Compilation

of

Social Work Review Notes

Name: _________________________

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

A. THE SOCIAL WORK PROFESSION Page Number

Definition of Social Work 3

Statement of Ethical Principle 3-5
Attributes of Social Work Profession 5-7
The Philosophy of Social Work 7-8
Social Work Principles 8-9
Professional Ethics 10-14
Function of Social Work 14
4 Components of Social Work Practice 14-25
Social Work Methods of Intervention 26-33

B. SOCIAL WELFARE POLICIES, PROGRAMS AND SERVICES

History of Social Welfare 34-52

Ancient Times
European Beginnings
English Social Welfare
American Social Welfare
Philippine Social Welfare

Social Welfare Services 52-63

Social Welfare Development 64-77

C. HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT

Ego Psychology 79
Defense Mechanism 81
Role Theory 87
Communication Theory 86-87
Culture Theory 87-88
Learning Theory 88
Organizational Theory 89
Human Development 89-94
Bandura’s Cognitive Social Learning 97
Theory of Moral Development 98
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development 98-99

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 Sigmund Freud Psychoanalytic Theory 99-102
Psychosocial Development of Erickson 102-103
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 104-105
Charlotte Towle’s Common Human Needs 105
Humanistic Perspective 106
Common Medical Disorders 110
Psychiatric Disorders 110-111
Culture 123-127
Family 127-130
Deviance / Social Deviance 130- 146
Dynamics of Family Life 146- 154
Social Process in the Groups and Communities 155-172

D. SOCIAL WORK METHODS (PRIMARY/ SECONDARY)

Working with Individuals (Casework) 174-188

Working with Groups 189-203
Working with Communities 203-215
The Secondary Methods
Social Work Administration 216-234
Supervision in Social Services 235-307
Social Research 308-312

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Definition of Social Work.

…“The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships
and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Utilising theories of human
behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their
environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work… “

Statement of Ethical Principles

Ethical awareness is a fundamental part of the professional practice of social workers. Their ability and
commitment to act ethically is an essential aspect of the quality of the service offered to those who use
social work services. The purpose of the work of IASSW and IFSW on ethics is to promote ethical debate
and reflection in the member organizations, among the providers of social work in member countries, as
well as in the schools of social work and among social work students. Some ethical challenges and problems
facing social workers are specific to particular countries; others are common. By staying at the level of
general principles, the joint IASSW and IFSW statement aims to encourage social workers across the world
to reflect on the challenges and dilemmas that face them and make ethically informed decisions about how
to act in each particular case. Some of these problem areas include:

• The fact that the loyalty of social workers is often in the middle of conflicting interests.

• The fact that social workers function as both helpers and controllers. •

The conflicts between the duty of social workers to protect the interests of the people. with whom they
work and societal demands for efficiency and utility.

• The fact that resources in society are limited. This document takes as its starting point the definition of
social work adopted separately by the IFSW and IASSW at their respective General Meetings in Montreal,
Canada in July 2000 and then agreed jointly in Copenhagen in May 2001 (section 2).

2. International Conventions International human rights declarations and conventions form common
standards of achievement, and recognize rights that are accepted by the global community. Documents
particularly relevant to social work practice and action are:

• Universal Declaration of Human Rights

• The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
• The International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights
• The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination
• The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
• The Convention on the Rights of the Child
• Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention (ILO convention 169) 4. Principles 4.1. Human Rights and
Human Dignity

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Principles

Human Rights and Human Dignity

Social work is based on respect for the inherent worth and dignity of all people, and the rights that follow
from this. Social workers should uphold and defend each person’s physical, psychological, emotional and
spiritual integrity and well-being. This means:

1. Respecting the right to self-determination – Social workers should respect and promote people’s right
to make their own choices and decisions, irrespective of their values and life choices, provided this does
not threaten the rights and legitimate interests of others.

2. Promoting the right to participation – Social workers should promote the full involvement and
participation of people using their services in ways that enable them to be empowered in all aspects of
decisions and actions affecting their lives.

3. Treating each person as a whole – Social workers should be concerned with the whole person, within
the family, community, societal and natural environments, and should seek to recognise all aspects of a
person’s life.

4. Identifying and developing strengths – Social workers should focus on the strengths of all individuals,
groups and communities and thus promote their empowerment.

Social Justice

Social workers have a responsibility to promote social justice, in relation to society generally, and in relation
to the people with whom they work. This means: 1. Challenging negative discrimination* – Social workers
have a responsibility to challenge negative discrimination on the basis of characteristics such as ability, age,
culture, gender or sex, marital status, socio-economic status, political opinions, skin colour, racial or other
physical characteristics, sexual orientation, or spiritual beliefs.*In some countries the term “discrimination”
would be used instead of “negative discrimination”. The word negative is used here because in some
countries the term “positive discrimination” is also used. Positive discrimination is also known as
“affirmative action”. Positive discrimination or affirmative action means positive steps taken to redress the
effects of historical discrimination against the groups named in clause 4.2.1 above. 2. Recognising diversity
– Social workers should recognise and respect the ethnic and cultural diversity of the societies in which
they practise, taking account of individual, family, group and community differences. 3. Distributing
resources equitably – Social workers should ensure that resources at their disposal are distributed fairly,
according to need. 4. Challenging unjust policies and practices – Social workers have a duty to bring to the
attention of their employers, policy makers, politicians and the general public situations where resources
are inadequate or where distribution of resources, policies and practices are oppressive, unfair or harmful.
5. Working in solidarity – Social workers have an obligation to challenge social conditions that contribute
to social exclusion, stigmatisation or subjugation, and to work towards an inclusive society.

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Professional conduct.

It is the responsibility of the national organisations in membership of IFSW and IASSW to develop and
regularly update their own codes of ethics or ethical guidelines, to be consistent with the IFSW/ IASSW
statement. It is also the responsibility of national organisations to inform social workers and schools of
social work about these codes or guidelines. Social workers should act in accordance with the ethical code
or guidelines current in their country. These will generally include more detailed guidance in ethical practice
specific to the national context. The following general guidelines on professional conduct apply:

1. Social workers are expected to develop and maintain the required skills and competence to do their job. 2. Social
workers should not allow their skills to be used for inhumane purposes, such as torture or terrorism. 3. Social
workers should act with integrity. This includes not abusing the relationship of trust with the people using their
services, recognising the boundaries between personal and professional life, and not abusing their position for
personal benefit or gain.
4. Social workers should act in relation to the people using their services with compassion, empathy and care.
5. Social workers should not subordinate the needs or interests of people who use their services to their own needs
or interests.
6. Social workers have a duty to take necessary steps to care for themselves professionally and personally in the
workplace and in society, in order to ensure that they are able to provide appropriate services.
7. Social workers should maintain confidentiality regarding information about people who use their services.
Exceptions to this may only be justified on the basis of a greater ethical requirement (such as the preservation of
life).
8. Social workers need to acknowledge that they are accountable for their actions to the users of their services,
the people they work with, their colleagues, their employers, the professional association and to the law, and that
these accountabilities may conflict.
9. Social workers should be willing to collaborate with the schools of social work in order to support social work
students to get practical training of good quality and up to date practical knowledge
10. Social workers should foster and engage in ethical debate with their colleagues and employers and take
responsibility for making ethically informed decisions.
11. Social workers should be prepared to state the reasons for their decisions based on ethical considerations, and
be accountable for their choices and actions.
12. Social workers should work to create conditions in employing agencies and in their countries where the
principles of this statement and those of their own national code (if applicable) are discussed, evaluated and
upheld. The document “Ethics in Social Work, Statement of Principles” was approved at the General Meetings of
the International Federation of Social Workers and the International Association of Schools of Social Work in
Adelaide, Australia, October 2004.

Social Work Profession Attributes

Republic Act 4373 promulgated in 1965, gave social work formal recognition as a profession. What, then,
constitutes a profession? Ernest Greenwood was able to distill the following five elements as constituting
the distinguishing attributes of a profession.

1. Systematic Body of Theory. The skills that characterize a profession flow from and are supported by
a fund of knowledge that has been organized into an internally consistent system called of a body

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 of theory. Theory serves as a base in terms of which the professional rationalizes his operations in
concrete situations. The reliance on a systematic body of theory or knowledge is a very crucial
characteristic of a profession that is why preparation for a profession, unlike preparation for non-
professional occupations, requires formal education in an academic setting.

Social Work, like all other professions, derives knowledge from any different sources, and in
addition, builds its own body of knowledge from practice. There are three types of knowledge which
social work uses: tested knowledge, hypothetical knowledge and assumptive knowledge. Tested
Knowledge is knowledge that has been established through scientific study (research). In social
work, tested knowledge comes in the form of borrowed knowledge from different professions and
disciplines, as well as from that which has been developed through social work research. Thus, in
practice, social workers apply learning from economics, public administration, psychology,
sociology, anthropology, political science, law, medicine, etc. which are generally obtained in the
course of their formal education. As for social work practice theory, social workers in the country
still greatly depend on the research studies and practice literature from other countries, particularly
in the United States. Hypothetical knowledge still has to undergo transformation into tested
knowledge, even if tentatively such knowledge may be accepted to explain certain facts (e.g., the
hypothesis that the nature and extent of people’s participation is crucial to effective community
problem solving, or that ignorance more than religion is the reason for the lo acceptance of family
planning among Filipino couples). We do use a great deal of such “unproved theory” in the field of
social work, and many analytic and evaluative studies which have been undertaken require further
investigation as to come close to being established theory. Assumptive knowledge or practice
wisdom, of course abound in social work, we can perhaps say that the more experience one has had
in practice, the more assumptions or suppositions he tends to make to his work (e.g., “Client value
service more when it is not given entirely free”, or “a slightly authoritarian social worker is a more
effective helping person in the context of Philippine culture “, or the “ Western concept of
professionalism where a social worker is expected to be business-like and impersonal cannot work
in our setting”)
2. Professional Authority. Extensive education in the systematic theory of her discipline provides the
professional with a type of knowledge which the layman does not have. This authority ascribed to
the professional by reason of her educational background gives the client a sense of security that the
professional has the capacity to help him with his problem. The exercise of professional authority is
not without limits, however.
3. Community Sanction. Recognition of professional authority is expected not only in the client-
professional relationship but also in the professional-community relationship. The community
sanctions a profession’s authority by way of giving it certain powers and privileges. Among these
powers and privileges are the profession’s control over its (a) training centers, (b) admission into
the profession and (c) standards for professional performance.

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 4. Regular Code of Ethics. Every profession has a built-in regulative code, partly formal or partly
informal, which compels ethical behavior on the parts of its members. This code serves to check
possible abuses which arise out of a profession’s exercise of authority, and its accompanying powers
and privileges.

5. Professional Culture. Formal and informal groupings characterize all occupations, including the
professions. For social work, the network of formal and informal groups within which it operates
includes the organizations that benefit from a profession’s services (schools, courts, social agency,
hospital, etc.); the educational institutions which produce and replenish manpower; and the
professional association which promotes professional interests and aims. The “interactions of social
rules required by the formal and informal groups generate a social configuration unique to the
profession, vi., a professional culture.” The culture of a profession consists of its value, norms and
symbols.

Social Value refers to the basic and fundamental beliefs of a professional group, practically the
reason for its existence.
In social work, we believe that the individual is the primary concern of society, and the society has
a responsibility to help the individual realize his potentials by removing the obstacles which prevent
his self-fulfillment, among other things.

Professional norms are the accepted standards of behavior of doing things, which guide the
professional in various situations such as how to handle consultations, how to relate to superiors,
colleagues and subordinates, how to treat clients, how to challenge an outmoded theory, how to
present a new idea, and so.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF SOCIAL WORK

The philosophy of social work is derived from the society of which it is a part. Social work based on the
belief that man has worth and dignity. This belief is generally associated with democratic theory which
views a man as having worth because he is capable of reason, of rational analysis, and choice. Howard
Mumford Jones, an outstanding humanist, writes- “Humanism implies an assumption about man. It implies
that every human being by the mere fact of his existence has dignity, that this dignity begins at birth, that
the possession of this dignity, even if dimly realized by the possessor, is, or ought to be, the continuum of
his life, and that to strip him of this dignity, is to degrade him in so outrageous a way that we call the
degradation inhumane”…

In our society, being predominantly Christian, many would further explain human worth and dignity in
terms of man’s having been created in the image of God (and having a soul, some would even add). At any
rate, whether we accept only the first explanation for man’s worth and dignity, or both, this basic philosophy
gives us the explanation for the values held by social work.

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THE VALUES OF SOCIAL WORK AND ITS IMPLIED CONCEPTS

1. The concept of human potentials and capacities. The man can fulfil himself is premised on the belief
that he is inherently endowed with potentials and capacities.
2. The concept of social responsibility. That the individual has the obligation to contribute to the
common good, and society, on its part, has the responsibility to facilitate the development of its
member, gives a dual meaning to this concept.
3. The concept of equal opportunities. This concept is premised on the ideal of social justice, two
elements of which are fairness and equality.
4. The concept of social provision. This concept is based on the premise that there will always be
people everywhere, at all times, with unmet needs or problems which are beyond their own capacity
to solve. Thus, social provision refers to the desirability of providing social resources for the
satisfaction of human needs for the goal of human welfare.

DIFFERENT VIEWS ABOUT MAN

1. Natural VS. Transcendental View. In the naturalistic view, man is part of nature. He can be studied
and understood scientifically as we do the rest of nature, so that if we know all that science could
teach us we could finally account man and his behavior. The transcendental view, on the other hand,
holds that science can never fully explain man, partly due to our ignorance, and partly because man
has a potential to transcend the natural order of things, to choose, to create, and to be rational.

2. Man as Social, Asocial, or Anti-Social. Being social, men aspire to live on good terms with others,
to be part of and to contribute to group life, making personal goals subservient to group goals. As
asocial beings, they are discreet individuals who come together to from groups for their mutual
protection and safety. As anti-social beings, men are viewed as inherently self-seeking, egotistical,
out to extend personal gain at the expense of others.
3. Democracy’s view of man. Man as viewed as capable of reason, of rational analysis and choice. It
believes that social, biological, cultural and psychological influences are powerful in determining
behavior, but that man can overcome these influences and exercise choice.

SOCIAL WORK PRINCIPLES

Endowed with a fundamental philosophy and professional values, the practice of social work is guided by
certain basic principles or rules of action for the practitioner (emanating from such values, as different from
“principles” of action built on tested knowledge or generated truths).

1. Acceptance of people as they are. The social worker brings into the relationship with the client her
professional education and experience, and the agency’s support of helping role in keeping with its
societal prescribed goals. These form the basis for respecting the client (individual, group or
community) under any circumstances, an approach which is “an expression of a compound of
attitudes that are based on scientific assumptions based about human behavior”. This leads the
worker not only to an understanding of meaning and causes of the client’s behavior, but also to a

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 mode of meeting and causes of the client’s behavior, but also to a mode of meeting and interacting
with the client, i.e., non-judgmentally.
The principles of acceptance, does not mean approval of deviant attitudes or behavior. “The object
of acceptance is not the good but the real”, which means dealing with the client as he is in reality.
Acceptance also means that we recognize that people have strengths and weaknesses, and capacities
and limitations.

2. Participation of the client in problem-solving. One can almost say that the principle of participation
is already given, for indeed, how can there be a “helping relationship” without the client’s
participation? Just the same, there is need to stress the point that the worker does not take over in a
helping relationship. The client is there, and has a pa rt in the entire problem-solving process.

3. Self-determination as a right of the client. The main idea in this principle is that the individual (or
group or community) who is in economic, personal, or social need, has the right to determine what
his needs are and how they should be met. The worker does not do everything for the client is capable
of “self-help”. She will not manipulate his affairs, but will guide him so that he is able to look at his
problem objectively, understand what choices or alternatives are open to him, their implications and
consequences, and then make his own decisions. A client develops or regains her self-respect and
self-confidence when he realizes that he is able to solve his own problems.
4. Individualization of clients. The principle of individualization involves the “the recognition and
understanding of each client’s unique qualities and the differential use of principles and methods in
assisting each toward a better adjustment,,.. based upon the right of human beings to be individuals
and to be treated not just a human being but as thin this human being with his personal differences”.
This principle means that the worker recognizes that while human beings have many things in
common, there are also important individual differences which must be accepted.
This principle tells us to appreciate the fact that no two persons (not even identical twins) are exactly
alike. Thus, social workers should relate to each client as an individual in a situation, which involves
the interaction of different factors – physical, social, psychological, etc. The impact of the interplay
of these factors on one individual and his consequent reactions would not be the same in the case of
another individual.

5. Confidentiality. The idea behind this principle is to provide the client protection, within the limits
of the law, from harm that might result from his divulging information of the worker. Trust is an
important element in client-worker relationship. If a client is to participate fully in the process of
solving his problem, if he is to freely express his feelings about himself and about others in his
situation, and if he is to put down his “defenses” and just be himself with the worker, then there
must be assurance that what he tells the worker will be kept in confidence.

6. Worker sel-awareness. In its broad sense, this principle means that the social worker is always
conscious that her role is to make use of her professional relationship with her client in a way that

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 will enhance primarily the client’s development rather than her own. Self-discipline is crucial to the
principle of worker self-awareness. Her very position provides her countless opportunities to
manipulate people and their affairs, and to use her relationship with them to meet personal ends.
7. Client-worker relationship. The relationship between the worker and the client, is the means for
carrying out the social worker’s function. The phrase the “social work problem – solving takes place
within a meaningful worker-client relationship” puts the emphasis on “relationship”. The purpose
of client-worker relationship is to help the client in some area of his social functioning on which in
the present time he is experiencing some difficulty, and where, the worker. Usually presenting a
social agency, is in some position to offer help. A purposive client-worker relationship allows for
some degree of subjective feelings which cannot be entirely removed in any relationship.

Ambivalence, introduced into psychiatry by the noted psychiatrist, Bleuler, is based on the
proposition that the human mind functions in a dualistic way and that conflict between its
opposing tendencies, often results.

Transference – is a concept from Freudian psycho-therapy. It is believed to take place when

the client unconsciously transfers to the social worker attributes or characteristics of some
important or powerful persons in his early life. This may result to positive or negative
attitudes toward the worker, but being aware of the transference, the latter knows these
attitudes are not directed toward her personally. A worker can usually tell that some
transference is beginning to take place with remarks liked “you talk just like my mother”. A
skilled social worker will not encourage a prolonged transference, even if it as positive, as
this can encourage emotional dependency on the part of the client.

Counter-transference is the worker’s unconscious response to the client unconscious

transference. Generally, it affects the worker’s picture of a situation and can consequently
twist her diagnosis of the client’s problem.

PROFESSIONAL ETHICS

Ethics is the science that treats of morals and right conduct. Professional ethics is the system
of ethical principles and rules of conduct generally accepted by the members of a
professional group, based on the philosophy, values and guiding principles of that
profession. It has two aspects: the profession’s Code of Ethics which is the written
expression of some of these principles and rules of conduct fort the guidance of the
professional group (drawn and adopted by its own members), and the unwritten principles
and rules of conduct which usually have the same force as the Code. Together, they serve as
a compass which helps guide the practitioner in her professional relationship – with her
client, with her colleagues and her profession, and with her agency, and with the public. The
following is the Philippine Association of Social Worker’s Code of Ethics as revised in 1998;
the original/first code was adopted in 1964, then revised in 1972.

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 CODE OF ETHICS

We, the members of the Philippine Association of Social Workers, Inc. believing:

- In the inherent worth and dignity of all persons emanating from Supreme Being who directs our
actions of love for one another;
- That every human being has natural and social rights, capacities and responsibilities to develop his
full potential as a human being;
- In the human being’s capacity to change and recognize the value of unity in diversity, individual
differences and pluralism in society;
- In free men and women living freely in a free society where poverty, in all its forms, is neither a fate
nor a punishment but is a condition that can and must be changed;
- In the family as the basic unit of the society and its vital role in the growth and development of the
individual, the family system, and the community;
- That the government, the private sector and the public have a joint responsibility to promote social
justice and to ensure the political, economic and social well-being of all people’
- In the role of social workers as agents of change and in the promotion of professionalism,
responsibility and accountability; and,
- That our professional practice is deeply rooted in our cultural values.

DO HEREBY DECLARE that we will abide by these standards of ethical conduct:

A. Relative to Self and the Profession

1. To conduct myself in a manner consistent with the philosophy, principles, values and beliefs of
the social work profession;
2. To act at all times with honesty, openness, and transparency in all my professional transactions;
3. To constantly work towards my own professional advancement so as to contribute to the
promotion of social work practice;
4. To contribute time and professional expertise to activities that promote respect for the integrity
and competence of social workers;
5. To share research knowledge and practice wisdom to colleagues and other professionals;
6. To be vigilant and act to prevent the unauthorized and unqualified practice of social work;
7. To support the professional association duly organized and constituted for the professional
welfare of all social workers;
8. To respond and volunteer my professional services in times of emergency;
9. To uphold and protect the dignity of the profession;
10. To promote cultural values that will enhance the practice of the social work profession;

B. Relative to Client
1. To uphold the basic human rights of clients and serve them without discrimination;
2. To accept primary responsibility and accountability to clients, respecting their right to self-
determination, and observe confidentiality in all my dealing with them;

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 3. To seek out the marginalized and ensure equal access to the resources, services and opportunities
required to meet basic needs; and
4. To expand choice and opportunity to all persons, with special regard for disadvantaged or
oppressed groups or persons.

C. Relative to Colleagues
1. To acknowledge and respect the professional expertise of other disciplines, extending all
necessary cooperation that will enhance effective services;
2. To bring any violation of professional ethics and standards to the attention of the appropriate
bodies inside and outside the profession and ensure that relevant clients are properly involved;
and
3. To advocate with legislative and policy bodies for the welfare of all colleagues.

In addition of the foregoing Code of Oath there are unwritten duties and obligations that are expected of a
professional social worker. The following are some of these:

1. Duties towards clients

 A professional deals with clients openly and frankly
 A professional is patient, tolerant, and considerate of the client’ point of view
 A professional never uses threat or deceit
 A professional is punctual in keeping appointments, and makes no compromises she cannot stop
keep
 A professional is careful and thorough in dealing with client problems
 A professional never discriminates against any client, giving so-called “hopeless” cases as much
attention as promising ones
 A professional will act in relation to a problem only on the basis of adequate

2. Duties toward colleagues and the profession

 A professional is courteous and fair in dealing with co-workers

 A professional cooperates with co-workers in the pursuit of common goals
 A professional should maintain high standards of honor, integrity and morality
 A professional makes only constructive criticisms of co-workers and of the profession
 A professional does not exploit her professional membership, and distinguishes between activities
she does as a private citizen and as a member of the profession

3. Duties toward agency/organization

 A professional is loyal to her agency

 A professional cooperates in the achievement of her agency’s goals
 A professional seeks opportunities to participate in the formulation of policies thereby contributing
to the improvement of agency services

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  A professional does not just oppose agency policies with first discussing the matter with the
appropriate persons
 A professional observes established agency rules, channels, and procedures and advocates for their
change or modification if these are not satisfactory

4. Duties toward the community/public

 A professional responds promptly to request for assistance

 A professional makes use of appropriate opportunities to interpret her work to the community
 A professional helps bring about a second and constructive public opinion in matters of social
concern

The preceding obligations are given, understood as being practice by professionals and therefore do not
have to be stated explicitly in the code.

Why is there a need for a system of professional ethics, particularly a formal, written code? The following
are among the purposes served by a profession’s Code of Ethics:

1. It helps check abuses which can which can result from the powers and privileges accompanying the
monopoly enjoyed by a profession (for example, social workers enjoyed a monopoly in the
preparation of client case histories in agencies dealing with child adoption, as well as in family
courts which decide action on youth offenders);
2. It provides the community some protection against abuses by members of the profession (e.g., the
community is made aware of professional standards in light of which the conduct of members may
be evaluated and, if need be, censured);
3. It sets forth basic principles which serves as guidelines to members of the profession, and which are
helpful in the socialization of future professionals;
4. It sets guidelines for relationships, if not specific duties of members of each other, to their clients,
and to other groups;
5. It is a useful resource for the enrichment or improvement of the professional curriculum

The observance of a profession’s system of ethics is not free of problems. At the present time, for
example, social workers face many ethical dilemmas, a few of which are in the following areas:

1. Manipulation. In our setting, manipulation comes in many forms, such as in the matter of influencing
clients to act in the way a worker wants them to act in response to a given situation, or manipulating
agency reports to justify budgetary requests.
2. Advocacy. We realize the need for social workers to engage in advocacy that will bring about social
reforms which will benefit large segments of our population. However, we must with ethical
problems that often go with advocacy. For example, in the cause of advocacy, some promote
unnecessary conflict situations, resorting to various machinations, including the use of insult,
embarrassment, distortion of the truth, disruption and violence.

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 3. Conflicting loyalties. We listed loyalty to one’s agency as among the professional’s duties to her
agency or organization.
4. Cultural and the realities. Our culture presents certain ethical dilemmas to the social worker. For
example, the social worker is expected to follow the established rules and procedures of an agency.
However, our workers know that our personalistic culture often calls for the use of personal
“connections” to facilitate action on a client’s request.

FUNCTION OF SOCIAL WORK

1. Restorative. This function aims at rehabilitating client whose functioning has been impaired by
physical, mental, or social difficulties. It implies a temporary breakdown of normal functioning. It
has two aspects:
a.) Curative – identifies, control or eliminate the factors in the interactional process that have caused
the breakdown or impairment of social function.
b.) Rehabilitative – to reconstruct or organized the pattern of interaction that has been broken down,
been changed or build new ones.
2. Preventive. It goes through the early discovery, control or elimination of those condition which may
impair psychosocial functioning. Examples of preventive program are recreational character
building activities for children and youth, supplementary feeding, nurseries and pre-school for very
young, counselling and other services.
3. Developmental. This refers to the assistance of services which will lead to the optimum development
and fulfillment of the client’s potential. It is concerned with building of strengths and self-
realization, self-fulfillment and self-actualization. It is applied to client’s whose social functioning
is more or less normal or impairment has been restored.

4 BASIC COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

(De Guzman) 4 P’s (Helen Perlman)

1. Person Person
2. Problem Problem
3. Agency Place
4. Helping Process Process

Person/client
It refers to an individual (man, woman, or child), a family, small group or community who finds
himself or themselves is found to be in need of help in some aspects of his economic, social and emotional
living. It also refers to “one for whom professional services are rendered” or the “one dependent on the
patronage(protection) of other. “Case” is another term refers not only to the person or persons involved but
includes the state of affairs or the situation in which they are the principal characters.

Types of clients:

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 Walk-in. This refers to an individual, a couple, or representatives of an organization or community
who, on their own, seek the help of an agency/social worker about a concern or problem. The client initiates
the contact.
Referred. The client is referred to the worker or agency by some interested or concerned party- a
relative, neighbour, teacher, etc. Examples are the mentally disturbed and severely handicapped persons.
This term is also applicable to those who are referred by others merely forced to secure help- involuntary
clients. Examples are drug users and juvenile delinquents.
Reach-out. These are the subjects for the “outreach” efforts of the agencies. They are aware of the
existing community agencies and the services they offer yet are too shy or are not adequately motivated to
seek help, especially on a personal or family problem.

“Person-in-situation” approach/”total person in-situation” approach is the approach of studying the

person/client not only by himself but the person in his element as a biopsychosocial being.
Client system refers to all entities, person, family, group, organization or community that receive or
command the attention of the social worker.
System implies that the entities are acting like units of one collective entity and are interacting in an
interrelated and interdependent manner with each other.

Problem
It is a question or situation that presents uncertainty, perplexity or difficulty. The following are the
problems that are most often presented to social workers in the Philippines.

Economic problem:

 Lack of economic and social resources

 Lack of educational skills, knowledge and experience

Emotional problem:

 Lack of love, care and protection

 Illness and disability
 Lack of opportunities or access to resources

Psychosocial problems:

 Emotional reaction to stress

 Loss of relationship
 Internal conflict
 Culture conflict
 Maladaptive group Functioning

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Agency

It is a human service instrumentally which has been set up to help human beings who are
experiencing some difficulty in the management of their own affairs either as individuals, families, groups
and communities. In simpler terms, it is known as the “provider of resources”.

Social welfare agency is the structured framework within which the administrative tasks are carried
out. It is the operational translation of social policy which has been set up by the founders and/or organizers,
or by the government itself.

Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) is the government’s primary welfare
agency.

Type of agencies (based on funding):

 Governmental (Public): DSWD

 Non-governmental (Private): Christian Children’s Fund, Foster Parents Plan Inc., CARITAS Inc.,
Education and Research Development Agency (ERDA), Huspicio de San Jose (operated by the
Daughters of Charity)
 Semiprivate: Philippine National Red Cross

Research for the programs of DSWD

 Self-employment assistance program

 Practical training skills and job placement
 Emergency assistance
 Day Care and Supplemental feeding (devoted to the Brgy. (R.A 7160-1991))
 Responsible parenthood
 Special social services
 Alternative education

Helping Process

The last and most important component of social work practice it is the helping process, it is means
through which an agency purpose is achieved.

It is the phase through which treatment is applied to attain a change in behavior or in the
environment, or a problem is alleviated or resolved.

The goals are: (1) to help individuals, families, groups and communities cope with problems they
find difficulty in solving or in meeting their basic needs in such a way that they will make use of their
conscious, efforts, choices, and competencies; and (2) engage the client in ways of coping that may be of
use to him in dealing with new or other problems that he may encounter now and then as long as he lives,

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 It has basically three major phases (Hepworth and Larsen, 1986):

PHASE I – Exploration, assessment and planning (Beginning)

PHASE II – Implementation and goal attainment (Middle)

PHASE III – Termination and evaluation (Ending)

The following are the two presentation of the simplified steps in the helping process:

(De Guzman) (Mendoza)

1. Identification of the presenting problem 1. Assessment

2. Data-fathering 2. Planning
3. Diagnostic assessment 3. Implementation/Intervention
4. Planning the intervention 4. Evaluation
5. Implementation/Intervention 5. Continuation or Termination
6. Evaluation
7. Continuation or Termination

THE HELPING PROCESS

A) Identification of the presenting problem

Intake is the process by which a potential client achieves the status of a client. It is first contact of the
client with a social agency through its representative, the social worker. Intake interview is the specific step
upon which the worker records on the intake sheet the identifying data about the clients. Initial engagement
occurs when the client commits a client status and the worker commits the agency to provide services.

Purpose:

1.) Record identifying data about the client such as name, age, civil status, address, family
composition, etc., and the nature of his request. Every agency has an intake sheet or a prescribed
form of its purpose.
2.) Identify the presenting problem – that which is causing the most difficulty, so much so that the
client was impelled to ask for help or has been referred.

Process:

Intake – on the client’s part, this involves the presentation of the self and the problem or need as he or she
is experiencing it.

- On the part of the social worker, this involves some assessment of the client and the problem
and whether or not the agency is in a position to help.

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 - A good intake interviewer should provide the client with adequate understanding of the agency
and its policy and program in relation to the need or problem, as well as the responsibilities or
obligation for both the client and worker.
- The intake process may end either with the worker or client deciding not to proceed or the client
committing to have client status.
- Initial engagement said to have taken place

= There must be an agreement before the client and the worker as to the problem to be worked in, or simply,
the problem for work.

A. Identification of the Presenting Problem

- Is elicited (to get, draw out) at the very start because this is where data gathering begins.
- The worker use the problem as the starting point of his search for vital information to guide the
subsequent steps he will take.
- Sometimes the presenting problem may just be an immediate or precipitating causing the present
difficulty and a deeper or underlying problem may engage later (precipitating – to cause to
happen, result or outcome of source process or action, aftermath, consequence, effect)

3. Determine the client’s presumptive eligibility and motivation to use a service. If his need cannot be met
then he’s referred or redirected to another agency which can help him.

B. Data-Gathering

This entails the gathering of comprehensive information about all the dimension of a problem so
that the interaction of its components can be understood. Its purpose is to understand and determine the
nature of the problem and what resources will be required for it.

The following are the source of information.

Primary Source. The client himself is the primary source of information.

Secondary Source. This is the “significant others” in the life of the client which refers to those with
whom he has personal relationships like parents, siblings, relatives and friends. This can extend to whom
he relates, like people in his school, employment, church, and organization.

Existing Data. These are information previously collected by others such as records and reports
from other professionals (physicians, teachers, etc.) and social workers of other agencies, studies (e.g.
census data) and evaluations.

Worker’s own observations. These are the information which the worker obtains from observing
the individual client alone or in interaction with others.

Principles in data-gathering.

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 1. The client should be the main source of information although, when appropriate and available, other
sources should be used.
2. Data to be gathered should directly relate to the identified problems.
3. The client should be informed about the source being used for data collection. In certain cases, his
permission should be sought before certain kinds of information are obtained.
4. Data collection is a continuous process but it is the collection, organization and synthesis of such
data that is especially critical to the definition of the problem and setting goals.
5. The kind of client and the general nature of the problem can guide the worker on the type of data
that should be collected and how much.
C. Diagnostic Assessment

Diagnosis is the worker’s professional opinion to the nature of the need or problem which the client
presents. The purpose of assessment is to evaluate the individual’s capacity and motivation to use help and
his relationship to his family and its environment or to understand a family or other small group in its social
context.

It takes into account the nature of problem, factors that precipitated it, client’s capacities, extent of
his motivation and his strength to work on the problem.

Immediate Problem – the one causing the present difficulty.

Underlying Problem – the overall situation which tends to perpetuate the immediate problem.

Perpetuate – occurring repeatedly over a long time, to cause something that should be stopped.

Precipitate – bottom, cause.

Working Problem – composed of those contributory factors that stand in the way of both remedy and
prevention which must be dealt with if change is to take place.

D. Planning the Intervention

Planning is the link between the assessment (identification of the presenting problem, data-gathering
and diagnostic assessment) and Intervention (it is also considered part of the assessment process). It involves
goal and objective setting and the determination of strategies to be used.

Goal Setting is the first step in the planning of the problem solution. Goals are ends. They are the
desired or expected outcomes of an endeavor. Goals must be problem-related, stated clearly and precisely.
Specific objectives or intermediate goals are the sub-goals which facilitate the achievement of the long term
or overall goals. These objectives must be accomplished in order to achieve or reach the goal.

Characteristics of goals:

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 1. Specific, concrete and measurable. Goals that are stated in too broad or general terms are
difficult to measure. This makes it difficult for the worker to know if they have been
accomplished, thus making it difficult also to hold her accountable for her professional activities.
2. Feasible. Goals should be realistic and attainable.

Goal should always relate to a client’s problem or situation:

Strategy is defined as “an overall approach to change a situation”. It implies orchestrated action that
involves different entities, each having a role to play in order to achieve the define goals. In social work,
we now find a variety of approaches to practice called theories of practice or models of practice. These
conceptualizations (e.g. Crisis Intervention Approach, Mediating Model, and Locality Development)
provide an overall approach to practice and therefore may be considered as strategies.

Criteria for the selection of strategies and approaches (Brill):

1. Maximum Feasibility. The strategy or approach possesses the greatest chance of producing the
desired result.
2. Availability or resources. The external resources needed are available and accessible; the family is
willing to try this out.
3. Workability. The plan will work.
Feasibility – possible to do; capable of being done, achievable, attainable.

Enable – to make something possible or easy.

- To provide with the means or opportunity like training that enables people to earn a living.
Advocate – a person who argues for the cause of another person in a court of law.

- One that supports or promotes the interests of another.

Contract is the agreement (verbal or written) between the worker and the client on what needs to be done
and who should do it. A contract with the client is simplified version of the plan of action. It includes a
problem statement, goals and objectives, a specification of tasks to be carried out by the worker and the
client and the time frame required. Contracts facilitate evaluation and provide tools for accountability.

E. Plan Implementation or Intervention

Intervention is also termed as action or treatment. This phase is concerned with the action that would
solve the client’s problem. This is the translation into action of the plans that has been agreed upon in the
first phase of the helping relationship. This refers to the actual undertaking of the tasks and activities that
the client and worker have planned, working together for the realization of the specific objectives and thus
working towards the attainment of the end goal.

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 Interventive roles refer to the composite activities or tasks that she is expected to undertake in order
to accomplish the goals agreed upon with the client.

