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TEACHER DEVELOPMENT
IN TECHNOLOGY-ENHANCED
LANGUAGE TEACHING
Jeong-Bae Son
Teacher Development in Technology-Enhanced
Language Teaching
Jeong-Bae Son
Teacher
Development in
Technology-
Enhanced Language
Teaching
Jeong-Bae Son
University of Southern Queensland
Toowoomba, QLD, Australia
ISBN 978-3-319-75710-0 ISBN 978-3-319-75711-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75711-7
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Preface
My journey to the world of computer-assisted language learning (CALL)

first began with my personal interest in the use of computers for English
language learning over 30 years ago. At that time, computers were not
very common in educational institutions and the idea of using computers
for language learning was not widely accepted mainly due to the lack of
computer facilities and language learning software programs. Since then,
there have been significant changes to educational scenes along with the
rapid development of computer technology and the Internet. Computers
have become part of everyday life and digital devices are easily found
almost everywhere. I have been able to see and experience the changes
with a keen interest as a pre-service teacher, an in-service teacher and
then a teacher educator. With increasing access to computer technolo-
gies, a great number of attempts have been made to use the technologies
in the language classroom while exploring the pedagogical questions of
why teachers need CALL, what they can do with CALL and how they
teach with CALL. When the questions are discussed in language teacher
education, the critical issue of what knowledge and skills should be devel-
oped and how they should be taught through teacher training is a real
concern to teacher educators. The idea of this book came out of my
extensive experience in teaching and researching CALL as a teacher edu-
cator. I could see the need for this kind of book that can help language
teacher educators and practitioners understand CALL teacher
v
vi Preface
evelopment and develop their strategies for the effective use of CALL in
d
their contexts. While many stories can be included in a book, I have
selected and organised the contents of this book in a way to respond to
key questions that are related to teacher development and need to be
addressed in technology-enhanced language teaching (TELT) environ-
ments. The book reflects my work in CALL teacher education and draws
on my experiences in CALL research, development and practice. I hope
that the book offers readers opportunities to engage in discussions on
theoretical and practical approaches to teacher development in TELT.
Jeong-Bae Son
Acknowledgements
This book is an outcome of a lot of cooperation, collaboration and sup-

port. I am grateful to the teacher educators, teachers and students whom
I have worked with. It has been invaluable and encouraging to interact
with them. My thanks also go to those who have contributed to my
research projects in various ways. In addition, I want to thank Philip
Hubbard, Glenn Stockwell and Scott Windeatt for their feedback on an
early draft. Last but not least, I would like to thank my family, especially
my late father Yong-Gil Son, my mother Won-Ji Lee, my wife Minjung
Lah, my son Kyu-Sup Son, and my daughter Kyu-Yeon Son. It would not
have been possible to complete this book without their love and support.
I dedicate this book to them.
vii
Contents
Part I Language Teachers in CALL Environments 1
1 Technology and Language Teacher Education 3
2 Teachers’ Roles in the CALL Classroom 29
3 Teachers’ Competencies in CALL 41
4 CALL Teacher Development 57
Part II Approaches and Tasks 71
5 Role-Based Approach 73
6 Language Skill-Based Approach 89
ix
x Contents
7 Tool-Based Approach 109
8 Activity-Based Approach 133
Part III Resources 157
9 Some Scenarios for Teacher Development 159
10 A Bibliography of CALL: Teachers 169
11 Teacher Development Resources 185
Appendix 1 203
Appendix 2 205
Appendix 3 209
Appendix 4 213
Appendix 5 221
Index 229
Abbreviations
AALL Apps Adaptable to Language Learning

ACMC Asynchronous Computer-Mediated Communication
ADLL Apps Dedicated to Language Learning
AI Artificial Intelligence
AR Augmented Reality
ARS Audience Response System
ASR Automatic Speech Recognition
BYOD Bring Your Own Device
CALL Computer-Assisted Language Learning
CALT Computer-Assisted Language Testing
CAPT Computer-Assisted Pronunciation Training
CAT Computer-Adaptive Testing
CELL Computer-Enhanced Language Learning
CLIL Content and Language Integrated Learning
CLT Communicative Language Teaching
CMC Computer-Mediated Communication
CMS Content Management System
CoP Community of Practice
CPD Continuing Professional Development
EAL English as an Additional Language
EAP English for Academic Purposes
ECCR Exploration, Communication, Collaboration, Reflection
EFL English as a Foreign Language
xi
xii Abbreviations
ELT English Language Teaching

ESL English as a Second Language
ESP English for Specific Purposes
GPS Global Positioning System
HCI Human-Computer Interaction
HTTP HyperText Transfer Protocol
HTTPS HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure
IBLI Internet-Based Language Instruction
ICALL Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language Learning
ICT Information and Communication Technology
ITS Intelligent Tutoring System
IWB Interactive White Board
KWIC Key Word In Context
L1 First language
L2 Second language
LAN Local Area Network
LMS Learning Management System
LOTE Languages Other Than English
MALL Mobile-Assisted Language Learning
MMORPG Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game
MOO Multi-user domain, Object-Oriented
MOOC Massive Open Online Course
MUVE Multi-User Virtual Environment
NBLT Network-Based Language Teaching
NLP Natural Language Processing
OALL Online Activities for Language Learning
OER Open Educational Resources
OLTE Online Language Teacher Education
OTLT Online Tools for Language Teaching
PBL Project-Based Learning
PDA Personal Digital Assistant
PLN Personal Learning Network
RALL Robot-Assisted Language Learning
SAMR Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, Redefinition
SCMC Synchronous Computer-Mediated Communication
SDPD Self-Directed Professional Development
SLA Second Language Acquisition
SMS Short Message Service
Abbreviations
xiii
SNS Social Networking Service

TELL Technology-Enhanced Language Learning
TELLRN Technology-Enhanced Language Learning Research Network
TELT Technology-Enhanced Language Teaching
TESOL Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
TPACK Technological Pedagogical (And) Content Knowledge
URL Uniform Resource Locator
VLE Virtual Learning Environment
VR Virtual Reality
WBLL Web-Based Language Learning
WELL Web-Enhanced Language Learning
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Development of computer-assisted language learning 4

Figure 1.2 Number of research articles published in four major
CALL-oriented journals from 2009 to 2016 6
Figure 1.3 Main domains of teacher education 11
Figure 2.1 Three main components of the CALL classroom 30
Figure 4.1 ECCR model of teacher development 59
xv
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Main topics and themes of CALL research 5

Table 2.1 Teacher roles and actions in CALL 33
xvii
Introduction
Overview
Teacher Development in Technology-Enhanced Language Teaching explores
language teacher development in computer-assisted language learning
(CALL) environments and discusses approaches, tasks and resources that
can guide language teachers to develop their skills and strategies for
technology-enhanced language teaching (TELT). The book looks at key
aspects of CALL in terms of pedagogy and technology and proposes a
model of CALL teacher development, which incorporates essential ele-
ments of teacher learning in CALL. It also presents practical tasks and
tips on how to develop knowledge and skills for the use of digital tech-
nologies in language teaching and suggests ideas to improve language
teacher training and development.
Who Is This Book for?

