
• 1/hoe, the output impedance of transistor.
 TRANSISTOR RATINGS
• Safe Operating Area – SOA
• Power losses P=ICVCE
• Low in saturation and cutoff
• Significant in active region
• VCEO: voltage that can be handled
across the collector (C) and
emitter(E) when the base (B) is
open. Item 2SC 2SD
• IC: maximum collector (C) current 1815 880
• PC: maximum collector (C) loss VCEO(V) 50 60
that continuously can cause it
IC(mA) 15 3A
consumed at ambient temperature
• hFE: The current gain β (IC/IB) PC(mW) 400 30W
• fT: The maximum switching hFE 70… 60…
frequency 700 300
fT(MHz) 80 3
 TRANSISTOR PACKAGES

• Low power

• High power
 PHOTOTRANSISTOR

• Base current is driven by light rather, than external voltage

source
• Collector current is amplified
• Phototransistor is more sensitive, than photodiode

IC (mA) Emitter
2
10 50 mW/cm Light

2
8 40 mW/cm
Base
2 n p
30 mW/cm
6
n
2
20 mW/cm
4
Collector
2
10 mW/cm
2
Dark current
VCE (V)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
 OPTOCOUPLER
• Emitter (LED) and reciever
(phototransistor) in common case

• Transmission of signal without

galvanic connection of two circuits
• Important figure – isolation voltage

• Most often binary (on/off) signal

transmission
• Optocoupler output may be also
SCR or TRIAC
• Safe switching of power cicrcuits
 OPTOCOUPLER APPLICATIONS

• Optical fiber transmission

• Driving transistor gates in power
electronic circuits with
microcontroller outputs

• Slotted transoptor
• Possibility to physically blind
transmission
• Mechanical sensor

• Example – rotational speed

measurement with slotted disc
 BJT - SUMMARY

• pnp or npn junction

• BJT operates in three

regions
• Active
• Cutoff
• Saturation

• BJT realizes current gain

FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (FET)
 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (FET)

• FET – Field Effect Transistor exploits influence of electric field on

semiconductor resistance
• FETs are unipolar devices (one type of current carrier)
• There are two tyoes of FETs
• JFET – Junction FET
• MOSFET - Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET
 JUNCTION FET (JFET)

• Conducting channel is placed between gate termials

• Terminal markings are different, tahn in BJT

• D - drain
• S – source
• G – gate
 JFET OPERATION

• No gate bias – channel is conducting with maximum width /

minimum resistance
• Reverse voltage at the gate – reverse bias of pn junction –
increase of depleted region – increase of channel resistance –
decrease of current
• At certain gate voltage
channel is completely closed
• Analogy to squeezing a hose
 JFET CHARACTERISTICS

• Left – drain current ID as a function of drain-source voltage VDS

for different gate-source voltages VGS
• Right – drain current ID as a function of gate-source voltage VGS
• In linear (ohmic) region at the left resistance is voltage-controlled
Output Transfer
characteristics characteristics
 JFET - SUMMARY

• JFET current is controlled by means of gate voltage

• JFET is normally on (conducts without gate voltage appplied)
• Reverse gate bias increases
depletion region thus
increasing JFET resistance

• N-channel and p-channel

options are available
 MOSFET

• MOSFET has insulated gate

• There are two types of MOSFETs
• D-MOSFET (depletion) – when unbiased it has a medium-
resistance channel, which can increaseddecreased
modified by gate voltage
• E-MOSFET (enhancement) – unbiased transistor has no
channel, which can be induced by gate voltage
 CHANNEL TYPES

• Depending on channel
tyoe (n or p)
electrons or holes
are majority carrier
• Symbols differ by
arrow direction
• Structure of
n-channel MOSFET
 D-MOSFET

• N-channel MOSFET is considered

• Initially a medium-resistance channel is present
• Different gate biasing is possible
• Negative bias pushes electrons towards p-region/deplets channel/
increases resistance (depletion mode)
• Positive bias attracts electrons to n-channel/enhances channel/
decreases resistance (E mode)
RD RD

n n RD
–
–
+
+
+
+
–
–
ID
– + + + – +
– +
p VDD + – p VDD
– –
– + + –

–
– +
+
+ – VDD
VGG n VGG n
VDS
+ –
VGS ID

operating in D-mode operating in E-mode

 D-MOSFET CHARACTERISTICS

• Transfer curve similar to JFET, but shifted to the right

• Zero gate voltage results in medium current
• Current is controlled by positive or negative voltage
Output Transfer
characteristics characteristics
 E-MOSFET
• E-MOSFET operates only in enhancement mode (n-channel version
depicted)
• There is no channel without gate bias (very high drain-source
resistance RDS)
• Positive gate bias attracts electrons, inducing a conducting channel
along the gate when threshold voltage VGS(th) is reached
Drain RD
ID