Interventive roles in direct practice:

Resource Provider. This role engages the worker in the direct provision of material aid and other
concrete resources that will be useful in eliminating or reducing situational deficiencies. Concrete resources
are mobilized, created and directly provided to the client who is assisted in making optimal use of them.

Social Broker. This involves the process of negotiating the “the service jungle” for clients, whether
singly or in groups. The worker links or connects the client to needed services in the community. She often
has to perform a variety of activities-helper, interpreter, facilitator, expediter, negotiator- to ensure paid
service delivery. Referral is considered a basic activity in this interventive role. A related term is networking
which refers to the worker’s efforts at establishing and maintaining relationship with the other community
entities which have resources that can support and implement her own agency’s resources.

Mediator. Mediator is a person who acts as an intermediary or reconcile, harmonize, or conciliator

to resolve disputes between client system and other parties. To make someone less angry.

Advocate. The term advocacy comes from the legal profession. The advocate will argue, debate,
bargain, negotiate, and manipulate the environment on behalf of the client.

Enabler. This role involve the social worker in inetrventive activities that will help clients find the
coping strengths and resources within themselves to solve problems they are experiencing. The client serves
as the primary resource, and change comes about mainly through the client’s efforts. The worker’s
responsibility is to perform a supporting and empowering function so as to enable the client’s
accomplishment of a defined change.

Counselor/Therapist. The goal of this role is the restoration, maintenance, or enhancement of the
client’s capacity to adapt or adjust to his current reality. Specific techniques used by the worker include
purposive listening, reassurance, persuasion, direct advice, teaching, guidance, suggestion, logical
suggestion, and exercise of professional and/or legal authority. Interventive roles beyond direct practice.

Mobilizer of community Elite. This intervention involves the worker in activities aimed at
performing and interpreting to certain sectors of the community, welfare programs and services, as well as
needs and problems, with the objective of enlisting their support and/or involvement in them. This sector
of the community called “elite” is comprised of individuals and groups, who are usually in a position to
provide, in one way or another, the resources the worker needs in her work with clients. They include the
professionals, politicians, and policy-makers, leaders of communities, the rich and the volunteers.

Documenter/Social Critique. In this interventive role, the worker documents the need for more
adequate social welfare policies and programs based on her knowledge (gained from actual experience)
about the inadequacies or deficiencies in these existing welfare policies and programs, as well as on her
beliefs as to how they ought to be, in the light of professional values and goals.

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 Policy/Program change Advocate. The worker in this role, different with in the direct practice, is
involved in efforts to change policies and programs on behalf of particular sectors of the population based
on the values and profession.

Limitations on worker activity:

Time. The worker may not give the client unlimited time; however. She has a commitment to do
certain activities within a span of time, she should keep that commitment. When facing constraints in work
like “emergencies”, heavy case loads, etc. which prevent the worker from honoring the commitments to
clients, she should inform her clients ahead of time and not make promises she is not sure she can fulfill.
She should also have the ability to use her time economically. More often than not, the problem is not lack
of time but management of time.

Skill. The worker should watch out for the activities that are within her competence. This requires
her to be aware not only her strengths but more importantly, her limitations. Resource persons and
consultants should be utilized when appropriate or necessary. Part of the worker’s professionalism is the
ability to recognize her limitations and to acknowledge the need for the expertise of others.

Ethics. The worker should watch out for activities that might commit her to unethical behavior.
Some examples of these in our setting are arrangements with clients to receive “commissions” upon
approval of a client’s request for material assistance or benefits, doing business out of material and intended
for needy clients, and allowing her position to be used for political purposes.

Agency Function. The worker must be sure that she understands and interprets agency function
properly. Some agency functions are stated broadly enough as to allow her much leeway in serving clients.
However, it does happen that the agency function will place limitations on the agreements between her and
the client, and both of them have to accept this. A worker who is convinced about the need to modify or
change agency function to make it more responsive to the needs of the clients should advocate within the
agency for such desired change, but the worker should have realistic expectations and observe ethical
behavior in relation to this.

The worker monitors progress by:

1. Evaluating the effectiveness of change strategies and intervention.

2. Guiding the clients’ efforts toward goals attainment.
3. Keeping abreast of clients’ reactions to progress or lack of it.
4. Enhancing clients’ motivation and confidence in the helping process.
Case management never involves direct treatment responsibilities unlike what social workers primarily do,
rather it refers only to the linking of the client to the maze of direct service providers. To manage a case is
to see that what needs to be done is actually done. The following are the requirements for a case manager
to be effective:

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  Knowledge of the available resources
 Skill in utilizing these resources (in modification or establishing new ones)
 Systematic use of support system needed to render a high quality of service.
The Helping Relationship

The Helping Relationship is an integral part of the helping process. It is the bridge, the channel
through which help is extended to the client. It is the anchor which holds the helping process in place.

Perlman defines relationship as a condition in which two persons with some common interest
between them, long term or temporary, interact with feeling.

It is said to exist when there is an emotional charged interaction between two people.
The professional purpose of the helping relationship in social work is to help person using one’s
professional knowledge, values and skills.

When does such a relationship start or when can it be said that it exists? Hamilton once wrote that
it only exists when a rapport is created for a professional purpose that it may be said that the person asking
for help is a client. In social work, rapport is said to exist when there is a comfortable, warm, close
relationship between the helpee and the helper ensuring their working together to solve or alleviate the
latter’s difficulty. In a helping relationship, when does rapport exist in a social work helping process?

Characteristics of a Good Relationship

Accepting. It is accepting when the worker accepts the individual or client by recognizing his rights
to existence, importance and value.
Dynamic. It is dynamic when it is forceful and energetic, in constant motion, advancing the
movement to change.
Emotional. It is more emotional than intellectual.
Purposeful, Time Limit, Unequal. Purposeful because it has purpose; it is directed towards achieving
a goal which is to help the client achieve an improved degree in his psychosocial functioning. Time limited
because once the goal has been reached the case is closed and relationship is terminated. Unequal because
the participants (the client and the worker) assume unequal roles.

Honest, Realistic and Responsible. This means that the worker must have honor, integrity and
probity. He is realistic because he knows himself for what he really is with his own unique combination of
personality characteristics and is guided by this knowledge in his professional actuations. He must be
responsible i.e. legally and ethically accountable for his actions.

Exercising Judgment. Any professional judgment that the worker makes should be based on reality.
There are two sides of reality: (a) reality as it is; and (b) reality as the client sees it to be. The two other
perspective of reality are narrow side and broad side.

Phases of the Helping Relationship

The Beginning. It is the period when the client and woker start to know, to “size up” each other.
The Middle. It is the working period when the worker and the client pay their respective roles and
perform their tasks to solve or alleviate the problem.
The Ending. It is the termination phase of the relationship.
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Social Work Roles

General roles:

Catalyst or Catalyzer. He was expected to enhance the client’s psychosocial functioning by inducing or
facilitating some changes in his environment or both.
Enabler. He supplies, provides, or links the client with the means, the knowledge or opportunity to be or
to do something.
Change Agent. The worker becomes the instrument of some transformation has been planned at a higher
or national level.

Specific roles (those that touch the client directly or those which require the performance of specific tasks):
Direct Provider of Resources. The worker provides the tangible aid that may be needed by the client to
eliminate or reduce situational deficiencies.
Case Manager. The worker is responsible for overseeing the delivery of social services such as linking the
client with the provider of the resources that he need.
Mediator/Broker/Intercessor. The worker acts in behalf of the client scouting for the resources that he
needs, procuring this for him, and interceding for him if need be.
Facilitator. The worker helps removing the obstacles to exercise of rational thinking or learning by the use
of non-formal adult teaching and methodologies.
Therapist. The worker is concerned with the treatment of client illness, disability, or some disorders,
usually a pathological conditional.
Clinician. The worker is the worker who seeks to restore, maintain, or enhance the clients’ adaptive capacity
and facilitates his optional adjustment to current social reality.
Mobilizer. The worker assembles and energizes existing groups, organizations and resources or create new
ones as to bring them to bear on a current or incipient problem.
Advocate. The worker seeks some change in policy or program for the benefits of his clients.
Role Model. The worker is often overlooked, perhaps not recognized or taken for granted
PLANNED CHANGE

Planned Change is defined as a change originating from a decision to make a deliberate effort to
improve the system and to obtain the help of an outside agent in making this improvement.

The Decision is to make a change may be made by the system itself, after experiencing pain
(malfunctioning), or discovering the possibly of improvement, or by an outside change agent who observes
the need for change in a particular system and takes the initiative in establishing relationship with that
system.

The specific system that is being helped is called “Client System” which can mean any of the following:

1. The personality system which consists of related sub-parts; the conscious, unconscious, the mind
and the body.
2. The group, families, committee, staffs, clubs and other smaller social units.
3. The organization, any of the larger system which comprise the community; business organization,
welfare agencies, educational institutions, political parties, religious associations.

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 4. The community made up of variety of interacting sub-parts, e.g. individual citizens, informal interest
groups, organized occupational or political sub-groups, economic and social strata geographical
units, etc.

Outside Agent, in planned change, is called a professional change agent.

Hence; there is the psychiatrist who usually works with personality systems, marriage counselors and
leadership trainers who work with the organizations, and adult educators who work with communities.

The process or the development of the relationship is defined as consisting of the following:

Phases of Planned Change:

Phase 1: The client system discovers the need for help, sometimes with stimulations by the change
agent.
Phase 2: The helping relationship is established and defined.
Phase 3: The change problem is identified and clarified.
Phase 4: Alternative possibilities for change are examined; change goals or intentions are
established.
Phase 5: Change efforts in the reality situation” are attempted.
Phase 6: Change is generalized and stabilized.
Phase 7: The helping relationship ends or a different type of continuing relationship is defined.

Two Concepts of Planned Change:

Change Force – the situation which increases the willingness of the client system to make a proposed
change.
Resistance Force – the situation which reduces the willingness of the client system to change.

First of all, social work is planned change since all social work activities in relation to given problem or
situation are part of a conscious and deliberate effort to effect change whatever this change is deemed
necessary or appropriate.

SOCIAL WORK METHODS OF INTERVENTION

The Social work method of intervention refers to the application helping repertoire of the methods
and processes of differential, influential, planned action taken by a Social Worker to sustain selected helping
purposes. These are change-inducing and resource-providing actions.

Two Classification of Methods:

1. Primary method/direct method
 Social Casework
 Social Groupwork
 Social Community Organizing/Work
2. Secondary method/indirect method
 Administration
 Research

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Primary or Direct Method. In this method, the worker is engaged in direct work with individuals and groups
which is popularly known as “direct practice” or “micro social work practice”.

Social Casework is an individualization form of helping people cope with personal problems,
usually involving an impairment or breakdown of social functioning. Richmond’s concept of casework
treatment involved the use of resources to facilitate the individual’s adjustment to social living, to assist
clients to understand their needs and possibilities, and to help them work out their own programs.

3 Fundamental Characteristics of Casework:

Individualization. This is the recognition that each person is unique, separate and distinct from
others.
Client-Worker relationship (also called the helping relationship). This refers to the dynamic
interaction between two during which the worker helps the client to learn and solve his problems.
Social Treatment. It is the sum of all activities and services directed towards helping an individual
with a problem.

Social Group Work is a method through which individuals and groups are helped by a social worker
to relate themselves to people and experience growth opportunities in accordance with their needs and
capacities.

Therapeutic Group Work is used mainly in medical and psychiatric settings, guidance clinics and
correctional work, and with disabled person such as substance abusers.

Local Social Group Workis concerned with preventive and developent goals, work with street children, out
of school youth and etc.

Community Organizing/work. Arthur Dunham defined this method as the process of bringing about and
maintaining adjustment between social welfare resources and social welfare needs within the
geographic area or specific field of service.

Secondary or Indirect Method. Are those applied in “direct practice” or “macro practice” they do not deal
directly with clients.

Administration is accepted as one of the important methods of social work practice because what it does,
the policies it enunciates, the plans it develops, the project it undertakes ultimately affect the client’s
welfare. Management, from the administrator’s point of view is overseeing the use of agency
resources. It includes responsibility for social attainment of organizational maintenance activities in
social welfare.

Research. refers to a systematic investigation inquiry and the study of a problem for the purpose of adding
more knowledge of verifiable matters. The main strategy of social work research is the study of
phenomena by naturalistic methods, that is, without experimental manipulation.

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3 Functions of Research in Social Work

1. The perspectives and methods of science can provide a framework for practice activities.

2. Research helps build knowledge for practice.

3. Research serves the practical function of providing situation.

PRACTICE APPROACHES

Generalist Approach. This requires the social worker to study the client or the client system and the
environment so that he can determine the appropriate methods of intervention to be used.

Specialization. It is social work practice in a certain area or field which requires expert knowledge and
skills.

Clinical Social Work. In this approach, the worker uses a variety of techniques in order to diagnose the
cause of the disorder so as to be able to plan treatment.

Total Family Approach. This refers to the discovery and utilization of the strengths within the family, that
is, among its individual members to solve individual and family problems.

Baranganic Approach. This refers to the application of the community organizing method using the
barangay council or a similar structure as a point entry to gain access to or come closer to the
community

Community Outreach. This refers to the efforts of an agency, organization, or situation to make available
social services to a target population in the community who it believes can use some assistance
instead of waiting for the people to come to the agency to ask for help.

Integrated Approach. In social work, it incorporates what is common or generic in all three primary
methods of social work intervention towards creating a better environment and maximizing
opportunities for developing individual material.

TOOLS OF SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

Tool is defined as “anything regarded as necessary in the carrying out of one’s occupation or
professions”. Is a social work direct intervention, the tools used are interviewing, discussion and referral.
The tools used in all types of client systems are the interview, social work records, communication,
community resources and program and activities.

INTERVIEWING is the main tool used in social work practice. It is a face-to-face meeting between
two or more persons, directed towards a purpose, such as to obtain information, to give instructions and to
help. It is both an art and technique which requires knowledge and skill. It is an art because while
interviewers may follow the same principles, it allows for the expression of one’s personality.

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 The following are the skills needed for an effective interview:

 Skill in relating with the interviewee

 Skill in observing the interviewee
 Skill in listening
 Skill in asking questions
 Skill in answering personal questions
 Interpreting the client’s response
Conducting the interview:
 Prepare for the interview
 Always start by making the client feel comfortable
 Use your intuition or “sixth sense”
 Exercise care in the use of interview instruments like intake and survey forms
 Be conscious of time
 Do not rush into direct action or help without fully understanding the client’s situation
 The interviewer should have proper deportment

DISCUSSION is a type of verbal interaction, of informal conversation among a group of people. In

social work, it is a form of communication in which each individual in the group contributes his thinking
and participates in the making of a decision which is arrived at through a consensus. Purpose, leadership
and dynamics are aspects of group discussion and group work that the worker needs to keep in mind in
order to be an effective group worker.

Opportunities for group discussion

 Contribution from different viewpoints
 Participation in decision-making and hopefully, in plan implementation
 Developing creative potential for group members
 Learning
 Growth and change

REFERRAL is the process by which a client is helped to move on to another resource for service.
It is a necessary tool because no single institution or agency can serve all the needs of man in a complex
society. In order to make a good referral, i.e. to enable the client to go directly to the resource he needs
instead of being bounced from one agency to another, the worker must possess a good working knowledge
of the resources available.
SOCIAL WORK RECORDS/CASE RECORDING is an account in writing of the progress of a
client in a case as it moves from the beginning of the problem-solving phase towards its eventual solution
and finally to its ending or termination. It is an account of how the worker handled a case from the beginning
to the end; whether the client is an individual, a family, a group, or even a small community. The casework
pioneers who conceptualized social work practice divided it into three points: study, diagnosis and
treatment.

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 It would be more accurate to say that the first part of the case recording is the case study. Case
recording can be considered as an indirect tool of social work intervention because it enables the worker to
see for himself how a case is progressing so that he can make such modification or changes as may be
necessary to reach the goal or purpose of the helping process.

Purpose of agency recording:

1. Tools that guide the worker as he and client proceed with the task of problem-solving.
2. Useful in evaluation
3. Improve knowledge and skills in helping people.
4. Records provide an account of what have taken place, which is needed when one worker
must replace another.
5. Provides important information to the agency.
6. Records are supervisory tools
7. Educational purpose.
8. Source of statistical information about agency operations.

Three major types of case recording:

1. Narrative. The narrative style is actually concerned with the reporting of facts. It may be condensed
or process.
The narrative condensed recording is an abridged, compact version which may have been
reduced from its former voluminous size. It is generally useful for all types of cases, of clients,
whether individual, family, group or community, and is used practically in all types of social welfare
agencies. It is used for reporting acts of practical helpfulness events and most collateral visits or
case conferences. It may be used to show the contents of the interview of the family or small group
discussion in all instances except when the process itself and the use of relationship have special
significance.
The process recording is a written description of the dynamic interaction that has taken place
in an interview. It should contain the purpose of the interview, worker’s observations, and
description of the intention, impression, worker’s roles and plan. It is used to show group the process
or to show group interaction. It may be a step-by-step account of the proceedings. It is very
appropriate when attention is depicted to attitudes, behavior and motivation. It is often used for
intake and the first interviews when the client’s feelings regarding his situation and what he wants
are likely to be particularly apparent.

2. Summary recording. A summary is a review or a recapitulation of material which has already

appeared in the case record. It is a good device for organizing and analyzing facts. Routing services
such as arrangement for the use of a social resource or an eventful period during treatment can be
summarized. There are four general types of summaries.
Social histories. These are two types: socio-economic history which is often used when
many of the welfare client presenting the problems usually involve the problem of economic

31
 survival; and psychosocial/psychogenetic history which is generally used with clients
presenting an impairment of the psychosocial functioning.
Periodic summaries. These are made to cover a certain period of time during which the case
is under the care of or is being handled by the worker. This is applicable to long-term case
work, group work which formed groups, and with community work. In the Philippines, the
latter may take years to realize the goal of building self-reliant communities.
Transfer summary. It refers to the summary made when the case is to be transferred to
another worker or is being referred to another agency. it may contain a brief statement of the
problem, the treatment plan and what has been accomplished so far.
Closing entry or summary. This focuses on the causes and results of the treatment or
intervention. It covers the situation at intake and the reasons involved the problem that
emerged, the treatment given, services extended, or intervention, made the progress
movement or chance achieved, and the results or status of the case.

3. Interpretative, Diagnostic and Evaluate. This type of recording is directed to pointing out the
meaning of facts. Its significance lies in the social interpretation of the case by the worker. It carries
in fact, his own opinion.

Other types of records:

a) Intake forms – also called Face sheet, Admission Form, Application Form.
b) Survey report – contains findings about the community situation, indicating date, place and
source of data.
c) Summary Process Recording – the summaries of the process taking place in relation to problem
solving, whether with an individual, group, community, with the worker exercising judgment in
recording those which she thinks important.
d) Periodic Evaluate Summaries – including a statement about the major developments that have
occurred.
e) Final Evaluate Statement – focusing on the extent to which/objectives spelled out in the Case
Study have been accomplished/ not accomplished and why; recommendations for termination
or continuation of service.

Communication is a term derived from the Latin word communis which means to make common,
and the word communi-care, which means to share or to impart. It is the sharing or the exchange of thoughts
between two or more persons. It is a two way process (which start with the source initiating the
communication and the receiver responding) and method (a way of helping people learn, through varied
forms) by which a source purposively shares messages with a receiver directly or via a channel and both
learn from each other. it is the basic ingredient in helping people.

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Elements of the Communication Process

Source. The communication may originate from an individual, a group or an institution.

Message. The message of a communication could be a knowledge, an attitude, and/or behavior which the
source wishes to convey to the receiver. This message can be conveyed in various ways: verbally,
non-verbally and through symbols. The verbal communication involves the use of words, whether
spoken or written. Morales and Sheafer point out three fundamental task in interviewing:

a) Listening which is the worker’s being sincerely interested in, and concentrating on what is being
said;
b) Interpretation which refers to the worker’s ability to interpret constantly the meanings (conscious
and unconscious) of the client’s words and behavior; and
c) Questioning which needs good timing, appropriateness and a good relationship with the client.
The non-verbal communication is a communication without words and only conveyed through
the person’s physical appearance dress, facial expression, behavior, gestures, sounds, silence,
ouch, eye contact and so on. Symbols are essentially a non-verbal form of communication with
unique characteristics of their own. They come in the form of pictures, diagrams, posters, logos
etc. and can stand by themselves, or with words. Symbols are chosen for different reasons – to
appeal to the intellect and/or to create dissatisfaction and to foster unity.

Channel. This refers to the proper course or “channel” of transmission of communication, that is either
interpersonal communication which involves face-to-face with people, or mass media which comes
in two forms – printed materials such as leaflets, pamphlets, posters, flip charts, comics, magazines,
newspaper etc. and electronics like radio, television and films; or both.

Receiver. The person, group, population segment/total population that is the intended audience of a
communication is called “receiver”

Communication resources. Refer to the programs and services offered by a variety of agencies and
organizations. These come in the form of funds, supplies and equipment, training, consultancy services,
material assistance and counseling. Their scopes also differ, so that we find agencies providing skills
training only for youth, or only educational loans for ethnic minorities, or emergency material assistance,
resettlement, as well as rehabilitation services for urban squatters. Community resources may be offered
under public, semi public, or private sponsorship. They may be available on a local, national or international
level.

Program/Program Activities are used to “denote a general class of activities, each of which
consists of an interconnected series of social behaviors that usually is infused with meanings and guided by
performance standards from the larger culture.

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 Purpose of program activities:

1. To establish positive relationship

2. To promote/improve communication between client and worker or among themselves.
3. To serve as a diagnostic tool.
4. To provide channels or outlets of otherwise the destructive energies
5. To serve as educational tools.
6. To serve the need for socialization.
7. To provide catharsis
8. To influence people to behave in a certain way
9. To develop a sense of accomplishment
10. To help bring about community change and develop by the way of the participative process.
11. To develop an awareness of one’s social reality.

THE USE OF TECHNIQUES IN SOCIAL WORK

Technique is the systematic procedure by which a complex scientific tasks is accomplished. In

social work, it refers to the procedures by which a skill is implemented. The following are the techniques
often used by direct practice workers bearing in mind our peoples socio-cultural characteristics.

1) Small talk. This refers to inconsequential conversation. It is used in almost all contacts between the
worker and the client. It is used by the social worker at the beginning of a contact, that is, the first
interview of the first home visit to put worker and the client especially the latter, at ease.
2) Support. To support another person is to encourage, to uphold to sustain some aspect of the client’s
functioning – his strength, his attitude, his eagerness to do something about his problem. It means
to sustain or keep steady, to give courage, to express faith and confidence and to give realistic
approval to an individual or group.
3) Ventilation. It involves bringing to the surface the feelings and attitudes that need to be brought out
because these are affecting the psychological functioning of the person harboring them – the client.
It is to clear any emotional underbrush that may be obstructing a positive movement.
4) Reassurance. It is an indirect support to client. It involves assuring the client that the situation with
which he is struggling has an attainable solution and that he has the capacity to deal with his own
problem.
5) Installation of hope. It is given when the worker demonstrates interest in client’s efforts and
progress, encouraging his efforts, offering realistic assurance and expressing hope that things will
be better.
6) Exploration. It is used to elicit necessary information; to bring out details about experiences and
relationships as the client perceives them; and to examine the feelings connected to the relationships
and experiences.
7) Clarification. It is to make understandable a point or two. As a technique, it is often used in
connection with exploration.

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8) Education and Advice. It was formerly known as advice-giving and counseling. In social work, it
refers to the provision of ideas, opinions and suggestions based or drawn from the worker’s
professional knowledge. According to Schwartz, one of the major tasks of the social worker is to
contribute data, ideas, facts and value concepts which are not available to the client and which may
prove useful to him in attempting to cope with that part of social reality which is involved in the
problem with which he is working.
9) Universalization. It is the utilization of human experiences and the strengths of other to cope with
situations similar to thos which are troubling the client. To pick up or choose a certain trait or pattern
of behavior characteristics of all members of a particular culture or of all human beings.
10) Reward and Punishment. One gets rewards for good behavior or is punished for misbehavior. It
is used when there is better understanding of the causes and greater ability to anticipate and control
the consequences.
11) Role rehearsal and Demonstration. This may be used extensively when learning new ways of
behavior is required. It is done by discussion or actual setting up of role play situations or by
demonstration.
12) Confrontation. It is come to face to face with the hard facts of the situation with reality, to bring a
person face to face with something.
13) Conflict. Is a type of stress produced when a person is motivated by two or more needs in such a
manner that the situation of one need my mean the dissatisfaction of another one.
14) Manipulation. It means skillful management of events. The workers as a manipulator must bear in
mind three things: (1) the client’s right and need to be involved both in deciding and doing, (2) the
client’s ability to participate; (3) the distinction between those activities that are appropriate for the
workers and those that are appropriate for the client.
15) Andragogy. According to Malcolm Knowles, andragogy is the art and science of helping adults to
learn.
16) Consciousness – raising. It means the arousing of man’s positive self-concept in relation to the
environment and society through a liberating education which treats learners as active agents rather
than passive recipient of learning.

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II. SOCIAL WELFARE POLICY AND PROGRAM

1. HISTORY OF SOCIAL WELFARE

Historical and Philosophical Evolution of Social Welfare

A. BEGINNING IN ANCIENT TIMES

1. Helping the needy and the distressed is an old civilization itself although not necessarily on a formal
organized basis.
2. In ancient China refuge was provided for the sick and the poor; also, provisions for distributing
clothing and feeding the unfortunate.
3. In Greece and Rome there were “Xenodochia” or quest houses for the custody and care of the various
classes for the unfortunate.
4. Almsgiving was recognized by the religious duly or means of obtaining grace for the giver.

It was only slightly more than 100 years ago that the magnitude of social problems made it
necessary to organize under private and public initiative service for the needy

Problems of distribution, maladjustment, physical and mental illness were dealt with by

1st the family and the tribe

2nd the church
3rd private philanthropy
4th community
5th the government
B. OLD WORLD BACKGROUND
(European Beginnings)

1. Religious motivation became the most powerful incentive for benevolence and charity, particularly
as the Jewish and Christian teachings.

Charity was motivated primarily by the desire of merits of good deeds for eternal life.

According to Christian primarily by the charity gave the recipient of aims dignity whereas
almsgiving ennobled the generous giver.

1.1 The early Christians helped one another when facing poverty.
1.2 Medieval church entrusted the administration charity to the bishops, local priests and the
deacons.
1.3 With acceptance of Christianity as state religion, institutions for the poor were establish in
monasteries, serving as orphanages, as homes for the old, the stick, and the handicapped, and as
refuges for the homeless.

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 Missionaries devoted their time to missionary teaching, collecting aims and distributing
relief for the destitute. They established charitable institutions.
Later on, institutions were replaced by “hospitals” for old and sick persons, orphans, abandoned
children, pregnant woman.

2. Beginning concepts of social welfare

2.1 Beginning concepts of social welfare

The prototype of the modern day community chest Martin Luther conceived that there should
be a “common chest” for the receipt of food, money, and clothing to assist the needy.
The responsibility for the collection of funds and the distribution of the relief to the destitute,
the stick and orphans was assumed by local authorities, but the church wardens played the
leading role in relief administration.

2.2 Individualization

During the 16th century the Spanish philosopher, Juan Luis de Vives advanced the idea that
the fate of individual poor deserved attention there should be investigation of the social
conditions of every pauper family. He recommended that aid be provided through vocational
training, employment, and rehabilitation instead of the customary distribution of alms.

2.3 Hamburg Experiment (1788)

Professor Busch, commissioner for public relief introduced a district system of investigation
and distribution of relief to individual paupers through volunteer committees. The poor were
interviewed and the individual needs of each family were determined. Children and youth were
trained in elementary courses and an industrial school was attached to the central orphan asylum.

2.4 Military workhouse (1790)

Was established in Munich in Benjamin Thompson, later Count of Rumford to prevent

begging by able-bodied paupers. The workhouse manufactured clothing for the army by utilizing
the employable poor.

Both the Hamburg and the Munich relief systems were financed by taxation and by
collections of voluntary gifts.

2.5 Elberfeld system (19853)

The city of Elberfeld introduced the idea of financing relief exclusive by public taxation.

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 2.6 Daughters of Charity (1933)

Were the forerunners of social work. The organization was founded by St. Vincent de Paul
who recruited young women of the peasant class for charitable work. They were trained in nursing
the poor.

Father Vincent de Paul was most important reformer of the charities of the Catholic Church
during the 17th century.

C.ENGLISH SOCIAL WELFARE

1. Philosophical base

1.1Religious foundation

In medieval England care of the poor was an activity of the church. The main motive for almsgiving
as the salvation of the soul of the donor. Consequently, the almsgiver had little concern for the human being
who receive charity. The church devoted from ¼ to 1/3 of the lilhes and offering collected from parishioners
for charity.

1.2 Early charities

1.2.1. Relief to the destitute was fist distributed by the priest of the parish, with the help of the church
wardens and deacons.

1.2.2 In the 13th and 14th centuries, religious orders and church institutions relieved the parish churches from
most of the duties of caring for the poor.

1.2.3 From the 12tn and 15th century the work of the church was supplemented by the relief activities of the
guilds. Craft and merchant guilds, rural fraternities, and social or church guilds were organized primarily
for the purpose of mutual self-help, brotherhood and fellowship.

2. Political foundation

The English (Elizabethan) poor law of 1601 remained for a long time the basis of English social
welfare.it was a codification of preceding poor relief regulations starting with the statute of laborers in 13 th.

Its salient points were:

1) Primarily responsibility for the care of the poor belonged to the individual’s family and relatives.
2) Those who would not supported by relatives had to be cared for by the parish or the local community.
3) Only the poor who were bona fide residents of the parish were eligible for assistance.
4) The parish must maintain the impotent poor from voluntary contributions of the parishioners through
collections.
5) A general tax was levied to provide “poor tax “ and was the main source for the financing of poor
relief.

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 In England up to the early part of the 20th century personal failure was considered tha main cause of
poverty.

The poor law distinguished three (3) classes of poor :a)the able bodied poor ;b) the impotent poor ,
and c)dependent children.

3. Emerging concepts of social welfare

3.1 principle of investigation

Thomas chalmers (1780-1847), a parish minister in Scotland introduced the philosophy Of

philosophy of personal , parochial relief. He organized a program of private charity on the principle of
neighbourly aid. He developed the principle of investigation of each case of destitution on an individual
basis and of attempting a solution to the cause of distress, he stressed that a personal interest in the fate of
the destitute is essential.

3.2 individual approach (prototype of casework)

Fifty years after chalmer’s pioneer work, the London charity organization society. Organized
a program of relief based of his idea, and laid the foundation of the individual approach in the social work
now known as “casework”.

3.3Social Reform

Edwin chadwick, the first pioneer in public hygiene, supervised investigations into the
causes of poverty and the means of an effective social reform. He recommended a system of government
providing under central direction decent aid to the poor, a sound public health protection, adequate housing,
recreation , and public schools for the entire population. He was ahead of his time. It was many decades
before his vision became an accepted concept of society.

3.4 Charity Organization Society

The C.O.S encouraged the growth of private charities, the giving of donations and bequest in their
behalf, and the initiative among the volunteers for bringing individual aid to families in economic distress.

The C.O.S believes that the individual was responsible for his poverty and that the acceptance of
public relief destroyed the self-respect of pauper and leads him to subsist on aims. The pauper should
therefore be asked to exert all his abilities to maintaining himself.

The C.O.S use will-to-do Volunteers to give aid to the poor but their main emphasis was to exert
moral influence that would the way of life of the poor.

The example of the London C.O.S of 1869 was followed in other cities in England and the United
States. It developed cooperation between poor relief and private charities, succeeding in eliminating some

39
fraudulent set ups, prevented duplication of support, and strengthened the concept of rehabilitation of the
poor. It formed the groundwork for casework in individual aid, and community organization.

Settlement house (prototype of the modern-day community center)

It was introduced in London during the latter half of the 19 th century and the first one was called
Toynbee Hall. Its basic purpose was to establish contact between the educated men and women and the
poor for their mutual benefit, so that by common work and studies they could exercise a cultural influence
beyond the teaching of special subjects.it reached out to children and adults.

3.6 Social Research

Social research was a third important factor that influenced the social philosophy and the practice
of poor relief in England. The most important among the surveys was that made by Charles Booth started
in 1886. The study showed that one third of the London population was living on or below the” poverty
line”. These findings disproved the previous theory that poverty was always the fault of individual.

The studies should that the deterrent features of the poor laws were no solution, and that human
suffering from destitution was often created by insufficient wages, environment, and inadequate, housing
and unhealthy sanitary equipment.

The finding of social research showed the necessary of introducing more effective measures of social
reform.

4. Twentieth century developments

4.1 Beveridge report -1941

The Beveridge Report, named after the man who headed the committee which prepared the report,
is the basis of the present social security program of England.

Its underlying philosophy is that the British people should secured against want and other social
evils, and that security could be rendered while preserving the personal freedom, enterprises , and
responsibility of the individual of his family.

It declared that the goal of social security was to guarantee a basic level of income for every citizen
with his own efforts, so that his initiative to secure for himself and his family more than a mere subsistence
minimum should not be settled.

4.2 England’s Social Security program

The present structure of the British social accuracy programs follows the recommending of
the Beveridge report. It consists of;

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 4.2.1 Social insurance:

Health insurance, unemployment insurance, old age and invalidity insurance, workman’s
compensation, and special grants for marriage, child birth, and funeral expenses.

4.2.2 Family allowances:

Upon application these are paid to every family with two or more children under 16 years of age
without regard to financial condition of the family. It represents government support to parents in the
bringing out of the children.

4.2.3 Public assistance:

Consist of:

(a) Financial assistance to persons in economic needs; and

(b) Institutional and individual services

D. AMERICAN SOCIAL WELFARE

American social welfare was founded on the concept of the English poor law which remained the

Basis for public. Welfare in the U.S up to the end of 19th century. Paupers, beggars and vagrants were
regarded as a criminals. Whatever the cause of his distress, the pauper was regarded as a morally deficient
person.

Today the principle continues to be upheld that the individuals is primarily responsible for his
welfare but the community should establish a basic measure of security in areas beyond the individuals
control.

1. Historical development of American government social welfare

1.1 first phase: Poor relief-almshouses
relief was given to paupers in various ways:
1) Outdoor relief to paupers in their own homes;
2) Farming out to the lowest bidder to undertook to care for a single(pauper);
3) Contract, usually with the lowest bidder for the care of all paupers in the given
locality;
4) Care in almshouses which was under the direct control of public official’s; and
5) Indenture or “binding out” a form of apprenticeship.

The cost of poor relief was met by the poor tax and later by public taxes.

1.2 Second phase: State (public) institutional for special group

41
 These programs were designed to remove some groups of inmates from the undifferentiated
misery of incarceration in the local almshouses and indicated recognition of a special claim these persons
had on the sympathies of the community. Institutions were set up for:

1) Care of the insane

2) Care of the mentally deficient
3) Care of the blind
4) Care of the deaf and deaf-mute

1.3 Third phase : State Board of Charities and corrections

The purpose was state supervision of administrative of institutional care. The first state board
was organized in Massachusetts in 1863.it emphasized the family system by placing children and adults in
the community whenever it was not absolutely necessary to keep them in almshouses, hospitals or asylums.

These state agencies had the power:

1) To recommend institutional changes of the legislature

2) To compel the institutions to carry out the intent of the relevant statues as interpreted by
the state agency.

1.4 Fifth phase: Federal government entry into social welfare

The welfare pattern throughout nation on the eve of the great depression was a patchwork
consisting of local, country, state, and private activities, three fourths of all the aid to indigents was provided
under public measures. However, the service were far from adequate, they were in real sense simply a
preferential form of poor relief.

The great depression of the 1930s hit the U.S with a jarring impact. Millions of unemployed
had no place to go and there was a mass destitution. Now the federal government had to step in with a series
of emergency relief measures. Previous to this the states were mainly responsible for social welfare.

1) Emergency belief and reconstructions Act (1932) - to assist the industry and agriculture,
to provide funds to states for relief work.
2) Civilian conservation corps-1933, to provide works opportunities for young men in the
conservation of natural resources.
3) Federal Emergency Relief Act-1933, provided for grants to states for relief of
unemployment.
4) Work Progress Administration -1935, a large scale program of relief through
employment in publicly sponsored projects.

