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Ludovico Bianchi

ENC 1102

Professor Eddington

8 March 2024

The Communication Process in a Soccer Match: Explained and Compared in Non-Professional and
Professional Soccer Perspective

Introduction

Communication, arguably, is a key factor in almost every team sport that exists and soccer is

not an exclusion. Before addressing this topic for many hours of my life, when I used to think about

communication in a soccer match, the first things that came to my mind were some of the most

common. From the scream at one of my guarded teammates to pass me the ball when I am wide

open or the simple raising of a hand, hoping that my teammate would notice it. These, essentially,

are two plausible examples of verbal and non-verbal communication, which were used to send a

message to the player in possession of the ball that he could have passed me the ball. However, if

you are, just like me, asking yourself why I did not receive the ball and, consequently, lost the ball

causing the whole team to retreat in defense, there are many factors to take into consideration. For

instance, the most plausible reason is that he was looking for a closer teammate, and in the search

for one, he was anticipated. Otherwise, he did not see my communication and decided to continue

his individual play, not for too long, unfortunately. Looking for an answer to this question is merely

useless, there would be too many considerations and hypotheses that we can stay here until we

arrive to take into consideration the noise that was made a few meters from him that caused

distraction. Each individual has their own experience and knowledge about how to perform a task,

regulating its type, location, and timing of the action at their own discretion. Therefore, when it

comes to playing on a soccer field, the team’s performance is mainly affected by the knowledge of
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its own players who have to adapt their experience to the one of every other player. In other words,

a team achieves better performance when the players’ knowledge is coordinated or synchronized

with each other.

This knowledge of team coordination is better known as specific knowledge, it is important

to remember that the only way to learn it is by practicing with the same players over and over the

same dynamics of play. In other words, team members who interact more regularly than others will

share with them more specific knowledge about each others’ operations (Eccles & Tran 2012).

People who play soccer outside of a team, therefore, will eventually play most of the time with

random people, where this knowledge is very hard to achieve. Most of the team cohesion and

coordination inside the pitch has been made with many hours of practice with each other, achieving

a great connection and interpretation of each other’s game style. This suggests that communication

among professional players has some differences from the one used by non-professional players.

However, although non-professional players and professional players have also similar dynamics, in

the end, we are talking about the same sport. This study will explore the different types of

communication that both, professional and non-professional, soccer players have to use inside the

pitch. Furthermore, this study will focus on the relationship between the two communications and

analyze the factors on which it is dependent. In other words, the purpose of this article is to in part

address the communication differences between professional and nonprofessional soccer players

while delving into some of the characteristics of this communication.

I want to highlight the fact that, when I am referring to communication inside a soccer

match, I am referring to intra-team communication. Inside a professional and nonprofessional

match, there are different typologies of communication, from the communication with coaches to

referees to players. However, when it comes to nonprofessional players, it is included also

communication in a simple pick-up match, where coaches and referees are far to be present.

Communication among professional teams will be analyzed more in-depth, covering also the

communication that goes beyond player-on-player communication, with the help of other
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researchers’ resources who reported on the topic. On the other hand, nonprofessional

communication will be supported with a series of semi-structured interviews, looking for a wider

understanding of the communication process inside a match of nonprofessional players. In the

sports area, very little data has been collected about intra-team communication efficacy and its clear

role in building cohesion among the team. Most of the recent studies have delved into the

communication process between coaches and players (Wahyudi & Laturrakhmi, 2021). This study

does not try to cover the unresearched, likewise, it will highlight the importance of communication

inside a soccer match rather than discover its already proven efficacy. Studies have already found

that “ greater team cohesiveness is assumed to be related to greater team success.” (Carron, 2002).

Therefore, another intent of this paper is to invoke other researchers to start new research on the

topic, in order to, highlight more insights about the relationship between the various types of

communication and their efficacy in a match. Team interactions and team communication are

fundamental principles of what defines a team group. However, there is no research looking for

how all this knowledge affects the team’s performance. This research will try to delve into the

basics of intra-team communication, describing the various types of communication. Moreover, this

study will address the effects of different types of communication on team overall cohesion.