RD
Induced
SiO2
n channel n ID
+ –
+ – +
Gate p substrate VDD
+ –
– VDD
+ –
VDS
n + n
VGG
– VGS ID

Source

WORKING VIDEO
 E-MOSFET CHARACTERISTICS

• Below threshold voltage E-MOSFET is at cutoff – no current flow

• Above threshod gate voltage current increases with voltage

Output Transfer
characteristics characteristics
 GATE CAPACITANCE

• Insulator is placed between channel and gate

• This means capacitance at the gate input
• Switching speed is determined by how fast it is possible to
chargé gate capacitance
• Gate capacitance is given in datasheet
 MOSFET BODY DIODE

• In real transistor
p type substrate
is connected to the source
• That means creating pn
junction between S and D
terminals, which is forward
biased for negative VDS values
• This is called body diode
• High junction capacitance
results in long recovery
 FET GATE SWITCHING

• Voltage at the gate charges its capacitance, turning transistor on

• Jeśli odłączymy źródło napięcia ładunek bramki pozostanie –
tranzystor pozostanie załączony
• „Bleeding” resistor is necessary to remove gate charge
 MOSFET PARAMETERS

• MOSFET switches are faster, than BJT

• Saturated MOSFET is characterized with channel resistance
denoted RDSon – voltage drop across transistor depends on
current
• MOSFETs are easy to parallel
• Typical gate voltages are 5-20V
• MOSFET has a reverse body diode
 TRANSISTOR HANDLING

• Gate is very thin, it can be damaged

by electrostatic discharge (ESD)
• Gate should be de designed with suppresion diodes
• MOSFETs should be stored with shorted terminals
• When working with MOSFETs one should wear
a grounding wrist band or a full suit
 FET - SUMMARY

• FETs are unipolar devices

• JFETs are normally on, MOSFETs can operate as normally off
• MOSFETs are available as depletion or enhancement types
FET – SUMMARY II
 BJT VS FET

• BJT – bipolar, FET - unipolar

• BJT – current-controlled, FET – voltage-controlled
• FET have higher input resistance
• BJT normally off, JFET normally on, MOSFET depends on type
• BJT – robust in handling, FET – ESD sensitive
• FETs are smaller and easier to package
 TRANSISTORS - SUMMARY

• Transistor is a controlled, three-terminal device

• Transistor is active component - low power input signal (base
current/gate voltage) controls higher power output signal
(collectordrain current)
• Transistor applications
• Active region – amplification of signal
• Switch mode (saturation and cutoff) - switching
TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

• Zener Controlled Transistor Series Voltage Regulator

• Zener voltage VZ remains constant (Zener regulator)
• Transistor operates as emiter follower
• Output voltage V0=VZ-VBE≈VZ-0,7V

• V0 remains constant irrespective of load and supply voltage

variations
 CURRENT SOURCE

• Constant current source – transistor stabilizes current in the

load
• Zener diode maintains constant voltage VZ at the base
• Voltage (and current) on Re is stabilized
• Load experiences almost the same current (IC≈IE)

• Current is set by D1 and Re

𝑉𝑍 −𝑉𝐵𝐸
• 𝐼=
𝑅𝑒

• Example application
• Maintain constant current in LED,
when input voltage is varying
 CURRENT MIRROR

• If C and B are shorted transistor operates as diode

• Current mirror circuit

• Base of T1 is forward biased, current is limited by R
• This is the reference current
• Base-emiter voltages of both
transistors are equal
• For identical transistors
IB1=IB2 so IC1=IC2
• Current in the load follows reference
 TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH

• Off-state
• Base is open or grounded
• Transistor in cutoff mode

• On-state
• Base supplied with current
• Transistor in saturation mode

• Rc is a „load”
• In off-state no current flow
• In on-state supply voltage across load

• Can be used i.e. to switch loads according to logical signals

 SWITCHING EXTERNAL CIRCUITS

• Vin comes from logical

circuit/microcontroller
• Too low output voltage/current to
drive relays or contactors