All these measures were considered temporary. It was planned for the federal government

42
To withdraw for social welfare as soon as the crisis was over. What happened however was that in the end
the federal government assumed the major responsibility for social welfare, culminating in the passage of
the social security Act in 1935.

1.6 Sixth Phase: Social security

In 1935 the Social Security Act was passed at the instance of President Franklin Roosevell.
It changed the emphasis from limited aid to a few needy persons to a comprehensive system for the entire
population. It brought much broader resources to bear upon the problems of social welfare. It was a new
approach to the problem of income maintenance in times of crisis. It consists of 3 parts:

1) Contributory social insurance:

Death, disability, illness in old age, retirement
2) Public Assistance:
Old age, aid to the blind, aid to the disabled, aid to families with dependent children, Medicaid
3) Aid to the states for service programs:
Child welfare; crippled children, retarded children

1.7 Seventh phase: War on poverty

In 1964 the Economic Opportunity Act “Was passed the war on poverty” became the rallying
point. The Act was specifically geared to deal with the problems of poverty, education, manpower training,
mental health, vocational rehabilitation, public health and medical care, housing and urban development.
However many of the programs started during this period have been phase out or cut back for lack of federal
support.

2. Major developments in U.S Private social welfare

2.1 Charity Organization Societies

1) A “friendly visitor” was installed in order to determine the need of every applicant and the necessary
measures for each case. (Pioneering in casework)

2) Training school for applied philanthropy was set up in New York in 1898. The plan was formulated by
Mary Richmond in 1897. (Pioneering in social work education)

First Phase

1) Outdoor relief to paupers in their own homes;

2) Farming out to the lowest bidder wo undertook to care for a single “pauper”;
3) Contract, usually with the lowest bidder for the care of all paupers in a given locality;
4) Care in almshouses which was under the direct control of public officials; and
5) Indenture or “binding out” a form of apprenticeship

43
 The cost of poor relief was met by the poor tax and later by public taxes.

1.2 Second Phase: State (public) Institutional for special groups.

These programs were designed to remove some groups of inmates from the undifferentiated
misery of incarceration in the local almshouses and indicated recognition of a special claim these
persons had on the sympathies of the community,institution were set up for:

1) Care of the insane

2) Care of the mentally deficient
3) Care of the blind
4) Care of the deaf and deaf-mute

1.3 Third phase: State Board of Charities and corrections

The purpose was state supervision of the administration of institutional care. The first state
board was organized in Massachusetts in 1863. It emphasized the family system by placing children
and adults in the community whenever it was not absolutely necessary to keep them in almshouses,
hospitals, or asylums.

These state agencies had the power:

1) To recommend institutional changes of the legislature

2) To compel the institutions to carry out the intent of the relevant statues as interpreted by
the state agency.

1.4 Fourth phase: Aid to the needy without institutionalization

Special measure were enacted by state legislators to meet the needs of special groups without
placing them in institutions.

Pensions for the blind – Illinois, 1903

Mother’s aid – Missouri, 1911
Old age pension – Montana, 1923

In 1909 President Theodore Roosevelt – called the First White House conference on
Dependent Children. It inspired the creation of the U.S. Children’s Bereau. This was the first tacit
assumption of federal responsibility for social welfare.

1.5 Fifth phase: Federal government entry into social welfare

The welfare pattern throughout the nation on the eve of the Great Depression was a
patchwork consisting of local, country, state, and private activities. Three fourths of all the aid to indigents
was provided under public measures. However th

44
 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL WELFARE

PIONEERS OF SOCIAL WORK AND SOCIAL WELFARE IN THE PHILIPPINES

BALTAZAR, VICTOR J. (1914-1984)

He was the moving spirit behind the introduction of vocational rehabilitation as a field of
social welfare. A veteran of World War II, Mr. Baltazar was the chief architect of the growth of
rehabilitation program which now includes all types of the physically as well as the socially handicapped.
His contribution to social work was the introduction of the multi-disciplinary or team approach to the
rehabilitation of client. He also introduced the vocational training center, a facility of which there now four
– one national, located in Barranca, Quezon City and the three regional center in Dagupan City, Cebu City
and Zamboanga. Mr. Baltazar received an AB degree from Ateneo de Manila University and was fellow in
Special Educational in Rehabilitation and Guidance at Columbia University, 1952-53.

DE JOYA, PETRA R. (1913-1987)

In 1949 she became the chief of the Division of Public Assistance of the Social Welfare
Commission. In 1954 she was invited to join the University of the Philippines to teach social work courses
in the college of Arts and Sciences. She was appointed as first head of the Department of Social Work when
it was created in 1956. She became the project director of UNICEF-Assisted Social Services Project of the
Social Welfare Administration (formerly SWC). Ms. De Joya lobbied with others for the passage of the
Social Work Board Examiners where she served for a term of three years. Before she retired she was the
Deputy Director of the UN Social Welfare and Development Center for Asia and the Pacific (SWDCAP)
then located in Metro Manila. She held undergraduate and graduate degrees in education of Philippines
Women’s University. In 1948 she obtained a master’s degree in Social Work from the Catholic University
of America in Washington DC.

FABELLA, JOSE MD. (1988-1945)

The “Father of Philippine Social Welfare, he was the commissioner of Public Welfare. A
doctor of medicine, he also devoted much of his time to public welfare concerns. He supervised and directed
the planning and development of Welfareville institution. He was the moving spirit in the establishment of
the “Settlement House” which has through the years provided temporary shelter to needy children and
women. He lent his support to Associated Charities of Manila. Through his effort this agency was later
absorbed by the Bureau of Public Welfare to form the nucleus of its Division of Public Assistance; the
forerunner of what is now known as the Bureau of Family and Community Welfare.

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KATIGBAK, MARIA KALAW

As a senator (1961-67) Dr. Katigbak authored and sponsored RA 4373 entitled “An act top
regulate the practice of Social Work and Operations of Social Work Agencies in the Philippines and for
other Purposes” better known as the Social Work Law. She was the first head of the Department of Catholic
Social Work, a graduate school department of the University of Santo Thomas which she herself initiated
and organized. A holder of an MA in Literature from university of Michigan, Senator Katigbak obtained an
MA Social Work from the University of the Philippines and a Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of
Santo Thomas.

LAUDICO, MINERVA G. (1912-)

Educator, pioneer, social and civic action worker Dr. Laudico introduced social work
education in the Philippines. She was instrumental in opening a social work courses at the Centro Escolar
University in 1948- first of its kind in the country. She finished Social Service of the Catholic University
of America in Washington DC. In 1953, she was conferred as honorary doctor’s degree by the Baguio
University. She was now Vice-President for Academic Affairs of Centro Escolar University.

MARTINEZ, JOSEFA JARA (1894-1987)

She was the first Filipina to obtained formal education in Social Work having earned a
diploma from the New York School of Social Work in 1921. She organized the first graduate school of
social work now known as the Philippine School of Social Work an affiliate of the Philippine Women’s
University. She was the first Filipina executive secretary of the Associated Charities of Manila. In 1934,
she became the secretary of the Young Women’s Christian Association (YCWA). After the World War II
she assisted on the conceptualization and establishment of the Community Chest of Greater Manila, the
Council of Welfare Agencies and the Association of Red Feather Agencies.

PEREZ, ASUNCION ARRIOLA (1983-1967)

She was the very first administrator of Social Welfare. She also became the executive
secretary of the Associated Charities of Manila for many years. She served as the director of the Bureau of
Public Welfare during the war and was appointed commissioner when the bureau was converted into the
Social Welfare Commission in 1947 and ultimately the head of the Social Welfare Administration. From
1948 to 1950 she was the chairman of the President’s Action Committee on Social Amelioration (PACSA),
a creation of President Quirino. She retired from government service in 1954 and served as president of the
Wesleyan University in Cabanatuan City in 1967.

SILVA, FELICIDAD ALVAREZ (1986-1983)

She was best known for her apostolate work, having served for more than fifty years in
various capacities in connection with the mission of the Catholic Church. In 1928, she was appointed
secretary of Federation Catholica de Mujeres de Filipinas now known as the Catholic Women’s League
(CWL) of the Philippines. She pioneered in putting up of social work services and social action activities

46
under Catholic auspices. She introduced casework and counselling services for women or girls in distress
and provided assistance to those with family and marital problems, juvenile delinquency and
unemployment. Before the war she organized and supervised four night school sponsored by the CWL to
enable your women and girls to study. She successfully fought against the reopening of the Red Light
District in Manila and was active in social action groups exposing the motels which were exploiting young
women and girls. As a catholic action worker, she was a pioneer of “pro-life” advocate opposing birth
control almost single-handed by writing a series of article and speeches against it. She received her Master
of Arts degree with a professional certificate in Social Work from the National Catholic University of
America in Washington DC in 1925.

VERGARA, JOSE MD (1984-)

He is a doctor of medicine who became a pioneer in the field of youth welfare and built a
successful career in the public services. Three innovations in this area are attributed to him. The very first
was the establishment of the Child Guidance Clinic as a special service for juvenile offenders. The second
was the introduction of psychiatric concepts in the treatment of juvenile offenders. This took place when he
was a designated as acting chef of the national Psychopathic (now Mental) Hospital where he served for a
year and half. His third important work was the establishment of community health and social centers in
the depressed areas. Dr. Vergara finished Medicine at the University of the Philippines in 1921. In 1925-
26, he trained in Psychiatry under a Rockfeller Foundation Fellowship in the US.

1. Pre – Spanish times

Basic concepts: Bayanihan Damayan

Source of policies: Maraglas code
Kalantiao Code

2. Spanish times (1521-1898)

2.1 Basic Philosophy: Religion was the motivating force for charity.

2.2 Forms of charity: almsgiving, charitable institutions, and hospitals for the poor.

2.3 Sources of funding: Religious orders contributions and donations of rich individuals,
subsidy from the Spanish government (in the Philippines and in Spain).

2.4 Significant developments – institutions established by religious orders.

1) San Lazaro Hospital (1578) – took care of indigent beggars and sick “natives”.

2) San Juan de Dios Hospita (1596) – took care of indigent and sick Spaniards

3) Hospicio de San Jose (1810) – for the care of orphans and the aged

47
 4) Asilo de San Vicente de Paul (1885) – for the care and protection of indigent and
orphaned girls

5) Santa Isabel – school for indigent girls

6) San Juan de Letran – school for indigent boys

For the indigent outside of the institutions almsgiving was regularly practiced by
the churches and convents and the affluent individuals and families.

3. First Philippine Republic (1896-1902)

Tandang Sora (Mechora Aquino) took care of the sick and wounded and feed soldiers.

Hilaria Aguinaldo, wife of the First Republic introduced the concept of the Red Cross.

4. American Colonial Period (1899 – 1946)

4.1 Philosophy

4.1.1 Birth of voluntary organizations for social welfare

Example: Associated Charities (1917)

4.1.2 Public Welfare – beginning assumption by the government of its responsibility for
social welfare

4.1.3 “Parens palriae” – child welfare concept that it is the duty of the government to
place children in better circumstances, whenever the parents could not provide
adequate care themselves.

4.2 Government Social Welfare

Pre – war trends, growth and development of child care programs and services.

4.2.1.1 Public Welfare Board (1915)

A government board was set up to coordinate, supervise, and regulate

the work of all charitable agencies and organizations, individuals and groups,
public and private, engaged in “social services” work.

4.2.1.2 Government Child Welfare

1) Government Orphanage (1917) First Government Orphanage

It was spurred by the passage in the U.S. of the Jones Law in 1916. It
enunciated the principle of church and state. Henceforth the government

48
 could no longer support the private institutions. It was constrained to put
up its own child-caring institutions.

2) Child Welfare Laws

Led to the establishment of more child caring institutions:

- For orphaned, abandoned, and neglected children

- For feeble – minded children
- For the non-leprous children of leprous parents
- For the care, training, and treatment of juvenile delinquents
- Welfareville (1925) – seat of all government child – caring
institutions located in Mandaluyong Rizal

During this period Dr. Jose Fabella, Director and later Secretaryof
Health was the pioneer in public welfare, later acknowledged as the Father of
Philippine Social Welfare.”

3) Bureau of Public Welfare (1941) under the department of Health and

Public Welfare.

Functions:

- To coordinate, supervise, and relate all social service acivities

- To provide social service to children with special needs
- To provide public assistance to need individuals and families

4) Public Assitance Service

On May 31, 1941 Pres. Manuel Quezon issued an executive order

abolishing the Associated Charities and creating it into a “Public
Assistance Service” under the Bureau of Public Welfare.

4.3 Private Social Welfare

Associated Charities Inc. of Manila was established by a group of Manila residents

in 1917. Its objective was to assure community responsibility for a social welfare. It became
the first family welfare agency and the first to use “casework” in the Philippines.

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5. Japanese Occupation

Private individuals groups and organizations undertook relief for prisoners of war, displaced
persons, etc.

Josefa Llanes Escoda, president of the National Federation of Women’s Clubs who
undertook and organized relief work was incarcerated in Fort Santiago for underground activities.

So was Asuncion A. Perez, then Director of the Bureau of Public Welfare.

Post – Liberation Years (Relief 7 Rehabilitation Period) (1945 – 1950)

6.1 Trends

1) First assumption by the government of the major responsibility for social welfare

a) Establishment and growth of the public assistance program

b) Emergence of a national social welfare agency

2) Factors that prompted government social welfare

a) World War II
b) Social unrest (dissident movement)

6.2 War Relief and Rehabilitations

6.2.1 PCAU (1945) – Philippines Civilian Affairs Unit of the U.S. army distributed
relief supplies during the period of liberation

6.2.2 PRATRA (1945 – 1950) – Philippine Relief and Trade Rehabilitation

Administration, a trade establishing agency which used its profits for relief.

Rice Wage Formula – it was in connection with PRATRA that Irene

Ellis Murphy, UN Consultant on Social Welfare and her group developed the
Rice Wage Formula.

The Rice Wage Formula consisted of the number 145. According to

the Murphuy team it took the equivalent of 145 gantas of rice a month for a
family of 5 to be able to meet its basic needs. Multiply the current priece of
rice by 145 and the result is the income in pesos needed by the family to live
a month.

6.2.3 WRO (1945 – 1956) War Relief Office – for the relief and rehabilitation of
indigent victims of war, specially unrecognized guerillas, their widows and
orphans. Created by Congress, the law was the first public assistance program
in fact and not only in name.

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 6.3 Social Amelioration
6.3.1 PACSA (1948 – 1950) – Presidents Action Committee on Social
Amelioration was established by President Elpidio Quirino to counteract
social unrest (dessidency). It had a six – point program: a) health, b)
education, c) social welfare, d) agriculture, e) public works, and f) financing.

It is considered the forerunner of the Philippine community

development program.

Asuncion A. Perez was appointed Chairman of PACSA and became

the first woman member of the President’s cabinet.
6.4 Public Welfare

6.4.1 The Bureau of Public Welfare was revived in 1946

6.4.2 Social Welfare Commission was created absorbing the Bureau of

Public Welfare. The War Relief Office was placed under the supervision of
the Social Welfare Commission

6.5 Private Social Welfare

6.5.1 CWAPI (1949) – Council of Welfare Agencies of the Philippines, Inc.,

coordinating and planning body for social welfare. Its prime mover was
Minerva Laudico.

6.5.2 Community Chest (1949) – Community Chest of Greater Manila was

organized for joint fund raising and coordinated financing. Its prime mover
was Irene Ellis Murphy, UN adviser on Social Welfare.

6.5.3 PASW (1948) – Philippine Association of Social Workers was organized. Its
charter members were: (1) Josefa Jara Martines (2) Carmen Montinola Luz,
(3) Agapita Murillo, (4) Minerva G. Laudico, (5) Olympia Pia Lozano, (6)
Flora Ruis Palomer, (7) Felicidad A. Silva. Its main objective was to upgrade
and maintain the standards of the social work profession.

7. Stabilization of government social welfare (1959s)

7.1 SWA – Social Welfare Administration was created by President Elpidio Quirino on Jan. 3,
1951 as the government agency for social welfare. It absorbed PACSA and SWC

Asuncion A. Perez was appointed first Social Welfare Administrator.

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 7.1.1 Its program consisted of:

1) Child Welfare

a) residual care
b) child aid and placement
c) probation and parole

2) Public Assistance

a) for indigent war victims

b) for victims of dissident operations
c) for victims of natural disaster and calamities

3) OVR (1954) – office of vocational rehabilitation

The Office of Vocational Rehabilitation of the Handicapped was set
up by law under the SWA.

8. Strengthening of governmental social welfare (1960s)

8.1 Revitalization of Child Welfare

8.1.1 UNICEF assisted Social Service Project was set up in 1961 to improve social service
to children and families as part of the country’s total development program. In 1967
it was integratedd into SWA.

Significance:

1. Revitalization of child welfare (public and private) from

residential care to the strengthening of the family unit (foster home care,
needy children’s services, after-care, etc.)

2. Increased Professionalization of social work

In-service training and study grants for master’s degree

in social work was made available to social workers in public and private
agencies.

8.1.2 Integrated Social Welfare Program

Set up by Mrs. Imelda R. Marcos in 1966 decentralized Welfareville

institutions and modernized institutional care for children.

1) Elsie Gaches Village (1964) – for mental retardates

2) Reception and Study Center (1964)

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 3) Nayon ng Kabataan for orphans

4) Marillac – home for girls with special problems

5) Don Vicente Madrigal Home – for deliquent boys

6) Golden Acres – home for the aged and/or infirm

8.2 Creation of the Department of Social Welfare

On June 15, 1968 President Marcos signed RA 5416 creating the DSW.

8.2.1 Policy: “. . . it is the responsibility of the government to provide a

comprehensive program of social welfare services designed to ameliorate the
conditions of distressed Filipinos, particularly those who are handicapped by reason
of poverty, youth, physical and mental disability, illness and old age or who are
victims of natural calamities, including assistance to the members of the cultural
minorities to facilitate their integration into the body politics.”
8.2.2 Programs:

1) family and child welfare

2) youth welfare
3) rehabilitation of the handicapped
4) general assistance in times of disasters and calamities

On Sept. 8, 1976 the DSW’s name was changed to Department of Social Services
and Development.

8.3 Other developments during this period:

8.3.1 Board Examination for Social Work

RA. 4373 signedon June 19, 1965 regulates the practice of social work
agencies.

Henceforth every individual practicing social work or occupying a position

calling forsocial work functions must:

a) possess at least the degree of Bachelor of Science in Social

Work (BSSW).
b) Must be a registered social worker – having successfully passed the
board examination for social work.

8.3.2 National Workshops for Social Work Education (First – 1967:

Second – 1968; Third – 1969: Fourth – f972; Fifth 1976)

53
 It accomplished 3 things:

1) Redefined the goals of social work education to make it more

realisticc and relevant to national development.
2) Defined the objectives of the undergraduate curriculum and
determined the content of the curricular areas.
3) Defined the objectives of graduate curriculum and determined the
content of the curricular areas.
4) As an offshoot of the First Workshop a Philippine Council of Schools
of Social Work was organized. It is now known as SSWAP, Schools of
Social Work Association of the Philippines. Its main purpose is to
upgrade and maintain standards of social work education.

9. Development Social Welfare (1970s)

9.1 The seventies are focused on the developmental thrust for social welfare
through programs and services that:

9.1.1 Enhance the social functioning of the individual as a human being participating in,
contributing to and benefiting from the country's development.

9.1.2 Contribute dierectly to the development process such as those thay

help improve the levels of living and assure a more equitable distribution of income
and wealth.

9.2 Social welfare provides supportive and complementary services to the following
strategies for social development:

9.2.1 health and nutrition

9.2.2 population planning
9.2.3 education
9.2.4 manpower development
9.2.5 employment
9.2.6 housing, slum clearance and relocation
9.2.7 community development

2. SOCIAL WELFARE SERVICES

I. Conceptual Framework

Social policies are standing plans.

A social policy is a guide for a settled course of action composed or consisting of collective
decisions directly concerned with promoting the well-being of all part of the population.

54
 Policies are translated into programs and services, thus becoming the instruments by which goals
are achieved.

1. Contemporary events, issues and problems that determine policy

1.1 population explosion

1.2 peace and order
1.3 inflation
1.4 unemployment
1.5 widespread poverty
1.6 unequal distribution of the fruits of developmet

2. Environmental factors that influence the making of policy

2.1 rising expectations

2.2 role of mass media
2.3 science and technology
2.4 industrialization
2.5 urbanization

3. Factors that affect the nature of policy

3.1 needs and resources

3.2 political events/ developments
3.3 values, knowledge, and power

4. Guiding principles for social policy formulation and program development

4.1 Accurate data and documentation are essential to social policy formulation

4.2 Massive problems and limited resources require the setting of priorities and the
determination of short and long term goals

4.3 Institutions and power groups must be restructured for better participation

4.4 Periodic evaluation of programs and services is necessary to make them

responsive to peoples needs

5. Concepts that influence the making of policy

5.1 Welfare is a human right

5.2 Government has the major responsibility for social welfare - seeing to it that
the citizen is protected against the hazards common to man such as illness,
accident, death, loss of income, disasters, etc.

55
 5.3 Social justice at the very minimum is the equitable distribution of benefits and
obligations in society, and compensation for losses and injuries for which the individual
cannot be held personally responsible. It further requires that differential treatment be
justified on the basis of individual needs and capacities.

5.4 Social welfare requires provisions for social defense and control

5.5 Social policies, programs and services must be geared to national development
goals.

5.6 The goal of social and economic developmet is the humane development of all
people.

5.7 Social welfare should be broadened from the well - being of the individual to
the general welfare of the community

5.8 Social welfare strategies should move from the remedial, restorative and
rehabilitative functions for individuals to preventive and developmental approaches for the
large segments of population.

5.9 There should be balanced urban and rural development. They should
complement/support and parallel each other.

5.10 Coordination between and among government agencies, as well as private

agencies should be horizontal and vertical (whenever appropriate).

5.12 Social policy, programs and services must be adapted to local conditions and
take into consideration the culture of the people and differences in social and economic
sub-culture groups.

5.12 Social policies and goals should have as their bases of the social philosophy and
values of the given society.

II. Fields of Social Welfare (Public & Private) in the Philippines.

1. Public assistance for those in need

- is financial/material aid extended by the government to individuals/families

who do not have sufficient resources to maintain themselves. It may consist of:

1.1 aid to dependent children

1.2 aid to destitute families
1.3 institutional care for the aged, blind, handicapped and disabled
1.4 categorical aid to the needy

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2. Family welfare service
- are programs and services designed to develop / improve the problem -
solving and coping capacities of families and individual members so as to improve and
strengthen the quality of family life.

2.1 Family Life Education and Counseling

This service provides members of families either individuals or as a group,
information and counseling to engaged couples to develop their awareness of family
life.

2.2 Family assistance and counseling services

This includes cash assistance and counseling services to families and

belonging to the lowest income bracket whose sources of income is lost or in danger
of being lost because of death, illness, and abandonment. These services are provided
to enable the recipients to meet their basic needs, and maintain family unity while
they are establishing an income producing activity as an effort towards the regaining
of self - support.

2.3 Family Planning Information and Counseling Services

There are supportive services which involve communication, educational and

counseling activities intended for couples to enable them to decide on the number of
children they can care for; to accept and practice family planning as a way of life,
and to uphold responsible parenthood.

2.4 Workshop for Income Maintenance

This service is intended to enable family heads and other adult members of
families to earn while learning, acquiring skills in preparation for open or self-
employment. Workshops are organized for this purpose.

2.5 Self - employment Assistance Program

This is a developmental scheme which involves the provision of capital

assistance to the unemployed/underemployed family heads who are not eligible for
financial aid from other schemes of economic advancement programs and services
of regular financing institutions. The capital assistance is intended to finance an
income - producing project which would become the source of economic support for
the family. The assistance also provides opportunities for the recipients to develop
positive work habits and attitudes, enhance their capacities to utilize labor and
income - oriented community services gain occupational and business management
skills and improve their life styles.

57
 2.6 Community Organization and resource Development

This involves the organization of viable community groups and groups of

families for participative problem - solving, decision - making, leadership training
social action, self - help, and community improvement projects through the
maximum utilization of community resources.

2.7 Volunteer Resource Development

This includes all activities undertaken to identify and develop viable channels
for volunteer service for family and child welfare programs; to develop and
strengthen volunteer service; to enable volunteers to derive full satisfaction from
their work and are willing to sustain their chosen volunteer service.

3. Child welfare

- Services secure the protection and well - being of all children in their physical, intellectual,
social and emotional development.

3.1 Programs for the Development of Needy Pre-School Children

The effects of being born and growing up in poverty include a greater chance of
mental retardation, less good physical health, less adequate socialization and preparation for
entering school which impair chances for success in school and in later life. The objective
of the program for the social development of the pre-school children is to provide
opportunities to have a proper start in life through an integrated program of social
development and nutritional feeding in the Day Care Services Centers.

3.2 Day Care Services

Refers to the arrangement whereby children below 6 years old are provided part-time
substitute parental care in Day Care Centers while their working mothers are outside of the
home. They are also provided supplemental feeding and opportunities for physical
development, creative group experiences whereby skills in communication, human relations,
and activities in daily life are learned and developed.

3.3 Child Placement Service

These are arrangements whereby minors who are neglected, abandoned, abused,
orphaned, or destitute are provided substitute home placement and parental care.

4.Community improvement projects.

4.2.1 Population Awareness & Sex Education

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 4.2.2 Drug Information Program
4.2.3 Leadership Training Activities
4.2.4 Community Volunteer Service
4.2.5 Social & Cultural Activities, Sports & Recreation
4.2.6 Nutrition Education

4.3 Special Service - for youth with special needs

4.3.1 Residential services for:

1) the care, protection, and rehabilitation of deliquent boys age 9

to 16 years

2) residential treatment for deliquent girls, unmarried mothers,

victims of white slavery, drug addiction, etc.

3) the training and rehabilitation of the mentally retarded and physically

handicapped such as the epileptics, post - folio victims and those affected by
cerebral paisy.

4) the care, training, and rehabilitation of the youth with behavior and emotional
problems

5) youth awaiting court disposition of their cases (detention

centers/temporary shelters)

4.3.2 Non-residential services

1) Probation and after care

- youth offenders are placed out to responsible individuals or families

in the community to help them attain emotional and social adjustment.

2) Multi-purpose centers

- recreational and cultural activities

-economic advancement projects
- sheltered employment
-leadership seminars

3) Multi-purpose counseling and referral service

Available to the youth with personal, social, education, training, and

employment problems.

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5. Rehabilitation of the Disabled & Special Groups

5.1 Definition

5.1.1 Disabled

Blind, deaf mute, orthopedically handicapped, other handicapped.

5.1.2 Special Groups

Released, prisoners, drug dependents, alcoholic, socially disadvantaged

women, negative Hansenites mentally retarded, recovered mental patients,
mendicants and aged.

5.2 Programs

5.2.1 Vocational Rehabililation

Continuous and coordinated process of rehabilitation which provides

assessment and guidance, social adjustment, vocational training and placement
services.

1) Centers based training service

Clients undergo vocational training rehabilitation centers for a certain period

(maximum of one year) oftentimes with a daily training allowance or stipend.

2) Community based training service

Clients in areas where there are no existing rehabilitation centers undergo

vocational training in any available training facility in the community. Trainees
receive training allowance or stipend.

3) Agriculture training extension service

Sometimes an agency may provide the opportunity for its clients to undergo
extensive and intensive training along all or certain aspects of agriculture. Training
allowance is also provided.

5.2.2 Social Rehabilitation

This concerns the resocialization and re-orientation of clients attitudes,

values, and purpose in life in preparation for his total rehabilitation.

Services:

60
 1) Demonstration of rehabilitation projects to clients specially those belonging
to the special groups.

2) Substitute home placement and after care

Special community service

5.2.3 Selecting Employment

This is concerned with the individualized process of counseling and

placement to find suitable jobs for the disabled groups in orger to achieve a gainful
occupation.

Employment outlets:

1) Open employment or employment: in open competitive

industry.

2) Self - employment or employment whereby the individual is

engaged in a business of his own

3) Sheltered employment or employment in sheltered workshops

for those who are not able to work in open industry due to limited capacities
or severe handicap. It also provides training toe enable members to gain or
regain sufficient competence and confidence to move on to other employment
outlets.

Finance Assistance

- is extended to facilitate employment and for the rehabilitation of the

disabled and special groups.

1) Settlement Fund Loan

To facilitate client's placement in gainful occupation. It may consist of :

- subsistence grant for a limited period or on the job try out

- or a loan for the procurement of limited tools necessary for

placement.

- and/or for subsidizing cooperatives such as sheltered workshop

enterprises.

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 2) Self-Employment Assitance Program (SEAP)
A specified amount is given to lient/s as initial capital to assist him /
them to engage in income producing projects.

3) Revolving Fund

A bigger sum is extended to a sheltered workshop or income

producing projects of a rehabilitation facility to be used as a revolving fund
or "working capital fund."

4) Grants-in-aid

Outright financial grant extended to voluntary groups/ agencies and

local governments to supplement their resources for the effective, efficient,
and economical implementation of rehabilitation programs for the disabled
and special groups.

5.2.4 Community Rehabilitation Action Programs

This concerns the bringing together in partnership all segments of the

community: the poor and the elite, government and non- government in order that all
may significally and meaningfully be involved in initiating, developing, carrying out
or supporting rehabilitation programs for the disabled and the special groups.

1) Preventive Education & Community Information

The production and dissemination of materials and information on

rehabilitation as well as the interpretation of agency programs. May be
implemented through meetings and discussions, lectures, the mass media,
pamphlets, brochures and posters.

2) Community outreach

The mobilization and/ or organization of Volunteers, individuals or

groups to be involve din the development and implementation of
rehabilitation programs. Involvement may be in terms of providing
manpower, money and material resources and the special groups to regain
self-dignity and self-sufficiently

3) International Relation

The establishment of contacts and cooperation with individuals and

groups outside of the country as well as international agencies and
organization for possible support.

Some agencies for the disabled and special Group:

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 1) National Vocational Rehabilitation Center (DSSD) for intensive vocation
rehabilitation.

2) Jose Fabella Center (DSSD)

Central Reception and Study Centers for Adults with special needs.
Also diagnostic center and temporary residence for men and women age 21
and above who present varied roblems

3) Golden Acres (DSSD)

Provides resedentiall care, social occupational, vocational,

recreational, health and medical services to the needy and unattached senior
citizens from 60 years and above.

4) Welfare Home for Released Prisoners and Recovered Mental Patients

‘
Provides temporary shelter to make released prisoners and recovered
mental patients from 21 ywars above who are faced with problems of
adjusting to family and community life.

6. Rehabilitation of individuals/ Families/ Groups/ Community in Crisis Situation

- Victims of natural and man-made disasters

- Displaced families: squatters, evacuees, and returnees
- Individual in crisis-situation
- National minorities
- The immediate aim is for help these groups cope with their crisis.

6.1 Emergency Phase

6.1.1 Rescue and evacuation

6.1.2 Emergency assistance of food, clothing, medicine, etc.
6.1.3 Temporary-Shelter
6.1.4 Transportation assistance
6.1.5 Limited financial assistance

6.2 Restoration Phase

6.2.1 Food Program/ Food for Work, Food for Growth, Food incentive
6.2.2 Limited housing assistance for totally and patiently damaged houses
6.2.3 Work orientation/ crop/ craft development
6.2.4 House & Community Enrichment Services

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 1) Resettlement Services
2) Barangay workshops; collaborative orientation for enablers
3) Skills Training Sessions
4) Leadership Training

6.3 Rehabilitation Phase

6.3.1 Self-Employment assistance Program

6.3.2 Food Yielding
6.3.3 Housing assistance on a loan bases (squatter families)
6.3.4 Community kitchen for better nutrition and food management

Disaster agencies: DSSD & PNRC

7. Health and Medical Field

7.1 Nutrition-supplemental feeding

7.2 Family planning
7.3 Care and assistance for indigent patients
7.4 Medical social service for patients in hospitals who may require It.

8. Correctional Services

8.1 Probation and after care for juvenile and criminal offenders
8.2 Social services in penal institution and detention centers

9. Services in penal institution and detention centers

9.1 Vocational training

9.2 Job placement
9.3 Guidance and counseling
9.4 Government Assistance for Education

10. Community Welfare

10.1 Matching needs and resources

10.2 Joint planning (ex. Council of Welfare Agencies in the Philippines- CWAPI)
10.3 Joint fund raising (ex: Community Chest)
10.4 Mobilizing of people’s participation
10.5 Community development/ building (ex: Philippine Business for Social Progress)

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III. Some Social Welfare Agencies

1. International

1.1 Foster Parent’s Plan – extends financial aid principally for a child’s
education

1.2 World Velon – assists needy children through orphanages, school and
family aid program

1.3 Christian Children’s Fund – assistance to children for their education

1.4 Christian Relief Assistance – supplies material assistance to the needy

1.5 UNICEF – Social service for children and their families

2. National

2.1 Department of Social Services and development

2.2 Fosters Parents’ Plan – national branch

2.3 Christians Chldrens fund – national branch

2.4 Philippines National Red Cross

3. Local

3.1 Social services in hospitals

3.2 Social services in juvenile and domestic relations courts
3.3 Orphanage
3.4 Homes
3.5 Social services sponsored by local civic organizations and associations and
associalions like the jaycees, Rotarians, Lions, Women’s Clubs, etc.
3.6 Social services sponsored by the local perish councils.

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 SOCIAL WELFARE IN DEVELOPMENT

I. Conceptual framework

1. Definiton

1.1 Development

- is the process of improving the capability of country’s institutions and value

systems to meet increasing and different demands of a social, cultural, political,as
well as economic character.

- is the pocess whereby a country deliberately fosters economic abundance and

social equity through the orderly and wise utilization of resources so as to attain a better
life for all.

1.2 Economic Development

-Is the expansion of nation’s output or the expansion of a nation’s capability to

produce the goods and services its people need.

1.3 Social development

-refers to the rise of levels of living a more equitable distribution of income and
wealth, a better system of socio- economic stratification and a greater social
mobility.

2. Review of the Changing Concepts of Social Welfare

2.1 Charity to citizen right

-benevolent indiscriminate giving to social rights as citizens of a society.

2.2 Individual welfare concern to social welfare concern

-Special services for special needs to common social contingencies such as

employment, housing, etc.

2.3 Private responsibility to governmental responsibility

-Voluntary social welfare efforts to government function

2.4 Residual to developmental

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 -Professional directed effort through programs and services to meet emergency
needs of ‘needy’ individuals, groups, and communities when they’re incapable of
providing for themselves through basic institutions to the recognition that all
citizens may require social services to develop their capacities to perform
productive roles and achieve and maintain a desirable standard of well- being.

2.5 Social Welfare in human service to social welfare in national development

-Contributing to man’s maximum development for nation building.

-Development of man, his liberation form, forces inside and outside him which
impeded his development for his community and of society as a whole.

3. Development Concepts

3.1 Man’s search for meaning in society

-Survival to socialization/ participation

-Self- awareness to social consciousness
-Marginal man to self- reliant, participating man

3.2 Formation ideologies

3.2.1 the search for the ideal state has led the 20th century man to the formulation of
ideology is a reasonably coherent body ideas concerning to practical means of how
to change and to reform society, based upon a more or less elaborate criticism of
what is wrong with the existing or antecedent society.

3.2.2 Governments may be classified according to ideology based on the degree to which
the government controls and regulates property and economic systems.

1) Capitalist government permits very great, although limited freedom to the

owners of capitals. The means and goods of production are in the hands of
private individuals.

2) In socialism private ownership is permitted but the government regards the

major industries as public utilities – i.e., the major means of productions are
owned by the government. Government in return is expected to provide a
wider range of job opportunities and welfare services.

3) Communism permits no private ownership. Everything belongs to the state.

It is classless society where there is absolute equality.

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 4) According to president Marcos ours is a free enterprise society with an
egalitarian base. (A Society of Equals).

3.3 Religion and Department

3.3.1 Christianity and Development

-Christianity is faith and good works belief and a way of life

-The Ten Commandments and the commitment to respect for one’s own and others’,
mutual love of position is and reputation of others, mutual love is members of social
unit and as human beings.