This book is intended for language teacher educators, in-service teachers,
pre-service teachers, researchers and postgraduate students in Applied
Linguistics or Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)
who are interested in the use of technology for language learning and
xix
xx Introduction
teaching, the content of CALL training or the ways of developing profes-

sional competencies in CALL. It seeks to appeal to both experienced and
inexperienced trainers working in language teacher education and profes-
sional development of second/foreign/additional language teachers. With
an emphasis on self-directed professional development (SDPD), it is also
suitable for individual practitioners and researchers who wish to under-
stand, gain and/or expand knowledge and skills for TELT.
Thus, this book can be used for courses leading to formal qualifica-
tions, in-service/pre-service training programs or informal professional
development. It can also be used as a handbook for teacher educators and
researchers with an interest in language teacher development in TELT, as
well as a resource book for those designing components and activities of
pre-service and in-service language teacher education programs. In addi-
tion, it can be considered as a self-directed study book for individual
teachers who wish to develop and improve their awareness, knowledge
and skills for TELT and utilise digital technologies in their teaching
contexts.
ducation, Training, Development

E
and Learning
While this book is written from the perspective of a teacher educator and
researcher, it is designed to be applicable to teacher development includ-
ing teacher learning. The terms teacher education, teacher training,
teacher development and teacher learning are sometimes used inter-
changeably, but they can have distinct meanings in different contexts. In
this book, the term teacher development is considered as something that
can be done formally and informally by and for teachers themselves
(Wallace, 1991) and is aimed at ongoing and long-terms goals (Richards
& Farrell, 2005). It is used in reference to a variety of pre-service, in-
service and continuing education, specialised training and professional
learning. It is characterised by approaches that help teachers develop their
knowledge, skills and strategies for teaching and improve their personal
confidence and professional competence.
Introduction
xxi
CALL and TELT

Among the terms and acronyms that have been used to refer to the use of
computer technology for language learning and teaching, CALL is the
most widely accepted term. It involves the use of all types of computers
and other digital devices for assisting the language learning process. It can
be considered as an overarching term “encompassing an ever-growing
range of applications” (Son & Windeatt, 2017, p. 3). In this book, TELT
is introduced and used as a variant of CALL with the idea of bringing in
more than the computer and focusing more on teaching in teacher devel-
opment. It refers to any endeavour involving technologies in language
teaching.
Theory, Research and Practice

This book considers interrelated dimensions of theory, research and prac-
tice in CALL broadly and implicitly. CALL theory is inevitably linked
with second language acquisition (SLA) theory (Chapelle, 1997; Egbert,
Chao, & Hanson-Smith, 1999) and significantly related to the use of
computers and its associated learning environments and objectives
(Hubbard, 2009; Hubbard & Levy, 2016). While no particular CALL
theory is proposed or tested in the book, the idea that theoretical founda-
tions for CALL research and practice, including general learning theories,
SLA theories, linguistic theories, cognitive theories, socio-cultural theo-
ries and human-computer interaction theories, are intertwined is taken
into account in the discussion of the teacher development approaches
presented in the book.
How Is This Book Organised?

This book is divided into three parts. The first part, Part I, sets the book
in the context of language teacher development in TELT while exploring
issues related to the development of CALL and reviewing the literature
xxii Introduction
on language teacher education in CALL. It also discusses the roles and

competencies of CALL teachers and presents a model of CALL teacher
development. The second part, Part II, presents four approaches to
teacher development in TELT together with teacher learning tasks for
each approach. The term approach is used here as a set of ideas and meth-
ods underlying teacher development. Part II offers a number of ideas for
readers to use the tasks in various learning and teaching situations. The
third part, Part III, provides a range of resources in terms of scenarios for
teacher development, a bibliography, professional organisations, aca-
demic journals, websites, mobile apps, online tools and online activities
that are recommended for further information on CALL and are useful
for teacher development in TELT. Each chapter contains discussion ques-
tions for those who want to reflect further on the topics addressed.
References
Chapelle, C. (1997). CALL in the year 2000: Still in search of research para-
digms? Language Learning & Technology, 1(1), 19–43. Retrieved from http://
llt.msu.edu/vol1num1/chapelle/default.html
Egbert, J., Chao, C.-c., & Hanson-Smith, E. (1999). Computer-enhanced lan-
guage learning environments: An overview. In J. Egbert & E. Hanson-Smith
(Eds.), CALL environments: Research issues and practice (pp. 1–13). Alexandria,
VA: TESOL.
Hubbard, P. (2009). Developing CALL theory: A new frontier. In M. Thomas
(Ed.), Proceedings of the thirteenth annual JALT CALL SIG conference 2008
(pp. 1–6). Nagoya, Japan: JALT CALL SIG.
Hubbard, P., & Levy, M. (2016). Theory in computer-assisted language learning
research and practice. In F. Farr & L. Murray (Eds.), The Routledge handbook
of language learning and technology (pp. 24–38). New York: Routledge.
Richards, J. C., & Farrell, T. S. C. (2005). Professional development for language
teachers: Strategies for teacher learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press.
Son, J.-B., & Windeatt, S. (2017). Teacher training in computer-assisted lan-
guage learning: Voices of teacher educators. In J.-B. Son & S. Windeatt
Introduction
xxiii
(Eds.), Language teacher education and technology: Approaches and practices

(pp. 1–17). London: Bloomsbury Academic.
Wallace, M. J. (1991). Training foreign language teachers: A reflective approach.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Part I
Language Teachers in CALL
Environments
This book is about how language teachers can develop their CALL knowl-
edge and skills and continue with their teacher development in TELT. It
is also concerned about how teacher educators/trainers can provide
opportunities for such development. Part I explores CALL teacher educa-
tion and teachers’ roles and competencies in CALL environments. It also
presents a model of CALL teacher development, which can be considered
as a model of language teacher development in a broad sense.
1
Technology and Language Teacher
Education
Teachers are working with technology in continuously changing educa-

tional environments. Technology is changing the way we learn and teach.
A wide range of educational technologies (e.g., desktop computers, lap-
tops, tablets, smart phones, interactive whiteboards, robots) are available
for language learning. The need for the effective use of those educational
technologies has been a main theme in language teaching circles and has
been a key focus in the field of computer-assisted language learning
(CALL). Along with the need, language teacher development in technol-
ogy integration has become an important issue to address in various con-
texts. This chapter provides a brief overview of CALL development and
reviews research on CALL teacher education to see the relationship
between technology and language teacher education.
1.1 Development of CALL

CALL has been developed in line with pedagogical development and tech-
nological development in the areas of language learning and teaching since
the 1960s. See Bax (2003), Davies, Otto, and Ruschoff (2012), Levy
(1997) and Warschauer and Healey (1998) for further discussions on the
© The Author(s) 2018 3

J.-B. Son, Teacher Development in Technology-Enhanced Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75711-7_1
4 J.-B. Son
Figure 1.1 Development of computer-assisted language learning
history of CALL. Figure 1.1 shows a simplified version of theoretical con-

cepts and practical tools that have largely influenced the development of
CALL from the past (left) to the present (right) in its history. In terms of
pedagogy, we have seen the development and adaptation of behaviourism,
cognitivism, communicative language teaching, constructivism, social con-
structivism, task-based learning, mobile learning and personalised learning.
In terms of technology, at the same time, we have also seen the develop-
ment and use of mainframe computers, microcomputers, multimedia, the
Internet, wireless networks, mobile devices and open educational resources.
Recently, both pedagogical aspects of mobile learning and personalised
learning and technological aspects of mobile devices and open educational
resources (cf. massive open online courses (MOOCs)) have generated sig-
nificant interest among CALL researchers and practitioners (e.g., Burston,
2013, 2014a, 2014b, 2015; Godwin-Jones, 2011, 2014, 2017; Son, 2016,
2018). It is certainly possible to add more branches to this chronological
tree of CALL history. As CALL is evolving further, we will witness more
pedagogical approaches and technological innovations that will expand the
scope of CALL wider and deeper than before.
A large number of papers on CALL have been and are being published
regularly. In sorting out the ever-increasing papers, I use a categorisation sys-
tem containing 25 topics and themes that are widely studied and discussed in
Technology and Language Teacher Education 5
Table 1.1 Main topics and themes of CALL research

