States of Matter Properties Properties Solids Liquids Gases Shape Definite shape No definite shape No definite shape Volume Fixed volume Fixed volume No fixed volume Compressibility | Non-compressible Non-compressible Highly compressible Arrangement of |_| Regular lattice Random Random molecules Separation of Closely packed Close Far molecules Movernent of Vibrate at fixed points Slide over each other Move randomly at high molecules speeds Change in states of matter Sublimation Melting Vapourisation 1 Solid Liquid — Gas Freezing Condensation Desublimation Difference between Boiling and Evaporation Boiling Evaporation point) specific to the substance 2. Throughout the entire liquid 3. Fast 4, Formation of bubbles 1. Occurs at a fixed temperature (boiling Sena cours at any temperature Surface only Slow No bubbles Diffu: ‘A process in which particles of a substance move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Factors Affecting the Rate of Diffusion 1. Temperature 2. State 3. MassHeati ing Curve vapourisation Liquid Melting Solid Cool eumeredway, Time ing Curve Condensation Liquid FreezingElements, Mixtures and Atoms, Elements, and Compounds Compounds Elements Mixtures. ‘Compounds A pure substance made up of only one type of atom ‘A physical combination of two or more substances (elements and/or compounds) pure substance is formed when two or more elements are chemically bonded together in a fixed ratio. Atoms Electron Shell Configuration e — Electron shells e ~ \/ Shell 1 2 / Shell 2 8 | \ ¢ ¥ ole Shell 3 8 e G Nucleus \ J Protons and Shell 4 18 = Properties of sub-atomic particles Sub-atomic particle Relative charge Relative mass Proton + 1 Neutron 0 1 Electron 1/1840 26 Fe—- 56 -——— Proton No. - Proton number The no. of protons in an atom Element symbol of protons ‘Atoms of a specific element have the same no. - Nucleon number/mass number Mass No. nucleus The total no. of protons and neutrons in theIsotopes ‘Atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, Calculating the relative atomic mass (nase no.X abundance) + (mass na x abundance) 100 Atomic relative mas ons tons are electrically charged particles. * Positive ions are called Cations (when an atom loses electrons) Negative ions are called Anions (when an atom gains electrons) Chemical Bonding lonic Bonding Properties - Formation of compound between non-metal and metal - Strong electrostatic force of attraction between positively and negatively charged ions. - High melting points (a lot of energy required to overcome the force of attraction) - Soluble in water - Conduct electricity when molten or dissolved (Dissociated or free-moving ions conduct electricity) Dot and eross diagramsCompound lon Name Formula Charge Carbonate CO, 2 Sulfate SO, 2 Sulfite SO; 2 Ammonium NH, 4 Nitrate NO, 4 Nitrite NO, 1 Hydroxide OH 1 Phosphate PO, 3 Essential metallic ions Fe | Zn | cu | Ni | Co | Mn | cr | v | Ti | Se | Ag | Pb +2 | 42 | 42 | 42 | 42 | ez | 43 | 5 | ve | aa | +t | v2 +3 8 +2 | 44 Covalent Bonding Properties - Formation of compounds between non-metals = Insoluble in water - Non-conductors Covalent diagrams Sharing of pairs of electrons Low melting and boiling points ( weak intermolecular force) Giant Covalent Structure4. Graphite - Carbon - Weak layers slide over each other = Soft and slippery = Delocalised electrons - Conducts electricity - Uses: lubricant, conductor 2. Diamond - Carbon - Hard - High melting point = Do not conduct electricity = Uses: cutting tools 3. Silicon dioxide = Silicon and oxygen - Hard = High melting point = Donot conduct electricity Metallic Bonding Properties - Lattice - Sea of delocalised electrons - Electrostatic attraction Metallic lattice QOD QYO ©), ror ‘Or OOO Chemical analysisTest for Anions (-) Anion Test Result Chloride 1. Acidify with dilute nitric acid (HNO) White precipitate cl" 2. Add aqueous silver nitrate (AgNO;) (AgCl) Bromide 1. Acidify with dilute nitric acid (HNO) Cream precipitate Br 2, Add aqueous silver nitrate (AgNO;) (AgBr) lodide 1. Acidify with dilute nitric acid (HNO) Yellow precipitate I 2. Add aqueous silver nitrate (AgNO;) (Aal) Carbonate 1. Add dilute acid Carbon dioxide (CO,) co;* 2. Test gas released for Carbon dioxide (CO.) _| produced Nitrate 1. Warm solution with added aqueous NaQH | Ammonia No,! 