-Christianity as a catalyst for development in its precepts against poverty, and

inequality and ignorance, and humiliation of the spirit as well as the body.

3.3.2 Islam and Development

-Muslims claims that the philosophy of the cooperative movement first originated in
Islam. “Cooperate for good and not for evil” is the essence of one of the verses in the
Koran.

-“God will never change any people unless they intend to change themselves” – the
Koran. This verse contains the basic philosophy of community development. It urges
the people to foster a determination on collective endeavors to redress the existing
social evils and inequalities.

3.4 Development as Growth Income

- Development means increase in national income over a period of time.

- GNP is the sum of all earnings – wages, salaries, rents, dividends, profits, etc

- National Development is conceived and sought primarily in terms of economic growth

typically measured by the gross national product (GNP)

-Trickledown theory wherein economic growth would eventually redound to social benefits.

3.5 Development as Progress towards Social Goals

-The objective of development is a cluster of social goals which must be realized. These
goals have an umbilical relationship.

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 -Development is directed and nurtured to the maximum improvement of the conditions. In
which people live.

-Economic growth is only worth having as long as it leads to an improvement in the

conditions in which people live.

3.6 Development as Change in Economic and Social Structure

-Consists of reform of obstructive structures, at every level – local national, international.

- Dynamic change in social structure and institutions i.e. changes in stratification of classes
as in the land reform program, widening participation in the national community through
barangay and other citizens councils.

- Removal of social obstacles to economic barriers to social change i.e. value reorientation
and attitudinal change towards big size families, work responsibility, profit-sharing.

3.7 Development as Liberation

- It is only when society is liberated from the satellization that dominates it from both outside
and within, that development in the more normal sense is possible.

- Denotes freedom from dependency, from both outside and within, that development in the
more normal sense is possible.

- Denotes freedom from dependency, from internal and external obstacle to freedom, and
from exploitative structures and institution in order that a man may realize his potential.

Must man be free from:

- Condition that are less than human brought on by a number of causes such as poverty , ignorance,
ill health, etc

- Unjust and oppressive structures and institutions which serve further to dehuman exploitation.

- Obstacles in man himself- his greed, avarice, selfishness, dishonesty, etc.

- Liberation of marginal man and marginal groups. Marginal men are those who do not enter in to
the decision making processes of their communities, have a precarious economic existence and
do not relate to other groups.

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 - Participation in national and local decision-making (internal political and economic freedom.

- Relationship between developed and less developed countries, (external political and economic
freedom

- Redistribution of economic and political power.

- Individual’s awareness of himself as a creative and responsible being.

3.8 Development as Humanization

Is the process of holding the material and the spiritual in balance and tension.

- An in view of Development is to make people more human. To lift them out of inhuman and
dehumanizing conditions of poverty and unemployment, ill health disease and ignorance.
- Kind of society we would like to bring about is one in which all men will grow freely in
developing their potentials.
- “A humanism which will enable modern man to find himself anew by embracing the higher
values of love and friendship, prayer and contemplation.”

3.9 The Ideal to be Pursued

- Passage from misery towards the possession of necessities, victory over social scourges, the
growth of knowledge, the acquisition of culture.

- increased esteem for dignity of others, the turning toward the spirit of poverty, cooperation
for the common goal, the will and the desire for peace.
- acknowledgement of a man od supreme values, especially of God, the source and finality
of man.
II. Development Strategies, Plans and Programs, Guiding Principles
1. At the UN level (broad): Declaration of human rights serves as a "common standard of achievement of
all people and nations."
1.1 Preamble - recognition is given to the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of
all members of the human family, as a foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world.
(Preamble, UN Declaration of Human Rights)
1.1.1 All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights and should act in the spirit of
brotherhood toward one another. (Art. 1)
1.1.2 Despite any distinction i.e., race, color, sex, language, religion, etc., everyone is entitled to all
rights.

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 1.1.3 Everyone has a right to life, liberty and security as a person
1.1.4 Everyone has a right in full equality, to a fair and public hearing by an independent tribunal in
determining any criminal charges against him. He is innocent till proven guilty.
1.1.5 Everyone has right to privacy, and residence
1.1.6 Every one of full age is free to many, despite race, color, nationality or religion and have a
family.
- Family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by the
society and the State. (Art. 16, sec. 3)
1.1.7 "Everyone has the right to a standard living adequate for the health and well-being of himself
and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care, and necessary social services
and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or
other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control." (Art. 25, sec. 1)
1.1.8 "Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his
personality is possible." (Art. 29 sec. 1)

2. In connection with development:

2.1 At the UN level - Second Development Decade
2.1.1 The overall aim of development is to promote a minimum standard of living consistent
with human dignity through economic and social progress and development.
2.1.2 Economic growth is tied to certain international political developments
2.1.3 True development bring well-being to all the people.

2.2 UN Policy Measures

2.2.1 There should be preferential treatment of the products of developing countries entering
the markets of the rich industrial countries so as to expand to import development goods.
2.2.2 There should be regional cooperation among the developing nations.
2.2.3 The bulk of financing their development must come from the developing countries
themselves.
2.2.4 The developing countries should be given a fairer share in the shipping generated by
their foreign trade.
2.2.5 There should be a special measures in favor of the least developed among the
developing countries.

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 2.2.6 There should be special measures in favor of the landlocked so that they will be able
to transport their goods for trade to and from the sea.
2.2.7 There should be adequate efforts to extend substantially research capacity in
technology so as to promote and accelerate industrialization.
2.2.8 There should be human development
2.2.9 Developing countries should take specific steps to augment productions and improve
productivity in order to produce goods and services necessary for raising the levels of living and
improving economic viability.

3. Relationship between the development and the developed countries

- dependent relationships have resulted
- relationship similar to social welfare: developing countries do not have much choice in the kind of
assistance given
- nonetheless the assistance has helped developing countries

4. The Philippines Development Plan

4.1 Philosophy
- entire meaning and purpose of development is production
- for the rich countries the problem is how to realize the promise of abundance; for the poor
countries, it is how to survive
- it is the people who must work for and achieve national development using it as a means by which
they will realize their full potential as human beings
- it means changing a whole way of life; values, attitudes, outlook, orientation and behavior
- it means changing, modifying, structuring existing institutions
- developments is meaningless unless it is impelled and illuminated by an objective which relates to
the meaning of life itself
- its objective in the long run is to create an industrial man out of the Filipino, a mobile worker who
will make decisions in terms of personal inclination and aptitude, opportunities in the labor market, and a
vital sense of participation in nation-building.
4.2 Challenge (Problems)
4.2.1 An annual growth rate of 3.01 since 1960

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 4.2.2 Unemployment (70% of the total labor force in 1972, and underemployment by at least
16.2%)
4.2.3 Income inequality
4.2.4 Low standards of living
4.2.5 Inadequate infrastructure
4.2.6 Rising prices
4.2.7 Management of the dollar position

4.3 Objectives: (as of fiscal year 1974 - 1977)

The development goal is to improve the standard of living the greater mass of the population. To
bring this about, the following have been set as objectives:
4.3.1 Maximum utilization of the labor force, or more specifically the promotion of
employment and minimization of underemployment.
4.3.2 Maximum economic growth feasible
4.3.3 More equitable distribution of income and wealth
4.3.4 Regional development and industrialization
4.3.5 Promotion of social development
4.3.6 Maintenance of an acceptable level of price and balance of payments stability.
4.4 Sectoral plans and programs
4.4.1 Social development - population, health and nutrition, education and man power development,
housing employment, community development social welfare
4.4.2 Integrated regional development
4.4.3 Agriculture
4.4.4 Agrarian Reform
4.4.5 Industry
4.4.6 Infrastructure Development
4.4.7 Tourism
4.4.8 Financing

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III. Social Welfare in Development
Review of the functions of social welfare within the context of development
- in advanced countries social welfare functions are mainly related to changing individual
circumstances and expresses society's concern for providing care and maintenance to its disadvantaged and
more vulnerable numbers.
- in the developing countries the functions are related to the broader problems of the people who are
involved or affected by the process of development.
1.1 Remedial - reducing the stresses of change
1.2 Preventive - forestalling the adverse social consequences of development
1.3 Developmental - creating conditions conducive to the improved well-being of people.

More specifically:
1.1 Remedial social welfare - social welfare aims at supplementing and substituting the inadequate
care provided by the family, group or community. It can be:
1.1.1 Supplemental
1.1.2 Substantive
1.1.3 Rehabilitative
1.2 Preventive social welfare - it aimed primarily at strengthening tye family and other existing
groups and communities, which attentions is also given to preventing abnormal individual behavior. It helps
create new patterns of social relations and new social institutions.
1.3 Development social welfare - is oriented towards and makes direct contribution to the process
of development. Social welfare intervention promote:
1.3.1 human resources development
1.3.2 social change
1.3.3 people's participation in decision making and nation building

2. Implications of development to social welfare

2.1 Equitable distribution of goods and services
2.1.1 Social welfare interventions fir the care of orphans, the handicapped, the aged, the
destitute, may be seen as a redistribution of national income in behalf in the neediest.

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 2.1.2 Social welfare could help in the more equitable distribution of goods and services by
making these available to people who otherwise would not be earning to purchase these.
2.1.3 Social welfare could insure the availability of services required for improving levels of
living, and filing the gaps in the existing network of social services if needed.

2.2 The prevention of social disruptions

Most important role of social welfare activities here is the prevention of family dislocation and in helping
to establish new patterns of family living and community solidarity.
2.3 The development of human resources
2.3.2 By conducting non-formal educational and vocational training programs for
community leaders, women and youth
2.4 Introduction of social change
By motivating individuals and social groups to adopt new attitudes values and ways of life which
will eventually result in committing a whole community to development.
Social welfare should aim at:
2.4.1 directly associating individuals with the solution of their problems
2.4.2 engaging people in self-help projects
2.4.3 fostering voluntary initiative to meet the needs of fellow citizens
2.4.4 assisting in mobilizing community resources for developmental tasks

3. Social welfare programs, contributions to national development

3.1 Public assistance - in the absence of comprehensive social security programs, material and other
similar resources may be substituted. The aim is to strengthen family functioning, promote the economic
security of the family and community through more effective use of whatever resources, material and
otherwise, are available.
3.2 Family welfare - Development brings with it changes in family roles and responsibilities,
patterns and relationships. Family counselling and family life education could help reduce the attendant’s
pressure and tensions and assist in a more positive harmonious transition. It should also help change faulty
popular attitudes and beliefs. Day care, institutional care and other facilities should be provided to
supplement family care. It may also help lightens women's household responsibility and thus open
opportunities for them to take part more fully in economic and civic responsibility.

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Social welfare intervention may start with the stimulation of self-help projects particularly those involving
women and out of school youth to broad social action aimed at modifying the society's attitudes, traditions
and concepts to correspond to development.
3.3 Child welfare (activities which secure and protect the well-being of all children in their physical,
intellectual and emotional development) could be attained by providing:
3.3.1 economic and personal aid to children living in their own homes
3.3.2 substitute families or adaptive homes for children who have no homes or cannot remain
with their families
3.3.3 institutional care in children’s homes and orphanage when children, for particular
reasons, cannot be left in their own homes or in foster families.
Other service may consist of
- improvement of family and personal relationship of child and help in economic and social difficulties
- day care centers, nursery schools, group work agencies, community centers and recreation places for
children and adolescents.
3.4 Youth welfare services
Youth programs can be a vital resource in:
3.4.1 engaging the energies and enthusiasm of young people in self-help projects and
neighborhood improvements
3.4.2 in instilling in youth a sense of individual dignity and social values
3.4.3 in training youth leaders
3.4.4 in or sparring young people for responsible adulthood and parenthood
Social welfare services may significantly assist in
- meeting the needs of youth for counseling and vocational guidance
- providing opportunities for constructuve leisure time activities
- prevocational training helps to determine the aptitudes and abilities of the youth and his work situations
- making the transition from childhood relations and patterns of behavior to adult roles and responsibilities
3.5 Welfare of individuals with special needs/problems
These may refer to released prisoners, recovered mental patients, drug addicts and alcoholics, the physical
handicapped and the disabled and the socially disadvantaged.

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Social welfare intervention could help the clients develop emotionally healthy ways of handling stigma
where it exists, modify their attitudes, and facilitate their successful reintegration into normal family and
community living the aims is to make them self sufficient and economically productive so that they will not
be a burden to society.
- social services helps the client cope with his problem, fill a need, facilitate and/or promote his interpersonal
relationships and adjustments to his environment.
- occupational therapy facilitated the restoration of the clients capacities to the maximum in all aspects of
life-physical, psychological, social, emotional vocational.
- vocational training enabled him to acquire skills in a certain occupation.
- job placement helps him find gainful occupation, one suited to clients age, experience, qualifications and
physical and mental capacities.
3.6 Development of marginal men
Marginal groups are those sectors if the population who do not enter the decision making process of their
communities, have a precarious economic existence, and do not relate to other groups. They are the most
underprivileged, the most exploited, the least educated of their society.
Social welfare activities:
- help local people to identify and articulate their needs
- stimulate the participation of individual and families in community affairs
- encourage self-help action and relate grassroots efforts to large development objectives
- identify and develop indigenous leaders

4. Strategies for social development; role and contribution of social welfare programs and services
4.1 Health and Nutrition
- improvement of the nutrition of the expectant and nursing mothers and young child through food
supplement
- it is in the establishment of feeding outlets, specifically for pre-schoolers in the low income areas
where social work can help
4.2 Population Planning
- introduction/interpretation of population/family planning concepts
- motivation for practice of family planning

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 4.3 Education
- non-formal education or those out-of-school
- education aid (grants) for children of school age
- opportunities for out-of-school youth to reenter the education mainstream
4.4 Housing, Slum Clearance Relocation
- preparation of families for relocation
- advocacy in behalf of the distressed families when needed
- helping families resettle and grow roots in the new communities
4.5 Manpower Development
- vocational training
- assistance for self-employment
4.6 Community Development
- community planning
- social action
- food for work
- decision-making
4.7 Social Welfare
4.7.1 Family and Child Welfare
- financial grants to unemployed family heads to be used as initial operating capital for unformed
earning cottage industries
- cash aid to families in economic distress
- operation of foster homes, day care centers, institutions for children
4.7.2 Youth Welfare
- financial grants to enable the youngsters to involve themselves in mini-agri-business and small
scale home industries
- provision of pre-vocational and vocational training activities
- development or social concern and community responsibility through group activities

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 4.7.3 Welfare of Individuals/Groups with Special Needs
- financial assistance for self-employment
- workshops for skills training
- preventive and rehabilitative services for drug addicts, released prisoners and the mentally and
physically handicapped and others
- provision of relief and rehabilitative services to victims of calamities and disasters

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III.HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
Human behavior and social environment are interrelated and independent. They interact in a dynamic way.
Throughout his life, man, in his continuous desire and attempt to live a life that is acceptable, satisfying,
productive and evolutionary, must establish a condition of equilibrium between his needs and the demands
imposed upon him by his social environment. In other words, if an individual is not able to satisfy his needs
because of (1) his personal adequate, (2) a harsh and difficult social environment share opportunities for his
growth and development are not adequate to enable him to cope with the problems of living, then as a result
of the inability to establish equilibrium, his social functioning is impaired. In considering whether the
individuals response or behavior is within or outside the range of the normal, we need to take into account
his capacity for personal and social adaptations.
The presence of neurological conditions also impairs social functioning. For these conditions also impairs
social functioning. For those who were physically endowed at birth with malformations - these
imperfections have a devaluating effect. Amputees feel a physical loss of a part of the self. Sudden and
drastic deterioration of the body will also change conceptions processes such as weakened heart and
hardened arteriosclerotic arteries, a failure of sight and hearing, muscular and joint pains, and in the case of
the males, a diminution of sexyal virility, is a factor delimiting social functioning.
Social Variables
There are factors that deal with the location of people in social space. Each social has reference to power
and authority, wealth. Access to education, travel opportunities and other resources, which afford those
positions the benefits which can largely determine their degree of social functioning. The familiar roles
determine the social class to which one belongs.
The child becomes a member of the social class and socio economic status which his parents belong. If he
belongs to the low socio economic class with very limited means to obtain an education and other resources
for self improvement, his attitudes and values regarding college education will be very restricted because
of his roles expectations - of himself and others expectations of him. It has been frequently observe that
after high school, the economic status of the young persons family determines, more than his academic
qualifications, whether or not he will secure a college education, owing not only to and the expectations of
teachers and others in the wider community.
People also have occupational roles which determine the socio economic class to which they belong. The
occupation of the male head of the family is one of the most important determinants of the family socio
economic status; What their income is; Who their friends are; To what clubs they belong; Where and
whether or not their children will progress in the educational ladder.
The man who does not go to work or one who is not successful in his work, is not performing his role as
the family's head thus is expexted of him by those with whom he is related even as he expect this of himself.
His social functioning with regard to his role performance within the family and in the community is
seriously impaired thereby.
Cultural Variables
Culture is the lifestyle of the individual. It is manmade and is generated because it is functional for survival.
The family is the matrix of highly significant and complex relationships between parents and children. It is

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the bearer and transmitter of culture in the development of the young. Religious belief and family traditions
influence role performance of the members of the family.
Values
Values are shared by number of individuals and regarded as matters of collective welfare by an effective
consensus of the group. Although they are not concrete goals of action but rather the criteria by which goals
are chosen, they are actual and potential forces for mobilization since they are emotionally charged and
deeply valued.
Ego Psychology
Certain psychological theories, namely ego psychology, the psychology of learning and perceptions must
be considered in order to understand the individual. The individual does not react to his environment and
exists but rather as he sees or perceives it. A number of internal factors influence his perceptions which are
mainly embodied in the concept of the ego.
The concept of the ego embodies those interpersonal forces which constantly are in the process of tying to
balance a persons inherent capacity, his varied conflicting motivation with one another which has two
surfaces. One is directly inward towards distinctive impulses and needs, the other towards external reality
through sense perception. This ego also functions to confront internal perception with sense perception and
tries to harmonies subjective demands with external circumstance, so that maximum satisfaction as achieved
through its control behavior. This adoptive behavior thus enables the individual to maintains psychic
equilibrium or homeostasis. The three function of the ego external and internal perception, integration and
executive action make it the component of personality in relation to these dynamic forces, the id (instinctive
forces/ and the super ego (code of society). The conscious ego thus is the most plastic part of the mind since
it can adjust behavior to a given situation at any moment.
The ego needs to be viewed in relation to other psychoanalytical concepts and psychogenetic development.
Ego formation, when psychoanalytically viewed, is considered in relation to the courses of the psychosexual
development of the human being, how it is interaction of the superego and the id, together with the
theoretical theory of the functional structure but the mind, i.e., the unconscious of mental dynamism or
mechanism of defense.
The individual as a "biopsychosocial" being. This phrase means that there are inseparable, interacting forces
biological, psychological and social that influence human behavior and personality.
The biological components would include the individuals state of health and nutrition, genetics and natural
physical endowments at birth, normal biological growth and developments as well as any deviation from
normal functioning including illnesses and physical disabilities.

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The psychological component is concerned with the individuals personality comprising what is commonly
termed inner states which has three aspects:
A. Cognitive (perceptual or intellectual)
B. Emotional (feelings) and
C. Cognitive (striving, tendency to do actively or purposely)
The social components includes the following elements:
1. Societal. Aggregate data and social pattern which help create the social climate in which we live,
regardless of whether or not people aware or accept them, such as poverty and unemployment.
2. Institutional. Organizational arrangements in society such as family, government, education and social
services.
3. Status. Characteristics of persons and their position in society as seen in the way persons are described
e.g. by age, sex, race and religion
4. Normative. The forms in which social behavior are expressed and the social rules that shape these forms.
These forms and rules reflect the values of society which are in turn influence by the existing culture.
5. Interactive. The type of interaction and perception of interactions made of self and others that are basis
of behavior.

Behavioral/Social Science Theories

1. Psychoanalytic theory. Founded by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). The best known personality theorist,
he proposes that at birth, individuals are pushed by unconscious and irrational drives toward satisfaction of
desires which are largely unconscious and irrational.
Carl Jung opposed. To him human beings are guided as much by aims and aspirations.
Alfred Adler's tenets is that human beings have innate social interest and a tendency for superiority.
Freuds concepts which are still useful to social workers in understanding client behavior.
A. Homeostasis. The organisms tendency to maintain a relatively stable internal environment
B. Psychological determinism. Thoughts and actions are caused by ones unsatisfied drives or desires.
C. Personality structures. Every person possess 3 personality structure: the id, ego and the superego. The id
comprises the psychic representatives of the drives. The inner world of subjective experience, the ego
consist of those functions which have to do with the individuals relation with his environment. The mediator
between instinct and environment; the superego comprises the moral precepts of our own minds as well as
our ideal aspirations. The internal representative of values and ideals of society which the child learns from
adults.

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D. Defense mechanism. Thoughts and behaviour which while not on the level of the individual
consciousness, serve to ward off anxiety and guilt, e.g.:
1. Fantasy - fantasies or daydreams are temporarily escaped from the frustrations of realities. In fantasies
and daydreams, the individuals thwarted desires can be very easily satisfied. Adolescents are particularly
prone to daydreams and fantasies. The girls usually dream of beauty, glamour and love. Boys frequently
dream of physical strength, courage and adventures.
2. Nomadism - is a continual wandering from place to place. The moving from place to place usually brings
to tangible gain. It is an attempt to get away from frustrating situation. In everyday life this may take firm
if frequent changes of residence, frequent changes of job or even changes of marital partners.
3. Regression - regression means "going back" a frustrated individual may seek unconsciously to return to
an earlier, more secure period of life. He glens from the painful realities and responsibilities of the present
to the protected existence of his childhood. A person who is regressing may start to act in a childish way;
may pout or frown or gave temper tantrums when he does not get what he wants.
4. Repression - repression is the process of excluding from conscious awareness and undesirable thought,
feeling or memory that causes pain, shame or guilt. Repression serves to protect the self from the pain of
certain thoughts and memories. For instance, unpleasant incidents or thoughts could easily be forgotten
through the process of repression.
5. Reaction formation - a person may unconsciously repress his social unacceptable desires and develop a
conscious attitudes and overt behaviour patterns which are the opposite of his real unconscious wishes. For
instance, a mother rejects her child may behave toward his over solicitude. At times the conscious attitudes
which develop are highly exaggerated, extreme and intolerable.
6. Displacement - this defense mechanisms a feeling is transferred from its actual object to a substitute. A
feeling originally directed toward a certain person, object, or situation which is transferred to another
person, object, or situations which becomes invested with the emotional significance originally associated
with the former. For instance, aggression maybe displaced in three ways:
A. Scapegoating - this means blaming another person for ones failures or mistakes or expressing
anger against a person or object which was not the original source of frustration. For example, if a man gets
angry with his boss in the office, he may take it out on his wife by criticizing his cook when he gets home.
Or if a student fails in his subject, he may express his anger toward his companion at home.
B. Free-floating anger - this is the chronic reaction pattern in which hostility becomes generalized
so that even neutral situations are reacted to the hostility. For example, a person with prolonged anger which
he cannot express towards the person concerned may go around boiling with rage. In this condition, he
could easily get quarrels and fight. Some juvenile delinquents have a lot of this bottle up aggression. So
they may beat up or mould some innocent people whom they happen to meet in the streets without apparent
reason. A mocks and berserks will indiscriminately kill even people unknown to them.
C. Suicide - this is hostility to one’s self. When an aggression cannot be directed towards the
frustrating person because society will not approve the expression of such feelings the individuals feelings
of hostility may be replaced by feelings of guilt and self-accusation which may eventually lead to attempted
suicide. For example, a person who has been frustrated in love may be unable to hurt the one who has
frustrated him and may turn his anger toward himself and attempt to hurt himself.

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7. Projection - this is a defense mechanism in which the individual is unconsciously convinced himself that
others have the undesirable thoughts and motives that he actually has himself when a person finds his
thoughts and feelings and then attributed those thoughts and feelings to others around him. For example, if
a person harbor feelings of hate towards a person he is supposed to love, he may be unable to admit these
emotions to himself. So he may convince himself that it is the other person who hates him.
8. Sublimation - it is the indirect express saying of a need which cannot be satisfied directly, through
acceptance from an alternative goals which provides a socially acceptable outlet of expression of the sexual
urge. For example, the sexual drive could be sublimated through competitive sports.
9. Substitution - it is the expression of frustrated impulses indirectly with no change in the conscious quality
of desires. It often involves socially unacceptable activities and guilt feelings. For example frustrated sexual
impulses maybe substituted by masturbation or undesirable language behavior, such as telling obscene
stories, writing obscene poetry and singing dirty songs.
10. Compensation - it is an attempt to disguise the presence of a weak or undesirable traits by emphasizing
a desirable one. Compensation involves behavior that is socially desirable or acceptable. For example, a
person who is physically unattractive may attempt to gain popularity by developing a charming manner and
learning to be an interesting conversationalist.
11. Overcompensation - this is an extreme or socially unacceptable attempt to counterbalance actual or
imagined inferiority. When the attempt to counterbalance failure of feelings of inferiority becomes
irrational, extreme or antisocial behavior. For example an unattractive person may try desperately to gain
recognition by asserting himself in ways that irritate people around him, such as by talking too loudly or by
showing off.
12. Rationalization - this is a defense mechanism by which seemingly logical explanations are devised to
explain and justify behavior which might result in loss of social approval and self-esteem.
Rationalization may take many forms, among which are:
A. Sour grape mechanism - this is illustrated by an old fable about the fox who tried without success
to reach a bunch of grapes hanging over his need. When he did not get them he told himself that they were
too sour anyway.
B. Sweet lemon attitude - this is illustrated by a philosophy which says not in doing what you like
but in liking what you do is the secret of happiness. For example, a person who is not satisfied with his job
may pretend to himself that he is enjoying but when he actually not.
13. Isolation - this defense mechanism consist of avoidance of conflict between two opposed desires or
attitudes by keeping them part in logical tight compartment in consciousness. Certain ideas are sealed off
in mental compartments and allowed to function isolation from conflicting ones. The individual can
maintain contrary ideas and attitudes without acknowledging their logical incompatibility. People with logic
tight compartments think and act inconsistently.
14. Undoing - in this mechanism, the individual divest himself painful feelings by making use of cleansing
rituals after doing something which causes him to feel guilty. For example, a person who has done
something he feels guilty about may wash his hands to cleanse own his guilt. ( A primitive mechanism

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operating unconsciously in which something unacceptable and already done is symbolically acted out in
reverse, usually repetitiously, in the good of undoing it and thus relieving anxiety.)
15. Dissociation - a psychological separation or splitting off and intra psychic defense process which
operates automatically and unconsciously. Through its operation, emotional significance and affect are
separated and detached from an idea, situation or object. Dissociation may unconsciously defer or postpone
experiencing the emotional impact as for example in selective amnesia.
In dissociation, certain aspects or activities of the personality escape from control of the individual;
become separated from normal consciousness and function as a segregated unitary whole. Dissociation is
the separation of the mind or consciousness by a splitting off of one (sometimes more) over a split-off
portion. This phenomenon of dissociation may be witnessed by the automatic writing of hysteria, a
somnambulism, in double personality and in the man delusions of patients.
16. Fixation - the arrest of psychosexual development. Development maybe halted at on incomplete stage
with persistence or certain incompletely matured elements. Such personality will show lack of harmonious
integration, emotional organization remains an immature level.
17. Resistance - opposition to bringing or repressed data into awareness. This helps the person avoid
memories and insights. It is manifested during psychotherapy as blocking, embarrassment, silence, and
anxieties.
18. Restitution - mechanism of relieving the mind of a lead of guilt by substitutive acts (making up for or
separation). It may become the main motive of life.
19. Denial - a defense mechanism operating unconsciously, use to resolve emotional conflict and anxiety
by denying a thought, feeling, wish, need or external reality factor which is consciously intolerable.
20. Symbolism - an unconscious mental process where by one object or idea comes to stand for another
through some part, quality or aspect which the two have in common it operated by association and is based
in similarity and abstract representation. The symbol carries on more or less disguised from the emotional
feeling vested on the initial object or die.
21. Conversation - a mental mechanism operating unconsciously by which intrapsychic conflict (which
would otherwise give rise to convert into a variety of somatic symptoms. Example, a psychological paralysis
of a limb which prevents its use for an aggressive purposes.)
22. Condensation - a psychological process often present in dreams in which two or more concepts are fuse
so that a single symbol represents a multiple components.
23. Identification - mechanism by which the child takes over the attitudes and behaviour patterns of his
parents and other significant to him. The child admires or aspires to the strength and qualities of his elders
and other associated and acquiring their modes of behaviour.
Identification may also take the following forms:
A. Incorporation - refers to the taking in or early qualities though the infantile nursing experiences
with the mother and is considered to begin during the oral stage of development.

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 B. Introjection - a form of identification. A portion of another personality is take in, yet this introject
of the other often becomes the focus of hostility directed towards oneself and is thus the nucleus of
depressive states of suicidal acts... It is the observe of projection. Introjection is also described as a
mechanism whereby live and hated external objects are taken within oneself symbolically. It serves as a
defense against conscious recognition of intolerable hostile impulses. For example in severe depression the
individual may unconsciously direct unacceptable hatred or aggression toward himself. Related to the more
primitive mechanism of incorporation.
C. Hostile identification - taking on of socially undesirable characteristics of a parent if these appear
to provide some special strength or merit.
D. Identification with the aggression - means by which the frustrated individual incorporates into
his own personality means imitating or acquiring the characteristics of a person whose one fears.
E. Transference - the image of one person is unconsciously identified with that of another. The more
recent acquaintances before the surrogate of the person previously known and is invested with the same
emotions with which the individuals had come to surround the image of the original party.
F. Empathy - a healthy form of identification which is limited and temporary but which enables one
person to feel for and with another to understand his experiences and feeling and is known as sympathy. By
means of quality, the individual possess a warm capacity to projecting himself into the situations and
feelings of others.
24. Conscious control - refers to the individuals attempt to expose his motives to full consciousness, face
all facts in order to be able to guide his behaviour in desirable and constructive channels. It enables him to
replace automatic adaptations and repressions by conscious and flexible adjustments.

2. Systems Theory. A system is defined as a whole consisting of interdependent and interacting parts or as
a "set of units with relationships among them."
System theory provide social work with a toll for analysing and organizing data about clients and offers
many options for intervention. The use of a system model as a conceptual model for practice allows social
workers to focus their attention on the person-situation-environment, interrelatedness, thereby avoiding the
tendency to think of the individual on society as the cause of problems and therefore the primary target of
change.
Concepts in systems theory that is useful in social work;
A. Open and closed system. An open system is one that is engaged in interchanges with its environment
and therefore continues to grow and change. Closed system does not interact with other systems neither
accepting inputs from them, nor producing outputs to them. They are quality called entropy.
B. Boundaries. A boundary is a closed circle around selected variables where there is less interchange or
energy or communication across the circle open system have semi-permeable boundaries and gave ways of
maintaining these boundaries.
C. Tension. System theory conceives of tension as characteristics of, and necessary to complex, adaptive
system. Though there is recognition that tension may manifest itself in either destructive or constructive

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ways. Tension or conflict per se, are not seen as positive or negative, but rather as attributes of all systems
simply because they are alive and open to transactions across their boundaries.
D. Feedback. This refers to "a communications network which produces action in response to an input of
information and includes the results or its own action. In the new information by which it modifies its
subsequent behaviour. Negative feedback conveys information that the systems behaviour is making it
difficult to achieve its goal, and therefore correction is needed in line with its goal, positive feedback means
that the system is behaving incorrectly in relation to it's goals and so more behaviour of the same quality is
called for.
E. Change and stability. Open system are constantly in the process of change, which represent their attempt
to take purposive goal directed action. However, a system must also maintain a dynamic equilibrium a
steady state, i.e., a certain amount of order and stability is necessary.
F. Role. This refers to the expected behaviour of a person occupying a particular social status or position in
a social system. Besides being useful in understanding the interaction within a system the concept of role
serves as a bridging concept between the individual and the larger social system.
Systems theory views the client, the worker and the agency as social system that compromise the social
system network. Allen Pincus and Anne Minahan developed a related concept about six types of social
system with whom the social worker interacts with the course of practice:
1. The agent system: the agency or organization that employs the social workers who will plan and
work with the six systems towards change.
2. The client system: those who have asked for the workers services, who are expected to benefit
from these services, and those who have entered into an implicit or explicit contract with the worker.
3. The target system: the people that the change agents need to change or influence in order to
accomplished the goals (this may overlap with the client system when it is the client that needs to be change)
4. The action system: those with whom the social worker interacts in a cooperative way in order to
bring about change helpful to the client;
5. The professional system: the professional association of social workers, the educational system
by which workers are prepared and the values and sanctions of professional practice; and
6. The problem identification system: the system that acts bring a potential client to the attention of
the worker.
A system model is a holistic approach which is particularly relevant to social work practice in the country.
The system theory is complex and social workers are not expected to understand and use all its concepts
including its elaborate jargons. Social workers, however can apply concepts and jargons that relate to human
systems which are now widely used in social sciences.

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3. Role Theory
Role refers to the socially expected behaviour prescribed for a person occupying a particular social status
or position in a social system. Social norms for a particular position provide guide for the attitudes, feelings,
and behaviour that are permitted, expected or prohibited for the individual in a given role.
Status refer to ones rank or standing in a group based on the kind of job he holds.
Norms refers to the rules and standard of behaviour that come from a group or society and may apply to
individuals or to groups.
Role set or Role clustered an array of roles that any one person maybe occupying at any particular time.
Role Complementary or reciprocity role position are usually paired. E.g. parent-child
Role conflict this occurs when there are conflicting expectations because the person occupies two or more
positions simultaneously.
Role incongruity a situation in which one’s own perception of one’s role is define differently from the
expectations of a significant other in the system or the environment.
Role and its relatedness concepts are part of the knowledge based useful to social workers in assessments
and intervention planning.

4. Communication Theory. Interactions between and among human systems involve communication. Thus
to a profession like social work which deals with human beings, the communication theory is an important
area of concern.
Communication is the process of transferring and sharing messages and meaning though the use of symbols.
5. Small Group Theory. It recognizes explicitly that groups can be managed in order to bring about desired
changes on the part of its members.
2 Major Group Phenomena
A. Group Structure. Refers to patterns that develop and maintain themselves over time in interpersonal
relations.
Major Properties of Groups:
1. Size. The number of persons in the group.
2. Communication Structure. Who interacts with whom, about what, and the channels and
flow of communication.
3. Affection Structure. Interpersonal relations that are produced from the liking and disliking
that develop among the members.
4. Power Structure. Power or influence that facilitates the groups organizations, its control
and goal attainment.

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 5. Leadership. The ability to influence other people in some way, which can be positive or
negative.
6. Role Strict. The interrelated patterns of behaviour of the group members based on their
mutual learned expectations from each other.
7. Group Norms. Rules and standards of behaviour which emerge in a group in the process
of interaction.
8. Status. Rank or standing in a group based on a certain characteristics possessed by a
person.
B. Group Process. The change in the conditions of the group as whole. Other social scientists view it as a
movement of a group from one level of social organization to another. The forces generated by the
relationships between people and their interactions in the group have important implications for the
individual members and the group as a whole. These are the forces:
1. Group Bond. The feeling of belongingness that exist in the group
2. Conformity. The yielding to the majority.
3. Conflict. A sharp disagreement or clash arising out of the interpersonal conflicts between and
among individuals.
4. Group Cohesiveness. The degree to which the members of group desire to remain with the rest of
the group.
5. Decision-making. The process by which the group, using certain procedures, arrives at decisions.
E.g., voting, consensus, postponing decisions and etc.
6. Culture Theory. This recognizes the considerable influence that culture exerts on people’s
behaviour.
Culture is defined as that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, laws, customs and
other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of his society. It refers to the entire way of life
of a people or society which they create, acquire from other societies and will be ready to transmit to
subsequent generations. It is important for social worker to know that culture is 1.) Learned 2.) Shared 3.)
Cumulative 4.) Dynamic 5.) Diverse and 6.) Whole, i.e., it is a system with many interdependent parts.
These are the aspects of culture:
a. Belief. The concepts about how the world operates and where individuals fit in it; maybe rooted in
blind faith, experiences, traditions and scientific observation.
b. Values. The general and shared concepts of what is goof, right, appropriate, worthwhile and
important, either reflected behaviour or expressed verbally
c. Norms. The written and unwritten rules that guide behaviour and conduct appropriate to given
situation. Included in these are folkway or customs (the behaviour patterns of everyday life) and mores
(folkways which involve moral and ethical values.)

