26

.

.
() ,


.
.
0,4 0,8 (
)
.
( )
.


.
109 109
.
.

Ernest
Lawrence, o Green Seaborg o
Robert Oppenheimer 1946

184 Inc.
(
)

, ,

,

.
.

.


.
1

Lawrence 1939 Nobel . (Ernest Lawrence

1901-1958).

27
.
.

E. Lawrence
Enrico Fermi.

Einstein , 1922 .
Bertrand Russel (1872-1970) Einstein
Einstein , .
.
, .

Einstein 1950.

28

29

1.
Ernest Rutherford ( He)

.

30

1800 .

Philipp Lenard
.

,
.

.

4
2

. He
He 4 ( 2 2 )

PSSC, .

1.
-241.

31

.
m-241 460 .

1.

Geiger.
.
,

.
.
2.

( )

:
41H 4He +2(0e) +2 +
1
2
1

3.9 x 1026
W , ;
1.99 x 1030 kg.

32

= 1.192 x 1057

:
:

4 x 1.007825 - (4.002603 + 2 x 0.000549) = 0.027599 u.

E = mc 2 = 0.027599 u x 931.5 eV/u.c2 = 25.71 MeV.
:

= 9.96 x 1010 .

1.

4
2

He

( 24 He2+ ).
4 2.
210 208.

210Po 208
Pb+ 4He
84
82 2

33

AX A 4Y + a
z
z 2
2. .

- ()
e
3.

. ,
.
4/

0
1

1 1C 1 1B + + +
e
6 5

+
e+ +e- => 2 .
.

/
.

E = m c2 .

.

:
1 gr = 10-3 gr
2
-3
=m c = 10 Kgr . (3 .108 m/sec) = 2 1013 J. E
2,7 108 20 C 100 C0 .

34
/
.
.
=60 ,
.
60 .
/ .

.
,
.



.

4
2

He .

24He = 4,0026 amu.

= 1,0073 amu
= 1,0087 amu
= 0,0055 amu
He
M = 21,0073 amu + 21,0087 amu + 2 0,0055 amu =
4,0331amu

m=4,0331 amu 4,0026 amu= 0,0305 amu

= m.c2 = 0,0305 amu . 1,6605 10-27 Kgr/amu. (2,2998 108
m/sec)2= 4,55 10-12 j

/ 1 eV
Volt.
13,6 eV
1 amu
931,4 eV.
:
,

. (.
240 u )
7,6 MeV. (. 120 u )
8,5 MeV.
H (
) .

35

1
2

: = 2 (8,5 eV/u) ( ) (200u) (7,6 MeV/u) (200u) 200MeV

;
1932 ,
, , .
.
.
Wofgang Pauli
.
().

( ) 1,3 MeV

e .

36
n p + e + e .

.
.
1950
. - , - ()
.

(Quarks).
, . -.
Murray Gell-Mann George
Zweig 1964. () 3
.
Quarks. Quarks
.
.
Quarks .

.
1/3 2/3
Quarks.
,
.
1030
.

(g)

(amu)

p+

+1

1.673 x 10-24

1.00727

n0

1.675 x 10-24

1.00866

e-/e+

-1/+1

9.109 x 10-28

5.485 x 10-4

< 10-32

< 5 x 10-9

37

,
, .
,
.

. Quarks

.
.

.

.


.

:
(Quantum Electrodynamics, QED).

: Z0, W- W+ (
).


. , ,
(gluons)
. ,

, : .

38

10-15 m
1

10-2

10-15 m

10-13

10-38

Quarks

(,
)

(1) quarks
(2)

.
quarks

u (up)
d (down)
s (strange)
c (charmed)
t (top)
b (bottom)

(e)
2/3
-1/3
-1/3
2/3
2/3
-1/3

(MeV / c 2)
400
700
150
1500
158,000 - 194,000
4700

(1)

(e) M (MeV / c 2)
e
-1
.511

-1

105.66

-1

1784.2

<. 000016

< .3

< 40
(2)

39

20 .
20
.

H
-
:
1

H + 1H --> 2H + e+ + . (p+) (2H =

1p+ & 1 n) (e+) .

. (e+ + e- --> 2 );


.
200,000 .
.

H + 1H --> 3He + .
He (2p+ & 1n) .
3He .
3

He + 3He --> 4He + 2 1H . 3He

4He (2p+ & 2n)
.

3He ,
.
1 . K
10 . .


.
600 596
.
( 4
E=mc2).

40

Z=6 6, 7 8
. 6 8
.

().
.
714 . 14C
5730 50%..
14C..
14C..
.
14C.
14C
1.0
0,5
0,25
0,125

0
5730
10740
16110

= 0 e-t , 0
e 2,718 ,
t .
14C
.
14.
14
14C/ 12C .
14C 8,3 1011 .
14C
-14.
14C 5730 .
14C

.

14.

41

-14 0,23 Becquerels/gr14C . H

0,0575 Becquerels/gr14C .
=ln2/T1/2=693/5730= 1,21 10-4 -1 . 0,0575/023=e-t ,
0,25= e-t .

ln(0,25)=-1,386=-t ,
1,386
.
t=
= 11500
1,21 10-4