Arguably, when it comes to subdivided communication, researchers have not found a

universal method to describe it. Nevertheless, some studies have developed a formal way to

measure how effective communication is and estimate the relationship with sports performance. To

be more specific, Sullivan and Feltz (2003) have created a scale for effective communication in

team sports, which measures the different types of communication and divides them into four

groups of communication. Although this scale has helped researchers address gender differences in

communication, it is yet to be proven the authenticity of the scale. Communication in sports can be

a crucial aspect whether it is used with the right quantity and qualities. The more I have collected

data, the more I found different types of communication, for instance, I would argue that many

people outside of the sports communication world have never heard the term symbolic
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communication. Communication derived from a lucky referee’s decision or just exulting because

the ball went outside of the pitch in a critical situation of the match are two perfect examples of

what symbolic communication means. As I previously discussed, there are many types of

communication in sports, which can also be divided into intentional and unintentional, and all of

them create different results in different situations. This study will try to address most of the data

found in relation to team cohesion and coordination and how communication is an important factor

in the result of a team’s performance.

Methods

The purpose of this paper is to define the relationship between communication and a soccer

match in both ground, professional and nonprofessional. In order to collect all the data I need for

this research, besides my secondary data, I will conduct a series of semi-structured interviews. With

the purpose of finding more data about the communication between nonprofessional players in a

soccer match. In order to participate in the interview there were some prior requirements to meet in

order to be picked for this research like (a) be eighteen years old or older, (b) have at least four

years of nonprofessional soccer experience on the field after the age of twelve, and (c) living near

the city of Orlando, Florida. In addition to that, many of the interviewers chosen for this paper are

from different countries, which created some different instances of communication between

interviewers. This fact does not worsen my data, quite the opposite, as I have different styles of

communication that were able to be confronted and analyzed. These interviewers were asked a

series of questions that contained 10 regular questions, which can be found at the end of this page.

In addition to that, as a semi-structured interview works, I have continued to ask questions to the

interviewers when I was looking for a better understanding of the answer or just to amplify the

response of the interviewers when needed. Based on the requirements for the interviewers I found

six people who were meeting the requirements for the interview. Therefore, these people have all

been accepted to be in this study. Under this section, you will find the fixed series of questions that
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have been asked to the interviewers. This list contains only the questions that have been asked to all

of the participants of the interview, however, the more I filmed interviews, the more I would ask

specific questions about this topic.

Interview Questions:

What are the most important forms of communication in a match?

How communication affect a soccer match?

As a nonprofessional player, when/how/why do you verbally communicate?

Have you found communication easier with someone rather than others? If yes, how do you think

it is possible?

How did you learn this type of communication?

Do you think it is important to communicate inside a match?

When should you not communicate?

Can you learn how to communicate in soccer?

What do you think, communication is another skill that should be considered in soccer?

Do you know how you communicate without speaking during a match? What do you usually do?

Results

Intra-team communication is a very useful component in the formula of team cohesion. It

does not matter what style of communication is used among a team. The important is that

communication works, consequently, team coordination and cohesion will improve. Eccles and

Tran, in one of their studies, have claimed that coordination “…is reached when each player’s

knowledge of the situation is at least similar to other players’ knowledge of the situation.” (32). The

authors continue to describe team coordination, it was noted that coordination can be acquired in
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two ways: through game experience and through explicit planning. When it comes to professional

soccer, both methods are used without problems, with the help of the coach’s direction and practice.

The game experience is hard to not get, when you are already a professional player, you probably

have kicked more soccer balls in your life than a monkey has seen bananas. On the other hand,

explicit planning is achieved through the help of two external sources, the coach’s communication

and the practice on the practice field to get affinity, which helps achieve the knowledge that we

were previously discussing. In a professional setting, coaches have a fundamental position as

leaders of the team. Different types of communication are used by coaches to train players and

refine team coordination. Professionals in this matter are able, almost unintentionally, to find the

specific knowledge of each player’s attitudes and norms.

Although the performance of a team may still vary because of many other aspects from

those cited before, some studies have asserted that beneficial communication is considered one of

the variables that optimize team connectivity (McLean et al., 2021). Furthermore, social constructs

such as motivation, cohesion, and conflict are related to the performance of a team (Carron &

Hausenblas, 1998). As we were saying there are different types of communication inside a soccer

match. Besides thinking about the methodology of communication used, Sullivan and Feltz have

developed a scale to categorize this type of intra-team communication. These authors have

addressed four different types of communication that affect a team’s functioning: Acceptance,