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7. Learning Theory. The basic assumption is that behaviours can be acquired or learned in the course of
individual's development. This also means that undesirable behaviour can be unlearned and more acceptable
new patterns of behaviour can be learned.
Concepts of Learning Theory
a. Reinforcement. Refers to specific rewards or supports that affect the strength of the response. A
reinforce is a stimulus which determines the probability of occurrences of the response to which it follows.
2 Kinds of Reinforcement
1. Positive reinforces. Which tend to increase the frequency of the response. i.e. rewarded
behaviour is repeated.
2. Negative reinforcers. Increase the desired response through introduction of negative or
aversive stimuli. i.e if behaviour is followed by a painful consequence; that behaviour will not be repeated.
Reinforcers can be social responses (personal response of other people to a behaviour such as
praise, approval, reward to deprivation, scolding, and other forms of punishment) and artificial responses
(gifts, token, food, money).
b. Shaping. A process used in establishing more complex behaviour patterns by breaking a behaviour
into smaller units and reinforcing each unit in turn until the desired pattern is established.
c. Modelling. A process in which a person initiates a model who is displaying the desired behavioural
pattern.
8. Organizational Theory. Understanding of the bureautic organization is necessary if a social worker wants
to succeed in his/her work.
Distinguishing characteristics of a bureaucracy:
a. Specialization and hierarchy. An organization of appreciable size and complexity cannot avoid
the standard pyramid of the "line" organization which means that it is a comprised of people with different
but interrelated skills.
b. An emphasis on rules and manifested on the routinization of activity and formalization of
relationships.
c. Assignment of roles on the basis of technical qualifications.
d. Clear and official areas of jurisdictions.

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Occasionally, students choose a course that helps them answer specific questions about their day-
today behaviour or that of their of friend or even a family member or a stranger.
As a student, whatever your reasons for taking this course, at one time or another, you have been
probably curious about one or more aspects of human development. Thus, this chapter introduces you to
the concepts of development and developmental psychology. It will help you to know and understand the

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factors and rate of development and its implications on how far you have developed as a human being.
Factors influencing attitudes towards developmental change will further give you flashes of insights why
and how other people think, feel, and behave the way they do. You will also be made of aware of the
different patterns or characteristics of development as revealed in significant facts experienced by people
regardless of their race, culture, or religion.
Finally, the developmental task serve three useful purposes: they are guidelines that enable
individuals to know what society expects of them; they motivate individuals to do what society expects of
them; and they show individuals what lies ahead and what will be expected of them later.

THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Simply stated, developmental psychology is an area of psychology that explains the course of physical,
social, emotional, moral, and intellectual developments over a person's life span.
Development refers to the progressive series of changes of an orderly and coherent type toward the
goal of maturity
"Progressive" means the changes and directional, leading toward something positive.
"Orderly" and "Coherent" suggest that development is not of a haphazard, usual type but rather that
there is a definite relationship among the stages in the developmental sequence.
Developmental psychology is a chronology of different aspects of human development of a lifelong
process from conception to death.
The goal of development changes is to enable the people to adapt to the environment in which they
live. To achieve this goal, sometimes called, self - actualization is essential.
Types of Change in Development
In the development of a human being, major types of changes are manifested as follows:
Change in size. There is a change in physical and mental growth.
Change in Proportion. Physical development is not only limited to size. It is also apparent in mental
development. At first, a child is interested in himself alone, and later in others and in toys. Finally, his
interests are directed toward members of the opposite sex.
Disappearance of old features. Some features that disappear are the thymus glands, baby hair,
Darwinian reflex, Babinski reflex, and baby form of locomotion such as creeping and crawling.
Acquisition of new features. New features are acquired such as the primary and secondary sex
characteristics as well as new mental traits like curiosity, sex urge, knowledge, morals and standards,
religious beliefs, forms of language and types of neurotic tendencies.
Factors of Development
There are two factors considered important in the development of an individual: maturation and learning,

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 Maturation is the development or unfolding of traits potentially presenting the individual
considering his hereditary endowment.
According to Gesell (1977), it is the net sum of the gene effects operating in a self-limited life style.
Further, maturation does not only refer to changes in physical characteristics but also in function, in
the capacity to perform or behave, by which are possible through changes in any part of the organism.
Learning on the other hand, is the result of activities or day-to-day experiences on the child himself.
Maturation and learning complement one another in the development of the individual.
Rate of Development
The rate of development of any human being may either be rapid or slow.
A rapid development is observed during the prenatal period and continues throughout babyhood
(except for the first two week which is known as the “plateau” stage when no physical development takes
place) up to first six years.
Slow development start from six years to adolescence. In adolescence, the rate of development is
once more accelerated.
Implication of the Rate of Development
There are several implications of the rate of development
Since development is dependent on maturation and learning; it is therefore makes variation possible.
Maturation, which depends upon the hereditary endowment of the individual, sets a limit beyond
which development cannot go on even when learning is encouraged.
Developmental readiness is the individual’s state of preparedness with respect to one or more areas
of his functioning.
The effectiveness of learning depends upon maturation. A child cannot learn until he is ready. The
necessary physical and mental development must be present before new skills or abilities can be built upon
the foundations.
Premature forcing of the child results negativistic, resistant behavior which militates against
successful learning and which often regards learning.

Factors Influencing Attitude toward Developmental Changes

1. Appearance- Changes that improve one’s appearance are welcome and lead to favourable
attitudes while those that detract from one’s appearance are resisted and every possible attempt
is made to camouflage them.

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 2. Changes of behavior-those that are disconcerting, especially during puberty and senescence,
affect attitude toward the changes unfavourably. The reverse is true when the changes are
favourable, s when the helplessness of babyhood gradually gives way to the independence of
childhood.

3. Cultural Stereotypes- people learn cultural stereotypes associated with different ages from mass
media and the use them to judge people of these ages.
4. Cultural values- every culture has values associated with different ages. Maximum productivity
is associated with young adulthood through early middle adulthood in the Filipino culture of
today; thus, attitudes toward this age group are more favourable than attitudes toward any other.

5. Role Changes- attitudes toward people of different ages are greatly influenced by the roles of
their play. When people change their roles to less favourable ones, as in the case of retirement
or widowhood, social attitude toward them become less sympathetic.

6. Personal experiences- this have a profound effect on the individual’s attitude toward
developmental changes. Since the authority and prestige of middle-age executives decrease as
they approach retirement, their attitudes towards aging are, likewise unfavourably affected.
These attitudes are intensified by unfavourable social attitudes.

Significant Facts about Development

To understand the pattern of development, certain fundamental and predictable fact must be taken
into consideration for important implications.
1. Early foundations are critical. Attitudes, habits and patterns of behavior established during the
early years determine to a large extent how successfully individuals will adjust to life as they
grow older.

White (1976) contends that the foundations laid during the first two years of life are the most
critical. According to him, the origins of human competence are to be found in a critical period of time
between eight and eighteen months.
Early patterns do tend to persist, but they are not unchangeable. There are three conditions under
which change is likely occur.
a. Change may come out when the individual receives help and guidance in making the change.

b. Change is likely to occur when significant people treat the individual in new and different
ways.

c. Change exist where there is a strong motivation on the part of the individual himself to make
the change.

2. The role of maturation and learning development. Maturation and learning play important roles
in development.

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 3. Development follows a definite and predictable pattern. There are orderly patterns of physical,
motor, speech, and intellectual development. For example, the pattern of physical and motor
development illustrates the laws of development direction – the cephalocaudal law, which
maintains the development spreads over the body from head to foot, and the proximodistal law,
which maintains the development spreads outward from the central axis of the body to the
extremities.

4. All individuals are different. All people are biologically and genetically different from one
another, even identical twins.

Since all individuals are different, no two people can be expected to react in the same manner
to the same environmental stimuli.
Because no two individuals can have identical hereditary endowments or the same
environmental experiences, one can never predict with accuracy hoe people will react to a situation even
when there is ample information about their inherited abilities and even when it is known how the average
person behaves in similar situations.

5. Each phase of development has characteristics “pattern of behavior”. The patterns are marked by
periods of equilibrium, which individuals adapt easily to environmental demands and as a result, make good
personal and social adjustments and by periods of disequilibrium when they experience difficulties in
adaptation and, as a result, make a poor personal and social adjustments.
6. Each phase development has hazards. Evidences show that each period in a life span has
associated with it certain developmental hazards whether physical, psychological or environment in origin
and these inevitably involve adjustments problems.
7. Development is added by situation. While most development will occur as a result of maturation
and environmental experience, mush can be done to aid development so that it will reach its full potential.
This can be done by stimulating development through directly encouraging the individual to use an ability
which is the process of developing.
8. Development id affected by cultural changes. Development is molded to conform to cultural
standards and ideas, thus, changes in these standards affect the developmental pattern. For example, In the
past standards from those considered appropriate girls. Take specifically, the occupational sex roles female
and female workers.
9. There is social expectation of every stage of development. Each cultural group expects its
members to master certain essential skills and acquire approved patterns of behavior at various ages during
the life span. Havighurst labeled them developmental tasks. He defined developmental tasks as “tasks which
arise at or about a certain period in the life of the individual, the successful achievement of which leads to
happiness and to success with later tasks while the failure to leads to unhappiness and difficulty with later
tasks.”

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 10. There are the traditional beliefs about people of all ages. These beliefs about physical and
psychosocial characteristics affect judgment of others as well as their self-evaluation. In the western culture,
stereotyping and practices relating to old age can lead to unfavorable treatment of the people in the later
years of their lives. In the Philippines, however because of our close knit culture.” Old people are still being
taken care of by their children no matter how busy the latter are. They are still respected and cared for.
Acceptance of these stereotypes by those who are growing old is responsible for unhappiness/happiness
during old age and is an important factor physical and mental decline.
Life Span Development

You may not realize it but you are a statistic. In this study of life span development. Unknown to
you, psychologists, sociologists and demographers, among others, have placed you and those similar to you.
Can you guess why?

Psychologists now realize that development, once thought to end at childhood, or possibly
adolescence is a process that continues from conception to death. Today, we realize that the changes of
adulthood - maturity and aging - are as developmental as any other period. By analyzing the various
developmental periods, researches are as any other discover features of each period and to uncover the
mechanism by which we move from one stage to the next.

THE MEANING OF LIFE SPAN

What do you mean by life span psychology (often referred to as developmental psychology)? Perhaps
the best way to capture its meaning is to state that development, as a lifelong process beginning conception
and ending in death, is in itself a discipline worthy to study.

Stages in Life Span

The life span foods arbitrarily divided, for purposes of research and speculation, into segments, with
each segment being part of a whole. It is divided into:

1. Prenatal Period - from conception to death

2. Infancy - from birth to the end of the second week

3. Babyhood - from the end of the second week to end of second year

4. Early Childhood - from two to six years

5. Late Childhood - from six to ten years

6. Preadolescence or Puberty - from ten or twelve or fourteen years

7. Adolescence - from thirteen or fourteen to eighteen years

8. Early Adulthood - from eighteen to thirty five years

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9. Middle Adulthood - from thirty five to sixty five years

10. Late Adulthood or Senescence (Old Age) - from sixty five years to death

Havighurst's Developmental Task during the Life Span (Hurlock 1982)

Babyhood

o Learning to take food

o Learning to walk
o Learning to talk
o Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
o Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
o Getting ready to read
o Learning to distinguish right and wrong and learning to develop conscience

Late Childhood

o Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games

o Building a wholesome attitude towards oneself as a growing organism
o Learning to get along with age-mates.
o Beginning to develop appropriate masculine of feminine social roles
o Developing fundamentals skills in reading, writing and calculating
o Developing a conscience, as sense of morality, and a scale of values
o Developing attitude towards a social groups and institutions achieving personal independence

Adolescence

o Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates and both sexes
o Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
o Accepting one's physique and using one's body effectively
o Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially responsible behavior
o Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults
o Preparing for marriage and family life
o Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior - developing an ideology

Early Adulthood

o Getting started in an occupation

o Selecting a mate
o Learning to live with a marriage partner
o Starting a family
o Rearing children
o Managing a home

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 o Taking a civic responsibility
o Finding a congenial group

Middle Age

o Achieving adult, civic and social responsibility

o Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
o Developing adult leisure time activities
o Relating oneself to one's spouse as a person
o Accepting and adjusting to the physiological changes of middle age
o Reaching and maintaining satisfactorily performance in one’s occupational career
o Adjusting to aging parents

Old Age

o Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health

o Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
o Adjusting to death of spouse
o Establishing an explicit affiliation with members of one’s age group
o Establishing a satisfactorily physical and living arrangements
o Adapting to social roles ins a flexible way

Theories of Personality

A theory is a set of concept and proposition that helps to describe and explain observation that one has
made. Theories are particularly useful if they are concise and yet applicable to a wide range of phenomena.
Good theories are also precise, that is capable of making explicit predictions that can be evaluated in late
research. There are several theoretical perspectives on human development: psychoanalytic theory,
psychosocial theory, learning or behavioral theory, moral theory, ethological theory and sociobiological
theory.

Behavioral theory

John B. Watson points that the larger community of scientist would never take psychology seriously
until psychologist began to study what they could see - over behavior responses.

A basic premise of Watson's "behaviorism" is that the mind if infant is a tabula rasa and that learned
associations between stimuli and responses are the building block of human development. According to
Watson, development does bit proceed through a series of stages; it is a continuous process marked by the
gradual acquisition of new and more sophisticated behavioral patterns r habits. Watson believed that only
the simplest of human reflexes (for example, the sucking reflex) are inborn and that all important tendencies,
including traits, talent, values and aspirations are learned

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The behaviorists of the 1980's are more moderate in their views. They recognize that the heredity and
maturation play meaningful roles in human development and that no amount of prompting or environment
enrichment could transform a severely retarded person into a lawyer or a brain surgeon. However, these
contemporary learning theorists believed the biological factor merely place limits on what children are
capable if learning. And to this day, theorist who favor the learning approach feel that the most significant
aspects of human behavior - those habits and qualities that make us human are learned.

What is learning?

Simply stated, learning is a process that produces relatively permanent changes in behaviour or behaviour
potential. These behavioural changes are the results of one's experience or practice, as opposed to natural
cause as maturation, fatigue, injury or illness.

Learned responses or habits may be acquired in several ways.

1. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a person comes to associate a neutral stimulus
with a second, non-neutral stimulus that always elicits as a particular response after this association has
been made, the formerly neutral stimulus will have acquired the capacity to evoke the response in question

2. Operant (or instrumental) conditioning id a second type if learning in which a child first emits a
response and then comes to associate it with a particular outcome or consequence. Two kinds of
consequences are significant in operant conditioning - reinforced and punishments. Reinforcers are
consequences that promote operant learning by increasing the probability that a response will occur in the
future. Punishments are consequences that suppress a response and may decrease the likelihood that it will
in the future. In summary, operant conditioning is s very common form of learning in which various acts
become wither more or less probable. Depending on the consequences they produce.

3. Observational learning is a third process by which we acquire new feelings attitudes and behaviours. If a
child watches someone do something or listen attentively to that person’s reasoning then the child may learn
to do, think, or feel as the person did in the language if observation learning the individual who is observe
and imitated is called social model.

THEORIES OF SOCIAL LEARNING

Although Watson argued that learned associations between stimuli and responses are the "bricks" in
the "edifice of human development" he really did not have a developmental theory to work with. Three
major theories have been proposed to explain social learning and the process of development. The drive
theory of Clark Hull, the operant learning of B.F Skinner and the cognitive social learning theory of Albert
Bandura

1. Neo-Hulian theory

This theory differed from the psychoanalytic approach un four important respects. First, the instincts
played virtually no role in this Neo Hullian Theory. Second, the personality was no longer described as a
system composed of an id, ego, super - ego. Instead, the Neo Hullian used the term habit for the well learned

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associations between various stimuli and responses that represents the stable aspects of one's character.
Presumably, our interaction with other people will lead to the development of many habits which
collectively make up our personality. Third, that development occurs continuously and is not at all stage
like. Neo Hullian John Dolard and Neil Millers describes that the personality as a system of transition;
people will interact with one another until the day they die and these new social encounters are continually
modifying their existing habit. Finally, each individual was said to develop a unique habit structure (or
personality), because no two persons are ever expose to precisely the same set of social learning experiences

In sum, Dollard and Miller view development as the changes that occur in a child's behaviour as a
result of his or her experiences. The idea outcome of these learning experience is a collection if habits
(personality) that is structured so that the socially desirable ad effective at reducing a primary or secondary
drive.

2. Skinner's Operant Learning Approach

According to skinner, the majority of habits that children acquire freely emitted responses (operant)
that are either more or less probable as a function of their consequences. In other words, Skinner purposes
that behaviour is motivated by external stimuli reinforces or primitive events- rather than of internal forces,
or drives. Skinner theory is considered as radical behaviourism because it focuses exclusively on the
external stimuli (reward and punishment) that influence our behaviour and ignores all cognitive
determinants of social learning.

3. Bandura’s Cognitive Social-Learning Theory

Bandura believes that children can learn new responses by merely observing the behaviour of a
model’s behaviour at some future time. This, therefore, is a form of cognitive learning, wherein children
need not to be reinforced or even respond in order to learn by observing others. All that is required for
observational learning is for the observer to pay close attention to the model’s behaviour and then store this
information in memory so that it can be retrieved for use a later date.

3. LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Kohlberg became fascinated by Plaget’s studies of moral development. Because of this, he decided
to expand on Plaget’s original researches by making moral dilemmas that could be appropriate for older
children. Thus, in 1963, he developed the description of the three levels and sic staged of moral reasoning.
Level One- Preconventional Morality. This is typical of children up to age nine. It is called preconventional
because young children do not really understand=d the conventions or rules of society.
Stage One – Punishment - Obedient Orientation. The physical consequence of an action determines
goodness or badness. Those in authority have superior power and should be obeyed. Punishment
should be aoided by staying out of trouble.
Stage Two – Instrumental Relativist Orientation. Here, an action is judge to be right if it is
instrumental or satisfying one’s own needs involve on even or benefit in return.

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Level Two – Conventional Morality. This is typical of nine to twenty years old. It is called conventional
since most nine to twenty-years olds conform to the convention of society because they are rules of a society.
Stage Tree – Good Boy-Nice Orientation. The right action is one that would be carried out by
someone whose behavior is likely to please or impress others.
Stage Four – Law and order Orientation. To maintain the social order, fixed rules must be established
and obeyed. It is essential to respect authority.
Level Three – Postconventional Morality. This is usually reached only after the age of twenty and by only
a small proportion of adults, it is called postconventional because moral principles that underlie the
conventions of a society are understood.
Stage Five – Social Contract Orientation. Rues are needed to maintain the social agreement. At the
same time, the rights of the individual should be protected.
Stage Six – Universal Ethical Principle Orientation. Moral decisions should be made in terms of
self-chosen ethical principles. Once principles are chosen they should be applied in a consistent way.
Some psychologist have reported evidence that substantiates the hypothesis proposed by
kohlberge that the stages he has describes are fixed, sequential, and universal. Other investigators
(Kurtimer and Greef, 1970) however, have reported evidence that does not support these hypotheses
and have questions about Kohlberg’s basic approach and some of his conclusion.
Among Filipinos, while there may be varied reactions/ observations on Kohlber’s stages of
moral development, one thing is sure, that Kohlberg’s work can serve as a basis for techniques of
moral education.

SOCIOBIOLOGICAL THEORY
Sociobiology, closely related to ethology (Bell and Bell, 1989), is a new and controversial discipline
that focuses on the biological foundations of social behaviour in species ranging from amoeba colonies to
human societies. The novelist Samuel Butler once remarked that “the chick is only an egg’s way of making
another egg.” So with sociobiology which views organisms as only the gene’s way of making more genes.
It depicts organisms primarily as survival machines for genes. Individual organisms may die, but their genes
live on in future generations. The key to the entire process is survival life’s first order of business. To survive
and thus pass on their genes to offspring – organisms must be able to function in their habitat. And if they
are to fit better in their environment, organisms must adapt to changes across time.

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive or Intellectual Development

1. Sensorimotor period. From birth to about 2 years old
Characteristics:
o The infant differentiates himself from objects
o Seeks stimulation and makes interesting spectacles last.
o Prior to language development, meanings by defined manipulations so that object
remain the same object with changes in location and point of view.

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 2. Preoperational Thought Period
A. Preoperational phase- about 2 to 4 years old.
Characteristics:
o The child is ego-centric
o Unable to take viewpoint of other people
o He classifies by salient features. If A is like B in one respect

B. Intuitive phase – about 4 to 7 years old

Characteristics:
o Now able to think in terms of classes, to see relationships, to handle number of
concepts, but it “intuitive” because he may be unaware of his classification.
o Gradual development of conservation is in the order: mass (age 5), weight (age 6),
and volume (age 7).

3. Period of Concrete Operations

Characteristics:
o The child is now able to use logical operations such as reversibility (in arithmetic),
classification (organizing objects into ordered series, such as increasing size.)

4. Period of Formal Operation

Characteristics:
o Final steps towards abstract thinking and conceptualization.
o Capable of hypothesis testing.

Sigmund Freud – Psychoanalytic Theory

The Structure of Personality

1) Id – consist of everything psychological that is inherited and is present at birth, including the
instincts. It is the reservoir of psychic energy and furnishes all the power for operation of two
systems.

o Called the “true psychic reality” because it represents the inner world of subjective
experience and has no knowledge of objective reality.
o Follows pleasurable principle
o It is the raw, savage, undisciplined, pleasure seeking staff that energizes man
throughout life.
o Use two processes.
a. Reflex action – are inborn and automatic reactions like sneezing and blinking;
they usually reduce tensions immediately.
b. Primary sources – it attempts to discharge tension by forming an image of an
object that will satisfy the instinct.
o Biological component of personality

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 2) Ego – Id knows the subjective world reality whereas the ego distinguishes between things and
mind and things in the external world

o Obey the reality principle and to operate by means of the secondary process.
o The aim of the reality principle is to prevent the discharge of tension until an object
that is appropriate for the satisfaction of the need has been discovered.
o The secondary process is thinking.
o Equip with all cognitive capabilities such as thinking, planning, deciding and etc.
o Executive of the personality because it controls the gateways of to action, selects
features of the environment to which it will respond and decide what instincts will
be satisfied and in what manner.
o Psychological component of personality.
o Uses the defense mechanisms once the action taken gives embarrassment to relieve
the pressure.

3) Superego
o It is the internal representative of the traditional values and ideals of society as interpreted
to the child by its parents, and enforced by means of a system of rewards and punishments
imposed upon the child.
o Moral arm of the personality.

Libido – is that part of the Id structure which seeks its gratification from surely sexual activities.

Instincts – the sum total of psychic energy available to the personality.

Stages of Development – Psychosexual Stages of Development of Freud

Freud considered early childhood stages as having to do with deriving pleasure from different zones
of the body at different ages, leading up to the gratifications of adults’ sexuality.

1. Oral – during the first two years of life, the mouth is the center of gratification through
stimulation of lips and mouth region as in nursing and thumb sucking.

2. Anal – from age 2-3, the membranes of the anal region presumably provide the major source of
pleasurable stimulation.
o Gratification through holding and expelling of feces

3. Phallic – from age 3-5 or 6, self-manipulation of genitals is assumed to provide the major source
of pleasurable stimulation.

o Gratification through fondling of sex organs.

o Oedipal sexual drive for parents (either Oedipus of Electra complex). Greek: feel in love
with his mother.

4. Latency – from ages 6-12, sexual motivation presumably recede in importance as the child
becomes preoccupied with developing skills and other activities.

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 o Sexual interests are no longer active, so that the child of elementary school age turns his
interest to his environment.

5. Genital – after puberty the deepest feelings of pleasure presumably comes from heterosexual
relations.

o In which heterosexual interest arise.

Psychosocial Development of Erik Erickson

1. Oral Sensory – Basic trust: result for gratification of needs, mutual recognition. Child needs
food, love, rest, recreations, security, stimuations met by caregivers.

o Outcome: develops trust in others, feels valued, and a sense that life is good.
o Virtue: hope – is the enduring belief in the obtainability of fervent wishes.
o Mistrust: result of consistent abuse, neglect, deprivation of love, too early or harsh
weaning, and autistic isolation.
o Child does not get needs, feels hungry, cold, abandoned and pain.
o Outcome: develops mistrust – a sense that he is not important – he cannot depend on
others.

2. Mascular Anal

Autonomy: Child views self as person in his own right apart from parents but still dependent.
o Child discovers control over himself through bladder and bowels, saying “no”, choosing
certain foods.
o Outcome: develops autonomy or sense that he exists as an individual discovers “I” and
“me”.
o Virtue: Will – is the unbroken determination to exercise free choice as well as self-
restraint.

Shame and doubt:

o Feels inadequate, doubt self, and curtails learning basic skills like walking, talking, wants
to “hide” inadequacies.
o Child is punished for wetting, soiling in pants.
o Child is yelled at or abused for not behaving
o Outcome: develops shame and doubt, a sense that there is something bad about him.

3. Locomotor Genital

Initiative: lively imagination, vigorous reality testing, imitates adults, anticipates roles.
o Child discovers that he can “do things” – climbs, draws, puts puzzles together, goes to
school, develops friendships, makes things through crafts.
o Outcome: develops initiative, develops a sense that he can create and be successful.

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 o Virtue: Purpose – is the courage to envisage and pursue valued goals uninhibited by the
defeat of infantile fantasies, by guilt and by foiling fear or punishment.

Guilt: Child is rarely praise, inly put down and/or punished or ignored – abused. Normal curiosity
is discouraged, mistakes are punished.
o Lacks spontaneity, infantile jealousy, castration complex, suspicious, evasive role
inhibition.
o Outcome: develops guilt, a sense he causes anger or pain in others because he has done
something wrong.
4. Latency

Industry: Child discovers he is part of society, he can be part of human society

o (Participates in scout class, sport, etc.) and learn skills that enable him to survive I
his society.
o Outcome: he has sense of duty ad accomplishments, develops scholastic and social
competencies, undertakes real tasks, puts fantasy and play in better perspective,
learns world of tools, and task identification
o Develops industry, has sense that he has a valuable contribution to make to others.
o Virtue: Competence – is the free exercise of dexterity and intelligence in the
completion of tasks, unimpaired by infantile inferiority.

Industry: Child never belongs to anyone – is not wanted – does not allow opportunities to develop
friendships, and abilities are criticized.
o Outcome: Poor work habits, avoid strong competition, feels doomed to mediocrity;
sense of futility.
o Develops inferiority, a sense that others are better than him. He avoids positive
interaction.

5. Puberty and Adolescence

Identity: Child discovers his unique values, personality – even within a group of peers and adults,
and chooses his career.
o Outcome: temporal perspective, self-certain, role experimenter, apprenticeship, sexual
polarization, leader-fellowship, and ideological commitment.
o Develops Identity, a sense of relating to others as he is accepting and caring for others
as they are.
o Virtue: Fidelity – is the ability to sustain loyalties.

Role Confusion
o Child misunderstood – abused, cannot develop values or goals, spending energies
rebelling against society, doesn’t learn.
o Outcome: Time confusion, self-conscious role fixation, work paralysis, bisexual
confusion, and value confusion.
o Develops role confusion, doesn’t fit in, isn’t able to find direction or meaningful work.
Has no positive sense of identity.

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 6. Early Adulthood

Intimacy – Adult discovers his life becomes better when he can share love. Chooses a partner,
has children.
o Outcome: capacity to commit self to others.
o Develops intimacy, a sense of interpersonal relatedness.
o Virtue: love – is mutually of devotion forever.

Isolation – cannot form successful relationship with others, is promiscuous or withdrawn.

o Outcome: avoids intimacy, character problems, promiscuous behavior repudiates and

isolates.
o Develops isolation, feels alone, lonely, misunderstood, different, ma resort to criminal
activity to meet needs.

7. Adulthood

Generativity:

o Adult discovers that his life creates life in others – has grandchildren, enjoys and reaps
benefits of parenting and working.

o Outcome: productive and creative of self and others, parental pride and pleasure, mature,
enriches life, establishes and guides the next generation.
o Develops generativity, a sense that he has made a positive contribution to the life process.
o Virtue: care- is the widening concern for what has been generated by love.

Stagnation: Experiences disappointments, no enjoyment in the past, wishes to begin again.

o Outcome: egocentric, non-productive, excessive self-love and self-indulgence.

o Develops stagnation, a sense that nothing works – has sense of failure-loses interests on
activity.
8. Maturity

Integrity:

o Feels content and satisfied with life process.

o Outcome: appreciates continue past, present and future, acceptance of life cycle and life
style, has learned to cooperate with inevitabilities of life, death loses its sting.
o Develops integrity, a sense of getting old, coming to terms to death, feels life is worthwhile.
o Virtue: Wisdom- is detached concern with life itself, in the face of death itself.
Despair or Disgust
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 o Knows he did not get what he wanted out of life: is depressed, sad, and sometimes very ill.
o Outcome: time is too short; finds no meaning in human existence; has lost faith in self and
others, wants second chance at life cycle with more advantages, no feeling of world order or
spiritual sense, of fear and death.
o Develops despair, wants to die but is very fearful of death, and life means nothing.

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

1. Physiological Needs – these are the needs of air, food, water, physical comfort which we
must met before the next needs can be approached.

2. Safety Needs – using children for example; Maslows finds that they have a desire for
freedom from fears and insecurity. One wants to avoid harmful or painful incidents

3. Belongingness – Belongingness needs begin the higher order needs. The human personality
wants security. The human being wants to be somebody even though it is a small group.
Because he is brought up by his fellow men, he wants to belong to the group that helped rear
him.

4. Love needs – Man has had, now has, and will always have the desire to love somebody
else and be loved in return.

5. Self-esteem needs – In this need, man wants to know that he is worthwhile, that he can
master something of his own environment, that bhe has the competence and independence
and a freedom and a feeling of being recognized for some type of endeavor.

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 6. Self-actualization needs – this is the highest needs; for cognition and aesthetic reality. Man
has a strong desire to know and understand not only himself but the world about him. In
addition, he does not want to live in a stark, unbeautiful world but needs to have beauty and
art, to appreciate and to create things of an aesthetic nature.

Charlotte Towle’s Common Human Needs

Towle identified four categories of human needs that go with the individuals different stages of
development. These needs vary with age and circumstance of the individual. The following are the needs
identified by Towle:

1. Physical welfare and Personality Development

2. Emotional Growth and Development of Intellectual Capacity
3. Satisfying relationship with others and

Types of Anxiety or “Psychic Pain”

1. Reality Anxiety – arising from dangers or threats in the external world.

2. Neurotic Anxiety – caused by id’s impulses threatening to break through ego controls into
behavior that will punish in some way.
3. Moral Anxiety – arising from real or comtemplated action in conflict with the individual’s
superego and arousing feelings of guilt.

Psychoanalytic Theorists:

1. Sigmund Freud - founder of psychoanalysts, emphasized the role of unconscious processes and
psychosexual stages in the determination of behavior.
2. Carl Jung – felt that Freud placed undue emphasis on sex, and hefocused instead on the collective
unconscious and inner self-experience.
3. Alfred Adler –
4. Karen Horney – both are known for expanding the focus of psychoanalytic thought to include
social-environmental factors in the development of personality.
5. Karl Menninger – has in essence remained a proponent of Freud’s original principles and has
gathered data in support of them.
6. Anna Freud – elaborated the ego-defense mechanisms and pioneered the psychoanalytic
treatment of children.
7. Erik Erickson – broadened Freud’s psychosexual stages of development by describing eight (8)
psychosocial stages, each offering the child an opportunity to work out a conflict in a healthy or
unhealthy way.

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 1. Ivan Pavlov – a pioneer in showing the part of conditioning plays in behavior (conditioning-
response factor).
2. E L. Thorndike – formulated the law of affect – a seemingly simple observation that rewarded
responses are strengthened and unrewarded responses weakened – but one which laid the
foundations of of understanding learning and suggested means for the control of human
behavior.
3. John B. Watson – change the focus of psychology from the study of outer behavior, an approach
he called “behaviorism”.
4. Burrhus F. Skinner – formulated concept of operant conditioning as a kind of conditioning in
which reinforcers could be used to make a response more or less probable and frequent.
5. Albert Bandura – pioneered the study of modeling. He clarified and integrated learning
principles in the causation and treatment of maladaptive behavior.
6. Donald Melchenbaum – has made important recent contributions to the cognitive-behavioral
approach to changing maladaptive behavior through the modification of people’s statements.

Humanistic Perspective

1. Abraham Maslow – devoted more than two (2) decades to showing the potentialities of human
being for higher self-development and functioning (heirarchy of needs).
2. Carl Rogers – has contributed significantly to the humanistic perspective with his theoretical
formulations and his systematic studies on therapeutic process and its outcome.
3. Thomas Szasz – a psychiatrist, has argued that illness is an inappropriate term for most
maladaptive behavior, which he sees as resulting from problems in living rather than from
organic issues.
4. Fritz Perls – was influential in the development of therapeutic procedures for enhancing human
experiencing and functioning, particularly in the context of confrontation groups.

Classification of Conflict

1. Approach-Avoidance Conflict – involve strong tendencies both to approach and to avoid the
same goal. Sometimes called mixed-blessing dilemmas. Example, a former smoker may want to
smoke during the party and realized that doing so may jeopardize his or her desire to quit.
2. Double-Approach Conflict – Involve choosing between two or more desirable goals. To a large
extent, such simple “plus-plus” conflicts results from the inevitable limitations in one’s time,
space, energy, and personal, and financial resources.
3. Double-Avoidance Conflict – are those in which the choice is between more or less equally
undesirable alternatives. Neither course of action will be least disagreeable.

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Stage of Consciousness

1. Conscious – in that part of man’s mental life of which he is fully aware. The state of being
conscious enables us to know where we are, what are happening around us, who we are, how
are we to go about doing, and what we are present doing.
2. Preconscious – exist between the mental state of being conscious and the mental state of being
unconscious. It is the shadowy land where our memories for example, seek blindly for a bit of
knowledge readily known in the past but now not immediately in our possession to use.
3. Unconscious – there has to be a state of being which accounts for things that are not available to
the mind at any given moment but that have occurred to the mind in the past.
4. Subconscious – mental processes which accompany man at birth and are largely automatic in
mature but do require some mental effort.

Schizophrenia

Are group of psychotic disorders characterized by gross distortions of reality, withdrawal from a
social interaction, disorganization, and fragmentation of perception through an emotion. Schizophrenic are
suspicious and frightened, the victim fears he can trust neither his own sense, nor motives of other people.

Paranoia

Characteristics:

1. Suspiciousness – the individual mistrust the motives of others, fears he/she will be taken
advantage of, and is constantly on alert.
2. Protective thinking – selectively deceives the actions of others to confirm suspicion, comma,
now blames other for own failures.
3. Hostility – response to alleged injustices and mistreatment with anger and hostility, becomes
increasingly suspicious.
4. Paranoid Illumination – the moment in everything “fall into place”, the individual finally
understand the strange feeling and events being experienced.
5. Delusions – of influence and persecution that may be based on “some grain of truth”, presented
in a very logical and convincing way; often later development of grandeur.

1. Personality Development
I. Nature of Man – Man is a rational animal.This nature is manifested in his various,
1. Characteristics
1.1. He is alive – seen in his ability to perform various acts
1.2. He is a body – seen in his ability to perform various acts.
1.3. He has feelings – able to sense his surroundings and his reactions are expressed in his
emotions and bodily movement.
1.4. He is thinking and willing being – he is endowed with intellect and will. Decision on
choice making is the culmination of his thought processes.