1. Overview (history, overall trends)
2. Theory (concepts)
3. Research (approaches, methods)
4. Pedagogy (teaching methodology, implementation, instruction, practice,
activities, tasks, blended learning, feedback, integration, interaction)
5. Technology (hardware, software, tools, systems, platforms, e-portfolios,
databases, blogs, wikis, digital tools)
6. Learners (students, attitudes, perceptions, learning styles, learner training)
7. Teachers (lecturers, attitudes, perceptions, teaching styles, teacher
training, teacher education, professional development)
8. Design (software design, website design, app creation, activity design)
9. Evaluation (software evaluation, website evaluation, app evaluation)
10. Reading
11. Listening
12. Writing
13. Speaking
14. Vocabulary (dictionaries, glosses)
15. Grammar
16. Pronunciation
17. Culture
18. Testing (assessment)
19. Concordancing (corpora, concordancers)
20. Gaming (games)
21. Computer-mediated communication (CMC) (telecollaboration,
videoconferencing)
22. Web-based language learning (WBLL) (websites)
23. Mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) (mobile apps)
24. Robot-assisted language learning (RALL) (robots)
25. Intelligent computer-assisted language learning (ICALL)
the field of CALL. The topics and themes, which were drawn from a critical
analysis of CALL publications, are shown in Table 1.1.
Among these topics and themes, computer-mediated communication
(CMC), web-based language learning (WBLL) and mobile-assisted lan-
guage learning (MALL) can be considered as three popular sub-areas (or
expanded areas) of CALL as many recent CALL publications tend to have
links to them (Son, 2018). Briefly speaking, CMC refers to interpersonal
communication that occurs synchronously or asynchronously via net-
worked computers or other digital devices (Son, 2002a); WBLL is lan-
guage learning conducted on the web using web materials and resources
(Son, 2007); and MALL is language learning using mobile devices such as
6 J.-B. Son
smartphones and tablets (Son, 2016). In classifying CALL publications,

particularly those research papers on CMC, WBLL or MALL, a relatively
more focused topic (e.g., a specific language skill, a specific communica-
tion tool, a specific website, a specific mobile app) could be identified and
chosen according to the above categorisation system.
It should be noted that the categorisation system does not offer an
absolute distinction among the topics/themes and can be contracted or
expanded depending on its purpose. It simply gives us an indication of
which topic has received more attention than other topics when we clas-
sify CALL studies. Figure 1.2 shows the results of a survey of the topics/
themes of research articles published in four major CALL-oriented jour-
Figure 1.2 Number of research articles published in four major CALL-oriented

journals from 2009 to 2016
Note: When an article covers more than one topic/theme (i.e., overlapping topics/themes),
only the most prominent key word/topic/theme of the article is selected in counting the
number of appearance. For those articles related to CMC, WBLL or MALL, for example, they
are classified based on their main focus (i.e., whether they focus more on a specific language
skill or CMC, WBLL or MALL itself). Also, each number in each topic indicates only the num-
ber of research articles on the topic/theme – no editorials, columns and reviews are included.
nals (CALICO Journal, Computer Assisted Language Learning, Language

Learning & Technology and ReCALL) from 2009 to 2016. The journals
are considered as high-profile peer-reviewed journals in the field of
CALL. Findings indicate that the most frequently discussed and reported
topic is “Technology” (124 out of 699 articles) as expected from the fact
that the category of “Technology” covers a wide range of technological
aspects. The topic “Technology” is followed by “CMC” (79), “Learners”
(59), “Pedagogy” (54), “Writing” (53) and “Teachers” (47). It appears
that “CMC” has been a hot topic and “Writing” has been the most fre-
quently selected topic out of four macro language skills (reading, writing,
listening and speaking). Another interesting finding is that the number of
research articles on the topic “Teachers” has been increased in recent
years. With a special interest in CALL teachers, a literature review of
language teacher education in CALL is presented in the next section.
1.2 esearch on Language Teacher Education

R
in CALL
Along with the continuous development of CALL, the need for the inclu-
sion of CALL training in language teacher education programs at both
pre-service and in-service levels has been obvious since the 1980s (see
Curtin & Shinall, 1987) and has been supported and strengthened by
increasing publications since the 2000s (see Hubbard & Levy, 2006a;
Kassen, Lavine, Murphy-Judy, & Peters, 2007). Interestingly, recent years
have seen more interest in CALL teacher education (e.g., Cutrim Schmid,
2017; Son & Windeatt, 2017a; Torsani, 2016). As demonstrated by these
reported studies, CALL teacher education has become an important area
of discussion in the field of CALL and is likely to generate more attention
as an essential part of CALL research and practice. It has a crucial role to
play in integrating technology into language teaching programs. Hubbard
(2008) supports this point by saying that the future of CALL is “closely
tied to the future of language teacher education because language teach-
ers are the pivotal players: they select the tools to support their teaching
and determine what CALL applications language learners are exposed to
and how learners use them” (p. 176).
8 J.-B. Son
The literature on CALL teacher education has attempted and still

attempts to answer the questions of what knowledge and skills (content)
teacher training in CALL should offer (i.e., what knowledge and skills
teachers should acquire through CALL training) and how the knowledge
and skills need to or can be taught (process). There are also studies
addressing the questions of whether specific training courses are effective
in developing teachers’ competencies in CALL; how formally learned
CALL knowledge and skills impact teaching practice; and how teachers
continue their professional development for CALL after formal training.
This section reviews these interrelated trends appeared in the literature
and explores issues related to teachers’ use of CALL in the language
classroom.
1.2.1 Content
In terms of content, both pedagogy and technology need to be covered

and combined with knowledge and skills. Hubbard and Levy (2006b)
elaborate this foundation with technical and pedagogical knowledge and
skills for CALL: technical knowledge (“systematic and incidental under-
standing of the computer system, including peripheral devices, in terms
of hardware, software, and networking”); technical skills (“ability to use
technical knowledge and experience both for the operation of the com-
puter system and relevant applications and in dealing with various prob-
lems”); pedagogical knowledge (“systematic and incidental understanding
of ways of effectively using the computer in language teaching”); and
pedagogical skills (“ability to use knowledge and experience to determine
effective materials, content, and tasks, and to monitor and assess results
appropriately”) (p. 16). Their framework has a specific focus on CALL
and a distinction between knowledge and skills. In this respect, it is dif-
ferent from the technological pedagogical content knowledge (originally
TPCK, now known as TPACK) framework (Mishra & Koehler, 2006)
that looks at the nature of teacher knowledge required for technology
integration in education (for discussions of language teachers’ TPACK,
see Baser, Kopcha, & Ozden, 2016; Bustamante & Moeller, 2013; Hsu,
2016; Lee, Ng, & Tan, 2014; Liu & Kleinsasser, 2015; Tai, 2015).
The balance between theory and practice has also been an agenda for
CALL teacher education. Son (2002b) suggests that “teacher training for
CALL needs to provide opportunities for teachers to obtain necessary
skills for the use of CALL materials in the classroom and help teachers’
CALL competencies grow through exploring CALL theory and practice
and enhancing teachers’ roles in the classroom” (p. 249). Garrett (2009)
stresses that teacher training needs to offer a strong basis of CALL and
says, “Without substantive grounding in SLA theory and in the peda-
gogical context and rationale for technology use, familiarity with the
technology will allow only superficial application and no real integration”
(p. 733). At a CALL degree program level, specifically, Motteram (2009)
points out the need for “a balance between (social) constructivist and
objectivist transmission/approaches” in course development and Debski
(2006) proposes that a balance between theory and practice can be
achieved by project-oriented learning. In understanding the balance, a set
of technology standards for language teachers can play an instrumental
role. The TESOL Technology Standards Framework (TESOL, 2008) devel-
oped by the Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc.
(TESOL) is a good example. While this document consists of technology
standards for language learners and technology standards for language
teachers in English as a second language (ESL) and English as a foreign
language (EFL) settings, the standards guide language teachers “to know
what is expected of them in terms of knowledge, skills, and curriculum
implementation” (p. 6) and language teacher educators “to integrate
technology appropriately into existing teacher education courses” (p. 6)
with the following four goals stated in the technology standards for lan-
guage teachers:
Goal 1. Language teachers acquire and maintain foundational knowl-

edge and skills in technology for professional purposes.
Goal 2. Language teachers integrate pedagogical knowledge and skills
with technology to enhance language teaching and learning.
Goal 3. Language teachers apply technology in record-keeping, feed-
back, and assessment.
Goal 4. Language teachers use technology to improve communication,
collaboration, and efficiency. (pp. 29–41)
10 J.-B. Son
As online language teaching becomes prevalent in online environ-

