PSYHOLOGY CHAPTER 5

MOTIVATION AND TOURISM.

MOTIVATION
Motivation can be understood as the process that explains the onset and direction of
behaviors. Motivations tries to explain why we act as we do. It implies those physical
changes that moves us towards a goal. It is the root of human behavior directed to achieve
needs and desires.
Main elements in definitions:

Motives: are the “energies” that impulse the individual. Motives are internal processes
that energize and direct the behavior. There are internal and external motives.

Needs: a lack in the organism, which requires the achievement of a specific goal to
guarantee survival or a desire state.

• Physiological: vital for survival and shared with animals. (Hunger, thirst, sleep,
sexual activity, temperature etc.)
• Social: Acquired through socialization. (Curiosity, acceptance, love, self-
actualization, power etc.)
Differences between needs and desires: Both imply a “lack” of something and both spark
motivational processes.

• Needs: those necessary for survival. We can’t live without or at least, have a
satisfactory life. (Basic = hunger, clothing, love and shelter). Satisfying our needs
is very important for us as they are essential for our very existence and our heath
(physical and psychological depends upon them.
• Desires: refer to those that not threat to survival if the individual fails to
accomplish them. These ones are forever growing in the individual as he tries
more to accomplish them. (We want for ourselves). Can be weak or very strong.
Important thing to remember: are endless, and we are never satisfied fully.
Cognitions:
Cognitions are mental entities. Cognitive motives refer to the thoughts, believes, plans…
of someone.

Discrepancies are the first step in motivational processes. When we have a discrepancy,
we create a plan to achieve a goal. Once, created, before doing it, the intention appears,
and we simulate how we will do it.

Emotions:
Emotions are the subjective interpretation of significative physiological changes. Mental
states that inform ourselves if the current state (how we feel) is close to the expected one.
Emotions are very important in the touristic experience:
1- Decision: emotions can lead us to different tourist destinations.
2- Emotions during the journey.
3- Emotions after the trip.
Unpleasant emotions: Fear à guide the tourist decisions.
Nervousness. Anticipatory. Can be solved with information.
Horror. Fear to novelty. Van be solved with company or familiar destinations.

MODELS
Three perspectives: biological, behavioral, and cognitive
Biological perspectives: in the biological perspective we can find three stages: theories
based on instincts, theories based on physiological activation and theories based on
physiological regulation.

• Instinct theories: the instinct is a set of genetically programmed responses that

occur under the right conditions without requiring prior learning to execute.
- James: instincts are impulses. He talks about the variability of instincts. Two
principles for this variation: habits (learning) and time.
 - McDougall: all behaviors are instinctive. Each instinct has 3 components:
cognitive, affective and conative.

• Physiological arousal theories: According to these theories, motivation is the

result of changes in arousal. Different levels of arousal produces different levels
of motivations and different levels of performance.
- Yerkes & Dodson (1908):

• Physiological regulation theories: (homeostatic theories) they understand the

human organism as a homeostatic system that tries to maintain constant a state of
equilibrium. Homeostasis is a regulatory process in the body. Certain events (cold,
hunger, fear, etc) alter the balance of the organism and produce a state of tension
or need that activates the brain in order to restore balance, satisfying the need.
Therefore, motivation is the result of the functioning of brain mechanisms.
Behavioral perspectives:

• Drive-reduction theory: Hull (1943) According to Hull, motivation comes from

imbalance (needs). Motivation is crucial for the satisfaction of needs is what
ensure the survival of an organism. Learning and habits have an influence in
Hull´s theory. Organisms learn when they use motivation to satisfy their needs.
Drive-reduction theory of motivation à
- B = behavior intensity.
- L = learned response strength.
- D = drive strength.

• Classical and operant:

Pavlov (1960). Stimulus would work as motives (drivers) for behaviors (responses).
If the response “satisfy” the stimuli the
process would be reinforced.
 Thorndike (1913) / Skinner (1935)

Consequences of responses serve as motivators or demotivators of behaviors. If

consequences are positive behaviors will repeat. Consequences can be observed
(Bandura, 1969).
Cognitive perspectives: Cognitive theories in motivation focus on “mental” processes.
According to these theories motivation comes from an active information processing
where expectations, thoughts, have a key role.

• Expectations - value theory: the motivational fore depends on the cognitive

expectations about the consequences of the behavior (subjective probabilities of
achievement or satisfaction) and the value that the subject gives to those
consequences (value of the incentive). Not all the results / rewards are equally
valuable for all people.

• Competence and control theories: Focus on the idea of growing. Motivation is

what move people to grow or improve. One of the most important theories is the
Maslow´s theory. According to this author people have deprivation (satisfaction
of needs) and growing motivation (improvement). There is a hierarchy in needs.

MOTIVATION. APPLICATION TO TOURISM.