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 His innate dignity is rooted in his rationality, i.e., a person endowed with reason and
volition. It is his characteristics that enables man to muster his environment. And this
he does as an individual and in collaboration with the larger society.
2. These characteristics are manifested in his different activities
2.1. He nourishes himself. The result is physical growth and development. This physical
Maturation enables him to reproduce.
2.2. He becomes aware of his material environment through his senses. Thus, his emotions
are perceived through his senses. Thus, his emotions are perceived as pleasant or
unpleasant. He then moves towards or away from the environment that serves as stimuli
to him.
2.3. With his intellect he thinks – he abstracts, forms ideas, judges and reasons. Based upon
his evaluations, he decides and determines how to live his life.
II. Needs and Need Disposition
1. Needs
1.1. Survival needs – biological and material needs to sustain life:
a. Air
b. Water
c. Food
d. Shelter
e. Clothing
f. Exercise, sleep, rest

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 1.2. Daily living needs – those related to man’s functions as social and intelligent
beings:
1.2.1. Social Needs
1) The Safety Needs, The need for freedom from threat or danger, the
need to ally oneself with the familiar and the secure.
2) The belongingness and the love needs, the need for affiliation, for
belongingness, for acceptance.
1.3. Psychological needs
1.3.1. The esteem needs, the need for achievement, for strength, for
acceptance, for reputation, for status or prestige.
1.3.2. The need for self-actualization, the need for self-fulfillment, to
realize potentialities, to become what one is capable of becoming.
1.3.3. Cognitive needs, the need for symmetry, order, system, and
structure.
1.3.4. Esthetic needs, the needs to worship a higher being.

2. Need disposition

As needs are felt, man desires the satisfaction of these needs. Needs then
serve as motivations to action. As man meets the lower needs, he focuses his
attention on the higher ones. There is a continuous demand and striving to reach
another need until he becomes self-actualized.

There are three (3) distinct steps in the motivation cycle: (1) awareness of a
need, desire, or urge that serves as a motive, (2) (action) instrumental behavior for
an acquisition of need and (3) goal toward which action is directed to lead to the
satisfaction of the need.

Emotions are a motivating force too, for under the state of emotion, one
can be initiated to action.

In attempting to satisfy his needs, man encounters frustrations as a

frustration persists, tension sets in. if tensions are no relieved anxiety develops. In
order to prevent this series of uncomfortable states, man resorts to defence
mechanisms to protect him from factors that threaten him.

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Common Medical Disorders
Effects on Human Behavior

There are specific diseases that produce social and psychological effects on human
behavior. Among these maybe mentioned:

1 Cardio-vascular diseases such as heart conditions and high blood pressure which may
cause inability to find employment because of restricted activities, or sudden death. Patients
become over dependent on others.

2 Gastro-Intestinal and other metabolic disease like diabetes are closely related to
emotional tensions, insecurity and feelings of inadequacy, self-centeredness and display of
exaggerated symptoms.

3 Patients with respiratory diseases like asthma maybe closely related to poor social
environmental conditions as well as personality traits.

4 Skin conditions and bone deformities produce self-consciousness, loneliness and feeling
of shame and rejection by others because of their contagious nature loneliness and depression
result in social isolation.

5 Venereal diseases affect the relationships between people because of its sexual nature of
transmission and the social stigma and feeling of guilt associated with them. It may cause broken
families and severe emotional problems not only within the family, but also, in the community
when social problems of delinquency prostitution and drug addiction become widespread.

6 Cancer and other diseases like tuberculosis, traumatic injuries produce characteristic
behavior patterns because of their restricted mobility. Rehabilitation and occupational therapy are
needed to keep them busy and spiritual counselling to help them accept their condition.

Psychiatric Disorder

Psychoneurotics are persons who show personality disorganizations when confronted with
trying situations and difficulties of life. They exhibit behavior patterns of anxiety, inner tensions,
restlessness, inadequacy, lack of concentrations, abnormal fears. Physical symptoms may be
present such as headache, upset digestion and over fatigue.

Psychoses are severe mental diseases resulting from disintegration of the personality.
Those afflicted are insane and have lost touch with reality. They have no inhibitions and are not
legally responsible for their acts. They cannot take care of themselves and must be supervised or

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institutionalized when they become violent and a threat to others. The most common forms are
schizophrenia, manic-depression psychosis and paranoia.

The sociopathic or anti-social personalities are the law violators, criminals who may have
adequate intelligence and they know from wrong. Their abnormality lies in their lack of inhibitions
and unwillingness to conform to the ethical and moral standards of society. They are impulsive,
emotionally unstable, devoid or moral and social samples. Their moral principles are perverted
and depraved and they are incapable of conducting themselves with decency and propriety in life.
Although they may be smart and shrewd. They are more imbeciles and a threat to society.

Some forms of antisocial personalities are the homosexuals, rapists, swindlers, drug
addicts.

Alcoholism may be classified as a form of psychiatric disorder because of its deep-seated

psychological origin.

Pathological sexually such as masochism, sadism, peeping toms, and exhibitionism are
classified as psychiatric disorders.

Psychosomatic Medicine

It deals with the affects of sustained emotional states upon the physical condition of man.
Somato-psychology is concerned with the social and mental effects of physical illness.
Psychosomatic medicine is based on four (4) postulates:

The mind and the body are interrelated and what affects one affects the other.

Physical illness may affect the behaviour of men.

Mental illness produces metabolic and other disturbance in the body.

Worries and anxieties affect the digestion, sleep, respiration and other bodily functions

When the mental disturbances disappears, the other body functions return to normal after
the stimuli disappear. When the mental condition remains untreated, it may develop permanent
organic or anatomical changes which remain as a result of the irreversible process.

Change of the environment to lessen the pressures of life may help to resolve conflicts
within the personality which are manifested in disturbed body functions.

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Physical Disabilities

Social Workers need to understand the conditions and mechanisms that account for the
psycho-social effects of physical disabilities. The individual with physical disabilities show
different behaviour patterns such as compensation for inferiority feelings, blame on parents,
dependence, demanding attitudes, and unrelated anxieties related to the bodily handicap. There is
a disturbance of the self-image especially if he is unable to perform his different roles in life.

Social Workers should view the handicapped as a normal part of today’s society. He should
be regarded as a whole person rather than within the narrow confines of handicapped, on the basis
of his abilities, not his disabilities and employers, and the community must contribute to his
medical, therapeutic, educational and vocational rehabilitation. Compensation is the individual’s
attempt to make up for undesirable trait and the consequences discomfort by exaggerating a
desirable trait. It is a compensatory mechanism. The adjustment changes must involve both the
individual and the environment if he must maintain a sound balance I his growth and development.

REVIEW ON TERMS AND RELATED CONCEPTS:

SOCIAL WORK – the profession which helps individuals, groups and communities to develop, enhance
or restore their capability for coping with the demands of their environment through the use of social work
methods (Social Work Dictionary).

-primarily concerned with the organized social services activity aimed to facilitate and strengthen
basic relationship in the mutual adjustment between individuals and their social environment for the good
of the individual and society, and by the use of the social work methods.

-is the profession which is concerned with man’s adjustment to his environment; a person (or
groups) in relation to a persons (or their) social situation. This refers to a person’s “social functioning”
which results from the performance of his various social roles in society. (T.L. Mendoza)

The Mission of Social Work

 To enhance human being and help meet the basic human needs of all people with particular
attention to the needs and empowerment of people who are vulnerable, oppressed and living in
poverty.

SOCIAL FUNCTIONING – the expression of the interaction between man and his environment; the
individual’s manner of coping with the demands of his environment.

-The product of his activity as he relates to his surroundings.

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-it refers to the activities or behavior essential to the different roles he has to perform in his involvement
with others.

Variables Influencing Social Functioning

 Physical variables
 Social variables
 Cultural variables
 Psychological variables

SOCIAL ROLES- a specific pattern of behavior and attitudes which one assumes in a specific situation in
her relationship with others.

- each individual occupies a position in the group o different positions in several groups,
and for each position he has a specific role to play. i.e. father, husband, supervisor ,
teacher etc. Every role has a reciprocal role. To be a brother you need have siblings ,
teacher should have students and the like.

SOCIAL WELFARE - covers practically everything than men do for the good of society.

- organized system of social services and institutions, designed to aid individuals and groups to attain
satisfying standards of life and health.
- It includes laws, programs, benefits and services which assure or strengthen provisions for meeting
social needs.

Ways in which the society responds to unmeet needs or problems:

 Individual and Group Effort – refer to systematic and voluntary efforts undertaken by
individuals and/or by groups in response to the unmeet needs of people in a community.
 Major societal institutions which have designated roles and responsibilities fro meeting
human needs.
 Social agency (public or private) is a major provision for helping people with their problem.

Social Welfare Goals

 Humanitarian and Social Justice Goals

 Social Control Goal
 Economic Development Goal

2 VIEWS/CONCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL WELFARE

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 1.) Residual – conceives of the social welfare structure as temporary, offered during emergency
situation and withdrawn when the regular system (the family) and other systems) is again working
properly.
- Social welfare activities of this kind often carry the stigma of “dole” or “charity”.

2.) Institutional – sees social welfare as a proper, legitimate function of modern society.
- The institutional formulation, in

contrast, sees social welfare as a proper, legitimate function of modern society.

SOCIAL SERVICES – refer to the programs, services and other activities provided under various auspices,
to concretely answer the needs and problems of the members of the society.

Human Behavior and Social Environment is one of the core topics in social work. It is concerned
with the materials necessary for understanding the client in his problem situation, the dynamics of
individual and group behavior and of group and community processes which affect or influence the
individual, the group and the community. It is also concerned with content about normal and deviant
behaviors.

Human Behavior and Social Environment focus on knowledge about individual as a bio- psycho-
social being, the interaction between him/her and the physical, social, cultural, political and economic
forces in the environment which affects of influence behavior. They interact in a dynamic way.
Throughout his life, man, in his continuous desire and attempt to live a life that is acceptable, satisfying,
productive and evolutionary, must establish a condition of equilibrium between his needs and the
demands imposed upon him by his social environment. In other words, if an individual is not able to
satisfy his needs because of personal inadequacies, a harsh and difficult social environment where
opportunities for his growth and development are not adequate to enable him to cope with the problems of
living, then as a result of inability to establish equilibrium, his social functioning is impaired.

The phrase “the individual is a biopsychosocial being” means that there are inseparable,
interacting forces- biological, psychological and social that influence human behavior and personality.

 Biological Component – would include the individual’s state of health and nutrition, genetics and
natural physical endowments at birth, normal biological growth and development as well as
deviation from normal functioning including illnesses and physical disabilities,
 The psychological component is concerned with individual’s personality, comprising what is
commonly termed “inner states” which include perceptual or intellectual, emotional and striving
tendency to do actively or purposely.
 The social component includes hereunder elements

o Societal- aggregate data and social climate in which we live, regardless of whether or not
people are aware or accept them, such as poverty and unemployment.
o Institutional- organizational arrangements in society, such as family, government,
education and social services.

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 o Status- characteristics of persons and their position in society as seen in the way persons
are described, i.e age, sex, race and religion.
o normative – the forms in which social behavior are expressed and the social rules that
shape these forms.
o interactive – the type of interaction and perception of interaction made of self and others
that are a basis of behavior.

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Personality

– comes from the Latin word “per” and sonare”

which means to sound through.

- dynamic organization within an individual of psychological system that determines his or her
characteristics, behavior and thoughts, (Allport’s definition)
- is sometimes defined as person’s public self, what he or she selects to display to the world. (Jung’s
concept of persona)
- is generally defined as the individual’s unique and relatively stable patterns of behavior, thoughts
and emotion. (Burger, 1990).
- most personality theories agree that personality can be described in terms of consistent behavior
patterns. The tendency to respond consistently to various situations is what gives a person identity.

Erroneous Methods of Assessing Personality

1.) First Impression – it gives some people a clue to the pattern of the observed individual. They then
brand that person as a certain “personality type” and ascribe to him or her supposed characteristics
of that type.
- A first impression may be used on physical appearance, facial features or expressions, mannerisms,
style of dressing, name, nationality, race, what a person says and how it is said, what one does and
how it is done, or some other physical or physiological characteristic which is identified in the mind
of the observer with a certain kind of personality type or stereotype.

2.) Pseudo-scientific Methods

a.) Physiognomy - this is a method of judging personality through the measurement and study
of person’s physical features, most especially facial features.

- the underlying assumption is that physical features are closely related with personality traits.
- The physiognomist uses physical features, such as the distance between the eyes, the size and shape
of the chin and the color of the hair, as clues to assess personality characteristics.
b.) Phrenology - in this method, personality is judged by the size and shape of the skull.

c.) Graphology - this method uses a person’s handwriting to know his or her personality.
General penmanship and the way a letter is formed have a corresponding personality characteristic.

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SELECTED THEORIES ON PERSONALITY

SIGMUND FREUD

(Psychoanalytic Theory)

Structure of Personality

1.) ID – present at birth which includes instincts

- operates on a pleasure principle.
2 Command Process in accomplishing its aim of avoiding pain and obtaining pleasure:

a.) Reflex Action – inborn and automatic reactions like sneezing and blinking thus usually
reduce tension immediately.
b.) Primary Process – attempts to discharge tension by forming an image of an object that will
remove the tension.
2.) Ego – operates on a reality principle
- comes into existence because the needs of the organism require appropriate transactions with the
objective world of reality. The hungry person has to seek, find and eat food before the tension of
hunger can be eliminated.
- This means that the person has to learn to differentiate between a memory image of food and actual
perception of food as it exists in the outer world which is accomplished by locating food in the
environment.
3.) Super ego – moral arm of the personality
- the human organism is not born with a super ego, rather children must acquire it through interaction
with parents, teachers and other formative agents.
- 2 subsystems
 Conscience
 Ego – ideal

Psychosexual Stages of Development

 Oral Stage- 0-2 years

 Anal – from age 2-3
 Phallic - from age 3-5 or 6
 Latency- from 6-12
 Genitals- 12 and above

ORAL – PASSIVE CHARACTER – describes as dependent to others. They often retain even to excessive
eating, drinking and smoking. They are seeking the pleasure they missed in infancy.

ORAL- AGGRESSIVE PERSONALITY – when we begin teething, one satisfying thing to do when you
are teething is to bite on something like mommy’s nipple.

- If this precipitates an early weaning, one may develop this verbally aggressive, argumentative,
sarcastic personality.

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ANAL- EXPULSIVE PERSONALITY – some parents put themselves at the child’s mercy in the process
of toilet training. They beg, they cajole, they show great joy when one does it right, they act as though their
hearts wee broken when the child does it right. The child is the king of the house. These people maybe
cruel, destructive and given to vandalism.

ANAL RETENTIVE PERSONALITY – when parents are strict. They maybe competing with their
neighbors and relatives as to whom can potty train their child first (early potty training being associated
with great minds).

- These people are turned out to be clean, perfectionist, dictatorial and stubborn.

Alfred Adler

(INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY)

- One of the two most prominent figures who broke with Freud and went on to establish their own
original system of thought is Alfred Adler.
- The cornerstone of Adler’s system is the view that the person cannot be separated from the social
community.
- Adler described his childhood as a difficult and unhappy time. He enjoyed a warm relationship
with his mother during his first 2 years of life, but he lost that pampered position when his younger
brother was born.

Central Concepts of Individual Psychology

1.) Inferiority Feelings and Compensation

- People with physical disabilities often strive to compensate for their weakness or defects.
i.e. Demosthenes (a child stutterer, became one of the world’s greatest orator.)

Wilma Rudolph (physically handicapped as a child, went on to win 3 Olympic gold medals in track.

Theodore Roosevelt (a weak and sickly child, became a specimen of physical fitness as an adult
as well as President of the United States.

- Thus, organ inferiority that is congenitally weak or poor functioning organs can lead to striking
accomplishment in a person’s life. But it can also lead to excessive feelings of inferiority, if the
person’s attempts at compensation are unsuccessful.
- Feeling of inferiority begins in infancy and this early inferiority feelings mark the beginning of a
lifelong struggle to achieve superiority over the environment as well as perfection and completion.

3 Childhood Handicaps as Contribution to Inferiority feelings:

A. Inferior Organs – children are born with inferior physical organ.

B. Overindulged Children grow up lacking confidence in their abilities because others have always
done things for them.
C. Parental Neglect - feels unwanted, they go through life lacking confidence in their ability to be
useful and to gain affection and esteem from others.

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 The abovementioned circumstances give rise to inferiority feelings; however one may react by
overcompensating and thus develop what Adler called SUPERIORITY COMPLEX. This involves a
tendency to exaggerate one’s physical, intellectual or social skills.

In any event, the technique of overcompensation is an exaggeration of a healthy striving to

overcome persistent feelings of inferiority. Accordingly, the person possessing a superiority complex
tends to be boastful, arrogant, egocentric and sarcastic.

2.) Striving for Superiority

Adler held that inferiority feelings are the source of all striving toward self-expansion, growth and
competence.

He concluded that the striving for superiority is the fundamental law of human life. Adler believed
that the striving for superiority is innate and that we are never free of it because it is life itself

Additional Ideas about the Nature and Operation for Striving for Superiority:

 He saw it as one fundamental motive with its roots in the infant’s awareness that it is impotent and
inferior to those in the surroundings.
 This upward drive is universal in nature; it is common to all.
 Superiority can take either a negative (destructive) or a positive (constructive direction.

Negative direction – is evident in the case of poorly adjusted people who strive for superiority through
selfishness and concern for personal glory at the expense of others.

Positive Direction – the efforts for a superior way of life are intimately bound up with the concern
for the welfare of others.

3.) Style of Life

- originally called the “life plan” or guiding image”, represents the most distinctive feature of
Adler’s theory of personality.

- A set of behaviors designed to compensate superiority.

4.) Social Interest

- The concept of social interest reflects Adler’s strong belief that we humans are social creatures-
that we must consider our relationship to others.

- He theorized that people are driven by an insatiable lust for personal power and need to dominate.
In particular, he held that people are pushed by the need to overcome their deep-seated feelings of
inferiority and pushed by their desire to be superior.

- Later on as his system matured, he theorized that persons are strongly motivated by positive social
urges. Specifically, he saw human beings as motivated by an innate social instinct which causes

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 them to relinquish selfish gains for community gain. The essence of this view, captured in the social
interest concept, is that people subordinate their own needs in favor of the greater social good.

- He added that the parental care and guidance also affect the child’s development of social interest.
The father, for instance, must avoid dual errors of emotional detachment and paternal
authoritarianism towards his children. Children who experience paternal detachment tend to pursue
a goal of personal superiority rather than based on social interest. Similarly, paternal
authoritarianism leads to a faulty style of life. Children whose father is tyrannical learn to strive for
power and personal, rather than social, superiority.

Social Interest as a Barometer of Psychological Health

- The degree of social interest represents a useful yardstick for measuring the person’s psychological
health.
- In Adler’s view, our own lives have value only to the extent that we add value to the lives of others.
Our own lives have no ultimate value unless we contribute to the lives of our fellow human beings
and even to the lives of those yet unborn.
- Maladjusted people, by contrast, are those who lack social interest. They are self-centered and strive
for superiority over others, they lack social goals.

6.) CREATIVE SELF

The style of life is shaped by the person’s creative power. In other words, each person is empowered
with the freedom to create his or her own life-style. Ultimately, people are solely responsible for who they
are and how they behave.

The creative power is responsible for the person’s life goal. It determines the method of striving for
good and contributes to the development of social interest. It makes a person a FREE SELF-
DETERMINED INDIVIDUAL.

7.) ORDER OF BIRTH

Adler focused attention on birth order as major determinant of life-style attitudes. Children born in any
position may create for themselves any life-style.

a.)First –Born (Oldest) Child – often referred as “Dethroned Monarch”.

- the first born child trains himself for isolation and masters the strategy of surviving alone and
independently of the need for anyone’s affection or approval.

- He further suggested that the oldest child is likely to be conservative, power oriented and pre-disposed
toward leadership. Therefore, he or she often becomes the upholder of family attitudes and moral standards.

b.) The Only Born Child – this is a unique position of not having other siblings with whom to compete.
This fact, coupled with a vulnerability to being pampered by the parents.

- considered as “tied to the mother’s apron string” and expects pampering and protection from all
others too.

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 - dependency and self-centeredness are the leading qualities of this life-style. Such child continues
to be the focus of family attention throughout childhood.

- The only child, in Adler’s view, has difficulty interacting with peers.

c.) The Second –Born (Middle) Child

- Characterized as highly competitive and highly ambitious. Her style of life of constantly trying to
prove that she is better than her older siblings.

- Characterized also by being achievement –oriented, using both direct and devious means to
surpass the older sibling.

d.) Last Born (Youngest) Child

- this position never experiences the shock of dethronement by other siblings and is the “baby” or
“pet” of the family, maybe pampered not only by the parents but particularly in large families, by older
siblings as well.

- this child may be relegated to the role of “ tag-along kid” .

-with older role models that set pace, all of whom are bigger and more privileged than he is, he is
likely to experience strong feelings of inferiority along with a lack of independence.

- Nevertheless, the last-born possesses one advantage; a high motivation to surpass older siblings.
As a result, this child often becomes the fastest swimmer, the best musician, the most talented artist, or the
most ambitious student in the family.

8.) FICTIONAL FINALISM

- the idea that human behavior is directed toward a future goal of its own making.
- People are more affected by their expectations of the future than by their actual past experiences.
He further argued that many people proceed through life acting “as if” certain ideas were
objectively true.
- Adler theorized that our ultimate goals (those goals which give our lives direction and purpose) are
fictional goals they can neither be tested nor confirmed against reality.
- Some persons may, for instance, conduct their lives in the belief that with hard work and little luck,
they can accomplish almost anything. To Adler, this belief constitutes fiction simply because there
are many people who work hard and yet never accomplish anything of real merit.
- Another example of fiction that exerts a powerful influence on the lives of countless people is the
belief that God will reward them in heaven for living a virtuous life on earth. This belief could be
considered fictional in nature because there is no empirical or logical way of proving their
existence.
- This goal does not exist in the future but in our present perception of the future. Personality is
influenced more by the subjective expectation about what might happen in the future than by
experiences of the past.

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 BURHUSS SKINNER

(Learning Behavioral Perspective)

- Burhuss Frederick Skinner was reared in a warm and stable home where learning was esteemed,
discipline was apparent and rewards were given when deserved.
- Skinner believed that abstract theories were unnecessary and should be abandoned in favor of an
approach based solely on how the environment affects the individual behavior.

Functional Analysis – the relationship between the organism’s overt behavior (responses) and the
environmental conditions (stimulus) that control it.

- It is the cause and effect relationship, emerging from functional analyses that become the universal
laws of behavioral science.

2 Kinds of Behavior

1.) RESPONDENT BEHAVIOR – refers to a specific response that is elicited by a known stimulus, the
latter always preceding the former in time.

- respondent behavior is skinner’s version of Pavlovian or Classical Conditioning. Also called it S

CONDITIONING to stress the significance of the stimulus that comes before and elicits the response.

Unconditioned Response – an unlearned response that is automatically elicited by an unconditional

stimulus.

Conditioned Response – a learned response similar to an unconditioned response which is elicited by a

previously presented stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus – a previously neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit responses through
repeated pairing with another stimulus capable of eliciting such responses.

2.) OPERANT BEHAVIOR (Operant Conditioning)

- is determined by the events that follow the response. That is a behavior is followed by a
consequence, and the nature of the consequences modifies the organisms tendency to repeat
behavior in the future.
- He called it R CONDITIONING to emphasize the affect of the response on the future behavior.
- If the consequences of the responses are favorable to the organism, then the likelihood of the
operant being emitted again in the future is thereby increased.
- On the other hand, if the response/outcomes are unfavorable or non-reinforcing, then the likelihood
of the operant is decreased.

TOKEN ECONOMY – is simply a stimulus which represents something to which certain desired items
or activities maybe exchanged.

Positive Reinforcement – involves the presentation of some kind of reward after some bit of behavior
has been emitted.

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 Schedules of Reinforcement

- Is the rule stating the contingency under which reinforcement will be presented.
1. Fixed Ratio- the organism is reinforced following a predetermined or fixed # of appropriate
responses.
2. Fixed Interval – the organism is reinforced after a set or “fixed time interval has elapsed since the
previous reinforcement.
3. Variable Ratio- the organism is reinforces on the basis of some predetermined # of responses.
Extinction of behavior acquired in this type of schedule does not know when the next reinforcement
will be forthcoming.
4. Variable Interval – the organism is reinforced on this schedule after a variable time interval has
elapsed. Variable interval tends to establish steady response rates and is slow to extinguish. After
all the organism cannot precisely anticipate when the next reinforcement is going to be delivered.

2 Types of Conditioned Reinforcement

 Primary Reinforcement – is any object or event that posses inherent reinforcing

properties.
 Secondary or Conditioned Reinforcement – is any object or event that acquires its
reinforcing qualities through close association with a primary reinforcement.

ALBERT BANDURA

(Observational Learning)

- Albert Bandura places primary emphasis on the role of Observational Learning in behavioral
acquisition.
- The most distinctive feature of Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory is the belief that most human
behavior is learned through observation or by example. We simply attend to what others do and
then repeat their actions.
- Skinner for instance, maintained that external reinforcement is necessary for learning to occur.
While Bandura accepts the importance of external reinforcement, he does not regard it as the ONLY
way in which our behavior is acquired, maintained or altered. People can also learn by observing
or reading or hearing about other people’s behavior.
- Bandura states, children learn by watching/observation to be aggressive, altruistic, cooperative or
even obnoxious.

4 Components or Process of Observational Learning

1.) Attentional Processes: Perceiving the Model

- a person cannot learn much by observation features/observation unless she/he attends to it. In other
words, it is not sufficient for a person merely to see the model and what it is doing; rather, the
individual must attend to the model with enough perceptual accuracy to extract the relevant
information, to use in initiating the model.

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 2.) Retention Process: Remembering the Model
- This concerns the long term mental representation of what was observed at one time or another.
- Simply put, a person cannot be affected much by observation of a model’s behavior if he/she has
no memory of it. Indeed, without the capacity to recall what the model did, the observer is unlikely
to demonstrate any enduring behavioral change.

3.) Motor Reproduction Processes

- Translating the symbolically coded memories into appropriate action.

4.) Motivational Processes: From Observation to action

- No matter how well people attend to and retain the modeled behavior or how much ability they
posses to perform the behavior, they will not perform it without sufficient incentive to do so.
- In other words, a person can acquire, retain and posses the capabilities for skillful execution of
modeled behavior, but the learning may seldom be converted into overt performance if it is
negatively sanctioned.

We rarely pay attention to something or somebody if no incentive impels us to-and when little attention
has been paid, there is virtually nothing to retain!

2 Forms of Reinforcement

1.) Vicarious Reinforcement

- taken from the observed success and failures of others, as well as from their own direct
experiences.

Indeed, as a social being, we repeatedly attend to the action of others and the situation in which
they are rewarded, ignored or punished.

Vicarious Positive Reinforcement – is said to occur when observers increase behavior for which they have
seen others reinforced.

Vicarious Punishment – occurs when observed aversive reduce people’s tendency to behave in similar or
related ways.

Thus, if you see someone else rewarded for doing something, you are likely to conclude that you
will receive the same kind of reinforcement for acting that way. Alternatively, if you see someone else
punished after doing something, you are likely to conclude that the same thing would happen to you if you
acted that way.

2.) Self-reinforcement

This is evident whenever people set reward or punish themselves for attaining, exceeding or falling
out to their own expectation.

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VIOLENCE: on Television

- Violence as portrayed in the mass media, especially on television has long been suspected of having
such a negative impact on those who consume it.
- One of the effects of it is increasing the aggressive styles of conduct.
- Research shows that children who preferred violent television programs of age 8 were among the
most aggressive in school. Ten years later, at age 18, 3 times more likely to have generated a police
record after 10 years.
- Heavy viewers of violence on television are more likely to feel vulnerable to aggression of others
and see the world as dangerous place.
- Given these results, we may safely infer that observing violence on TV does promote, at least
indirectly, aggression as an appropriate way to deal with interpersonal problems.

Bandura’s recommendation to eliminate, if not lessen the problem of aggression.

 Parents model non aggressive forms of behavior for their children and reward non violent behavior.
 Parents try to curtail their children’s exposure to violence in the media by monitoring the content
of such programs in advance.
 Parents can watch television alongside their children and comment on it, thereby explaining to the
children the harm and suffering that violent act can occur.

He does not assume that his recommendations would automatically eliminate the problem. “Like so
many other problems confronting man, there is no single grand design for lowering the level of
destructiveness within a society. It requires both individual’s corrective effort and group action aimed at
changing the practices of social system.”

CULTURE

Culture – as a complex whole which involves knowledge, beliefs , art , morals, customs and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by people as member of society.

- it is transmitted from one generation to another through language. It tells one what to do, what not
to do and how to do things. Form our culture, we learn to determine what behavior is appropriate
and what is in appropriate, what is good and what wrong behavior is, what are allowed and what
are prohibited, and even which smells are pleasant and which are not.

2 Different Concept of Culture

 As a real phenomenon
 As an abstraction

Language and Culture-

Aside from humans were created in God’s own image and likeness as Christian’s faith speaks, what
distinguishes human beings from lower animals is the possession of culture, while animals like dogs and

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cats can learn tricks or imitate certain activities, they cannot transmit what they have learned to their young
and so they cannot accumulate things that have learned.

Language – a factor responsible for the existence and development of culture.

- refers to the systematized usage of speeches and hearing to convey, communicate or express
feelings and ideas.
- Language enables people to transcend time and space. Through the use of language, we can talk
about what happened in the past and what one possibly forthcoming.

Culture and Society

Culture and society are used interchangeably. While these 2 concepts are interdependent and
interrelated no society can exist without a culture and no culture can develop without a society, they are not
the same.

Society – is a group of people bound together in a more or less permanent association organized for the
collective activity. It is made up of individuals who are interacting with each other in a shared pattern of
custom, belief and values.

Culture – is the system of behavior shared by members of society.

Characteristics of Culture

 Culture is learned
 Culture is shared
 Culture is dynamic
 Culture is diverse
 Culture is a whole

Knowledge – the total range of what has been learned or perceived as true

- This type of information is accumulated thru experience, study or investigation.

Norm – is an idea in the minds of the members of a group put into a statement specifying what members of
the group should do, ought to do or are expected to do under certain circumstances.

- defined as standard shared by members of a social group in which the members are expected to
conform, and conformity to which is enforced by positive and negative sanctions.
- the rules governing human relations within social group.
Folkways – are commonly known as the custom, tradition and conventions of the society.

Mores- Must/Should of the group/society.

- Based on ethical and moral values which are strongly held and emphasized. Observance of mores
is compulsive.

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Laws – are formulated norms, enacted by people who are vested with government power and enforced by
political and legal authorities designated by the government.

Sanctions – system of rewards and punishment .

Belief – embodies people’s perception of reality and includes the primitive ideas of the universe as well as
the scientist’s empirical view of the world.

Values – are the bases of our judgment of what we consider good, desirable and correct as well as what is
considered bad, undesirable, ugly and wrong.

- are abstract concepts of what is important and worthwhile.

The need to have some views about man is indeed essential for social workers. The social worker
should have an awareness and understanding of the different value systems which exist in our society. She
should understand the dominant values of Filipinos, her own personal values and the values of certain
religious groups. Values are important in people as they often dictate their behavior and their actions.

Some of the Filipino dominant values.

1.) Smooth interpersonal Relationship (SIR) – the ability to get along with others in such a way
that any signs of conflicts are avoided. SIR is acquired by:
a.) Pakikisama - derived from the

filipino word “sama”, meaning to go

along.

o It refers to the yielding of a person to the will of the leader or majority so as to make the
group’s decision unanimous.
o It is the “we” identification of the group
o It is a positive Filipino value. It encourages mutual assistance in times of need or
sympathy in times of sorrow.
b.) Go-between - the need for a mediator or facilitator. A third party is used to avoid the feeling of
inadequacy in a face-to-face encounter, or to act as an intermediary when asking for a favor.

c.) Euphemism - stating an unpleasant truth, opinion or request with beautiful language and fine
manner.

2.) Hiya – as painful emotion arising from a relationship with an authority figure or with a society
which inhibits self assertion when one is in a situation which is perceived as a dangerous to
one’s ego. This trait is associated with the unpleasant experience of embarrassment that
prevents one form wrongdoing.
3.) Bahala Na – an expression derived from a Filipino word “Bathala”.
- it is the “come what may” or que sera sera” attitude and at time rests on the line of least resistance
that one need not exert any effort because God will take care of everything.
4.) Ningas Kugon – “ningas” literally means to catch fire and “kugon “ is a fast burning kind of
grass.
- It is defined as the enthusiasm that is intense only at the start but gradually fades away.

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 5.) Utang na Loob – reciprocity or debt of gratitude.
6.) Hospitality – welcoming others to one’s home and offering the best to visitors while denying
the same to members of the family.
7.) Amoral Familism – the tendency to become individualistic and in ward directed; hence, the
inability to look beyond the family circle.
While many Filipinos are captive of these values there are those who are not, so that the social
worker should be sensitive to this and not automatically presume that all her clients adhere to these.
An awareness of these values will be of great help in understanding and dealing with the behavior
of the people one works with. Many of these values are good and no one will argue against the
value of preserving them . However some of them have negative aspects or are given distorted
interpretation, thereby creating problems.

The Family

- is the basic social institution and the primary group in society.

- Defined as a social group characterized by common residence, economic cooperation and
reproduction.
- A group of persons united by ties of marriage, blood or adoption, constituting a single household,
interacting and communicating with each other in their respective social roles of husband and
wife, mother and father, son and daughter, brother and sister, and creating and maintaining a
common culture.

Family Structures

A. Based on Internal Organization or Membership

 Nuclear (primary or elementary family) – is composed of husband and wife
and their children in union recognized by the other members of society.
 Extended Family – is composed of two or more nuclear families,
economically or socially related to each other. The extensions maybe through
the parent-child relationships when the unmarried children and the married
children with their families live with the parents.

2 Types of family Structures Corresponding to the nuclear and extended Families

1.) Conjugal Family – which considers the spouses and their offspring as of prime
importance and which has a fringe of comparatively unimportant relatives.
o marriage bond is emphasized.

2.) Consanguineal Family – which considers the nucleus of blood relatives as more
important than the spouses.

o Blood relationship formed during childhood is emphasized.

B. Based on Descent – implies cultural norms, which affiliates a person with a particular
group of kinsfolk for certain social purposes and services such as mutual assistance.

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  Patrilineal descent – affiliates a person with a group of relatives through his or her
father. The child has also well-defined relationships with the mother’s kin, but when
the child finds it is necessary to seek aid, the child turns to his or her father’s kin.
 Matrilineal Descent – which affiliates a person with a group of relatives related
through his or her mother.
 Bilateral descent – which affiliates a person with a group of relatives related through
both his and her parents.

C. Based on Residence
 Patrilocal residence – requires that the newly married couple live with or near the
domicile of the parents of the bridegroom.
 Matrilocal residence – requires that the newly married couple live with or near the
domicile of the parents of the bride.
 Bilocal residence – gives couple a choice of staying with either the groom’s parents
or the bride’s parents, depending on the factors like the relative wealth of the families
or their status, the wishes of the parents or certain personal preferences of the bride
and the groom.
 Neolocal residence – permits the newly married couple to reside independently of the
parents of either groom or bride.
 Avunculocal residence- prescribes that the newly married couple reside with or near
the maternal uncle of the groom. This type of residence is very rare.

D. Based on Authority
 Patriarchal Family – is one in which the authority is vested in the oldest male in the
family, often the father. This type of family is further characterized by family solidarity
and ancestor worship.
 Matriarchal Family – is one in which the authority is vested in the mother or the mother’s
kin.
 Egalitarian Family – is one in which the husband and the wife exercise a more or less
equal amount of authority.
 Matricentric Family – usually found in the suburbs of the United States. It attributes to
the emergence to the fact that in suburban families, the father commutes and is absent for
the greater part of the day. His prolonged absence gives the mother a dominant position
in the family, although the father may also share with the mother in decision-making.

Functions of the Family

 The family regulates sexual behavior and is the unit for reproduction.
 The family performs the function of biological maintenance.
 The family is the chief agency for socializing the child.
 The family gives its members status.
 The family is an important mechanism for social control.