ments, additionally, language teachers need to acquire new knowledge
and skills that are different from those required for traditional classroom-
based teaching (Comas-Quinn, 2011; Ernest et al., 2013; Guichon,
2009; Lamy & Hampel, 2007; Murray, 2013). For online teaching prac-
tice, Hampel and Stickler (2005) suggest a pyramid of skills including:
basic information and communication technology (ICT) competence;
specific technical competence to use specific software applications; deal-
ing with constraints and possibilities of the medium; online socialization;
facilitating communicative competence; creativity and choice; and devel-
opment of teachers’ own teaching style. Drawing on these skills, Hampel
(2009) highlights the skills that enable teachers to foster interaction and
collaboration online. Based on a review of the pyramid of skills, on the
other hand, Compton (2009) proposes an alternative framework for
online language teaching skills covering technological skills, pedagogical
skills and evaluation skills at three levels of expertise: novice, proficient
and expert teachers. Her framework attempts to address the question of
what skills should be taught for online language teaching. In utilizing
online materials, Shin (2015) recommends to add critical, responsible
and ethical practice in teacher education courses.
1.2.2 Process
CALL teacher education should help language teachers develop CALL

proficiency. In relation to the types of CALL teacher education, both
formal approaches and informal approaches have been discussed by
CALL researchers and teacher educators (e.g., Hubbard, 2008; Kessler,
2007; Reinders, 2009; Son, 2004). Teacher education is broadly divided
into pre-service teacher education and in-service teacher education and
each type involves formal learning and informal learning (see Figure. 1.3).
In the field of CALL, there have been a number of studies on pre-service
teacher education (e.g., Cutrim Schmid & Hegelheimer, 2014; Desjardins
& Peters, 2007; Doering & Beach, 2002; Kessler, 2010; Kessler &
Bikowski, 2011; Kissau, 2015; Luke & Britten, 2007; Peters, 2006;
Rilling, Dahlman, Dodson, Boyles, & Pazvant, 2005; Sun 2014; van
Olphen, 2007b) and in-service teacher education (e.g., Chao, 2006;
Figure 1.3 Main domains of teacher education
Haines, 2016; Jones & Youngs, 2006; Liu & Kleinsasser, 2015; Nami,
Marandi, & Sotoudehnama, 2016; O’Dowd, 2015; Rickard, Blin, &
Appel, 2006; Son, 2002a, 2006; Wang, Chen, & Levy, 2010; Yang,
2014). Formal learning normally takes the form of degree programs (see
Son & Windeatt, 2017a, for example formal courses in CALL) while
informal learning appears to take the form of autonomous learning activ-
ities (e.g., Robb, 2006; Son, Robb, Hubbard, Stevens, & Seburn, 2015;
Stockwell, 2009).
Teacher learning can be improved by the use of CMC (i.e., learning
about technology with technology). For example, Son (2002a) evaluated
the use of an online discussion group in a CALL course and reported that
the in-service teachers enrolled in the course showed positive attitudes
toward online discussions as a way of learning about CALL as well as
CMC as a means of facilitating collaborative learning. In another study,
Son (2004) suggests that CMC can foster teacher development with fea-
tures of interactive communication, professional collaboration and criti-
cal reflection in situated contexts. He reminds teachers to “explore current
development and use of CMC; choose appropriate CMC tools; learn
how to use the tools confidently; test and evaluate the tools critically; and
use the tools in ways that maximize learning” (p. 114). Meskill (2009)
investigated CMC as a tool in language teacher development with a focus
on instructional conversations and Grosbois (2011) employed a CMC-
based project in a teacher training program for future primary school
teachers in France. In an editorial for a special issue of ReCALL, on the
other hand, Guichon and Hauck (2011) identified four key areas of
CALL and CMC teacher education research: “assessment of the use of
12 J.-B. Son
technologies in teachers’ practices, identification of pre- and in-service

teachers’ attitudes towards technologies, definition of a repertoire of
techno-pedagogical competences, and reflections on training content and
experiences” (p. 189).
Hubbard (2008) discusses four approaches to CALL teacher educa-
tion: breadth-first approaches which cover a wide range of topics in the
field of CALL; depth-first approaches which focus heavily on a single area
or application; integrated approaches in which technology is integrated
in multiple courses, rather than in a single course; and online approaches
in which teachers learn about technology by experiencing technology
(e.g., distance courses, blended courses). He also points out the impor-
tance of the selection of learning processes appropriate for the content of
technology education and identifies eight primary learning processes that
can be separated or combined to create a coherent course: lecture/dem-
onstration; project-based learning; situated learning; reflective learning;
portfolio-based learning; mentor-based learning; communities of prac-
tice; and self-directed learning. A number of studies of these processes
have been reported in the CALL literature. For example, situated learn-
ing (Lave & Wenger, 1991) has been discussed or evaluated in Egbert,
Paulus, and Nakamichi (2002), Egbert (2006), McNeil (2013), Kozlova
and Priven (2015) and Wesely and Plummer (2017). In a survey-based
study, particularly, McNeil (2013) examined how 21 MA TESOL stu-
dents enrolled in a CALL course at a university in South Korea perceived
situated learning activities required for the course and found that a strong
and positive relationship between the students’ perceptions of situated-
ness and self-reported CALL skills. Practical examples of portfolio-based
learning can be found in van Olphen (2007a), Tochon and Black (2007)
and Son (2009) while an example of reflection learning can be found in
Slaouti and Motteram (2006) who value reconstructive processes.
1.2.3 Effectiveness of Teacher Training
Research has attempted to examine issues related to the effectiveness of

CALL teacher training in various contexts. Kessler (2006) investigated
practicing teachers’ perceptions of CALL preparation and use with data
collected from an online survey, a focus group and interviews. The results
of his study revealed that the participants in the study were generally dis-
satisfied with their CALL training experience. He also found that there
was a lack of formal CALL training and many of the participants relied
on alternative sources of information such as listservs, professional con-
ferences and websites. Peters (2006) questioned whether one technology
course in a four year program was sufficient to develop technological
competencies of pre-service teachers at a Canadian university. Based on
the analysis of data collected from two questionnaires and journals, she
concluded that the pre-service teachers were not sufficiently prepared to
integrate technology in their future language classes. She recommends
that a language teacher education program must offer “more training and
more occasions to use technology and to practice technology integration
in the language class if we are to succeed in using technology to teach
languages in primary and secondary schools” (p. 164). In another study
of pre-service teachers’ discourse about CALL in a formal CALL course,
Kessler (2010) analysed data from student-led in-class discussions, a wiki,
discussion fora and spontaneous in-class communication. He reported
that the pre-service teachers initially felt threatened by CALL but began
to appreciate the potential for CALL when they were exposed to the field
of CALL and had the opportunity to discuss CALL in depth. He suggests
that “CALL teacher preparation should be grounded on sound pedagogi-
cal practices rather than specific forms of technology” (p. 387). Ebsworth,
Kim, and Klein (2010), on the other hand, investigated the expectations
and experiences of 43 pre-service teachers and 47 in-service teachers (38
ESL, 6 foreign language and 3 bilingual education teachers) who had
taken a technology-enhanced language learning (TELL) course offered at
a small suburban private college and a large urban university in the
New York State. Their data collected from a questionnaire (90 partici-
pants) and individual interviews (9 participants) showed that the
pre-service teacher group and the in-service teacher group had different
expectations from the course, particularly in evaluating Internet resources,
keeping student records on the computer, using videos in lessons and
using software. They also found that limited access to resources was a
major barrier to technology integration in the classroom. For improving
the TELL course, the participants recommended to consider their current
teaching environments, including their target language and grade level.
14 J.-B. Son
1.2.4 Transfer of Coursework to Classroom Practice
The effectiveness of CALL teacher training can be also explained by teach-

