“Baad Favih f ys abe °78 \r- FEws71 pee Magnetic Properties of Solids The magnetic moment of a free atom has three principal sources: e Electrons’ spin Electrons’ orb The change in the angular momentum about the nucleus. bital moment induced by an applied magnetic field. Magnetization (M) is the magnetic moment per unit volume, It is dependent on the individual magnetic dipole moments of the atoms in the material and on the interactions of these dipoles with each other Magnetic susceptibility of a material (x), indicates how a material responds to an applied magnetic field, and is defined as: M pw BM tee is dimensionless. Substances with negative magnetic susceptibility are called diamagne' Substances with positive magnetic susceptibility are called paramagnetic ‘The relation between magnetic field intensity (H) and the corresponding magnetic induction (B) is: Bau(H+M) ceeteves Bou (H+ 4H )= wo + x) B= pH aeveeeereete (4) pH = b+ LYE (5) wa=H (I+ x) # @) =l+xy=H, . Dione» Replve Pevonegti > Atel He A ris the relative permeability iis the absolute permeability AU) tio is the permeability of free space=4n *10'mke/C?. TET nei is a (lfDiamagnetic materials ‘Diamagnetism is a very weak form of magnetism that is only exhibited in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field. It is the result of changes in the orbital_m¢ magnetic field. The induced magnetic moment is very small and is opposite (0 the applied field, Diamagnetism is found in all materials however, because it is so weak it can only be observed in materials that do not exhibit other forms of magnetism. In diamagnetic material: ® Allelectrons are in paired states «There is zero spin © There is zero angular momentum, zero circulating current about the nucleus L=O ¢ Zero magnetic momentum. Diamagnetie materials have a relative magnetic permeability that is less than 1, thus a magnetic susceptibility which is less than 0, and are therefore repelled by magnetic fields. 1 is independent on temperature and on the external applied magnetic field. Materials that are said to be diamagnetic include water, DNA, most organic compounds and many metals including Cu, Hg, Ag and Bi. Superconductors may be considered to be perfect diamagnets (z= —1), since they expel all fields from their interior due to the Meissner effect. Langevin diamagnetism (1905 The hypotheses of the Langevin model for diamagnetic materials are: © Every circulating electron on every atoms has a magnetic dipole moment and the sum of all of them is zero; © The magnetization M arises from the reaction to the magnetic torque duc to the applied magnetic field B which generate a precessional motion, with a Larmor frequency ©. (8) ‘The application of the magnetic field will cause a finite average current around the nucleus. charge *revolutions per unit time r=Cay tS 222m AD)‘The magnetic momentum jt of a current loop is given by current *area of the loop — Ze*By 2 n= Yun eosens (10) Where p is the radius of the loop, the area =mp? . (1) is the mean square of perpendicular distance of the electron from the field axis through the nucleus. +.. seveees (12) For a spherically symmetrical distribution of charge ebony oaea> Langevin suscept ity From equation (1), (10), (13) _M_ #M ty B r- HNw_ NzZe* He (ry. B 6m Where N is the number of atoms per unit volume Comments on Langevin mode Comments model ® The atom as a whole does not possess a permanent magnetic dipole moment ¢ The magnetization is produced by the influence of the external magnetic field on the electron orbits and particularly by the precessional motion «The susceptibility is small because the mean square radius of the orbit is small © The susceptibility is independent of temperature ¢ Itisaclassical theory!!! Diamagnetism of molecules: The derivation of Larmor equation assumes that the field direction is an axis of symmetry of the system .In most molecular systems this condition is not satisfied and the general theory of VanVleck must be applied.material Paramagnetism is ¢ form of magnetism which occurs only in the presence ofan externally applied magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials are attr acted to magnetic fields; hence have a relative magnetic permeability greater than one (or, equivalently, a positive magnetic susceptibility). ye 10-10% Constituent atoms or molecules of paramagnetic materials have permanent magnetic moments (dipoles), even in the absence of an applied field. This generally occurs due to the presence of unpaired electrons in the atomic/molecular electron orbitals. In pure paramagnetism, the dipoles do not jnteract with one another and are randomly oriented in the absence of an external field due to thermal agitation, resulting in zero net magnetic moment. When a magnetic field is applied, the dipoles ‘will tend to align with the applied field, resulting in a net magnetic moment in the direction of the applied field. Paramagnetism is found in: * Atoms, molecules possessing an odd number of electrons, as here the total spin of the system cannot be zero. Examples: free sodium atoms; NO. «Free atoms and ions with a partly filled inner shell: transition elements (Mn*), «A few compounds with an even number of electrons, including molecular oxygen. ¢ Metals. Paramagnets do not retain any magnetization in the absence of an externally applied magnetic field, because thermal motion causes the spins to become randomly oriented without it. Thus the total magnetization will drop to zero when the