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Structural Characteristics of the Filipino Family

 The basic units of Philippine society are the nuclear family and the bilaterally extended kinship
group
 The Filipino family is considered also as consaguineal for the fact that dominant to its
characteristics it plays important role on blood kinship.
 Filipino families usually build alliance as a manifestation to further extended relationship. This is
shown by the “ compadre” or “compadrazgo” which is formed to the rituals of baptism,
confirmation and marriage.
 Filipino families mostly practice endogamy.
 The Filipino family is frequently said to be patriarchal in authority. And egalitarian as revealed
by many scholars as attributed to the division of labor.
 The Filipino family is bilateral in terms of descent.
 In terms of residence, the Filipino family maybe said to be bilocal and neolocal.
 In marriage, monogamy is the norm, although polygyny is allowed among the Muslims and other
cultural communities.

Forms of Marriage

 Monogamy – permits a man to take only one spouse at a time.

 Polygamy - is a plural marriage

Forms of Polygamy

o Polygyny - is the marriage of one man to two or more women at the

same time.
o Polyandry - is the marriage of a woman to two or more men at the
same time.

Types of Norms Regarding Selection of Marriage

 Endogamy – refers to the norm that dictates that one should marry within
one’s clan or ethnic group.
 Exogamy – prescribes that one marry outside one’s clan or ethnic group.
 Levirate – prescribes that a widow marry the brother or nearest kin of the
deceased husband.
 Sororate – prescribes that a widower marry the sister or nearest kin of the
deceased wife.

Studies have shown that most marriage conflicts are due to the following factors:

 Personality adjustment and incompatibility

 Domestic grievances
 Temperamental traits
 Immaturity to the role
 Authority and responsibility

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  Relative and in-laws issue
 Irrational jealousy
 Sexual relations

Family Disorganization as a family crisis

2 Forms of crisis in the family leading to disorganization:

Those experienced by all.

 Mobility
 Sudden loss of economic support
 Death
 Prolonged illness
 Separation

Those which carry a social stigma

 Disgrace (loss of virginity and extramarital relationship)

 Crime
 Alcoholism and drug addiction

DEVIANCE / DEVIANT BEHAVIOR

Deviant – is the person involved in deviance

Deviance – differing from a norm or form accepted standards of society.

Deviant behavior – behavior which does not conform to social expectation.

Deviant Behavior- behavior that is regarded as wrongdoings that generate negative reactions in persons
who witness or hear about it.

Social Deviance /Deviance – disapproved behavior and traits, characteristics or conditions that generate a
similar condemnatory, rejection reaction in others.

- is an action that is likely to generate, or has generated reactions to the actor by or from certain
audiences.
Cognitive Deviance – holding deviant beliefs, this category includes unacceptable, religious, political and
scientific belief.

But the question is not as simple as it sounds. We ask, What are the accepted standards and social
expectation? You personally know what is accepted and expected within your circle of family and
friends but what about within other social circumstances? Is it possible that some of your behaviors are
unacceptable to someone and that you are deviant?

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 Deviance is in the eye of the beholder. In other words, that which is deviant to me may not be
considered deviant by you!

Although, there is a wide agreement that some behaviors are deviant. Many other behaviors are
considered deviant by smaller number of people.

Yet, it is scarcely enlightening simply to say that deviance is RELATIVE and LET THE MATTER
REST.

Since, we will probably found highly subjective conceptions of deviant behavior; we can find also
a generally agreed yardstick against which to measure deviant and non-deviant behavior.

It is simply easier to define behavior as deviant if you have some of commonly-agreed standard
against which to compare of behavior.

Most theorist have sidestepped the issue by assuming that the agreed upon norms of society can be
found in the CRIMINAL LAW. The theorists’ position is that the criminal law concerns the well being
of all and reflects the conscience of the total society regardless of the diverse interests of various
individual or groups.

Criminal - person whose behaviors are formally forbidden by legislation and punishable by the state.

Some things/types of person regarded as deviant?

Homosexuals, prostitute/prostituted women, drug addicts, radicals, criminals, liars, atheists, card
players, bearded men, perverts, obesity, etc.

Babies born with deformity were defined as monster and were thought to be predictors of disastrous
epidemics in Early Eras. Babies born with deformities were killed in ancient time. Plato believed that
deformed and infirm children should be hidden away in a secret place. Today in modern contemporary
times, those possess the stigma of being physically disabled or handicap requires the attention of social
agencies.

2 Important Ideas to consider in Deviance

 An act can be criminal and deviant

 An act can be deviant but not criminal.

Characteristics of Deviance

 Deviance is Universal, but there are no universal forms or deviance.

 Deviance is a social definition. It is not a quality of the act; it is how we define it. It is not the act;
it is how we label it.
 Social groups make rules and enforce them, rules are socially constructed, and social groups utilize
social control mechanism to ensure they are adhered to.
 Deviance is contextual.

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Humans are evaluative creatures. We continually make judgments about the behavior and the characteristics
of others and ourselves. Societies everywhere have rules governing what we may and may not do, and how
we should look.

Key Defining Elements in Deciding Deviant

 behavior or conditions that harm others

 Something offends God, or is a violation of certain religious principles that makes it deviant.
 It deviates criminal code.

Five Naïve, Misleading Definitions of Deviance

1.) Absolutist Definition

 Argues that defining a quality or characteristics of deviance can be found in the very nature
of the act or the condition itself.
 It says that deviance is intrinsic to certain phenomenon, it dwells or resides within them.
(i.e an Error in Zimbabwe will also be an error in Brazil, in Australia and in the moon.
 According to the absolutist definition, what is deviance is defined not by norms, customs
or social rules. Right and wrong exist prior to and independent of the artificial, socially and
humanly created creatures.
2.) Statistical Definition
 Is that which is rare, unusual, uncommon that which departs from a statistical norm. Rare,
uncommon phenomena are deviant; those that are common and frequent are not deviant.
(i.e takes 3 showers a day, owning 3,000 books, possessing 3 doctoral degrees, attending 4
different undergraduate institutions before receiving one.

3.) Social and Individual Harm

 There are however simply too many harmless but deviant actions (i.e. an instructor on his class
takes off all of his clothes does not cause physical harm.) And too many harmful but not deviant
actions (i.e. warfare has destroyed 100 million lives, yet the parties responsible are rarely
condemned or labeled as deviants. In facts, most often, they are regarded as heroes.
4.) An act’s criminal Status
 Once again, there are many deviants but not criminal actions. (i.e no one will be arrested for
picking one’s nose, being obese is not a crime, mentally ill or disordered is not a crime.
5.) Positive Deviance
 Deviance is always and by a definition negative in nature. There is no such thing as positive
deviance. We cannot refer to behavior or conditions that generate positive reactions as
deviance.
 Certain behavior and conditions generate negative reactions from some people or groups and
positive reactions from others; this does not demonstrate the viability of the concept of positive
deviance but the relativity of deviance.

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 Two Fruitful definitions of Deviance

1.) The Normative Definition- deviance can take place in secret; an act or conditions that
nobody knows about except the violator. This definition presumes that this observers
capable of seeing any and all actions, even if they are secret, and making accurate judgment
about their deviant status in a given society. To the normative sociologist, deviance is a
formal violation of the norms. (i.e. in American society, a woman who weighs 250 pounds
has violated weight norm. Women are expected to weigh 110 lbs to 140 lbs.. It is the norm
of a married couple to have children; it violates the norm and is thought deviance for a
married couple not to have children., In a society where mainstream religion are the norms,
membership in cult is deviance. When physically and mentally abled is the norm, disability
represents a form of deviance. ]
- the normative definition implies relativity. An action or condition that may be in conformity with
the norm in one place or time may violate it in another.
- We know what the norms are, and we can decide in advance whether they are violated by a given
action.
- We know even before it happens that the behavior of a man walking down a street completely
naked will qualify as an instance of deviance. If we know in a certain society that engaging in
sexual activity with a partner of the same sex is regarded as wrong; when this happens, it is
automatically an instance of deviance.

3 serious problems of Normative Definition

 The normative definition of deviance underplays exceptions.

 Does not adequately allow contingencies or extenuating circumstances that alter observer’s
judgment as to whether a given individual or act will in fact be regarded as deviant.
 The normative definition ignores the distinctions between violations of norms that generate no
special attention or alarm and ones that cause audiences to punish or condemn the actor.
2.) The Reactive Definitions
 It argues that the key characteristics of deviance may be found in actual, concrete instances of a
negative reaction to behavior. To qualify as deviance, the action must be observed and generate
condemnation or punishment for the actor or individual.
 Someone who engages in some little action in a closet somewhere, whose behavior is never detected
by anyone else, has not engaged in deviance at all. What counts to the reactivist is the action not
the action. .
 Reactivist argue that behavior and conditions are not deviant unless and until they have been
condemned. There is no such thing as deviant in advance or in general. If there is no condemnation,
no deviance has taken place.

Problems with Reactive Definition

 It ignores secret behavior or conditions that would be reacted to as deviance, were they known
to the community.
 Ignores secret behavior and conditions that would be reacted to as deviant, even when the actor
or the possessor knows that it would be condemned by the community at large.
 Denies the possibility that there is any predictability in the reactive process
 Ignores the reality of victimization

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Indirect or Symbolic Deviants – they know that they would be labeled as deviants when their identity or
activities discovered.

THEORIES ON DEVIANT BEHAVIOR

I. The Rational Deviant –

The Classical

This theory was patterned from the thought of Beccaria about a plea for reform of the judicial and
penal system of the time, which was characterized by secret accusations, extensive use of tortures, harsh
penalties for trivial offenses.

In the 15th century, the death penalty and serious mutilation were used only in extreme cases to
supplement the complicated and carefully differentiated system of fine, but now, they become the most
common measures. Judges resorted to them whenever they were convinced that the offender was a
danger to society.

The point was, it was no longer the extreme penalty for serious offenses but a means of putting
allegedly dangerous individuals out of the way. In this kind of procedure, little attention was paid to
the guilt or innocence of a suspect.

According to Beccaria, humans are fundamentally rational and hedonistic. They possess free will
and make deliberate decisions to behave based upon a calculation of the pain and pleasure involved.
To avoid continual chaos resulting from total individual freedom, humans eventually enter a contract
in which they submit to a wide authority in exchange for security under laws of a state. Humans are
basically self-serving; however, given the opportunity they will enhance their own position at the
expense of other humans. Thus, the role of the state is to prevent crime.

It is better to prevent crimes than to punish them. This is the ultimate end of every good legislation
, which to use the general terms for assessing the good and evils of life.

To this end, Beccaria argued that the law should be clear and simple and directed against only those
behaviors clearly endangering society and individuals in it. Because of their rationality, all human
where seen as equal before the law. He accepted literally the notion that punishment should fit the
crime.

The Neo Classical -

Recognized as a practical matter that not all persons are equally rational, particularly the young,
the mentally disturbed, and those confronted with other unusual circumstances.

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 Despite their considerable influence on Western Legal System, the classical and neo classical schools
failed to produce a variable theory of deviance. Their pre-occupation with the rationality of humans resulted
in overlooking how society can adversely affect behavior.

II. POSITIVE SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY.

2 TERMS

POSITIVISM – a philosophical approach, theory, or system based on the view that in the social as well as
in the natural sciences, sense experiences are all the exclusive source of all worthwhile information.

- does not concern itself with the abstract and unprovable but rather with the tangible and
quantifiable. It involves investigating the world by objective data that can be counted or measured. In short,
if you can’t hear it, feel it, see it, or smell it forget it.

DETERMINISM - refers to the principle that all events, including human behavior have sufficient causes.

Positivists do not advise punishment as a remedy because deviant behavior is not a matter of choice.
Obviously, the recommended procedure for halting deviant behavior depends upon the brand of
determinism favored. Thus if the cause is located in the body, the body must be “treated; if it is in social
factors, anything from the family, neighborhood or entire economic system may need renovation.

MAJOR THEORITICAL POSITIONS

(Positivist Approaches to the Explanation of Deviance)

I. Physical Characteristics of Deviance

- Of all the positivist approaches to the explanation of deviance, the investigation of a possible relationship
between anatomical attributes and behavior is not only the oldest but also the most persistent. Today,
scarcely year goes by without some revelations concerns the possible connection between a biological
characteristics and human behavior.

The influence of biology on human behavior is early overestimated and oversimplified.

In 1966, Charles Whitman after killing his mother /wife climbed with 6 guns to the top of a tower
in the University of Texas campus. He shot 46 persons, killing 16. His behavior was puzzling. Whitman
requested an autopsy to determine whether he had a mental disorder. The autopsy revealed a brain tumor.
Some medical experts doubted the explanatory value of the tumor. But others thought that his physical
condition could somehow account for his behavior.

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II.Phrenology – The Beginning of the Scientific Study of Deviant

Phrenology – the determination of the mental facilities and character traits from the shape of the skull.

- Franz Gall – an Austrian anatomist who spent 20 years touring insane asylums and prisons to
measure head shapes. Gall believed that the brain was the center of the thought, specific brain areas
controlled different behavioral activities and brain areas of greater importance were greater in size
and area.
- The notion that there maybe a link between protuberance on the head and criminal behavior was
widely circulated throughout Europe and USA.
- A phrenologist in USA made a theory dividing the brain into 34 areas, 3 of which were related to
criminal behavior:
 Philoprogenitiveness (love for offspring)- it was noted that a number of guilty females
committed infanticide had defective philoprogenitiveness area.
 Destructiveness – this area if properly not balanced will lead to murder
 Covetiveness – unless restrained and properly directed will lead to great selfishness and even
theft.

Up to the end of the 19th century, phrenology provided the basis for a moderate amount of
theory and research on the nature of criminal beings, but in the final analysis, it makes no
contributions to the understanding of deviant behavior.

One cannot detect the subtle shape of the brain by examining the exterior of the skull, and
no single sections of the brain one completely responsible for the complex behaviors attributed to
them by the phrenologist.

“Concept of Born Criminal “

The notion that biology plays a significant, if not paramount, role in causing deviant behavior is
usually associated with the writings of Cesare Lombroso (founder of the Positivist School of Criminology).

ATAVISM – criminals were seen as distinct types of humans who would be distinguished from
non-criminals by certain physical traits. These traits did not cause criminal behavior but, rather, served to
identify persons who were out of step with evolutionary scheme.

- Such persons were considered to be closer to apes or to early primitive humans than were most
modern individuals; they were throwbacks (atavists) to an earlier stage in human development.

FIVE TYPES OF CRIMINALS

 INSANE Criminals – who act from epilepsy, imbecility, paranoia (delusions of being persecutes)
and other forms of mental infirmity.
 Born Criminals – whose anti-human conduct is the inevitable effect of an indefinite series of
hereditary influences which accumulate in the course of generations.”
 Habitual Criminal – who show in an indistinct way, if at all, the marks of the born criminal and act
through moral weakness as influenced by a corrupt environment.
 Criminals of Passion – who act under the impulse of uncontrolled emotion on occasion during
otherwise moral lives.

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  Occasional Criminals- who have not received from nature an active tendency towards crime but
have fallen into it, goaded by the temptation incident to their personal condition or physical and
social environment

III. Heredity and Mental Deficiencies

- Heredity concerns the process of passing characteristics from one generation to another: Mental
deficiencies are specific characteristics that may or may not be seen by the theorists as inherited.
- Theorist believed in this idea that criminality was inherited and also the mental defectiveness which
played an important role in criminal behavior.
- Every feeble minded person is a potential criminal. This is necessarily true since the feeble-minded
lacks one or other of the factors essential to moral life- an understanding of right and wrong, and
the power of control.

EUGENICS – a science concerned with improving the quality of human offspring through the manipulation
of heredity by such means of selection of parents.

- what was scientifically found as a cause could be scientifically eliminated.

- i. e. Nazi german during the World War I. a textbook on Social problem reported on a proposal
whereby “defective and confirmed criminals would be placed in air-tight chambers and put to death
by poisonous but not unpleasant gas.
- Another suggestion involved less drastic : STERILIZATION or CASTRATION. The latter was
advocated by those who felt that mere sterilization would not curtail lustful behavior or the spread
of venereal disease. Decades ago, 34 states in USA permitted /enacted this law without the consent
of the concern. Even before 1907 secret sterilization had been performed in inmates of state
institution for many years. These laws were applicable to 3 classes of individuals, “the mentally ill,
the mentally deficient and epileptics.
- It was considered before that all persons, who are feebleminded, insane, epileptic, habitual
criminals, incurable syphilis, etc. will likely become a Menace of the Society.
- The fruits of positivism in the USA was able to come up with 70,000 individuals were involuntary
sterilized and many more were confined because their behavior, intellects or backgrounds were
judged by state bureaucrats to be below standards.
- In Virginia USA, state hospitals approximately 8, 000 individuals were sterilized between 1924
and 1972. Everything was very routine, men on Tuesday, women on Thursday.
- Those are sobering reminders of how a scientific theory of human behavior, whether correct or
erroneous, proven or unproven can justify the degradation of whole classes of people. Such of
course is envisioned for the good of everyone concerned. But however, benevolent program of
scientific treatment or scientific prevention may appear they maybe not only ineffectual but a threat
to human freedom.

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SOMATOLOGY

- refers to the science of classifying human physical characteristics by examining the relationship
between body type or physique and particular patterns of mental and behavioral characteristics or
temperaments.

Endomorphic Body Type:

 soft body
 underdeveloped muscles
 round shaped
 over-developed digestive system

Associated personality traits:

 love of food
 tolerant
 evenness of emotions
 love of comfort
 sociable
 good humored
 relaxed
 need for affection

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 Mesomorphic Body Type:

 hard, muscular body

 overly mature appearance
 rectangular shaped
 thick skin
 upright posture

Associated personality traits:

 adventurous
 desire for power and
dominance
 courageous
 indifference to what others
think or want
 assertive, bold
 zest for physical activity
 competitive
 love of risk and chance

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 Ectomorphic Body Type:

 thin
 flat chest
 delicate build
 young appearance
 tall
 lightly muscled
 stoop-shouldered
 large brain

Associated personality traits:

 self-conscious
 preference for privacy
 introverted
 inhibited
 socially anxious
 artistic
 mentally intense
 emotionally restrained

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 XYY CHROMOSOMES SYNDROME

 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs –human cells each parents having donated one of each pair.
 Every normal cell in a woman’s body contains two X chromosomes, and each cell in a male has
one X and one Y.
 However exception to this genetic pattern does occur. Of interest in here is the estimated 1 percent
(1 out of 1, 000) of the males who possess an extra Y chromosomes, a condition first reported in
1961. In 1968, this genetic anomaly received much public attention when in France a defense
attorney in a murder trial claimed that his client possessed an extra Y chromosomes and he is not
responsible for his offense. This claim was based on a very limited research indicating that some
chromosomally abnormal men had histories of anti social behavior.
 The most publicized case was that of Richard Speck, who murdered eight Chicago student nurses.
In 1968, Specks attorney claims to the press that Speck had XYY chromosomes, a contention that
made front page headlines. As it developed, Speck was simply XY, but findings received very little
publicity.

BRAIN MALFUNCTION

1935 – systematic manipulation of the brain for the purpose of altering behavior was iniated. Antonio Moniz
introduced the prefrontal lobotomy. In this operation, Moniz destroyed large sections of the frontal lobes
of the brain. His subjects were 20 mental patients who had been unaffected by other treatments. Accordingly
15 showed some degree of improvements as the result of the operation. One lobotomied patient was later
to pump five bullets into Dr. Moniz.

Lobotomy – is the beginning of what is known today as Psychosurgery.

Frontal lobes are involved in motor function, problem solving, spontaneity, memory, language, initiation,
judgment, impulse control and social and sexual behavior. The area is associated with reasoning, planning,
emotions and problem solving. Frontal area is the most common region of injury following mild to moderate
traumatic brain injury. Patients with frontal damage exhibit little spontaneous facial expression or difficulty
in speaking.

Psychosurgery – the surgical removal or destruction of the brain tissue to disconnect one part of the brain
from another with the intent of altering behavior. However there are mentioned few effects for such, some
of these are the loss of ability to fantasize, to think abstractly and to become creative.

- there is still exist considerable controversy over whether the stimulation or destruction of certain
areas of the human brain results in predictable changes in behavior. It is argued that no specific and
consistent human behavior result from psychosurgery.
- The idea of brain surgery as a means of improving mental health got started around 1890 when
Friedrich Golz, a German research, removed portions of his dog’s temporal lobe and found them
to be calmer, less aggressive. It was swiftly followed by a doctor of SWISS Mental institution, who
attempted similar surgeries on 6 of his schizophrenic patients. Some were indeed calmer and two
died.
- Because some of his patients became calmer, some did not. Moniz advised extreme caution in using
lobotomy, and felt it should only be used in cases where everything else has been used.

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 - Between 1939 and 1951, over 18,000 lobotomies were performed in the US, and many more in
other countries. It was often used on convicts and in Japan it was recommended for use on “difficult
children”. There are still Western countries that permit the use of the lobotomy, although its use
has decreased dramatically worldwide. Curiously, the old USSR banned it back in the 1940’s on
moral grounds.
- In the 1950’s, people began upset about the prevalence of lobotomies. Protests began and serious
research supported the protesters.
- There have been a few famous cases over the years. For example, Rosemary Kennedy was given a
lobotomy when her father complained to doctors about the mildly retarded girl having interest in
boys. Her father never informed the rest of the family bout what he had done. She lived out her life
in Wisconsin institution and died on January 7, 2005. This operation was one of the famous failures.
Leaving Rosemary Kennedy inert and unable to speak more than a few words. After lobotomy, she
was sent to Winconsin institution where she remained until her death in 2005

2 Fundamental Approaches to the Explanation of Deviance

 The cause is within the deviant; the goal was to discover individual characteristics contributing to
becoming involved in deviant behavior. In short, this first approach concerned explaining the
deviant by means of biological and psychological positivism.
 The other approach stressed the importance of social factors as a cause of deviance. The goal was
to explain both the existence of deviant behaviors and its distribution in society. This in short
concerns explaining the varying amounts of deviance between groups by means of social
determinism.

Theorists Guerry and Quetelet labeled as “Moral Statisticians” noted 2 phenomena in relation to deviance.

 That the types and amount of deviance vary according to geographical region.
 That annual deviance within a specific area varies little from one year to another.

SOCIAL INTERPETATION OF DEVIANCE

ECONOMIC INFLUENCE

An economic interpretation of deviance was an aspect of the work of Quetelet when he, for
example, considered the price of grain to be a crucial variable in the operation of society.

- This influence is an attempt to find relationship between crime and a variety of economic factors
such as the prices of various grains, business cycles and income levels of convicted persons.
Karl Marx

- Marx developed an economic interpretation of societies. He claimed that all social phenomena-
legal codes, political institutions, religion, ethics, the arts, the family are products of society’s
economy in the form of its means of production.
- In a capitalistic economy, there is a private ownership of the means of production , distribution and
exchange of wealth; as a consequence, there exist an intense competition resulting in the
exploitation of proletariat (working class) by the bourgeoisie (owners and controllers of means of
production).

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 - According to Marx, the continual competition requires that minimal wages be paid for labor; the
bourgeoisie becomes richer and richer and the proletariat becomes poorer and miserable. The
condition of poverty and continued exploitation produce all forms of social problems. Only by
destroying the economic system, ultimately accomplished by the proletariat in a violent revolution,
will a classless society emerge of economic exploitation and its evils.
- Marx never actually spelled out a theory of deviance, but inferences can be made and his writings
have been influential to the explanation of deviance.

1st.) Marx writings provides basis for viewing deviance as a product of social conflict. Accordingly,
deviance cannot be eliminated by adjustments within capitalist society; deviance is inherent in
capitalism and only the total destruction of economic sub structure will provide a remedy.

Marx saw capitalistic society as composed of one sided conflict between groups. From his
perspective, deviance was an expression of a struggle in which the economically powerless attempt
to cope with the exploitation and poverty imposed upon them.

He portrayed deviant as demoralized and brutalized by the day to day experience of

employment (and unemployment), but still able to grasp at the necessities of life through theft and
graft.

His conceptions of society as consisting of conflicting economic groups remain an

important contribution to social theory. Political, military, economic and legislative actions are not
the product of harmonious decision making by concerned and affected parties. Often such actions
are, at best, matters of compromise; at worst they represent only the opinions of the powerful and
maybe detrimental to, or against the wishes of a sizeable segment of the population.

2nd.) with touch of sarcasm, he points out how deviance serves many purposes in support of the
existing society. Without deviance, police, judges and law professions would have no jobs; the
mechanical inventions derived from the innovations in the torture would be undiscovered,
engineering of monetary instruments and chemical methods to detect illegal adulteration of
products would all remain unadvanced.

To this extent, Marx appropriately can be regarded as an economic determinist. In short, the enduring legacy
of Marx lies in his theory that society’s foundation is its economic structure.

ANOMIE

- simply defined , a state where norms (expectations on behavior) are confused , unclear or not
present
- normlessness
- A breakdown in the cultural structure, occurring particularly when there is an acute disjunction
between cultural norms and goals and the societies structural capacities of members of the groups
to act in accord with them.
- The premium placed on financial success in the absence of opportunities creates a disjunction
between the goal and the capacities or means of individuals to attain it.

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 - Accordingly, societies evolved from a simple, non-specialized form called mechanical towards a
highly complex specialized form called organic.
- In the former society, people behave and think alike and more or less perform the same work tasks
and have the same group oriented goals. When societies become more complex or organic, work
also becomes complex. In the society, people are no longer tied to one another and social bonds are
impersonal.
- Changing of condition as well as adjustment of life leads to dissatisfaction, conflict and deviance.
He observed that social periods of disruptions (economic depression for example) brought greater
anomie and high rates of crime, suicide and deviance.

Durkheim’s Anomie

Emile Durkheim, a French sociologist wrote his major works during a time when the study of
deviant behavior was dominated by those who viewed deviants as the products of defective biology.

-he argued that a society without deviance is impossible. Thus it is impossible to have a collection
of human so inflexible in their behavior that none will diverge to some degree from the ideal. He further
claims that deviance is not only inevitable but also necessary for the health and progress of society. Without
deviance society would be static. The inevitability and desirability of deviance led him to conduct that
deviance is “normal” in society. This did not mean that he necessarily regarded the individual deviant as
normal. From the standpoint of society, deviance is an expression of individual freedom and one of the
prices to be paid for social change.

-Durkheim first used the concept of anomie in division of labor in society. Here it played a minor
role; it’s purpose was to signify a lack of integration and adjustment that threatens the cohesiveness of
contemporary society, which unlike hunting and agricultural society are characterized by a complex variety
of occupation and interest.

- Durkhein felt that sudden change caused a state of anomie. The system breaks down, either during
a great prosperity or great depression, anomie is the same result.

Anomic suicide – was one of the 4 types and was considered to stem from a state of ‘normlessness”
or “deregulation” in society. Such suicide occurs because society allows its members to have unlimited
aspirations, and there is no discipline imposed on notions of what may be realistically achieved. These
suicides arise particularly during periods of sudden economic prosperity. Thus Durkheim was convinced
that humans are susceptible to limitless ambition. Unless society imposes regulations upon aspirations,
unless there is some check upon the passions aroused by perceived undiminishing prosperity, personal
crises will develop and result to suicide.

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Merton’s Anomie

Merton’s theory involves the interaction of 2 social components:

 Culture goals – the aspirations and aims that define success in society.
 Institutionalized means – the socially acceptable methods and ways available for achieving goals.

- It is believed that in America before, it was not the mere lack opportunity or the excessive emphasis
on the accumulation of wealth that create anomie; it is when both exist in the situation where all or
most members of a society believed that the opportunities are available to them that anomie results.

Merton’s important contribution is the provision of alternative behaviors that may result from the
disjunction between goals and means.

There are 4 adaptations apart from conformity that can be defined as deviant:

 INNOVATION – is the adaptation in which most property crimes would be found. It occurs when
persons accept without qualification the importance of attaining the goals and will use any means
regardless of their prosperity, morality, or legality to achieve those goals.
- In short, their philosophy can be described in the words of Vince Lombardi when he said “Winning
isn’t everything; it is the only thing”.
-
 RITUALISM – is a behavioral alternative in which great aspirations are abandoned in favor of
careful adherence to the available means. Early morning classes often considered ritualists.
Attendance is not a means for them to attain success; they are there simply because they should be.
Merton uses the example of persons in factories and other bureaucracies who staunchly perform
their duties, but who have neither the intention nor the inclination to advance themselves. They
carefully avoid rocking the boat and prefer to play it safe.
There maybe some argument whether such behavior is really deviant, but the lack of
ambition certainly is not in keeping with the idealized American way.

 RETREATISM – is the category containing the mentally disordered, drug addicts, alcoholics and
any other groups that has apparently withdrawn from the competitive struggle. Thus persons do not
strive for the goals that society encourages, nor do they obey rules of how to act. They seek their
own private rewards and live by rules peculiar to their style of living.

 REBELLION – involves not only a rejection of the goals and means, but the intention of replacing
those goals and means by altering the social structure.

Comments /Criticism:

 Middle class Bias

 Irrelevance of anomie from more forms of deviation
 Absence of value consensus

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CONTROL THEORY

- according to this theory , the social environment does not push one toward deviant behavior; rather,
it fails to restrain one from so behaving
- Deviance is not caused by the present values, beliefs or other motivating factors, but by the absence
of values and beliefs that normally forbid delinquency
- While most theorists ask, why do they do it? That is what processes encourage deviant behavior,
Control theory turns the question around and ask Why don’t they do it?
- Most of us do not engage in deviant or criminal acts because of strong bonds with or ties to
conventional, mainstream social institutions. If these bonds are weak or broken, we will be released
from society’s rules and will be free to deviate.
- Society or neighborhood is able to invest its citizens or residents with a stake worth protecting, it
will have lower rates of crime vs. society where strong bond is not present or relatively low.

DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY

 The explanation of crime lay not in biology but in the social world and that crime is transmitted
through intimate personal groups.
 Some groups are organized fro criminal activities and some are organized against these activities.

Propositions of the Theory

 Crime is learned
 Criminal Behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication.
 The principal part of learning criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups. Impersonal
communication such as television, magazines and the like play only a secondary role in the learning
of crime.
 When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes techniques of crime, which are sometimes
complicated, simple, the motives and drives.

DYNAMICS OF FAMILY LIFE

OVERVIEW: focus on the Filipino Family

It has been frequently stated that the Filipino family of the past patriarchal in form and
characteristics and the absolute authority of the father is still stressed as a representative future of
the Filipino family. The predominating influence of the man over the woman us characteristically
oriental, while the growing acceptance today of equality of man and woman is typically occidental.

Education in the past was designed primarily for men; the woman’s sphere of action was
church, kitchen, and children. Sex separation was very much emphasized. However, these are more
traditional patterns of the past. The Filipino woman has regained a great portion of her traditional
rights and capacities – transact business, dispose of property, and enjoy the same educational
privileges and suffrage rights as her male counterpart.

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 While acknowledging the father as the head of the Filipino household, the mother’s
influenced must not be minimized. Philippine society is characterized by a marked development
of generational respect which includes or involves deference to the opinions of all individuals older
than one’s self. Thus authority over younger siblings. The pattern of generational respect in
founded in the address system such as “kayo” instead of “ikaw”.

Generally speaking family life centers on the children. The birth of a child forms the lines
between the families and the child is related equally to the paternal and maternal kin. Family capital
and savings are the inheritance of the children, to be divided equally among them.

The size and range of the bilateral extended family is considerable importance.
Relationship is extended to distant cousins who are given help if needed. Unity of extended
families reinforces power and influences especially in politics. To marry into a large family can
help a young person further his ambitions. He will occasionally mention his marriage in all cases
where he will need to boast himself in the group. While close family ties, foster family stability
and solidarity, they also have certain disadvantages. It has been observed that even after children
have married, they still lie under their parent’s roof and depend wholly or partially on them. Too,
the tendency of parents to keep children on their side has hindered individually progress. They
react strongly against divorce thus reflecting a high value on family solidarity.

I. Family Patterns and changing Roles

1) Types of family organization

1.1 Nuclear
1.2 Extended

2) Kin groupings
2.1 Residential kin group
2.2 Consaguinal kin group
2.3 Clan

3) Family patterns and changing roles transcend from a basic social heritage which
includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society, the essential point of which lies in the ability of
culture patterns to be transmitted from one group to another.

Patterns are established modes of behaviour or cluster of mental attitudes, beliefs and
values held in common by the members of the group. Roles are socially prescribed patterns of
behaviour corresponding to an individual’s status in particular society.

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 Man’s behaviour patterns are composed of the social habits that each new individual begins
to acquire soon after birth from the other members of his group. Culture content may vary
tremendously from one group to another but no group can exist without an intricate web to hold it
together.

A culture is always growing for new ideas, new techniques are discovered and old ways
are modified or discarded. The degree, manner, and rate of change vary enormously as they are
brought about by new ideas introduced from within or without, through the process of discoveries
or inventions or through the medium of cultural borrowing.

4) Cultural Variables

4.1 Folkways are those types or behavior that are organized and repetitive. The group way
of doing things in a common manner are called customs. The folkways of a group are the
behavior pattern of everyday life. Changes and additions gradually are made for folkways
adapt themselves to the conditions of life each generation.

4.2 Mores are special folkways which involve moral or ethical values, since they involve
respect for authority, marriage and sex behavior patterns, religious and other rituals and
other codes of human behavior.

4.3 Folkways is traditional customs, beliefs, dances, songs, tales, or sayings are preserved
orally and unreflectively among a group or people.

4.4 Costumes are distinctive styles and prevailing fashions characteristic of any period,
country, class, occupation or occasion.

4.5 Values according to R.J, Williams, refers to any aspect of a solution, event or object
that is invested with preferential interest as being good desirable and the like.

Value maybe classified as personal (individual) or social (group). Functions of

Values include:

1. Being a criterion of choice which allows economy of human energy.

2. Giving direction to interest and attention
3. Serving as referent of social function and sanction.
Philippine Values: What are those things towards which Filipinos entertain
positive attitudes?

1. Emotional closeness and security in a family.

2. In order that the family may remain close and secure, someone musr exert
firm authority.
3. Economic and social betterment
4. Patience, sufferance, endurance.

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 In his research paper, Fr. Bulatao surmises that “this could be the result of the
tender and highly protected upbringing received by the child that the ego seeks to
maintain a similar environment as it grows up. The Filipino ego values the secure
relationships of the family and looks upon the family as a haven against the dangers
of harsh world.”

5) Physical Variables

5.1 Scientifically, demography is the statistical study of the characteristics of human

populations especially with the references to size and density, growth distribution,
migration and vital statistics: and the effect of all these on social and economic conditions.

5.2 Environmental changes such as:

1. Environmental pollution
2. Space relationships
3. Denudation of Forest Areas resulting in the destruction of trees and humus in
the forest.
4. Transformation of rural areas into urban centers leading to population
congestion resulting in health, social, educational problems, etc.
5. Automation and structural unemployment.

5.3 Ecology: that branch of science concerned with the interrelationships of organism and their
environment especially as manifested by natural cycles and rhythms, community development
and structure, interaction between different kinds of organism; geographic distributions and
populations.

Problems arising from the politics of ecology:

1. The concepts of life as intrinsically and death intrinsically bad: the result of an
imbalance between birth and death rates; thus accelerating human numbers as the
inevitable consequences.
2. Under development. The rapid rate of population increase would not enhance
industrialization. “All the country’s resources would be absorbed year by year in task
of supplying, or not quiet supplying; the primary needs of its new members.” (Mr.
Eugene Black).
3. The contraceptive revolution has had as yet no effect upon the family life of the people
in underdeveloped countries.
4. Birth control is expensive and involves the whole adult population.
5. To persuade men and women to abandon their traditional views of sexual morality is a
huge and difficult task.

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 6. Poverty, combined with ignorance breeds that lack of desire for better things
(wantlessness), hence the resigned acceptance of a sub human lot.
5.4 Population Explosion; the problem of overpopulation inevitably arising in connection with
every approach to the analysis of our civilization and its prospects – emphasis on quantity rather
than quality; the spectre of war; the equally terrifying spectre of universal starvation. Nature left
to herself works out a balance of population adjusted to the available space and food supply but it
may be disturbed and then destroyed by what might appear to be the very slight intervention of
man.
Factors to be considered in the study of family planning and population control:
1. Consequences of fertility on health, child development, family income, housing and
interpersonal relationship
2. Effect on economy, air and water resources and human services
3. Education
4. Political factors
5. Emigration and immigration
6. Impact of fertility on society and people
7. Need for new values and behaviors
8. Role of the social worker

5.5 Economic inflation:

1. high costs of living

2. poor management techniques
3. high cost of labor
4. lack of local materials
5. resultant reduction of quality
6. lack of long range economic planning
7. international relations and politics
8. social problems

6) Socioeconomic aspects:

1. Standard of living: “consist of all things which one insists on having”.

2. Mode of living: a matter of actual behavior and accomplishments.
3. Division of labor: responsibility of each member of the family necessary for a
substantially happy life.
4. Occupation: whatever an adult spends most of his time doing.
5. Social status: recognize position or relationship to society or a group.
6. Social stratification: social level or layer which sum up general estimates of social
status.