Distinctiveness, Positive Conflict, and Negative Conflict. Acceptance is the communication referred

to when all items reflect the interpersonal exchange of appreciation. Distinctiveness is the exchange

of a shared, inclusive identity through verbal and nonverbal communication. While positive and

negative conflict are two types of conflict management communication (2003). Of all these

communication methods, three of the four have been indicated to positively affect a team’s

performance. On the other hand, the only type of communication in this scale that has been

indicated as a possible negative factor regarding a team’s performance is negative conflict, which is

based on the expression of agitation and anger. It is important, therefore, to note that
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communication should be used frequently because we have learned that if everybody communicates

similarly it is proved that there is a relationship with team performance. Overall, the communication

inside a professional soccer match works because of many hours of practice and affinity with the

same players. In addition to that, in order to be prepared for a match, professional teams work under

the singular ideology of the coach.

On the other hand, when it comes to nonprofessional soccer, the communication used is very

similar. However, there are different factors to take into account that change the two types of

communication. For instance, one of the peculiar characteristics of professional soccer is that

players use verbal communication only in a motivational/social method. In order to find the

relationship between these two communications, I have conducted six different interviews. Most of

the interviewers have all grown up in different countries, with different ideologies of soccer and

communication, which has helped me find important characteristics in different ideas of

communication. Nonprofessional players, in contrast with verbal communication between

professional players, according to all of the interviewers, are used to verbally communicate more. In

the situation, where specific knowledge of other team players’ decisions is unknown, the only way

to communicate your position on the field or where you will make the run is by communicating on

the moment. For this reason, communication among nonprofessional players is intended to be used

not only when they are asking for the ball, but also in situations like defensive closures and position

on the field.

Verbal communication is used for more instances, from the communication of positioning

to decision-making in the actual moment. In this regard, nonprofessional players, when asked who

and when verbal communication is used in games, have responded that everybody communicates

verbally. However, there are certain positions and instances where, usually the captain (according to

interviewers 5 and 6) is the player who has to communicate the most. In addition to that, it is about

positions in which communication works. Interviewer 5 has indicated that usually, players like

defensive midfielders and central backs are the players that communicate the most. This fact has
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been proven also by Mclean in professional soccer that “Central defensive and central defensive

midfield positions were the most prominent contributors to beneficial ITC and passing, and

subsequently achieved the highest PCI (Player Connectivity Index) scores, compared to all other

positions.” (2021).

Furthermore, another factor that has been indicated by all interviewers is that

communication is generally improved in two ways: through game experience, and by having a

soccer terminology knowledge behind. Experience, trivially, improves the overall skills of players,

communication is not an exclusion. Interviewers have described communication inside a soccer

match as another skill that should be counted in the game as much as skills like technique or pace.

On the other side, terminology incredibly affects our forms of communication. Depending on the

player’s ability to verbally and non-verbally communicate, coordination will be impacted. The

faster and the easier you are able to communicate, the better the coordination will be with

teammates. Interviewer 5 claimed that “…learning terminology, helps also communicate faster,

better, and differently”. Interviewer, likewise, participant number 6 claimed that also in non-

professional soccer negative conflict communication does not positively affect performance or

cohesion. Interviewer 6 continues affirming that positive conflict communication is useful when it

comes to motivating players. This data reflects the idea that in professional soccer, as Sullivan and

Feltz described in their article about professional players. As we can see, there are many instances

of similarities and differences between the two types of communication. However, we still do not

know whether they have similar results in terms of effectiveness in the two levels of the game. No

studies have addressed a correlation between the two forms of communication, which implies that

we do not know as of now whether the two forms should consider using some instances from the

opposite form.

Discussion

Communication in soccer is everywhere and important to use in meaningful ways, from just

eye contact with a teammate to the explanation of the coach while the ball is out. To be more
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precise, communication is useful when your teammates understand you, while the opponents should

hardly read what the play will be. As I delved into the root of how communication works inside a

match, not specifically about soccer, it is interesting to note that the communication between

nonprofessionals and professional players is, of course, similar. However, I have found some of the

differences that the two sets of play have and can be distinguished. These differences come from

many instances that divide the sport between the categories it has (principiant, amateur…etc). Two

of the most important differences that affect professional and nonprofessional players’

communication are the fact that professional players have spent so much time playing together that

have cultivated a specific knowledge of themselves which influences the method and the moments

where verbal and other types of communication are used. The other major difference between the

two is the fact that professional players do not have to improvise most of the time in a match. The

coach has already developed an ideology around their style of game. The ideology behind a match

has already cut half of the instances where players at a nonprofessional level must communicate if

they want to participate in the play. Because of only these two reasons, many of the communication

norms that both professional and nonprofessional players have are different and used for different

purposes.

