Kinetic theory of matter States of matter Sublimation Melting Vapourisation Solid Liquid Gas Freezing Condensation Deposition Property Solid Liquid Gas Shape Fixed Not fixed Not fixed Volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed Arrangement Regular Random Random Mass Fixed Fixed Fixed Compressibility Not compressible Mostly not compressible Highly compressible Speed slow Slow Fast Attractive forces Strong Decent Weak Energy Least energy Low energy Most energy Vapourization \Vapourization is the process by which liquids tum into vapours Boiling Evaporation - Occurs at a specific temperature - Occurs at any temperature ~ Boiling is a bulk phenomenon - Evaporation is a surface phenomenon - Factors affecting boiling = Factors affecting evaporation > Material > Temperature > Pressure > Surface area > Humidity > Wind speed When liquid molecules gain heat energy, the topmost molecules lose intermolecular attraction and evaporate. + The topmost molecules have the least intermolecular attraction and most energy - The lower molecules have the most intermolecular attraction and least energyBrownian Motion When a particle is suspended in a fluid the random movement o: the particle caused by the collisions with the fluid molecules is called Brownian Motion Movement of suspended pollen grain Boyle's Law The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportionate to its volume if the temperature is constant. Pressure law The pressure of a fixed gas volume is directly proportional to the temperature, Thermal properties of matter Thermal expansion - The increase in the volume of an object when the temperature increases - Thermal expansion is greatest in gases then in liquids and then in solids - Rivet-Bold joint —/ Rivet bolt Metal sheet 1 Metal sheet 2= Bimetallic strip cu Fe Heat Cu Fe - Hazards of thermal expansion in solids 1. Compound damage in the motherboard of a computer 2. Battery swelling Thermal properties of water - Water contracts when cooled to 4°C. - Between 4°C to 0°C water expnads Temperature - Temperature is the average kinetic energy of all of the particles in a substance. Thermometer - Fixed points the temperature at which a physical change in a substance occurs and is used to calibrate. The Celsius scale: melting and boiling point of water (0 to 100) - Sensitivity Change in length of column per degree increase To increase sensitivity: narrower tube, more expandible liquid - Range The value that can be measured - Linearity Uniform change in the physical property = Responsiveness Time taken for a thermometer to react to change in temperature Absolute zero = Atemperature of 0 K or -273 C, where particles have least kinetic energy. Internal energy - _ Internal energy is the total energy of all the particles of a substanceLatent heat The amount of thermal energy which is required to break the bonds between molecules to achieve phase change. - Latent heat of fusion ‘Amount of energy required to convert unit mass of solid to liquid - Latent heat of vapourization Amount of energy required to convert unit mass of liq to gas Heating graph Latent heat of vapourization Heating Latent heat of fusion Specific Heat capacity ‘The energy required per unit mass to raise the temperature by 1°C is called specific heat ‘capacity. Measuring the specific heat capacity of a metal oN - + CO ~Thermal energy transfer Nature of surfaces Dull Black Shiny Black Dull Silver Shiny Silver Absorber ————) Emitter ————____ Reflector — Conduction Thermal energy transfer, in which the energy is transferred from one molecule to another by contacting Solids - Conduction through metals by the movement of delocalised electrons = Conduction is bad in liquids and gases because vibrations are not passed easily/particles don't make contact frequently. Convection Thermal energy transfer, in which the energy is transferred through the material by the movement of the material itself. Liquids and Gases Radiation ‘Thermal energy transfer, in which energy is transferred by electromagnetic waves. No medium Land breeze Cold Land Sea Warmer Sea breeze Warmer Land Sea ColdSound Properties of Sound Waves - Longitudinal Waves: Sound waves are longitudinal waves, meaning the particles in the medium vibrate back and forth in the same direction as the wave travels. - Medium Dependence: Sound needs a medium. Vibrations in the medium particles create areas of compression (high pressure) and rarefaction (low pressure) that travel as the sound wave - Speed of Sound: The speed of sound varies depending on the medium. I's generally faster in solids than liquids and faster in gases. Temperature can also affect the speed of sound (higher temperature, faster sound). ‘Speed in air: 330 - 350 mis ‘Speed in water: 1500 m/s Speed in solid: 6000m/s Characteristics of Sound: = Frequency: The frequency of a sound wave determines its pitch. Measured in Hertz (Hz) - Amplitude: decibels (dB). Effects of Sound Waves: - Reflection: Sound waves can reflect off surfaces. This is how echoes are formed. - Refraction: Sound waves can bend when they travel through mediums with different densities. This can cause effects like focusing sound, - Diffraction: Sound waves can bend around comers. This is why you can hear sound even if the source is not in your direct line of sight Hearing Range: Humans can typically hear sounds between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. Sounds below 20 Hz are infrasonic, and sounds above 20,000 Hz are ultrasonic. Ultrasound - Ultrasound is the sound with a frequency greater than 20kHz - Ultrasound is used in Sonar, Medical scanning he amplitude of a sound wave determines its loudness. Measured in Oscillations One oscillation period = One wavelength 1 oscillation period = A-B—C—-AReverberation - Multiple reflections of sound - Closed environment - Initial sound (vibration) is lost Natural frequency - The specific frequency of an object, mechanical system or charged particle Resonance - Aphenomenon that occurs when a wave with the same frequency as the natural frequency of an object strikes that object, causing the object to increase the amplitude of its natural frequency. Reflection of light Normal Angle of | Angle of incidence | reflection Incident cay Miror Plane mirrors Reflected ray Light Reflection Laws = The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection - The normal, incident ray, and reflected ray all ie on the same plane. Normal: imaginary line perpendicular to the surface of reflection Incident ray: a ray of surface Reflected ray: a ray of light that has been reflected from a surface ht arriving at a Properties of the image Object Mirror Eye ‘Same size as the object ‘Same distance from the surface Laterally inverted VirtualRefraction of light Refraction is the bending of light caused by the change in the medium Light travels at different speeds in different mediums, the change in speed causes refraction. Incident ray . : The angle of refraction is Rarer medium the angle between the normal and refracted ray at Refracted ray Denser medium the point of change in the Normal medium, No bending is observed when the incident ray is Normal perpendicular to the Incident ray surface. ‘Refracted ray Change in medium Bending of light ray Optically denser to optically rarer medium —_| Away from normal Optically rarer to optically denser medium __| Towards the normal Refractive index - The ratio of speeds of light in two different mediums ‘ Total Internal reflection - Critical angle The minimum angle of incidence at which total internal reflection takes place Itis denoted by the symbol ‘c' + Internal reflection When a ray of light strikes the inner surface of a material some light is reflected inside and some of it may refrac. = Total internal reflection When a ray of light strikes the inner surface of a material all of itis reflected Conditions to achieve total internal reflection > The incident ray must be travelling from a optically denser to an optically rarer medium > The angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angleConditions R Lil When angle of incidence = critical angle When angle of incidence is greater critical angle When angle of incidence is lesser critical angle Optical fibres and Endoscopes Optical fiber Series of total intemal reflection keeps the light ray inside the transparent tube Viewing piece Receiving end Light source EndoscopeLenses Converging lens (convex) Diverging lens (concave) Causes rays of light parallel to the axis to Causes rays of light parallel to the axis to converge at the principal focus diverge from the principal focus - Lens pieces of shaped glass that can be used to focus images - Principal axis ‘An imaginary line perpendicular to the central line of the lens - Principal focus the point on the axis of a lens or mirror to which parallel rays of light converge or from which they appear to diverge after refraction or reflection. - Focal length Distance between the optical centre of the lens and the principal focus General ray diagram for Converging lens Ray diagram Explanation Ifthe incident ray is parallel to the principal axis, the refracted ray passes through the focus. Incident ay Principal axis Ifthe incident ray passes to through the focus, the refracted ray is parallel to the principal axis. Ifthe incident ray passes through the optical centre, the refracted ray continues the same path Ircident ay Refracted rayRay diagrams for Converging lens 4. Object at infinity Object Principal axis Size of image Position of image | Nature of image Form of image Highly diminish ALF, Real Inverted 2. Object beyond 2F Principal axis ize of image Position of image | Nature of image Form of image Diminish Between F and 2F Real Inverted 3. Object at 2F — Principal axis image 2F, 2F, Size of image Position of image | Nature of image Form of image Same as object AQF Real Inverted4. The object between 2F A F 2F, Incident rays Pk rays — Principal axis Image Size of image Position of image | Nature of image Form of image Enlarged Beyond 2F Real Inverted 5. Object at F Incident rays. Refracted rays — Principal axis Image Size of image Position of image Nature of image Form of image Highly enlarged At infinity Real Inverted 6. Object between F and O Size of image Posi Nature of image Form of image Highly enlarged Side of the object Virtual UprightDefects of the eye and corrections Myopia Hypermetropi Presbyopia Concave lens Convex lens Concave and convex Dispersion The separation of different wavelengths of ight 4 White sereen 0 , Bie 6 ello ais wen | White light splits ito seven colours = Higher wavelength = lesser refraction = higher in the spectrum = Higher frequency = more refraction = lower in the spectrum Colour of light Wavelength Frequency Reflection Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Indigo Violent Magnetism Laws of magnets = Like poles repel ~ Unlike poles attractProperties of bar magnets - Suspended magnet aliens its north pole to the earth's north pole. - When a magnet is divided in half, two new magnets are formed N s N s] |[n s Magnetic materials - Hard magnets (permanent magnets) Gets magnetised slowly Loses magnetism slowly Example: Steel = soft magnets (electromagnets) Gets magnetised fast Loses magnetism fast Example: Iron Magnetic fields. Magnetic fields start from the north pole and travel to the south pole. Ee (AY WANA ON (VIGStatic electricity Electrical fields ‘An Electric field is a region of space in which an electric charge experiences a force. ~ Like charges experience a repulsive force = Unlike charges experience an attractive force The charge is measured in Coulombs (C) O--O te ee eee te ee Electromagnetic Spectrum Energy increases Long wavelength Short wavelength ah Ke 10m tm 10 om 1o!nm Imm 10%'nm 103 am ‘ ! z t f Radio waves Microwaves Infrae raviotet xrays Gamma rays lol: tote 10H oe 0H 0 He ihe 10% He OMe 10 He 10H Low trequeney High frequency Visible tight Speed=3.0x10%m/s #* 10"*He 7x 10HeWaves Waves are the disturbances caused in the medium or by electromagnetism. Waves transfer energy but do not matter Classification of waves Waves that require a medium are called mechanical waves - Waves that don't require a medium are called non-mechanical waves - Transversal waves are waves in which the motion of the particles is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation = Longitudinal waves are waves in which the motion of the particles is parallel to the direction of wave propagation. - Seismic waves are waves caused by geological activity below the earth's surface > Surface waves are seismic waves that travel along the surface. > Body waves are seismic waves that travel beneath the earth's surface Properties P wave S wave Speed Faster Slower Medium Solid and liquid Solid Type Longitudinal wave Transverse wave Components of waves Motion of particles Crest wavelength Normal UsCrest: The crest is the highest point of a wave from the normal. Trough: The trough is the lowest point of a wave from the normal. Amplitude (A): Amplitude is the distance of the crest/trough from the normal Wavelength (A): Wavelength is the distance between two consecutive crests or troughs. Frequency (f): Frequency is the number of waves passing through a point in a given time if the time is one second, then unit of frequency is Hz). Time period (T): ‘The time period is the time taken for one wave to travel from a given point. Wavefronts wavelength The wavefront is perpendicular to the direction of - wave propagation - Refraction Deep water Shallow water = Rarer medium = Bigger wavelength = Away from the normal + Denser medium + Smaller wavelength + Towards the normal Distance Motion Length of the actual path travelled by the object Displacement Length of the shortest path between two points Vector Scalar Magnitude, direction, and unit Magnitude, and unitSpeed + Instantaneous speed Is the speed of an object at a particular moment in time - Average speed Is the the total distance travelled by an object in a given time period. Distance-Time graphs 1. Constant speed Distance Time 2. Acceleration Time 3. Stationary Distance Time 4, Return journey Distance TimeVelocity Total displacement per unit of time. Acceleration Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time. - _Deceleration = negative acceleration Velocity-Time graphs 1. Constant acceleration 2. Acceleration 2 q Tine 3. Constant deceleration 4, Deceleration $ Tine Time Calculating acceleration using graph - Gradient method Calculating distance/displacement from VT graphs - The area under the graphForce ‘A push or pull experienced by an object that can lead to a change in position, shape or direction of motion. Contact force Non-contact force Contact forces require contact to act on the object. - Mechanical force - Frictional force = Drag force Non-contact forces don't require contact to act on the object. - Gravity - Magnetism = Inter-molecular Frictional forces Friction is a force that opposes a surface moving over another surface Factors affecting friction: - Nature of material - Surface area - Pressing force - Lubricants Types of friction 1. Static friction (****) Acts on stationary objects. 2. Sliding friction (***) When 2 surfaces slide over each other. 3. Rolling friction (**) Acts on rolling surfaces. 