ers’ integration of CALL technology into the language classroom (Hong,
2010; Luke & Britten, 2007; Son, 2014). Several studies of the transfer
of formally learned CALL knowledge and skills to teaching practice have
been reported in the CALL literature. For example, Egbert et al. (2002)
looked into the impact of CALL coursework on classroom computer use.
They collected data from 20 ESL/EFL in-service teachers who had taken
the same graduate-level CALL course within the past four years through
a paper-based questionnaire first and then 9 of the participants through
follow-up email interviews. Their findings indicate that teachers who
used CALL activities were often those teachers who had previous experi-
ence with CALL prior to taking the formal CALL course and 14 partici-
pants (70%) were using at least one CALL activity after the course. A lack
of time, administrative or curricular restrictions and a lack of resources
were common factors influencing the use of CALL activities in the class-
room and colleagues were the most common resource for new CALL
activities. They conclude that some of the participants acquired skills that
they did not previously have from the course while others reinforced
those skills through the course. Similarly, Son (2014) conducted a study
of CALL coursework transfer to examine how those in-service teachers
who had completed a CALL course offered in a postgraduate program at
an Australian university within the past five years use CALL in their
teaching contexts after the CALL course. Through a survey of 77 teachers
and follow-up email interviews with 53 of the survey respondents, he
found that, while the teachers generally valued skills they gained from the
CALL course, some of them did not use CALL in their classrooms mainly
due to a lack of confidence (76.6%), a lack of time (64.9%) and a lack of
flexibility in the curriculum (45.5%) and expressed a desire for more
knowledge and skills for the use of CALL in the classroom. He also found
that after the CALL course the most common sources for the teachers’
informal learning were websites (70.1%) and colleagues (54.5%) and
most teachers (84.9%) in the interviews indicated that they continued to
improve their professionalism in CALL. There was also a study that
explored a cross-contextual understanding of language teacher learning.
Based on the concept of consequential transitions (Beach, 2003), Chao

(2015) looked at the connection between CALL teacher education and
teaching practice during and after a graduate-level CALL training course
offered at a university in Taiwan. She collected data from video-recorded
presentations of 19 in-service teachers at the end of the course and then
follow-up interviews with 4 of the teachers eight months later. She found
that the four teachers in the interviews did not often use CALL in the way
expected by their teacher educator but through reflection they used the
tools introduced in the CALL course in their own ways. She suggests that
“engaging teachers in critical examinations of their positions toward
issues of digital media may lead to continuous reflection on CALL peda-
gogy long after the course” (p. 115).
1.2.5 Factors Affecting Technology Integration
In addition to the aforementioned studies, there have been some other

studies that focused on internal factors (including teacher-related factors)
and external factors (including context-related factors) affecting teachers’
use of computer technology for instructional purposes. For example, Shin
and Son (2007) surveyed 101 Korean secondary school EFL teachers and
reported that the teachers’ attitudes toward the use of the Internet for
teaching purposes were positive overall although almost a half of the
teachers (49%) did not use the Internet in their classrooms at the time of
the survey. The most common reasons for not using the Internet in the
classroom included limited computer facilities, limited time and limited
computer skills. In another study of the implementation of CALL in the
EFL classroom, Park and Son (2009) collected data from a survey of 12
Korean EFL teachers working at secondary schools in Korea and follow-
up face-to-face interviews with the twelve teachers. The teachers in the
study indicated that they generally had positive attitudes toward CALL
and considered CALL as an effective way for improving the quality of
their teaching although they encountered various factors influencing their
decisions to use CALL in the classroom. The factors included limited
CALL knowledge and skills of teachers, limited time, insufficient com-
puter facilities, curricular restrictions and social pressure. These findings
16 J.-B. Son
provide us with a better understanding of general and specific barriers to

technology integration in the language classroom. Regarding technology
integration in language teacher education programs, on the other hand,
Oxford and Jung (2007) identify several limiting factors such as univer-
sity academic culture, attitudes and skills of teacher educators and institu-
tional infrastructures. From a different angle, Hubbard (2008) lists seven
possible reasons for why CALL has not been properly integrated into
teacher certificate and degree programs: inertia; ignorance; insufficient
time; insufficient infrastructure; insufficient standards; lack of established
methodology; and lack of experienced, knowledgeable educators. More
research is needed to address these obstacles for the effective integration
of CALL into language teacher education programs.
1.2.6 Continuing Professional Development
There is an increasing demand for continuing professional development

(CPD) in CALL to keep up with the rapid developments of technology.
In line with this, the questions of what teachers do and how they update
their knowledge and skills for CALL after formal CALL training have
been addressed by several studies noted earlier (e.g., Chao, 2015; Egbert
et al., 2002; Son, 2014). Among the eight primary learning processes
identified by Hubbard (2008), mentoring, communities of practice and
self-directed learning seem to have direct relevance to ongoing profes-
sional development. Meskill, Anthony, Hilliker-VanStrander, Tseng,
and You (2006), for instance, present an expert-novice mentoring
approach that involved 4 experienced in-service educators, 4 doctoral
students with expertise in instructional technology and 6 novice pre-
service educators. For the design and implementation of technology
activities, the in-service teachers mentored the pre-service teachers in
their classrooms and the doctoral students mentored the in-service
teachers and the pre-service teachers via electronic journals. Their data
collection instruments included pre- and post-project questionnaires,
written reflections, reflective journal entries, interviews and in-class
observations. Meskill et al. conclude that matching novice teachers with
experienced mentors (i.e., creating a learning community) appears to be
“a ripe venue for constructive, collaborative, and productive conversa-

tions about teaching and learning with technology” (p. 296). The idea
of communities of practice (CoPs) (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Wenger,
1998) has been also supported by several CALL researchers (e.g., Arnold,
Ducate, & Lomicka, 2007; Hanson-Smith, 2006; Stevens, 2014).
Hanson-Smith (2006) notes that CoPs can be extensions of pre-service
or in-service programs and provide collaboration opportunities and
social support for teachers isolated from other teachers using technol-
ogy. Another approach, which encourages CPD for the implementation
of CALL, is self-directed learning. While Robb (2006) highlights the
ability to learn how to learn for oneself with the need for a solid knowl-
edge base, confidence to try new technology and an awareness of avail-
able resources, Stockwell (2009) suggests five self-direction strategies for
using CALL: “1. Critically examine the environment; 2. Seek sources of
information; 3. Keep up with technological developments; 4. Set and
adhere to learning goals; 5. Track your progress” (pp. 101–102).
1.2.7 Future Directions
With the increasing awareness of the necessity of CALL teacher prepara-

tion and development, as noted earlier, a number of approaches and pro-
cesses related to CALL teacher education have been proposed, studied
and reported in the literature. While they provide valuable insights into
language teacher education in CALL, they can be expanded further by
more attempts to address general and specific issues of technology inte-
gration in the language classroom. There are still concerns about a lack of
adequate and sufficient training (Hubbard, 2008) and a lack of contextu-
alised training (Kessler & Plakans, 2008). In this regard, we are encour-
aged to explore more approaches and processes in various contexts. All
these endeavours will contribute to our understanding of knowledge
building and skill development in CALL teacher education.
Murray (2017) makes a clear statement indicating that language teach-
ers need “(a) formal CALL coursework, (b) institutional support and (c)
ongoing professional development” (p. 180) in order for them to use
CALL effectively in their classrooms. Son and Windeatt (2017b) offer
18 J.-B. Son
the following questions for teacher educators to consider when delivering

CALL teacher training courses:
What existing pedagogical and technical knowledge and skills can be

transferred when using technology for language teaching, and how can
such a transfer be facilitated?
What new knowledge and skills need to be developed?
What roles should theory and practice play in a course?
To what extent should the mode of delivery of a course match the way
in which the teachers might use the technology?
How can we help teachers acquire the underlying skills and attitudes
which will encourage them to develop a critical understanding of the
potential offered by new developments in technology? (p. 2)
1.3 Summary
This chapter has provided an overview of CALL development and a lit-
erature review of CALL teacher education, particularly in terms of its
content, process, the effectiveness of teacher training, transfer of course-
work to classroom practice, factors affecting technology integration and
CPD. Through the literature review, we see that teacher educators and
teachers work with computer technology in a variety of ways. Language
teachers are recommended to recognise the role of digital technologies in
language teaching while understanding the basics of CALL. They need to
be active, creative, innovative and open to learn new technologies for the
successful integration of CALL technology into actual teaching practice.
Detailed discussions on teachers’ roles in the CALL classroom, teachers’
competencies in CALL and a framework for CALL teacher development
are presented in the next chapters.
Discussion Questions
1. Pedagogies and technologies: We are facing a number of challenges
associated with new technologies and pedagogies. Are we fast enough
to catch up rapidly changing technologies? Do we need pedagogies
which work well with all sorts of technologies?
2. Research and practice: Research allows us to build theory and collect