applied field is removed.Langevin theory of paramagn: The theory describes the magnet zation of paramagnetic material as a function of applied magnetic field and temperature. Consider a medium containing N atoms per unit volume, each bearing a magnetic moment }L. Magnetization results from the orientation of the magnetic moments in an applied magnetic field, eps ine ad 2 Apa ll tan § Oe ib ‘The energy of interaction of the moment pt with an applied magnetic field B is: U = BB oS ‘The magnetization is then given by Langevin equation: M = NUL(X) ceed Where L(x) is called the Langevin function, which reaches saturation ofthe magnetic moments at high fields and for low temperatures. - 2B. kT For HB <<< kT = ¥ <<< t x x Liye % (DEG x M=Nz 3 -Ssscebity of parumagnetim follows Came La uty Nye | mu -5# a 3k PF wf M = B curie': T Curie's law Cis Curie constant = This law indicates that the susceptibility 7 of paramagnetic materials is inversely proportional to their temperature. Curie's law is only valid under conditions of low magnetization, since it does not consider the saturation of magnetization that decurs when the atomic dipoles are all aligned in parallel. Spee gall at 5] all go ee alii Apel shyly Rpwbleal AU GPE geht inal gt Uple Jisel ga gl) peal Shpall IS 9 AAS hall ohFerromagnetic erials: © Ferromagnetism is the phenomenon of spontaneous magnetization — the magnetization exists in a material in the absence of applied magnetic field. © The best-known examples - transition metals Fe, Co, and Ni, Also, other elements and alloys involving transition or rare-earth elements, such as the rare-earth metals Gd, and the insulating transition metal oxides (CrO2). © The phenomenon is restricted to transition and rare-earth elements = it is related to the unfilled 3d and 4f shells in these substances. « Ferromagnetism involves the alignment of a significant fraction of the molecular magnetic moments jn some favorable direction in the crystal. « Ferromagnetism appears only below a certain temperature, which is known as the ferromagnetic transition temperature or simply as the Curie temperature (depends on the substance). Curie-Weiss law Above the Curie temperature, the moments are oriented randomly, resulting jn a zero net magnetization. In this region the substance is paramagnetic, and its susceptibility is given by _ C¢ *° TCT, C - Curie constant Te Curie temperature The Curie-Weiss law can be derived using arguments (Weiss): Curie-Weiss law. In the ferromagnetics the moments are magnetized spontaneously, which implies the presence of an internal field to produce this magnetization, “The field is assumed that this field is proportional to the magnetization: Be =2M 2 is the Weiss constant Weiss called this field the molecular field In reality, the origin of this field is the exchange interaction,chu! ce oat Ow (exchange interaction) cglakall JeUal) 8 Jind! Ha Jael « ais A Sy) uch aa Lage Bs} Bgl A 0 ES ony SESE = pS) chase Exchange interaction «The exchange interaction is the consequence of the Paull Exclusion Prineiple and the Coulomb interaction between electrons * Consider for example the system of two electrons. Two possible arrangements for the spins of the electrons: either parallel or antiparallel. If they are parallel - electrons remain fer apart (exclusion principle). If spins are antiparallel, the electrons may come closer together and their wave functions overlap considerably These two arrangements have different energies because, when the electrons are close together, the energy rises as a result of the large ‘Coulomb repulsion. _» the electrostatic energy of an electron system depends on the relative orientation of the spins: the difference in energy defines the ‘exchange energy. © The exchange interaction is short-ranged = only nearest neighbor atoms are responsible for producing the exchange field. «The magnitude of the exchange field is very large ~ of the order of 10° T Consider the paramagnetic phase: an applied magnetic field B, causes & finite magnetization. This in turn causes a finite exchange field Be. If % is the paramagnetic susceptibility, the induced magnetization is given by M=% (Bat Be) = % (Ba *2M) Note that M=7H , where constant holds only ifthe fractional alignment gfmagnetic moments is small: this is where the assumption is used that the sample is in the paramagnetic phase. Solve the above equation for the magnitude of the magnetization M Ba M=‘The paramagnetic susceptibility % is given by the Curie law yp = CIT, where C is the Curie constant. Then the susceptibility of the ferromagnetic material is yao _- c B, T-CA T-T. «The susceptibility z has a singularity at T=T., At this temperature (and below) there exists a spontaneous magnetization, because if 7-0 ,we have a finite M for B=0. ch Curie-Weiss law; AYLall aks lye ane day Hs Alle AS Sepblinall 4 OS TAT oS ae © pd Ge sie Ass Utne a ya.5 GeO M/By agit: OFX oe T= pos ips pl al line Lae nelly oat «Curie-Weiss law describes x, variation above Curie point (in paramagnetic region) Last time, we obtained for C Np? us” 3k, 3k, Deviations from Curie-Weiss only in the vicinity of the T.