4. Fluid friction (*) Acts on objects moving in a fluid Calculating resultant forces 4. Parallel forces 600 N Resultant force = 600 N - SOON = 100 N Resultant direction Object 500 N2. Triangular method Scale Rule of plotting triangular method - Vectors should be head to tail Resultant force Force 2 Force 1 3. Parallelogram Method Rule of plotting triangular method - Vectors should be head to head Scale : Force 1 Resultant force Force 2Terminal velocity Terminal velocity refers to constant velocity. When the forces are balanced, a moving object will experience terminal velocity Fall - Free fall: an object experiences free fall when the object is falling under the influence of gravity without any resistive forces. Fall and terminal velocity Acceleration As velocity downwards increases, air -" The weight of the object is greater _| resistance increases than the air resistance - Acceleration downwards 2. Terminal velocity The object moves downwards with = Weight is equal to the air resistance _| constant velocity 3. Deceleration Downward motion slows down - Opening of the parachute causes an increase in surface area - Airresistance increases 4, Terminal velocity The object moves downwards with - Weight is equal to the air resistance _| constant velocity Forces and motion Newtons laws 4. Law of inertia Any object in motion tends to remain in motion and any object in rest tends to remain at rest Until an external force is applied. - More the mass of the object, the greater the inertia 2. Law of acceleration Force of an object is equal to the product of the mass and acceleration. 3. Law of action and reaction Every action has an equal and opposite reaction. Circular motion - Centripetal force The force experienced by an object in a circular motion. This force is towards the centre. Examples: tension in thread, gravity, friction - Centrifugal force The force experienced by an object in a circular motion. This force is away from the centre. Centrifugal force is a pseudo-force Centripetal force = centrifugal force+ Resultant force The resultant force in circular motion is always towards the centre. + Velocity and acceleration law In circular motion the velocity and acceleration change constantly due to changes in direction. Magnitude may remain the same. Centre of mass Centre of mass of an object is an imaginary point where all the mass (weight) of the object is said to be acting Toppling effect When the centre of mass is out of the base of an object the abject topples over. Factors affecting stability: - Bases area = Height of the centre of mass Moment ‘The moment of force is the product of the force applied and the perpendicular distance from the pivot. Equilibrium in moment 1. Clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment 2. Total upward force = total downward force Momentum Momentum is the quantity of motion of a moving body, measured as the product of its mass and velocity, Conservation of momentum Total momentum before collision = total momentum after coll Impulse Impulse is the change in momentum caused due to a force exerted on the object for a given time. Hooke’s Law Within the limit of proportionality, the extension of a spring is directly proportional to the force applied to it. - _ Limit of proportionality: This is the maximum force a spring can withstand before it permanently deforms. If stretched beyond this limit, it won't return to its original length. - Hooke's Law applies to elastic materials like springs and some metals. - The relationship between force and extension can be represented by a straight line graph (until the limit of proportionality is reached).Energy, Work and Power Energy Energy is the capacity to do work - Potential energy Potential energy is the energy possessed by an object due to its position and configuration - Kinetic energy Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a moving body. Conservation of energy Energy can neither be created nor destroyed It can only be transferred from one form to another The total energy in the universe is constant The total energy in a system is constant Work Work done is the change in energy Work done is the product of the force applied and the displacement Efficiency Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the useful output of a machine or system to the total energy input. Power Power is the work done per unit of time Energy Resources Renewables Non-renewables Energy sources that will be replenished Energy sources that will not replenished naturally when used. naturally when used. - Hydropower - Coal = Wind - Natural gas - Solar - Oil - Geothermal = Nuclear = Tidal Producing elect - Turbine - Generator - Photoelectric cellPower plants 4. Thermal power plants Advantages Disadvantages - Relatively Low Fuel Cost - Reliable and Dispatchable Environmental Impact Limited Fuel Source 2,_Nuclear power plants Advantages Disadvantages - Clean energy source Nuclear waste = _ High energy density Risk of accidents 3._Natural gas Advantages Disadvantages - Cleaner Burning Fossil Fuel - Lower Greenhouse Gas Emissions Methane Leaks 4. Oil Advantages Disadvantages - High energy density = Reliable and Dispatchable Environmental Impact Limited Fue! Source 5. Hydroelectric dam Advantages Disadvantages - Renewable and Clean Energy Source - _ Reliable Electricity Generation Environmental Impact High Initial Cost 6. Tidal Advantages Disadvantages = Renewable and predictable - low maintenance Limited suitable locations Environmental Impact 7._Waves Advantages Disadvantages - Predictable Environmental Impact = Consistent High Initial Cost8. Geothermal Advantages Disadvantages - Reliable Limited geographic locations - Consistent High Initial Cost 9._Solar heating Advantages Disadvantages - Low maintenance = Less technical requirements Weather dependent Requires lot of space 10. Solar panels Advantages Disadvantages - Easy to install = Less technical requirements Weather dependent Requires a lot of space