PEARCE (1994)
According to Pearce, tourist motivation is a dynamic process of approximation-
avoidance. Tourists decide to travel in order to satisfy not one, but multiple needs.
- When the tourist use approximation orientation he/she looks for satisfaction of
self-actualization, belongingness and physiological needs.
 - When the tourist use avoidance orientation he/she looks for safety, belongingness
and self-esteem.
Tourists motivation change with experience. The more experience (or travel career
pattern) the higher are the motivations tourists try to satisfy.

Pearce asserted that the core motives

(experience, novelty, escape or relax, and to
build relationships) are viewed as important
For the travelers regardless of their travel
experiences. Two extrinsic facets of middle
layer motives, self-development and
involvement with nature, were seen as
important for the experienced travelers,
whereas romance and autonomy were
considered less salient for the experienced
travelers. Those with limited travel
experiences generally perceived that all
motives are similarly important.

GRAY (1970)
Wanderlust: (desire to get away) Escape. Need to change the known for the unknown,
leave familiar things, go and see different places and people, know other cultures, having
new experiences.
• Sunlust: (desire for sun) Search. Search of relax and rest. They want to enjoy
services that don’t have at home and do different activities. They don’t necessarily
need “sun” they can also look for cold places, but they need to rest and enjoy.

COHEN (1979)
According to Cohen, there are multiple factors that can explain the touristic experience.
The three more important factors are:
1- A person´s vision of the world.
 2- Where he or she places the center of the meaning of the society in which he/she
lives (spiritual concept; related with the position the person occupy in society).
3- The level of conformity.
Therefore, tourism would be a way to manage the tension between daily life and
desires/expectations…

PUSH AND PULL FACTORS

- Push factors: are related to intrinsic motivations that “push” people to travel à
the desire to escape from daily life and the desire to rest.
- Pull factors: are related to extrinsic motivations of the destination that are
attractive to tourists à recreational or cultural activities (museums).

DANN (1977)
Tourists look for rewards out of his/her routine/comfort zone.

CROMPTON (1979)
Using the push-pull classification Crompton created) motives that have influence in the
election of the touristic destination.
Sociopsychological push factor related motives:
1- Escape from routine.
2- Exploring & evaluating the self.
3- Relaxation.
4- Prestige.
5- Regression.
6- Improve family bonding.
7- Social interaction.
 Cultural pull factor related motives:
1- Novelty.
2- Culture, history & education.

PUSH FACTORS

PULL FACTORS

LIMITATIONS
1- Reductionism à Pearce´s model don’t take in mind the individual differences,
socialization or complexity of every need. Not every tourist progress the same
way in the hierarchy of need. The model doesn’t focus on more specific
 motivations and doesn’t contemplate the fact that tourist roles and motivations can
change “during” the trip.
2- Low scientific evidence à hierarchy of needs.
3- Confusion à in push and pull models there is low acceptance of these two motives
as the main ones. These motives usually don’t explain all the possible motives for
a trip and sometimes pull motives can become push motives.
NEW THEORIES

• Self-determination theory: people act thanks to needs and motives oriented to

achieve personal growth. Motivation has three-level hierarchy:
- Global: personality.
- Contextual: social scenarios.
- Situational: specific moments that take place at specific times.
In these different levels the energy comes from the search of satisfying autonomy,
competence and relationship/bonding needs.
- Autonomy: Allows individuals to choose their own actions aligned with
their believes and control the consequences of these actions.
- Competence: the feeling of effectiveness that someone has when the
achieve attainable goals.
- Bonding: having healthy relationships that bring social support.
Satisfying this need brings psychological wellbeing and not satisfying them bring
frustration and/or “amotivation”
In tourism this theory is applied to the study of spiritual and wellness tourism. Satisfaction
in these activities is achieved when tourists satisfy their autonomy, competence and
bonding needs.
Satisfying autonomy and competence needs in the trips is related to an increase in
enjoyment and subjective wellbeing in tourists.

• Positive psychology: is the scientific study of strengths, characteristics and actions

that allow individuals and communities to grow. Positive psychology focus on the
search of wellbeing and life satisfaction. Therefore, positive psychology is related
with positive emotions, joy, having healthy and positive relationship with others,
self-realization, the search of meaning in life…
People will look for activities that help them to achieve all these goals.
- Top-down: wellbeing is affected by expectations, desires, thoughts… the
tourist´s wellbeing is affected by his/her previous ideas.
- Bottom-up: tourism is an activity whose goal is improve the wellbeing of
the tourist.
Positive psychology is an important paradigm in the study of tourism because tourism is
considered a joyful activity itself.
1- Hedonic wellbeing à short, disappears after vacation. Exploration of eudaemony
(personal grow).
2- Flow à state in which a person is fully engaged in a voluntary activity that is
highly rewarding.