• Transistor as an amplifying switch

• Various output circuits (LED, motor
etc.) Inductive loads (i.e. relay
coil) require flywheel
diode to avoid
overvoltages at switch-off
BJT AMPLIFIERS
 BJT AMPLIFICATION

• BJT performs curren amplification

• Transistor is often characterized by hybrid parameters (h),
where β=hFE

• Usually voltage gain is required

IC
 
IB
 SIMPLE VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER
• Voltage amplification can be realized using constant supply
voltage V
and variable voltage divider R1/R2
• By controlling R2 ouput voltage Vo is varied
• Instead of R2 transistor is used
• Current flow in R1 changes according to control signal Vi
• Output variations are higher, than input - gain!
 AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATIONS

• Load RL can be connected to a simple amplifier in a number of

ways

• Often R1 is unnecessary – transistor directly control current

through the load
 BJT CONFIGURATIONS

• Transistors can be used in a number of configurations

• Each configuration has different properties

• The most useful configuration (CE) is considered
• Here, emitter terminal is common for input and output circuits
 GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS - INPUT

• Resistance is inserted between input and base

• Load line is drawn for input voltage VBB and base resistor RB
• BE junction is forward biased – analyse like a diode, find IB and VBE

• Resistor linearizes relation between VBE and IB

 CE INPUT AND OUTPUT CURVES

• Varying input current IB results in IC variations (IC = β IB)

• Operating point lies on intersection of:
• Load line drawn for VCC and RC
• Transistor output characteristic for given input current IB

• Output voltage VCE varies from ~0V (at saturation) to VCC (at
cutoff)
 IDEALIZED TRANSFER CURVE

• Ideally output vs input voltage curve will have following regions

• For VBE<~0,7V transistor is at cutoff (IB=IC=0, VCE=VCC)
• For VBE>~0,7V transistor enters active region (IC =βIB>0, VCE=VCC-
ICRC)
• For VBE>VIH transistor is saturated (IC=max, VCE=VCEsat≈0,3V)

• Linear amplification is possible in active region

 REAL TRANSFER CURVE

• Amplification of voltage signal by CE amplifier

• Amplifier is biased at a point Q, and a small voltage signal vi is
superimposed on the dc bias voltage VBE
• Resulting output signal vo appears superimposed on the dc
collector voltage VCE
• The amplitude of vo is larger than that of vi by the voltage gain Av

• Output is inversed
with respect to the input!
 AC SIGNAL AMPLIFICATION

• The AC signal vi changes base current IB

• Collector current IC changes accordingly
• Q-points move between points A and B
• Output voltage VCE varies according to load line

• Output contains DC and AC components

 DC AND AC SIGNALS
• Transistors are essentially DC devices - they cannot directly
handle voltages or currents in reverse direction
• Transistor operates only with positive CE and BE voltages
• AC signal has to be superimposed on DC value
• In order to make them work for amplifying AC signals, the input
signal must be offset with a DC voltage to keep the transistor in
its active mode throughout the entire cycle of the wave. This is
called biasing
• Various biasing circuits are possible
• To decouple input and output AC waveforms a separating device
must be inserted between amplifier terminals - this is called
decoupling
• Usually capacitors are used for this purpose
 DECOUPLING

• Both input and output voltages contain DC and AC components

• External circuits should see only AC component

• To decouple DC components capacitors are used

1
XC  [ ]
2 f  C
• XC=∞ impedance at f=0 –
base DC voltage and source
are isolated
• XC decreases at high frequencies –
AC signal can pass from the source
to the base
• Capacitors decouple
• Output AC voltage from
DC operating point
• Input AC voltage from
DC base bias
 BIASING

• The region along the load line including all points between
saturation and cutoff is generally known as the linear region
(BJT operates in active region)
• In linear this region, the output voltage is a linear reproduction of
the input

• The purpose of biasing a circuit is to establish a proper stable

DC
operating point (Q-point) by setting initial dc values of IB, IC and
VCE
• Q-point lies on a load line
• Initial Q-point should be between saturation and cutoff
 CLASS A BIASING

• To maximize linear range of AC signal amplification, Q point has

to be set in the middle of curve (midpoint bias) – it is called
class A operation
• A signal that swings outside the active region will be clipped
• Close to saturation and cutoff distortion may
appear caused by non-linear character of real transfer curve
 BIASING CIRCUITS