2. Add aluminium foil (NH,) 3. Test released gas for Ammonia (NHs) produced Sulfate 1. Acidify with dilute nitric acid (HNO) White precipitate so? 2, Add aqueous barium nitrate (Ba(NO;).) (BaSo,) Sulfite 1. Adda small amount of volume of acidified | Acidified KMnO, changes so? aqueous potassium manganate (KMnO,) colour from purple to colourless Test for Gases Gas Test Result ‘Ammonia NH; Test with damp red litmus paper _| Red litmus turns blue Carbon dioxide co, Test with limewater Turns lime water milky Chlorine Test with damp blue litmus paper | Turns blue litmus red Cl, Hydrogen Test with ignited splinter ‘A Pop’ sound is heard He Oxygen Test with glowing splinter Reignites glowing splinter 0: Sulfur dioxide Test with paper soaked with The colour of acidified potassium SO; acidified potassium manganate —_| manganate (KMn0,) changes from (KMn0,) purple to colourless Test for Cations (+)4. Effect of aqueous Sodium hydroxide Cation Added dropwise In excess Aluminium Al White precipitate Soluble (colourless solution) Ammonium NH," ‘Ammonia gas is produced when warmed Calcium Ca” White precipitate Insoluble Chromium Cr’ Green precipitate Soluble Copper Cu?" Light blue precipitate Insoluble ron Fe? Green precipitate Insoluble Iron Fe? Red-brown precipitate Insoluble Zine Zn* White precipitate Soluble (colourless solution) 2,_Effect of aqueous Ammonia Cation Added dropwise In excess Aluminium Al? White precipitate Insoluble Ammonium NH," No reaction Calcium Ca* No or very slight white precipitate Chromium Cr? Green precipitate Insoluble Copper Cu* Light blue precipitate Soluble (dark blue solution) Iron Fe? Green precipitate Insoluble Iron Fe? Red-brown precipitate Insoluble inc Zn™* White precipitate Soluble (colourless solution) Test for metal ions (flame test) Metal ion Colour of flame Metal ion Colour of flame Red Calcium Ca Orange-red Yellow Barium Ba* Light green Lilac Copper Cu* Blue-green Stoichiometry1 Mole = 6,02 x 10 Moles = Mass / Mr Moles = Concentration x Volume Moles = Volume of Gas / 24 dm? % Yield = Actual yield x 100 / Theoretical yield % Purity = Mass of pure product x100 / Mass of product Empirical formula 1. Divide the percentage or mass of the respective elements by their Ar 2. Divide the result by the lowest results to find the simplest whole no. ratio Molecular formula 1. Find the mass of the empirical formula 2. Divide the molecular mass by the mass of the empirical formula 3. Multiply each subscript in the empirical formula with the answer of part 2 Acids and Bases Acids Acids are substances that act like proton donors 1. Strong acids strong acid is an acid that is completely dissociated in an aqueous solution 2. Weak acids ‘Aweak acid is an acid that is partially dissociated in an aqueous solution. Bases Bases are substances that act like proton acceptors, Alkali Alkalis are soluble bases ( OH" ions ) IndicatorsIndicator Colour of indicator | _ Colour in acidic Colour in basic Blue litmus Blue Red Blue Red litmus Red Red Blue Methyl orange Orange Red Yellow Bromophenol blue Blue Yellow Purple Thymolphthalein Colourless Colourless Blue Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink Reaction with Acids and Bases Neutralisation Acid + Base —+ Salt + Water Reactive metal Metal + Acid — Salt + Hydrogen Metal carbonate Metal carbonate + Acid — Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide Oxides Non - metallic Oxides Covalent bonding Metallic Oxides lonic bonding Acidic oxides Dissolve in water to form an acidic solution React with bases CO, SO, NO, Basic oxides React with acids MgO CaO CuO Na,O Neutral oxides Do not react with acids or bases H,O CO NO Amphoteric oxides React with acids and bases Al,Os ZnO PbOSalts Salts Soluble Insoluble Sodium Soluble Potassium Soluble Ammonium Soluble Nitrate Soluble Chloride Most are soluble Silver, Lead, Sulfate Most are soluble Barium, Lead Carbonate Sodium, Potassium, Ammonium | Most are insoluble Titration 1. Measure the volume of the solution with an unknown concentration (analyte) into a flask using a pipette. ‘Add a few drops of an indicator to the analyte. Prepare a solution with a known concentration (titrant) and fill a burette with it. Record the initial volume reading on the burette. ‘Slowly add the titrant from the burette to the analyte in the flask while stirring or swirling the mixture. The titrant reacts with the analyte, and the indicator changes colour at the endpoint. Record the final volume reading on the burette when the endpoint is observed. Determine the volume of titrant used during the titration (final volume - initial volume) Use the balanced chemical equation to find the moles of titrant and analyte that reacted. 0, Calculate the concentration of the analyte using the formula: Concentration = (moles of the analyte) / (volume of analyte in dm*).Rate of Reactions ion Theory - Fora reaction to take place, reactant molecules need to collide with each other. - Assuccessful collision that will result in the formation of a product requires some minimum energy known as the activation energy. Factors affecting the rate of reactions -_ Surface area More surface area = more molecules exposed = more collision per unit time = higher rate of reaction = Concentration Higher concentration = more molecules of reactant per unit volume = more collisions per unit time = higher rate of concentration = _ Pressure (gases) Higher pressure = more molecules of reactant per unit volume = more collisions per unit time higher rate of concentration = Temperature higher rate of Higher temperature reaction higher kinetic energy of particles = frequent collisio1 = Catalyst Catalyst speeds up the reaction by lowering the activation energyChemical energetics Bonding Bond breaking = OO Endothermic oon oQo ae Bond making = oO oO oO © Calculating aH {enthalpy change) Oo OQ Energy required for breaking bonds oO Energy released while making bonds oO “OP. On a . OPO Exothermic reactions - Reaction transfers heat energy to the surrounding - More energy is released than is taken in - More energy is released in making bonds than the energy absorbed to break bonds - The energy of the reactants is greater than the energy of the products - Enthalpy change is negative - Reaction examples: Combustion, Neutralisation, Respiration Reactant neray Products Progress of the reactionEndothermic reactions - Reaction absorbs heat energy from the surrounding - More energy is taken in than released - More energy is absorbed in breaking bonds than is released in making bonds - The energy of the products is higher than the energy of the reactants = Enthalpy change is positive - Reaction examples: thermal decomposition, photosynthesis ‘Activation energy Products Energy Kui mol Enthalpy ‘change Reactants Progress of the reaction Redox Reactions Oxidation Reduction = Gain of oxygen = Loss of hydrogen - Loss of electron = _ Increase in the oxidation no. - Loss of oxygen = Gain of hydrogen = Gain of electrons - Decrease in oxidation no. The substance undergoing oxidation is, the reducing