data on specific things while practice allows us to test theory and inte-
grate technology into the existing curriculum. How do we make a
stronger link between research and practice? What sort of research do
we need more to improve our CALL practice?
3. Activity design: How can we design tasks, in-class activities and out-
of-class activities to maximise language learning and teaching?
4. Formal learning and informal learning: Is formal learning better than
informal learning? Or vice versa? When? In which context?
5. Teacher support and learner support: How do we educate teachers to
use technologies better for their teaching? How do we train learners to
learn better with technologies?
6. Online communities and offline communities: How do we participate
in personal and professional communities online and offline? Which
one is better in which case? Are we using them properly for the
improvement of intercultural competence?
7. Individual, institutional, social and contextual differences: What do
we do with the differences? How do we deal with them? How do they
affect the amount of learning?
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(2nd ed.). London: Pearson.
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Foundations for teaching, testing and research. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
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93(S1), 741–753.
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guage teachers (ICT4LT). Retrieved from http://www.ict4lt.org/
Egbert, J. (2005). CALL essentials: Principles and practice in CALL classrooms.
Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
Egbert, J., & Hanson-Smith, E. (Eds.). (2007). CALL environments: Research,
practice, and critical issues (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
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Defiles the verdant plain. Nor idle stand
The trusty slaves; with pointed spears, they pierce
Through their tough hides; or at their gaping mouths
An easier passage find. The king of brutes,
In broken roarings, breathes his last; the bear
Grumbles in death; nor can his spotted skin,
Though sleek it shine, with varied beauties gay,
Save the proud pard from unrelenting fate.
The battle bleeds; grim slaughter strides along,
Glutting her greedy jaws, grins o’er her prey.
Men, horses, dogs, fierce beasts of every kind,
A strange promiscuous carnage, drench’d in blood,
And heaps on heaps amass’d. What yet remain
Alive, with vain assault, contend to break
The impenetrable line: others, whom fear
Inspires with self-preserving wiles, beneath
The bodies of the slain for shelter creep;
Aghast they fly, or hide their heads, dispersed.
And now, perchance, had Heaven but pleased, the work
Of death had been complete; and Aurengzebe,
By one dread frown, extinguish’d half their race;
When lo! the bright sultanas of his court
Appear, and to his ravish’d eyes display
Those charms, but rarely to the day reveal’d.
BOOK II THE CHASE v. 512-523.

Lowly they bend, and humbly sue, to save
The vanquish’d host. What mortal can deny,
When suppliant beauty begs? At his command,
Opening to right and left, the well-train’d troops
Leave a large void for their retreating foes.
Away they fly, on wings of fear upborne,
To seek, on distant hills, their late abodes.
Ye proud oppressors, whose vain hearts exult
In wantonness of power, ’gainst the brute race,
Fierce robbers, like yourselves, a guiltless war
Wage uncontroll’d; here quench your thirst of blood:
But learn, from Aurengzebe, to spare mankind.
Book III
Argument.
Of King Edgar, and his imposing a tribute of wolves’ heads upon the kings of
Wales: from hence a transition to fox-hunting, which is described in all its
parts. Censure of an over-numerous pack. Of the several engines to destroy
foxes, and other wild beasts. The steel-trap described, and the manner of
using it. Description of the pitfall for the lion; and another for the
elephant. The ancient way of hunting the tiger with a mirror. The Arabian
manner of hunting the wild boar. Description of the royal stag-chase at
Windsor Forest. Concludes with an address to his Majesty, and an eulogy
upon mercy.
In Albion’s isle, when glorious Edgar reign’d,
He, wisely provident, from her white cliffs
Launch’d half her forests, and, with numerous fleets,
Cover’d his wide domain: there proudly rode,
Lord of the deep, the great prerogative
Of British monarchs. Each invader bold,
Dane and Norwegian, at a distance gazed,
And, disappointed, gnash’d his teeth in vain.
He scour’d the seas, and to remotest shores,
With swelling sails, the trembling corsair fled.
Rich commerce flourish’d; and with busy oars
Dash’d the resounding surge. Nor less, at land,
His royal cares; wise, potent, gracious prince!
BOOK III THE CHASE v. 14-38.

His subjects from their cruel foes he saved,
And, from rapacious savages, their flocks.
Cambria’s proud kings, though with reluctance, paid
Their tributary wolves; head after head,
In full account, till the woods yield no more,
And all the ravenous race, extinct, is lost.
In fertile pastures, more securely grazed
The social troops; and soon their large increase,
With curling fleeces, whiten’d all the plains.
But yet, alas! the wily fox remain’d,
A subtle, pilfering foe, prowling around
In midnight shades, and wakeful to destroy.
In the full fold, the poor defenceless lamb,
Seized by his guileful arts, with sweet warm blood,
Supplies a rich repast. The mournful ewe,
Her dearest treasure lost, through the dun night
Wanders perplex’d, and, darkling, bleats in vain:
While, in the adjacent bush, poor Philomel,
Herself a parent once, till wanton churls
Despoil’d her nest, joins in her loud laments,
With sweeter notes, and more melodious woe.
For these nocturnal thieves, huntsman, prepare
Thy sharpest vengeance. Oh! how glorious ’tis
To right the oppress’d, and bring the felon vile
To just disgrace! Ere yet the morning peep,

Or stars retire from the first blush of day,
With thy far-echoing voice alarm thy pack,
And rouse thy bold compeers. Then to the copse,
Thick with entangling grass, or prickly furze,
With silence lead thy many-colour’d hounds,
In all their beauty’s pride. See! how they range
Dispersed; how busily, this way and that,
They cross, examining, with curious nose,
Each likely haunt. Hark! on the drag I hear
Their doubtful notes, preluding to a cry
More nobly full, and swell’d with every mouth.
As straggling armies, at the trumpet’s voice,
Press to their standard; hither all repair,
And hurry through the woods with hasty step,
Rustling and full of hope; now, driven in heaps,
They push, they strive, while from his kennel sneaks
The conscious villain. See! he skulks along,
Sleek, at the shepherd’s cost, and plump, with meals
Purloin’d: so thrive the wicked here below.
Though high his brush he bear, though, tipp’d with white,
It gaily shine, yet ere the sun, declined,
Recall the shades of night, the pamper’d rogue
Shall rue his fate, reversed; and, at his heels,

Behold the just avenger, swift to seize
His forfeit head, and thirsting for his blood.
Heavens! what melodious strains! how beat our hearts,
Big with tumultuous joy! the loaded gales
Breathe harmony; and, as the tempest drives,
From wood to wood, through every dark recess,
The forest thunders, and the mountains shake.
The chorus swells; less various, and less sweet,
The trilling notes, when, in those very groves,
The feather’d choristers salute the spring,
And every bush in concert joins: or, when
The master’s hand, in modulated air,
Bids the loud organ breathe, and all the powers
Of musick, in one instrument combine
An universal minstrelsy. And now
In vain each earth he tries; the doors are barr’d,
Impregnable; nor is the covert safe;
He pants for purer air. Hark! what loud shouts
Re-echo through the groves!—he breaks away!
Shrill horns proclaim his flight. Each straggling hound
Strains o’er the lawn, to reach the distant pack.
’Tis triumph all, and joy. Now, my brave youths,
Now give a loose to the clean generous steed;

Flourish the whip, nor spare the galling spur:
But, in the madness of delight, forget
Your fears! Far o’er the rocky hills we range,
And dangerous our course; but, in the brave,
True courage never fails: in vain the stream
In foaming eddies whirls; in vain the ditch,
Wide-gaping, threatens death: the craggy steep,
Where the poor dizzy shepherd crawls with care,
And clings to every twig, gives us no pain;
But down we sweep, as stoops the falcon bold
To pounce his prey: then up the opponent hill,
By the swift motion slung, we mount aloft.
So ships, in winter seas, now sliding, sink
Adown the steepy wave, then, toss’d on high,
Ride on the billows, and defy the storm.
What lengths we pass! where will the wandering chase
Lead us, bewilder’d! smooth as swallows skim
The new-shorn mead, and far more swift, we fly.
See, my brave pack! how to the head they press,
Justling in close array; then, more diffuse,
Obliquely wheel, while, from their opening mouths,
The vollied thunder breaks. So, when the cranes
Their annual voyage steer, with wanton wing
Their figure oft they change, and their loud clang