- strong fluctuations of the magnetic moments close to the Te cannot be deseribed by the mean field theory. c Np? uy A ‘Then the Curie temperature is given by T= x ttt . tt tf wm} t tt ft x= wor = Weiss law o Te T (T>T)¢ Ls Accurate calculatio ron Spin waves In ferromagnetic materials the lowest energy of the system occurs when all spins are parallel to each other in the direction of magnetization. posal Leony Qe Aaa pg ll Que CS Laie pls csi nas « Ayal sll a yall Asi lal ogi ‘When one of the spins is tilted or disturbed, however, it begins to precess — field from the other spins. WBS! egal Call = pall yi ay 8 gal ssl aoe sho pee 3! dig Leslee ‘Due to the exchange interaction between nearest neighbors the disturbance propagates as a wave through the system: LITT NSTETIIT Lattice waves — phonons - atoms oscillate around their equilibrium positions, their displacements are correlated through lattice forces. In spin waves — magnons - the spins precess around the equilibrium magnetization and their precessions are correlated through exchange forces: Antiferromagnetism petaeat Cbg all J GIST pebliball all eve slate Apagblite Quads Oly! GEE TE TH eh ASlada yy athe Leaphliball 5 Jall OSs Lad ou Slaeel Hi tittt J pkg poeta Sala phil a Jy SALAD gp gl eliall Us5Nya dey se et In antiferromagnet the spins are ordered in an antiparallel arrangement with zero net moment at temperatures below the ordering or Neel temperature. ‘Above the Néel temperature, the material is typically paramagnetic. ‘The susceptibility of an antiferromagnet is not infinite at ' ‘T=Ty but has a weak cusp as shown in figure: i é t 4-540 Ts) ' 0 constant depends on the properties of the materials 2 oT >t Susceptibility below the Néel temperature t Use ie Guat gle AntiferromagnetismBelow the Néel temperature, % depends strongly on the orientation of magnetic field. There are two situations: soln ha papain pall oad le bay ae + sta de pest «with the applied magnetic field perpendicular to the axis of the spins «with the field parallel to the axis of the spins. clos) psa le Gee Sy Gala! geblinall Jin e+ oy vd glial dislles* ‘At and above Ty, is neatly independent of the direction of the field relative to the spin axis | The parallel susceptibility increases smoothly with temperature up to Tw and y=0 at T=0K » Inperpendicular case y-nearly A pe constant independent of temperature re and is equal to xat Tn - In ferrimagnetic material the magnetic moment of the atoms on ,o4 different sublattices are opposed, as in antiferromagnetism; however, in hott ferrimagnetic materials, the opposing moments are ‘unequal and a hot spontaneous magnetization remains. This happens when the sublattices consist of different materials or ions (such as Fe* and Fe**). Ferrimagnetic materials are like ferromagnets in that they hold a spontaneous magnetization below the Curie temperature, and show no magnetic order above this temperature. ‘However, there is sometimes a temperature below the Curie temperature at which the two sublattices have equal moments, resulting in a net magnetic moment of zero; this js called the magnetization compensation point, ‘This compensation point is observed easily in garnets and rare earth - transition metal alloys (RE-TM). Terrimagnetism is exhibited by ferrites and magnetic games ironiII,II}) oxide; FesOs, Some ferrimagnetic arsieds are YIG (yttrium iron garnet) and ferrites composed of iron oxides. 10Domains A magnetic domain is a region within a magnetic material in which the magnetization is in a uniform direction. This means that the individual magnetic moments of the atoms are aligned with one another and they point in the same direction. Fyselinll CUBA yh ping a oa se a 2) gh lal Uysh Sp Anite le Jala las “ASSN oad gt ts ely Gael aay a las Llp Spin ina material with long range magnetic ordering (ferromagnetic antiferromagnetic etc.)form domains. SS Higher energy Lower energyMagnetization curve w [ ; / |Sexe eae J © For small field, domain size will change in accordance to the direction of the field, Change in domain size can be reversible or irreversible. «For large field, domain magnetization will realign with the external field. Irreversible boundary displacement and magnetization rotation are the causes of hysteresis ‘The hysteresis loop shows that the magnetization process in ferromagnetic materials depends not only on the extemal magnetic field HL, but on the magnetic history of the material as well. Materials characterized by wide hysteresis loops are called hard magnetic materials. These materials cannot be easy demagnetized. Hard ferromagnetic materials are used in the fabrication of permanent magnets for motors and generators. Soft magnetic materials have narrow hysteresis loops. 12mye edb abe Ee raaetea Parle __ Eases ieee Domains in P1 ydddbs Domains in P2 met tatttat £ i RETR EIS PEER ECA eGo PGES Ruse Domains in P4 "erp ptitet Domains in P3 Domains in PS oN PS RCDomain walls (Bloch wall The boundary regions between neighboring domains ‘The typical size of the domains is 1-100 pm; the width of the domain walls is much smaller: ~100 nm. + the domain structure consists of uniformly magnetized domains separated by narrow boundaries. Bloch wall in a crystal is the transition layer that separated adjacent regions (domains) magnetized in. different directions. The entire change in spin direction between domains does not occur in one discontinuous jump across & single atomic plane, but takes place in a gradual way over many atomic planes.H.W Qi For Carbon radius-0.7°, Find magnetic susceptibility (2) if Pa 2.22gm/em* Note: The no. of atoms per unit volume: NaPm/A ‘Where (Na) is the Avogadro’s mumber=6.022*10*'mol, (A) is atomic mass Q,Compaire between diamagnetic and Paramagnetic materials. Qs how ean measure hysteresis loops? Deseribe hysteresis loops for hard and soft magnetic materials.