Now that I have addressed most of the data that I collected for this paper, it was possible to

understand how the two, professional and nonprofessional, communication works inside the pitch

and some of the changing factors. At this point of the paper, you should be able to understand that

communication as a whole works, with and, as the players start to connect to each other. The more

players improve in this regard, the more efficient the game will be. In other words, the two forms of

communication, in terms of what is used, between players are relatively the same. In a

nonprofessional setting, this connection and affinity that develop our specific knowledge are harder

to find between players as there isn’t the same practice time spent as professional players have, and

the fact that there is no ideology that prevails over the other. Therefore, nonprofessional players are

used to communicating more, especially verbally, when it comes to coordinating plays with
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different players on their team. So, does this affect also the type of plays that are possible to do?

The answer is yes. In the situation where a nonprofessional team is playing, those players are aware

that there is not a game style prepared for that match, and/or they also do not know who they are

playing against. Therefore, these players have to adapt and connect with their teammates in very

rapid and vague dynamics, that will change throughout the whole match. In this regard,

communication has a major role in the nonprofessional setting, because players are communicating

almost, blindly, about what they are going to do, as there is not a preparation behind it. According

to all of the interviewers of this paper, communication in nonprofessional soccer, is crucial to have

players in the team with good communication skills. With good communication skills, I am

referring to being able to read the other players’ positioning and depending on their position on the

field understand and make the other players understand what the play will be. In the situation where

a nonprofessional team has these types of players, it is more likely to cultivate affinity and cohesion

which will increase the chance of improving the quality of plays. On the other hand, professional

players are used to not only communicate in a game with less verbal communication, but they have

coordination and cohesion that has been practiced for many hours of their lives with the same

teammates and ideologies behind them. Because of that, professional players’ communication is

used in some similar situations to nonprofessional players, however, communication is less verbal

and used in fewer situations like positioning or dynamics of offensive plays.

Overall, this paper has raised me other questions about the degree of efficiency and positive

results that communication is considered to produce, or influence in part. Therefore, this article’s

conclusion gives a few new insights into the relationship between professional and nonprofessional

players’ communication. Especially, this article has brought up pieces of evidence on how

nonprofessional soccer communication works and how similar and different it is with

communication used in professional matches. There are too many considerations to take into

account when it comes to success in a match. As of now, it is possible to understand the major

factors that influence the decisions to use different types of communication in different instances. In
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order to continue the investigation, future researchers would have to find the real connection

between communication and team performance in sports. We know that communication influences

a team’s coordination and, consequently, the team’s performance, however, the degree to which it is

either helpful or efficacy is unknown. If it will Communication can lead to greater cohesiveness,

but it does not certify the win, or yes?

Write about international what other articles can look for

Works Cited

Albert V. Carron, Heather A. Hausenblas. (1998) (couldn’t find a citation)

Albert V. Carron, Steven R. Bray & Mark A. Eys. “Team cohesion and team success in sport”,

Journal of Sports Sciences, 20:2, 2002, 119-126, DOI: 10.1080/026404102317200828

David W. Eccles, Gershon Tenenbaum. "Why an Expert Team is More Than a Team of Experts: A

Social-Cognitive Conceptualization of Team Coordination and Communication in Sport”, Journal

of Sport & Exercise Psychology, vol. 26, 2004, pp. 542-560.

McLean S., Salmon P. M., Gorman A. D., Dodd K., Solomon C. “The Communication and Passing

Contributions of Playing Positions in a Professional Soccer Team..” J Hum Kinet. Vol.77. 2021 Jan

30. pp. 223-234. doi: 10.2478/hukin-2020-0052.

Sullivan M. P., Feltz D. “The Preliminary Development of the Scale for Effective Communication

in Team Sports (SECTS)”, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, vol. 33(8). 2003. pp.1693 - 1715

DOI:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2003.tb01970.x
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Wahyudi D., Laturrakhmi F. Y., “Sport Communication: revealing the Use of Instructional

Communication on Football Coaching Process”, Profetik Jurnal Komunikasi, vol. 15(1). 2022. pp.

83-100. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14421/pjk.v15i1.2302