From cloud to cloud rebounds. How far behind
The hunter-crew, wide-straggling o’er the plain!
The panting courser now, with trembling nerves,
Begins to reel; urged by the goring spur,
Makes many a faint effort: he snorts, he foams;
The big round drops run trickling down his sides,
With sweat and blood distain’d. Look back, and view
The strange confusion of the vale below,
Where sour vexation reigns: see yon poor jade;
In vain the impatient rider frets and swears,
With galling spurs harrows his mangled sides;
He can no more; his stiff unpliant limbs,
Rooted in earth, unmoved and fix’d he stands,
For every cruel curse returns a groan,
And sobs, and faints, and dies! who, without grief,
Can view that pamper’d steed, his master’s joy,
His minion, and his daily care, well clothed,
Well fed with every nicer cate; no cost,
No labour, spared; who, when the flying chase
Broke from the copse, without a rival led
The numerous train; now, a sad spectacle
Of pride brought low, and humbled insolence,
Drove like a pannier’d ass, and scourged along!
While these, with loosen’d reins and dangling heels,

Hang on their reeling palfreys, that scarce bear
Their weights; another, in the treacherous bog,
Lies floundering, half ingulf’d. What biting thoughts
Torment the abandon’d crew! Old age laments
His vigour spent: the tall, plump, brawny youth,
Curses his cumbrous bulk; and envies, now,
The short pygmean race, he whilom kenn’d,
With proud insulting leer. A chosen few,
Alone, the sport enjoy, nor droop beneath
Their pleasing toils. Here, huntsman! from this highth
Observe yon birds of prey; if I can judge,
’Tis there the villain lurks: they hover round,
And claim him as their own. Was I not right?
See! there he creeps along; his brush he drags,
And sweeps the mire impure: from his wide jaws
His tongue unmoisten’d hangs; symptoms too sure
Of sudden death. Ha! yet he flies, nor yields
To black despair: but one loose more, and all
His wiles are vain. Hark, through yon village now
The rattling clamour rings. The barns, the cots,
And leafless elms, return the joyous sounds.
Through every homestall, and through every yard,
His midnight walks, panting, forlorn, he flies;

Through every hole he sneaks, through every jakes,
Plunging, he wades, besmear’d; and fondly hopes
In a superiour stench to lose his own:
But, faithful to the track, the unerring hounds,
With peals of echoing vengeance, close pursue.
And now, distress’d, no sheltering covert near,
Into the hen-roost creeps, whose walls, with gore
Distain’d, attest his guilt. There, villain! there
Expect thy fate deserved. And soon from thence
The pack, inquisitive, with clamour loud,
Drag out their trembling prize, and, on his blood,
With greedy transport feast. In bolder notes
Each sounding horn proclaims the felon dead;
And all the assembled village shouts for joy.
The farmer, who beholds his mortal foe
Stretch’d at his feet, applauds the glorious deed,
And, grateful, calls us to a short repast:
In the full glass the liquid amber smiles,
Our native product; and his good old mate,
With choicest viands, heaps the liberal board,
To crown our triumphs, and reward our toils.
Here must the instructive Muse, but with respect,
Censure that numerous pack, that crowd of state,
With which the vain profusion of the great
Covers the lawn, and shakes the trembling copse.

Pompous incumbrance! a magnificence
Useless, vexatious! for the wily fox,
Safe in the increasing number of his foes,
Kens well the great advantage: slinks behind,
And slyly creeps through the same beaten track,
And hunts them step by step; then views, escaped,
With inward ecstasy, the panting throng
In their own footsteps puzzled, foil’d, and lost.
So, when proud Eastern kings summon to arms
Their gaudy legions, from far distant climes
They flock in crowds, unpeopling half a world;
But when the day of battle calls them forth,
To charge the well-train’d foe, a band compact
Of chosen veterans, they press blindly on,
In heaps confused, by their own weapons fall,
A smoking carnage scatter’d o’er the plain.
Nor hounds alone this noxious brood destroy:
The plunder’d warrener full many a wile
Devises, to entrap his greedy foe,
Fat with nocturnal spoils. At close of day,
He silent drags his trail; then from the ground
Pares thin the close-grazed turf; there, with nice hand,
Covers the latent death, with curious springs
Prepared to fly at once, whene’er the tread

Of man or beast, unwarily shall press
The yielding surface: by the indented steel
With gripe tenacious held, the felon grins,
And struggles, but in vain: yet oft, ’tis known,
When every art has fail’d, the captive fox
Has shared the wounded joint, and, with a limb,
Compounded for his life. But if, perchance,
In the deep pitfall plunged, there’s no escape;
But unreprieved he dies, and, bleach’d in air,
The jest of clowns, his reeking carcase hangs.
Of these are various kinds; not even the king
Of brutes evades this deep devouring grave;
But, by the wily African betray’d,
Heedless of fate, within its gaping jaws
Expires, indignant. When the orient beam
With blushes paints the dawn, and all the race
Carnivorous, with blood full-gorged, retire
Into their darksome cells, there, satiate, snore
O’er dripping offals, and the mangled limbs
Of men and beasts, the painful forester
Climbs the high hills, whose proud aspiring tops,
With the tall cedar crown’d, and taper fir,
Assail the clouds; there, ’mong the craggy rocks,
And thickets intricate, trembling, he views
His footsteps in the sand, the dismal road

And avenue to death. Hither he calls
His watchful bands, and, low into the ground,
A pit they sink, full many a fathom deep:
Then, in the midst, a column high is rear’d,
The butt of some fair tree; upon whose top
A lamb is placed, just ravish’d from his dam;
And next, a wall they build, with stones and earth
Encircling round, and hiding from all view
The dreadful precipice. Now, when the shades
Of night hang lowering o’er the mountains brow,
And hunger keen, and pungent thirst of blood,
Rouze up the slothful beast, he shakes his sides,
Slow-rising from his lair, and stretches wide
His ravenous paws, with recent gore distain’d;
The forests tremble as he roars aloud,
Impatient to destroy. O’erjoy’d, he hears
The bleating innocent, that claims, in vain,
The shepherd’s care, and seeks, with piteous moan,
The foodful teat; himself, alas! design’d
Another’s meal. For now the greedy brute
Winds him from far; and, leaping o’er the mound,
To seize his trembling prey, headlong is plunged
Into the deep abyss. Prostrate he lies,
Astunn’d, and impotent. Ah! what avail
Thine eye-balls flashing fire, thy length of tail

That lashes thy broad sides, thy jaws besmear’d
With blood, and offals crude, thy shaggy mane,
The terrour of the woods, thy stately port,
And bulk enormous, since, by stratagem,
Thy strength is foil’d? Unequal is the strife,
When sovereign reason combats brutal rage.
On distant Ethiopia’s sun-burnt coasts,
The black inhabitants a pitfall frame,
But of a different kind, and different use:
With slender poles the wide capacious mouth,
And hurdles slight, they close; o’er these is spread
A floor of verdant turf, with all its flowers
Smiling delusive, and from strictest search
Concealing the deep grave that yawns below:
Then boughs of trees they cut, with tempting fruit,
Of various kinds, surcharged; the downy peach,
The clustering vine, and, of bright golden rind,
The fragrant orange. Soon as evening gray
Advances slow, besprinkling all around,
With kind refreshing dews, the thirsty glebe,
The stately elephant, from the close shade,
With step majestic, strides, eager to taste
The cooler breeze, that from the sea-beat shore
Delightful breathes, or, in the limpid stream,
To lave his panting sides; joyous he scents

The rich repast, unweeting of the death
That lurks within. And soon he, sporting, breaks
The brittle boughs, and greedily devours
The fruit delicious: ah! too dearly bought;
The price is life: for now the treacherous turf,
Trembling, gives way; and the unwieldy beast,
Self-sinking, drops into the dark profound.
So when dilated vapours, struggling, heave
The incumbent earth, if, chance, the cavern’d ground,
Shrinking, subside, and the thin surface yield,
Down sinks, at once, the ponderous dome, ingulf’d,
With all its towers. Subtle, delusive man,
How various are thy wiles! artful to kill
Thy savage foes, a dull unthinking race.
Fierce, from his lair, springs forth the speckled pard,
Thirsting for blood, and eager to destroy;
The huntsman flies, but to his flight alone
Confides not: at convenient distance fix’d,
A polish’d mirror stops, in full career,
The furious brute: he there his image views;
Spots against spots, with rage improving, glow;
Another pard his bristly whiskers curls,
Grins as he grins, fierce-menacing, and wide
Distends his opening paws; himself against
Himself opposed, and with dread vengeance arm’d.