agent. The substance being reduced is the oxidising agent. Test for reducing agent and oxidation agent A reducing agent tums acidified KMnO, Colourless ‘An oxidising agent does not affect acidified KMnO, lonic half equations Zn + CuSO, — ZnSO, + Cu Zn — Zn*+ 2The Periodic Table H He Li | Be B|C|N|/O]|F|Ne Na | Mg Al} si | P| s | cl] Ar kK |ca| sc} Ti | v | Cr} Mn|Fe|Co| Ni |Cu| Zn | Ga | Ge| As | Se | Br | Kr Rb| sr] Y | Zr |Nb|Mo| Te |Ru| Rh| Pd] Ag| cd] in |Sn| sb | Te | 1 | xe Cs | Ba Hf | Ta | W | Re ]}Os| ir | Pt |AU] Hg] Ti | Pb | Bi | Po | At| Rn Fr] Ra Rf | Db | Sg | Bh | Hs | Mt | Ds | Rg | Cn Fl lv La | Ce | Pr | Nd |Pm|Sm| Eu | Gd | Tb | Dy | Ho | Er | Tm | Yb | LU Ac | Th | Pa} U | Np | Pu | Am| cm] Bk | cf | Es | Fm | Md | No | Lr Transition metals Alkali earth metals Alkali metals Metalloids Non-metals Noble gases Group 1 elements Alkali Metals Properties 1 2. 3. 4 Soft metals Low melting and boiling point Highly reactive with water (form Hydroxide compounds) General trends down the group - Decreasing melting points = Increasing density - Increasing reactivityGroup 7 elements Halogens Properties 1. Diatomic molecules 2. Halogens. Melting point Boiling point State at rtp Colour Fluorine F -219°C -188°C Gas Pale yellow Chlorine CI -101°C -35°C Gas Pale yellow green Bromine Br TC 59°C Liquid Red-brown lodine 1 114°C 184°C Solid Grey black Astatine At 301°C 337°C Solid Black 3. General trends down the group Increasing melting points Increasing colour intensity Increasing density Decreasing reactivity Group 8 elements Noble gases Properties 1. Unreactive gases 2. The outer shell is full 3. Uses = Ar: light bulb - He: used in ballon - Ne: signboards neon lights 4. Low boiling point Transition elements Properties 1. Strong and hard High density High boiling and melting pointing Variable valency Form coloured compounds 6. Elements and compounds used as catalysts Periodic trends 1. Decreasing metallic character 2. Increasing atomic sizeProperties 4. Thermal conductivity Metals 2. Electrical conductivity 3. Malleability and ductile 4. High melting and b Reactivity series ling points Why use the reactivity series 1. Possibility of reaction 2. State of occurrence 3. Displacement 4, Evolution of hydrogen Symbol Name State Extraction K | Potassium Compound salt Obtained by electrolysis state Na | Sodium Ca__| calcium Mg | Magnesium AL | Alu c | Carbon Zn | Zine Mineral Obtained by redu state carbon Fe | tron Sn [Tin Pb |Lead H__| Hydrogen Cu | Copper Elemental State Ag ver Au | GoldMetal reactions 4. Water Metal + Water —» Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen Metal + Steam — Metal oxide + Hydrogen 2. Oxygen Metal + Oxygen — Metal oxide 3. Dilute acids Metal + Acid —> Metal salt + Hydrogen 4. Heating of Metal Carbonates ‘Metal Carbonate -» Metal oxide + Carbon dioxide 5. Heating of Metal hydroxides Metal hydroxide — Metal oxide + Water Uses of metals 4. Aluminium - Manufacturing in aircraft = Overhead electricity cables = Food container 2. Copper - Electricity wiring = Thermal Conductivity = Water tubing 3. Steel (Iron) = Construction - Vehicles = Machinery - Magnets Alloys Mixture of metal with other elements 1. Brass: Mixture of Copper and Zinc 2. Steel: Mixture of Iron, Chromium, nickel and Carbon Corrosion of metals Rusting of Iron Chemical reaction between Iron, Water and Oxygen * Rust is a red-brown powder * Conditions for rusting - Oxygen - Water + Salt = Acid rain Barrier Method 1. Olling and greasing 2. Painting and plastic coating 3. GalvanisingExtraction of Iron Raw materials = Hemal = Silicon oxide (Si Impurities removed = Phosphorous Reduction of Iron ore Combustion Incomplete F0,04,,, 7309, + + % gy > Combustion 30, 2 ©, iy Coa , co. Neutralization ‘Thermal decomposition Co, COu,# CAad,,,