• Biasing circuits set initial voltage at the base VBE around 0,7V
•
 SIMPLE AMPLIFIER
• The circuit shows a simple amplifier
• RB is used to bias the transistor by injecting an
appropriate base current
• C is a coupling capacitor and is used to couple the
AC signal while preventing
external circuits from
affecting the bias
• This is an
AC-coupled amplifier

Q-point is not
stable in this
circuit!
 BIAS SWING

• Because of transistor nonlinearities (variations of β gain and input

curve with temperature) Q-point can move (swing) from initial
position, I C

Q
IB
Input

leading to clipping of output signal signal

ICQ
Q

VCE
Cutoff 0 VCC

Cutoff
Vce

VCEQ

• Biasing circuit should be able to compensate for nonlinearities

• Base bias is very simple, but very susceptible to bias swing used in
switching circuits, where transistor operates only in saturation/cutoff
• For good stabilization, voltage divider bias with additional emiter
resistor is used
 STABILIZED AMPLIFIER

• RE is added to stabilize Q point of amplifier

• Negative feedback – if gain β increases IC increases, increasing
voltage at RE. This in turn reduces VBE, resulting in decrease of IB
and IC
• RE reduces gain of amplifier (creates RC-RE voltage divider, where
URE is not useful). Therefore for AC signal emiter is grounded
(bypassed) by CE. This preserves feedback for DC operating point,
while gain for AC signals is not reduced
 CAPACITORS IN AMPLIFIER

• Coupling capacitor is connected at the input/output to provide

DC isolation between source/load while allowing an AC signal to
pass without distortion
• Bypass capacitor is used to establish AC ground at a specific
point in a circuit
 CE VOLTAGE GAIN AND IMPEDANCES

• Voltage gain is mailnly dependent on input and output

impedances and is approximately AV = β Zout/Zin
• Input impedance results from voltage divider and transistor
parameters (current gain β and emiter region resistance)

• Output impedance results from paralel connection of Rc and

load resistor
 CE AMPLIFIER PASSBAND

• Amplifier preserves its gain for certain range of frequencies

• At low frequencies input/output capacitors present high impedance
for signals
• For high frequencies BJT junction capacitances limit transistor
operating speed

• Range of frequencies, where gain falls less than -3dB form

nominal (AV(f)=1/√2AVN=0.707AVN) is called passband (midband)

Note, that both

dB gain and
frequency scales
are logarithmic

fL and fH are called

cutoff frequencies
 TWO-STAGE CE AMPLIFIER

• Equivalent models are connected in series

• Influence of input and output impedances is increased
 CE AMPLIFIER - SUMMARY

• Single npn BJT can form a class A amplifier (DC Bias sets the Q-
point of the amplifier half way along the load line)
• CE is an inverting amplifier
• Incorrect positioning of the Q-point or too large imput
amplitude will produce either Saturation Clipping or Cut-off
Clipping
 COMMON EMITTER

• Common-emitter amplifier is called an inverting amplifier

• The voltage gain of a common-emitter transistor amplifier is
approximately given by: AV = β Rout/Rin
• Properties
1. Midrange (100-1000) values of voltage and current gain
2. High power gain (>1000)
3. Midrange input impedance (1k-10kΩ)
4. Midrange output impedance (1k-10kΩ)
 COMMON COLLECTOR (CC) AMPLIFIER

• CC amplifier is called emitter follower (since for transistor

operation VBE is about 0,7V, output voltage is slightly less,
than input) - its voltage gain is almost one
• The current gain, however, is large (approximately ß+1),
and this circuit is often used to add power to a signal
• Properties
1. Midrange values of current
gain (100-1000)
2. Extremely low voltage gain
(slightly less than 1)
3. High input impedance (>10kΩ)
4. Low output impedance (<1kΩ)
 COMMON BASE (CB) AMPLIFIER
• Least often used BJT amplifier configuration, base is AC
coupled to the ground
• Common base amplifier, is non-inverting, it can provide
high voltage gains
• The main difference between the common base and the
other amplifier types is that the input impedance is very low
and CB is generally very fast
• Properties:
1. Midrange values of voltage
gain (100-1000)
2. Extremely low current gain
(slightly less than 1)
3. Low input impedance (<1kΩ)
4. High output impedance (>10kΩ)
THANK YOU
FOR ATTENTION