The huntsman, now secure, with fatal aim
Directs the pointed spear, by which transfix’d,
He dies; and with him dies the rival shade.
Thus man innumerous engines forms, to assail
The savage kind; but most, the docile horse,
Swift, and confederate with man, annoys
His brethren of the plains; without whose aid
The hunter’s arts were vain, unskill’d to wage,
With the more active brutes, an equal war;
But borne by him, without the well-train’d pack,
Man dares his foe, on wings of wind secure.
Him the fierce Arab mounts, and, with his troop
Of bold compeers, ranges the desert wild,
Where, by the magnet’s aid, the traveller
Steers his untrodden course; yet oft, on land,
Is wreck’d, in the high-rolling waves of sand
Immersed, and lost; while these intrepid bands,
Safe in their horses’ speed, out-fly the storm,
And scouring round, make men and beasts their prey.
The grisly boar is singled from his herd,
As large as that in Erimanthian woods,
A match for Hercules: round him they fly,
In circles wide; and each, in passing, sends
His feather’d death into his brawny sides.
But perilous the attempt; for, if the steed
Haply too near approach, or the loose earth

His footing fail, the watchful angry beast
The advantage spies, and, at one sidelong glance,
Rips up his groin. Wounded, he rears aloft,
And, plunging, from his back the rider hurls
Precipitant; then, bleeding, spurns the ground,
And drags his reeking entrails o’er the plain.
Meanwhile the surly monster trots along,
But with unequal speed; for still they wound,
Swift wheeling in the spacious ring: a wood
Of darts upon his back he bears; adown
His tortured sides the crimson torrents roll,
From many a gaping font; and now at last,
Staggering, he falls, in blood and foam expires.
But whither roves my devious Muse, intent
On antique tales, while yet the royal stag
Unsung remains? Tread, with respectful awe,
Windsor’s green glades, where Denham, tuneful bard,
Charm’d once the listening Dryads with his song,
Sublimely sweet. O grant me, sacred shade,
To glean, submiss, what thy full sickle leaves!
The morning sun, that gilds, with trembling rays,
Windsor’s high towers, beholds the courtly train
Mount for the chase; nor views in all his course
A scene so gay: heroick, noble youths,

In arts and arms renown’d, and lovely nymphs,
The fairest of this isle, where beauty dwells,
Delighted, and deserts her Paphian grove,
For our more favour’d shades; in proud parade
These shine magnificent, and press around
The royal happy pair. Great in themselves,
They smile superiour; of external show
Regardless, while their inbred virtues give
A lustre to their power, and grace their court
With real splendours, far above the pomp
Of Eastern kings, in all their tinsel pride.
Like troops of Amazons, the female band
Prance round their cars; not in refulgent arms,
As those of old; unskill’d to wield the sword,
Or bend the bow, these kill with surer aim.
The royal offspring, fairest of the fair,
Lead on the splendid train. Anna, more bright
Than summer suns, or as the lightning keen,
With irresistible effulgence arm’d,
Fires every heart: he must be more than man
Who, unconcern’d, can bear the piercing ray.
Amelia, milder than the blushing dawn,
With sweet engaging air, but equal power,
Insensibly subdues, and in soft chains
Her willing captives leads. Illustrious maids!

Teacher Development in Technology Enhanced Language Teaching 1St Ed Edition Jeong Bae Son Full Chapter

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Teacher Development in Technology Enhanced Language Teaching 1St Ed Edition Jeong Bae Son Full Chapter

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Teacher Development in

ISBN 978-3-319-75710-0 ISBN 978-3-319-75711-7 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018935414

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

Cover design by Akihiro Nakayama

Printed on acid-free paper

My journey to the world of computer-assisted language learning (CALL)

This book is an outcome of a lot of cooperation, collaboration and sup-

Part I Language Teachers in CALL Environments 1

1 Technology and Language Teacher Education 3

2 Teachers’ Roles in the CALL Classroom 29

3 Teachers’ Competencies in CALL 41

4 CALL Teacher Development 57

Part II Approaches and Tasks 71

6 Language Skill-Based Approach 89

Part III Resources 157

9 Some Scenarios for Teacher Development 159

10 A Bibliography of CALL: Teachers 169

11 Teacher Development Resources 185

AALL Apps Adaptable to Language Learning

ELT English Language Teaching

SNS Social Networking Service

Figure 1.1 Development of computer-assisted language learning 4

Table 1.1 Main topics and themes of CALL research 5

Who Is This Book for?

teaching, the content of CALL training or the ways of developing profes-

 ducation, Training, Development

CALL and TELT

Theory, Research and Practice

How Is This Book Organised?

on language teacher education in CALL. It also discusses the roles and

(Eds.), Language teacher education and technology: Approaches and practices

Teachers are working with technology in continuously changing educa-

1.1 Development of CALL

© The Author(s) 2018 3

Figure 1.1 Development of computer-assisted language learning

history of CALL. Figure 1.1 shows a simplified version of theoretical con-

Table 1.1 Main topics and themes of CALL research

smartphones and tablets (Son, 2016). In classifying CALL publications,

Figure 1.2 Number of research articles published in four major CALL-oriented

nals (CALICO Journal, Computer Assisted Language Learning, Language

1.2  esearch on Language Teacher Education

The literature on CALL teacher education has attempted and still

In terms of content, both pedagogy and technology need to be covered

Goal 1. Language teachers acquire and maintain foundational knowl-

As online language teaching becomes prevalent in online environ-

CALL teacher education should help language teachers develop CALL

Figure 1.3 Main domains of teacher education

technologies in teachers’ practices, identification of pre- and in-service

1.2.3 Effectiveness of Teacher Training

Research has attempted to examine issues related to the effectiveness of

1.2.4 Transfer of Coursework to Classroom Practice

The effectiveness of CALL teacher training can be also explained by teach-

Based on the concept of consequential transitions (Beach, 2003), Chao

1.2.5 Factors Affecting Technology Integration

In addition to the aforementioned studies, there have been some other

provide us with a better understanding of general and specific barriers to

1.2.6 Continuing Professional Development

There is an increasing demand for continuing professional development

“a ripe venue for constructive, collaborative, and productive conversa-

1.2.7 Future Directions

With the increasing awareness of the necessity of CALL teacher prepara-

the following questions for teacher educators to consider when delivering

Part I Language Teachers in CALL Environments 1

1 Technology and Language Teacher Education 3

2 Teachers’ Roles in the CALL Classroom 29

3 Teachers’ Competencies in CALL 41

4 CALL Teacher Development 57

Part II Approaches and Tasks 71

6 Language Skill-Based Approach 89

Part III Resources 157

9 Some Scenarios for Teacher Development 159

10 A Bibliography of CALL: Teachers 169

11 Teacher Development Resources 185

Figure 1.1 Development of computer-assisted language learning 4

Table 1.1 Main topics and themes of CALL research 5

Who Is This Book for?

ducation, Training, Development

CALL and TELT

Theory, Research and Practice

How Is This Book Organised?

1.1 Development of CALL

1.2 esearch on Language Teacher Education

1.2.3 Effectiveness of Teacher Training

1.2.4 Transfer of Coursework to Classroom Practice

1.2.5 Factors Affecting Technology Integration

1.2.6 Continuing Professional Development

1.2.7 Future Directions

K. Murphy-Judy, & M. Peters (Eds.), Preparing and developing technology-