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II. Love, Courtship and Marriage
1. Courtship and Make selection
1.1 Courtship is a social process engaged in by two individuals.
1.2 It is a form of behavior seeking to win the consent of another for marriage.
1.3 It is a progressive commitment leading to a succession of event toward to the
development of stable interpersonal relationship.
1.4 Most significations are the development of love and affection.
1.5 Courtship is a process which undergoes various stages:

1) Dating – getting acquainted

2) Going steady – practice of dating one person exclusively
3) Private understanding – open declaration of each other’s desire for
marriage
4) Engagement – public announcement of love involving parents,
relatives and friends.
2. Marriage
2.1 It is a socially sanctioned union of a man and a woman with the expectation
that they will assure the role of a husband and wife.
2.2 It is a social and legal norm by which the relationship of the two sexes is
controlled and restricted by society.
2.3 Though considered a private affair, it involves public sanction as well as
systematic social control.
2.4 Studies have shown that most marriage conflicts are due to the following
factors (could also be resultant factor to family disorganization):

1. Personality adjustment
2. Domestic grievances
3. Temperamental traits
4. Frustration
5. Emotional immaturity
6. Parent fixation
7. Recreation
8. Authority and responsibility
9. Relatives and in-laws
10. Trifles
a. Extreme physical or mental fatigue
b. Unsatisfactory sex relations
c. Emotional or intellectual maladjustment
11. Handling money
12. Immorality
13. Jealousy
14. Sexual relations

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 2.5 Role of husband and wife in marital and adjustments:

1. Understanding of each other’s personality and behaviors

2. Recognition of individual private worlds
3. Communication
4. Obligation of fidelity
Culture colors the love relationship. It provides the terms in which
love maybe expressed. But mature affection in wedlock has much in
common in all times, places and even social classes.

It is a sense of interdependence of having a refuge in one another,

and of being able to find identity and worth in one another. Once sex is
placed in friendly perspectives between mates, it serves as a powerful
solvent of controversy.

Marriage with sexual incompatibility may continue if they are based

on personal or social expediency rather than love.

Sex is a biological phenomenon – and is so related to the whole

human psyche that is cannot be understood in isolation from the evolving
human individual fully considered.

Love regardless of how the real it may appear, is so intimately

related to all of life that it cannot be considered meaningfully as an
abstraction. While sex and love are not identical, they are forever
intertwined and understandable only when so interrelated.

III. The Family and human Sexuality

1. Basic understanding: human sexuality does not only mean sex. Sex is just one aspect
of human sexuality. Human sexuality is a way of life not just something that one has.
To be human is to sexual, and to be sexual is to be human. Sexual here means
everything that makes a man a man. And a woman a woman. Therefore, one’s sexuality
pervades all areas of his or her life – way of thinking, acting, loving and receiving love,
approaching and relation to god and people and religious experiences.
2. When taken in this sense, it can be said that one’s fulfilment as a person is taken as
tantamount to fulfilment of one’s sexuality. Therefore, in any stage and stage in life
one’s sexuality is an integral part of that life. It is his or her way of life. One has to be
confident and comfortable with one’s sexuality before that can successfully accept and
relate to the opposite sex.
3. Sex education: the process of teaching an individual to understood and accept himself
as a whole person and as such to relate himself to other people in a healthy, constructive
and meaningful manner.

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 3.1 The child must receive his first education about sex from his parents.
3.2 Questions of the child about sex should be answered by the parents in the simplest,
honest and most objective manner understood by the child.
3.3 Sex education has its roots in the attitudes of the parents.

IV. Family relationship and Parenthood

1. Child Rearing
1.1 Points to consider in the rearing of children:
a. Each method or rearing the child is individualized. Depending upon the
nature of the child
b. There is no child without some problems: relationships between parent
and child must be dynamic
c. Each child is a “bundle of potentials”
1.2 Children’s needs: the child reflects his whole family in all that he is and all that he
does. Most common needs of children are”
a. Need for self-respect: the element of mental health
b. Need for communication
c. Need to belong
d. Need for independence
e. Need for love and affection
f. Need for recognition
g. Need for discipline
h. Need to face reality
1.3 Forces outside the home which help to shape and mold the personality:
a. School
b. Religious training
c. Community standards
d. Friends and contemporaries
1.4 Parenthood requires adjustments:
a. Parental role
b. Emotional adjustment
c. When to have children
d. Precautions for physical safety

V. Family Problems and Coping Mechanisms

1. The Gap between generations:

a. Rapidly changing life of each generation must be different in order to meet the
change condition of its time, but many families continue to follow establish
customs and appear bewildered by the pressures upon them to decide upon the
necessary or desirable changes in their life patterns.

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 b. The increasing multitudes of mothers who are employed outside the home are
making re girl’s problem of maturation more difficult.

2. Marriage

3. This disorganization as a family crisis

Empirical research has shown that there are two forms of crisis in the family leading
to disorganization:

3.1 Those experienced by all:

a. mobility
b. sudden loss of economic support
c. death
d. prolonged illness
e. separation

3.2 Those which carry a social stigma

1) Disgrace
a. Loss of virginity
b. Illegitimacy
c. Extra marital relationship
d. Living with a married man
2) Crime
3) Alcoholism and drug addiction
4. Some helpful guides and suggestions for the solution of the problems of family life

4.1 major focus on the problems and programs of mental health

4.2 sensible respect for expert opinion
4.3 parents and children should work out their interrelationship to greater mutual
satisfaction
4.4 develop a sensible degree of self – reliance for their children
5. Responsible plan parenthood
5.1 Objective of family planning
1. It gives the mother a chance to fully recover after each child birth to
conceive again
2. It helps parents to provide the best care for their children
3. Conception is not left a chance
4. Helps childless couples to have children – not stopping birth but spacing the
arrival of children

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 2. SOCIAL PROCESS IN THE GROUP AND COMMUNITY

A. The Social Process

I. Definition:

“Social process are those ways of interacting which are observable when
individuals and groups meet and established systems of relationship or the results that arise
when changes disturb the already existing modes of life.”

Social processes “are recurrent forms of social interactions takes.”

II. Classifications
1. Basic social processes
1.1 Competition
 Forms of opposition and struggle
 “Less violent forms of opposition in which two or more persons or group
struggle for some end or goal but the cause of which attention is formed
chiefly on the reward rather than the competition” – Young and Mack
 Found in every field of social activity
 Contacts between competitors may be direct or indirect.

1.1.1 Types of Competition

1. Personal – involves direct contact

2. Impersonal – involves struggles between groups which may take
the form of economic, political, religious, recreation and social
and the objective may be for status, prestige, or recognition.
1.1.2 Functions of Competitions

1. Assignment of an individual to a place in society.

2. Contribution to the selection of members of the functional group
which provides the social division of labour
3. Encouragement of achievement and efficiency.
1.2 Conflict

 May develop from competition

 “Forms of emotionalized and violent opposition in which the major
concern is overcome the opponent as a member of securing a given goal
or reward.” (Young and Mack)
 Motivated by the desire to secure a scarce goal or common values

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  Focus of the attention is the opponent with the intention of blocking,
destruction and defeat accompanied by fear, hate, or anger.

1.2.1 Classification

1. Potential – conflict for the control or scarce values.

2. Ideological/conflict over the maintenance or supremacy of
certain ways of life
3. Racial – conflict over biological dominance

1.2.2 Functions

1. May help established unity when the groups are threatened by

an outside force.
2. May become a stabilizing mechanism which may stimulates the
establishment of new policies, procedures, goals and etc. if these
were the concerns of conflict.
3. Provides an outlet for the expressions of suppressed emotions.

1.3 Cooperation

1.3.1 A more specific aspect of human intercourse having to do with

mutual aid or alliance of persons or groups seeking some common
goal or reward (according to Young and Mack)
1.3.2 Important characteristics is the mutual advantage to be gained by
cooperating members through sharing the performance of common
tasks.
1.3.3 Pattern of cooperation is acquired in the family and friendship

2. Derived Social Process

2.1 Accommodation
 Process which follows competition or conflict
 Used by Young and Mask in two senses; as a condition and as a process
 “As a condition, it refers to the fact of equilibrium between individuals
and groups and the “rules of the game” which has develops…as a
process, it refers to the conscious effort of men to develop such working
arrangements among themselves as will suspend conflict and make their
relationship more tolerable and less wasteful of energy.
 Each group tries to adjust to the other and yet maintain its own identity
and interest
 Forms include coercion, compromise, arbitration, conciliation, and
toleration.
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 2.2 Assimilation

 According to Part and Burgess – it is a process of interpenetration of

infusion in which persons and groups acquire the memories, sentiments,
and attitudes of other person or groups and by sharing their experiences
and history are incorporated with them in a common cultural life.

2.3 Amalgamation

 Intermarriage of persons coming from ethnic groups

 Hastens assimilation by making the physical and cultural characteristics
of two ethnic group similar

2.4 Acculturation
 Process by which societies of different cultures are modified through
fairly close and long-continued contact but do not blend with one
another.
 Usually a two way process, society borrows from the culture of the other
without using its identity
III. Understanding Group Behavior (Knowles and Knowles. Introduction to Group Dynamics,
N.Y. Associated Press. 1959)

1. Group Qualities

1.1 a definable membership

1.2 group consciousness or a conscious identification with other
1.3 interdependence in satisfaction of needs
1.4 interaction
1.5 ability to act in unitary manner

2. Properties of Group

2.1 Background – composition of the group, preparation, expectation,

arrangements made for the meeting.
2.2 Participation Pattern – Pattern may be one way with leader talking to
members, or two way with leader talking and members responding or
multi-directional with all members speaking to one another.
2.3 Communication – consists or verbal and non-verbal communication
ideas, values, and feelings between the members (Joseph Luft, Group
Processes, California National Press Books, 1970)

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 a. Refers to what is expressed verbally and non-verbally
b. Applies to articulated words, thoughts and unvocalized feelings
c. Concerns the intention of the communication and the impressions
received by the ones to whom the communication is addressed.
d. May be formal i.e. conveys in an organization through regular
channels of informal than interaction among friends.
e. Difficulties in communication may result from imaginary threats to
group members or may be related to questions of power and
influence
f. Channels of communication maybe built into the structure of a
group or may be develop informally as a function of interpersonal
needs and conflict.

2.4 Atmosphere – or social climate

2.5 Standards – development of code of ethics or set of standards of proper

and acceptable behavior.

2.6 Sociometric Pattern – relationship of friendship and antipathy

2.7 Structure and Organization

a. Visible organization – structure committees, appointed positions

or an informal division of labour
b. Invisible organization Procedure – arrangement of members
according to relative prestige, influence, power and seniority.
2.8 Procedures – ways of working to get things done i.e. use of Robert’s
Rules of Order, making decisions by votation or consensus and etc.
2.9 Goals – immediate or long range which the group hopes to accomplish

B. The Group

1. Formation of Groups (Cartwright and Zander, pp. 53-57)

1.1 Deliberate formation to accomplish some objectives

1.1.1 Work groups – to perform some tasks more efficiently through the pooling
and coordination of the behavior and resources of a collection of individuals.
E.g. expedition group to Mayon.
1.1.2 Problem solving groups – e.g. commissions, task forces, committees formed
on the belief that group can form a solution more efficiently than a single
individual.

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 1.1.3 Social action groups – formed from the desires to influence the force of events
in society – e.g. parties, lobbies, trade associations, civil rights groups, etc.
1.1.4 Mediating groups – e.g. coordinating councils, interdepartmental committees,
arbitration boards, etc.
1.1.5 Legislative groups – to formulate rules, regulations, laws, policies, e.g. boards
of directors, government legislative bodies.
1.1.6 Client groups – formed based on the assumption that the performance of certain
services is more effective or efficient if the “clients” are treated as groups rather
than as individuals.

1.2 Spontaneous Formation – many groups arise because people expect to derive
satisfaction from associating together e.g. social plans, juvenile gangs and friendship
cliques.

1.3 External designation – a collection of individuals may become a group because they
are treated in a homogenous way by other people. People may be placed into categories
on the basis of color, age, sex, height, weight, ability, education, religion, ethnic groups
and etc.

2. Two Basic Types of Group Functions

(Acts which help group achieve its preferred outcomes) (Cartwright and Zander, p. 304,
306)

2.1 The achievement of some specific goals – task oriented functions

Examples of member behaviours:

Initiates action, keep member’s attention on the goal, clarifies the issue, develops a
procedural plan, and evaluates the quality of work done, make expert information
available.

2.2 strengthening of the group itself – group building functions

E.g. keeps interpersonal relations pleasant, arbitrates disputes, and provides

encouragement gives the minority a chance to be heard. Stimulates self-direction and
increases the interdependence among members.

3. Classification of Group Functions (by Kenneth Benne and Paul Sheats)

3.1 Group building and maintenance roles – those which contribute to building relationship
and cohesiveness among members.
(Required for the group to maintain itself as a group)

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 3.1.1 Encouraging – being friendly, warm, and responsive to others, praising others
and their ideas, agreeing with and accepting the contributions of others.
3.1.2 Mediating – harmonizing, conciliating differences in points of view, making
compromises.
3.1.3 Gate keeping – trying to make it possible for another member to make a
contribution by saying “we haven’t heard from jim yet.” Or suggesting limited
talking time for everyone so that will have a chance to be heard.
3.1.4 Standard setting- expressing standards for the group in choosing its subject
matter or procedures, rules or conduct, ethical values.
3.1.5 Following – going along with the group, somewhat passively accepting the
ideas of others, serving as a n audience during group discussion, being a good
listener
3.1.6 Relieving tension – draining off negative feeling by jesting or throwing oil on
troubled waters, diverting attention for unpleasant to pleasant matters

4. Group Task Roles – those which help the group do its work. Required for the locomotion
of the group towards its goals.

4.1 Initiating – suggestion of new ideas or a changed way of looking at the group
problem or goal, proposing new activities.

4.2 Information seeking – asking for relevant facts or authoritative information or relating
personal experience pertinently to the group task

4.3 Information giving – providing relevant facts or authoritative information or relation

personal experience pertinent to the group task.

4.4 Opinion giving – stating a pertinent belief or opinion about something the group is
considering.

4.5 Clarifying – probing for meaning and understanding, restating something the group is
considering.

4.6 Elaborating – building on a previous comment, enlarging on it giving examples.

4.7 Coordinating – showing or clarifying the relationship among various ideas, trying to
pull ideas and suggestion together.

4.8 Orienting – defining the progress of the discussion in terms of the group’s goals,
raising questions about the directions the discussion stating.

4.9 Testing – checking with the group to see if it is ready to make a decision or to take
some actions.

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5. Non Functional Roles emanating from self-centered behavior

5.1 Blocking – interfering with the progress of the group by going off on a tangent, citing
personal experiences unrelated to the group’s problem, arguing to such on a point the
rest of the group has revolved, rejecting ideas without considerations preventing a
vote.

5.2 Aggression – criticizing or blaming others, showing hostility toward the group or
some individuals without relation to what has happened in the groups, attacking the
motives of others, deflating the ego or status of others.

5.3 Seeking recognition – attending to call attention to one’s self by excessive talking,
extreme ideas, boasting, and boisterousness.

5.4 Special pleading – introducing or supporting ideas related to one’s own pet concerns
or philosophies beyond reason, attempting to speak for the “grassroots” “the
housewife” “the common men” and so on.

6. Smelser’s Theory of Collective behavior (Mary Hointeiner, Society, Culture and the
Filipino, IPC, 1975) determinants of collective behavior

6.1 Structural conduciveness – social conditions that are permissive of a given sort of
collected behavior.

6.2 Structural strain – a matter of conflict among values or norms, e.g. present inequality
between the blacks and the whites in the U.S.A.

6.3 Growth and spread of a generalized belief. The belief identifies the source of the
strain, attributes certain characteristics to this source and recommends that certain
actions be taken to relieve the strain.

6.4 Precipitating factor – e.g. an incident which is interpreted in terms of hostile belief
and its occurrence in a situation of structural conduciveness and strain.

6.5 Mobilization of participants for action – a matter of leadership and communication.

6.6 Operation of social control – its relative weakness or absence makes collective
behavior possible
Each of these six conditions is said to be a necessary condition for the production
of collective behaviour and all six together are said to be sufficient. While the same
six kinds of determinants are said to be necessary and sufficient for the production of

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 every sort of collective behaviour, each determinant comes in many varieties and the
combinations or varieties determine what kind of collective behaviour will occur a
craze, a panic, a hostile outburst, or a social movement.
Behaviour contagion – the spontaneous pickup or imitation by others of the behaviour
initiated by one member of the group where initiator did not intend to get the others to
do what he did.

7. Group Cohesiveness: a resultant of all forces acting on members to remain in the group
component forces arise from attractiveness

7.1 Programs, characteristic style of operation, prestige, or properties significant to his

motive base.

7.2 Motive base of members – needs, for affiliation, recognition, security, money or other
values that can be mediated by group.

7.3 His expectancy – that membership will have beneficial or detrimental consequences
for him

7.4 His comparison level – his concept of the level of outcomes that group membership
will provide.
8. Consequences of Group Cohesiveness

8.1 maintenance of group over members

8.2 power of group over members
8.3 participation and loyalty
8.4 personal security
8.5 self-evaluation – sense of personal worth
9. Group Solidarity

Given the strong emphasis on group solidarity in the Philippines, conformity to

group norms is heavily rewarded while to deviate from them is to court strong social
disapproval.

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 Some mechanisms which support the system or social control are:

1) Techniques discernible in group interaction like

a) The commitment to pakikisama

b) The tendency to level an individual is out of line

c) Gossip

2) The curbing of anti-social attitudes by disallowing privacy or by ascribing undesirable

statuses to deviants; e.g. aswang for people who reject sociability or pilosopo to one
who questions prevailing ideas or opinions and is not readily willing to concede the
wisdom and accuracy of another person’s statements

A conversational technique which lynch has called sociostat cuts down to size any individual who
publicly takes credit for an act claims any kind of superiority over his in group. He who tries to be
different from members of his group in an attempt to improve his lot is quickly shown that his
effort are not appreciated. If he values the social approval of the old in group more than he does
the approval of others who would benefit from his alternate forms of behaviour, then he falls back
to the ways of the old group.

The pressures for conformity are difficult for the lone individual to resist. Yet if Philippine society
is to keep in step with new needs. It must provide channels for legitimate deviation. More people
must be freed, no from all the old familiar norms, but from traditional patterns which have become
a dysfunctional in a developing society. If we are to develop Filipinos who dare to deviate from
norms which do not seem to fit in the twentieth century context, we must make sure deviants get
their reward or social approval by helping them find others new in group, by set of common, non-
traditional but necessary values, these badly needed deviants will reward one another for their new
type of behavior by giving their companions the social approval they seek. (Hoilnsteiner, M.
Society, Culture, and the Filipino, IPC, 1975, p. 441-446)

10) Leadership and performance of group functions

10.1 Traits of Leaders

1) Among Bagobo leaders are those set by people as models, advisors and
innovators with others in solving the crises of life - - birth, maturation, social
formations, creative struggle for food, shelter, language and art forms, solutions

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 to sickness, interactions of humans with the supernatural and death.

Essential requirements for Bagobo leadership are: dexterity, morality and

wisdom that conform to the over-all accepted community patters. (Malcolm.
Some Bagobo Leadership Patterns. Silimn Journal, First Quarter, 1975 p. 48)

2) Among Kalinga, with their emphasis on community life, leadership may be

defined as the art of influencing people to get the necessary support and
cooperation in community affairs to maintain solidarity among the people.
Traditionally, the qualities associated with the pangat, the elected leader, are:
wealth, industry, power, righteousness, magnetic bearing, bravery, justice,
honesty and sincerity. The pangat is to be the spokesman in behalf of his
binudngan in its relationship with another territory and be an agent for the
cabodong or the other territory in its dealings with its own. (Dangawan:
Leadership Kalinga Society. Silliman Journal, First quarter, 1975, p. 67, 75)

3) A true leader does not solve the people’s problems. He helps motivate and
inspire them to find solutions to their problems. He restores the people’s pride
and confidence in themselves. (Montemayor: Leadership Formation in the
FFF, Silliman Journal, First Quarter, 1975, p. 12-13)

4) A good leader in the Philippines may not necessarily be a good leader

elsewhere. Using Huma’s ideas, a leader must embody the norms and values of
the group to which he belongs; he must have the ability to communicate with
all the members of that group; he must be an effective bridge between his group
and other groups in their interactive relationship. To be a leader in most
societies in the Philippines, he must be economically stable, an effective
reconciler, a convincing speaker and active in community affairs. (Rice: The
Leader in the Philippines, Silliman Journal, First Quarter, 1975, pp. 29-36)

5) A new view of leadership is emerging which stresses performance of needed

functions and adaptability to changing situations. Effective leaders are sensitive
to the changing conditions of their groups and flexible in adapting their
behavior to new requirements. The effectiveness of groups depends on the
appropriateness of the leader’s style to the specific situation in which he
operates and upon the degree to which that situation in which he operates and
upon the degree to which that situation enables the leader to exert influence.
(Cartwright and Zander, p. 304-314)

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 C. Power and influence in Groups
(Cartwright and Zander, Group Dynamics, pp. 215-232)

In order to understand the functioning of group, it is necessary to understand the nature of

social influence. The pressure to uniformity are exerted by means of social interaction in which
members attempt to modify the beliefs, attitudes, and actions of one another.

Most theories assume that influence should be viewed as a relationship between two
social entities such as individuals, roles, group, or nations. We refer to these as agents and denote
them by O (the one exerting influence) and P (the one influenced). The discussion will be limited
to interpersonal influence and power, to relationship between agents conceived as individual
people.

1. Agent exerting influence

One person has power over another if he can perform as act that will result in a
change in the other person. The source of interpersonal power has at least two components:
(a) certain “properties” of O, called resource of power, and (b) certain needs of values of
P, the motive bases of power.

1.1 Resources

Lists of resources of interpersonal power usually contain such items as

wealth, prestige, skill, information, physical strength, and the ability to gratify
the ego needs that people have for such intangibles as recognition, affection,
respect and accomplishment

1.2 Power Motivation

A person with resources has the capacity to perform acts that will influence
those who value these resources. If such a person wishes to accomplish some
objective requiring changes in the behavior, beliefs or attitudes of other people,
he may be expected to perform acts that he believes will bring about these
changes. On the other hand, a person with few resources is likely to realize that
ordinarily there is little point in his attempting to influence others. If we assume
that people frequently seek objectives whose attainment requires the exertion
of influences we should expect to find a close association between the
possession of power and the exercise of influence. What determines when a
person will make an influence attempt?

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 The decision whether to engage in an act of influence is determined and
governed by these four considerations: (a) the net advantage to the individual
performing the act, (b) the consequences of the act for the group (c) the
subjective probability that the act will be successful and (d) the prospect of
being rewarded for fulfilling role expectations,

2. The person subjected to influence

2.1 Motive bases of influence – conditions affecting a person’s willingness to be

influenced.

2.1.1 desire to receive reward (reward power or avoid punishment)

(conceive power)

2.1.2 desire to be like an admired person (referent power)

2.1.3 desire to abide by one’s values e.g. appeal is made to values like
fairness, generosity, honesty, acceptance of authority structure
(legitimate power)

2.1.4 desire to correct – to have an accurate view of reality, it P views O

as having special knowledge or expertness, P attributes expert power
to O. this may be due to O’s experience, training, intelligence,
reputation for credibility or special access to relevant information
2.1.5 Group-oriented desires – when influence attempts are seen as
instrumental to accomplishing group goals, or maintaining the
group.

2.1.6 Intrinsic gratification – appreciates the change sought by O as

desirables.

3. By-products of power

3.1 Effects on the person having power

3.1.1 The high power person is able to initiate activities, set the pace, and “call
the changes” in the interaction

3.1.2 The possession of power increases one’s sense of personal security and
permits making plans that extended farther into the future;

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 3.1.3 Since powerful persons can readily have their own way, they may tend
to be insensitive to the needs of others.

3.2 Effects on the person subjected to power

The existence of a power relationship poses a threat to P and he seeks ways of

defending himself.
3.2.1 ingratiation – to induce powerful person to use his power in
a benevolent way;

3.2.2 powerless people take actions to change the power relation

itself – revolution of rebellion;

3.2.3 ways to improve situation of little people

1) restrict the range of legitimate power (e.g. by legislation and collective

bargaining)

2) avoid social situations where superior may perform strong

disagreement ct;

3) Redistribute power by redistribution of resources (e.g. pooling of

resources in a concerned way, forming coalitions with others.)
The long term effects on person consistently subjected to power by others:
tendency to become apathetic, submissive, and pessimistic or tendency to become
hostile, angry, aggressive or rebellious against authority.

4. Influence of Group on individual Behavior

(Harleigh Trecker, Social Group Work, rev. N.Y. Whiteside Inc. 1955, 442 pp.)

4.1 The way in which individuals learn, the speed of their learning, the retention of learned
material, and the way in which they solve problems are influence by the group to which
they belong and participate.

4.2 The group influence the individual’s formation of attitudes and tends to be decisive in
the development of norms of response to situations (predictable behavior reactions).

4.3 Group experiences operate to change an individual’s level of aspiration and striving.
Individual goal setting is highly dependent upon group standards and their attainment is
relate to the extent to which the whole group moves toward them.

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 4.4 Group experience operates to modify the individual’s habit of living, working and
carrying on life’ pursuits. (Dominant group pattern setting)

4.5 Group experiences has a powerful influence upon the individual’s perception of
himself and his role in a given situation (acquisition of self-insight and self-understanding)

4.6 Group tends to provide psychological support for individuals and helps them
express themselves positively and negatively (noticeable in his acceptance and adoption to
life situation)

4.7 Group tends to influence the choices that individuals make in situations where there
are alternatives.

4.8 Group affect an individual’s speed, accuracy and productivity in work.

4.9 Group have strong effect upon an individual’s susceptibility to fear, frustration, and
his recovery from them is hastened because of the security giving function of the group.

4.10 Group tends to place limits on the individual’s drive for power and his need to be
controlling. (Resolve conflicts between authorities and dependence)

D. Community Forces (and their relationships)

INFLUENCING GROUP BEHAVIOR

1. Physical Environment Forces

1.1 Environment cycles which govern the behavior of three (3) Great Global Systems.
1) Air
2) Water
3) Soil

Within each of these three, live many thousands of different species of

living things each species affects the physical and chemical properties of
immediate environment.
1.2 Ecosytem – a system compose of living and non-living things.

Two Major Types of Ecosystem

1) Terrestrial
2) Aquatic

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2. Technology

2.1 Definition
Industrial science, particularly its application to replacement of skilled labor
by modern machinery.
2.2 Kinds of Technology

1) High-capital-intensive
3. Urbanization

3.1 Definition
1) The increasing appearance in rural and small town areas of behavior patterns and
cultural values characteristically associated with big city life.

2) Urbanization

-(if true urbanization) permits the unit costs of welfare services to

decrease
- Favors spread of innovation
- Generates external economics an economics of scale
- Facilitates modernization (efficiency goal)
- Progressive regional equalization as economy reaches maturity (equity
goal)
3.2 Demographic Characteristics of Cities
(Louis Wirth)

1) Number
2) Population density
3) Heterogeneity of people
3.3 Characteristics of Urban Social Relations

1) Superficial
2) Anonymous
3) Transitory
4) Overload

Overload – system’s inability to process inputs from the environment

because there are too many inputs for the system to cope with, or because
successive inputs come so fast that input A cannot be processed when input
B is presented.

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 3.4 Adaptive responses to overload

1) Allocation of less time to each input

Example: Sales personnel devote limited time to and attention to customers

2) Disregard of low-priority inputs

Example: Urbanite disregards the drunk sick in the street as he purposefully
navigates through the crowd

3.5 Boundaries are redrawn in certain social transactions so that the overloaded system can
shift the burden to other party in the exchange.

3.6

Example: Love Bus drivers require passengers to have exact fare ready rather
than making change for customers

3.7 Reception is blocked off prior to entrance in the system

Example: Some city dwellers assume an unfriendly countenance thereby

discouraging others to initiate contact

3.8 Intensity of inputs is diminished by filtering devices, so that only weak and relatively
superficial forms of involvement with others are allowed.

3.9 Specialized institutions are created to absorb inputs that would otherwise swamp the
individual.

Example: Social welfare agencies

4. Industrialization

4.1 Definition
A stage of social-technological development or movement toward such a
stage characterized particularly by assembly-line mass production – large
factories employing extensive power-driven machinery and specialized
work force with a finery wrought division of labor and characterized also
by urbanization and by highly mechanized method of communication and
transportation.

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 4.2 Values that underwrote the rise of Industrial civilization

1) Treatment of nature as simply an object to be exploited for the satisfaction of human

desires;
2) Emphasis on quality as a key to the true measure of the good;
3) Valuation plays upon the knowledge of the pursuit of knowledge as part of the quest
for power.

5. Concomitant social problems

5.1 Pollutions
5.2 Congestion
5.3 Resource depletion
5.4 Land speculation
5.5 Subsistence levels of living
5.6 “Over-unemployment”
5.7 Agricultural Stagnation

Congestion hinders economic growth by decreasing labor productivity, increasing

labor costs, requiring larger inputs of fuel, and hastening depreciation

“Over-unemployment” is due to population growth an incapacity of economy jobs

at a commensurate rate an bad technological choices.

Solutions offered

61. New spatial arrangement to minimize transport needs and reduce congestion;

6.2 Better health services located within “economic distance” of rural population and
managed by para-medical

6.3 Education system providing the rural people with new ideas or skills necessary for
doing agricultural work more effectively.

7. Socio-economic forces

Patterns of group behaviour are either maintained, modified or completely change

depending on the reinforcing conditions in the community. The studies of Skinner and others have
proven this.

The complementary roles of social and economic forces in reinforcing group behaviour are
reflected in the following statement of Guthrie

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 In identifying reinforcing conditions in the community, money is found to be a superb
reinforce.

Make sure that reinforcement mechanism is operating reliably. Certainly an immediately

may be more important than magnitude of reward. Make sure that no reinforcement does not occur
when no new effort is made.

Make sure of reinforcement of social approval and acclaim.

8. Political forces

8.1 Definition

Politics – the art and practice of exercising influence over people.

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IV. SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE (Social Work Methods)

Social Functioning. The focus of social work. What is it?

It means the interaction between the individual and his/her environment.

Social Environment. A network of overlapping social systems and social institutions

including ecological system, cultures and institutions.

Social Situation. An impinging of the social environment. It is smaller, more immediate

environment that has meaning for the individual and that is uniquely perceived and
interpreted by him in which he has one or more status, roles and identities.

Cause of and responses to social functioning problems:

Social functioning (or social performance) problems may be caused by the

following:

1. Factors in the person e.g. his/her physical condition, attitudes, values,

perceptions of reality, etc. which affect one’s “coping.”

2. Factors in the situation or environment e.g. lack of resources or opportunities,

expectations that are beyond the individuals coping capacities.

3. Changing strategies directed towards the interaction of individual and

environment

The Functions of Social Work

1. Restorative/Curative/Remedial/Rehabilitative

Curative seeks to remove factors which have caused the breakdown in the person’s
social functioning.

Rehabilitative tries to put back the person to a normal or health state of social
functioning.

2. Preventive – to identify potential areas of disequilibrium between individuals or groups

and the environment in order to prevent the occurrence of disequilibrium. It involves the
early discovery, control and elimination of those conditions or situations which they have
a harmful effect on social functioning.

3. Developmental – to seek out, identify and strengthen the maximum potential in individuals,
groups and communities. The aim is to both help the individual make maximum use of
his/her own potentials and capacities as well as to further the effectiveness of available
social or community resources.

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 SOCIAL WORK METHODS
(Primary)

1. WORKING WITH INDIVIDUALS (Social Casework)

A. CONCEPTS & PRINCIPLES

1. Concepts of Social Casework

1.1 Social Casework is a method of social work which intervenes in the psychosocial
aspects of person’s life to improve, restore, maintain or develop his social functioning
by improving his role performance.

1.2 Social casework is a problem-solving and helping process. It requires knowledge of the
science of human relations and skills in relationship in order to mobilize capacities in
the individual and resources in community appropriate for better adjustment between
the client and all or any part of his total environment.

1.3 Social casework is a process used by certain human welfare agencies to help
individuals to cope more effectively with their problem in social functioning. The
process is to promote human growth and development and self-satisfaction an
accomplishment.

1.4 Social casework operates in consideration of all social economic, psychological and
physical factors that influence the life of the individual, the family and the social group
and the community for better adjustment. Social casework in client centered (a person
with problems) rather than problem centered.

1.5 Social casework also recognizes the importance of family centered approach (1) to
contribute harmonious family inter-relationships (2) to strengthen the positive value in
family life, and (3) promote healthy personality development and satisfactory social
functioning of various family members.

1.6 The aim of Social casework is not only to help the individual, the family and the group
of persons in their social relationship, but it is also concerned with the improvement of
general social condition by raising health and social and economic standards and
harmonious and satisfying human relationships.

1.7 Further, its aim is the development of individual and family productive members, as a
basic unit of society. They are integral part of national development of nation-building.

2. Basic Concepts Relevant to Casework

2.1 Concept of Social Role

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 Social Role is the sum total of the culture patterns associated with a particular
status. Whether a social role is performed in a satisfying, effective and acceptable manner depends
always upon the capacities and motivations of both the persons occupying given role and those in
roles reciprocal to his.

2.2 Concept of Modes of Adaptation

Study and analysis reveal what the client’s dominant modes of adaptation have been
and lead to formulation of plans for casework intervention.

Faced with the threatening situation, a client will try to use his accustomed modes
of adaptation. When these have failed he will regress to modes of adaptation used earlier in life:
flight or pairing. Pairing is entering into a dependent and solace-seeking relationship with another
person perceived as stronger and able to help her handle the situation. Finally, in extreme
situations, he may become apathetic resigned, mentally disoriented and immobile or hyperactive.

2.3 Concept of Ego

Those intrapersonal forces which constantly strive to balance the person’s diverse
and conflicting motivations with one another and with demands of the outside world. Under stress,
we may perceive the world around us in distorted way. Knowledge applicable to a problem may
escape. Overwhelmed with anxiety we use defences – projection, denial placement, reaction
formation. Caseworker, by the case work process. Determines whether it is merely situational
response toward overwhelming stimuli or maybe a characteristic lifelong condition, indicating
deficiency in development of the ego.

3. Concept of Stress

The person who comes as a client to a social agency is always under stress and dependent.
Stressful situation involves personally or socially unsatisfactory adaptations to problems that are
beyond observation as personal and social imbalances.

Three component elements of stress:

3.1 The stress factor which threatens

3.2 The value which is threatened
3.3 The reactions, individual and collective to the threat

3.1 Stress factors

Stress factors are threats which arise within an individual’s body. His
physical environment, the function of the social systems and with the individual’s
network of roles. Threats from the social environment are mostly caused by such
breakdowns in social system as unemployment, depression, but also by status
insecurity, rapidity of technological change, mobility of population which make for

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 lack of stability and security in habitual social role and therefore, can cause threats
to existing relationships and create threat or an actual attack.

3.2 The value threatened

Life, health, property, privilege, freedom, security, status, face honor, self-respect,
opportunity, future prospect are the major personal values threatened. The same values may
have different meaning and significance to different individuals who have them. Human
integrity, dignity, rights are threatened.

3.3 Reaction to stress

Reaction to stress consists of the responses made by the individual with the goal of
maintaining the level of social functioning which existed prior to the occurrence of the stress.
Most of human behaviour which expresses itself in role performance according to hypothesis
consists of reaction to stress, and is more or less a successful effort at re-establishing a previous
level of functioning or reaching a new level of or socially by adapting to the stress situation.
The adaptation can consist of re-arrangement of physical, psychological and social factors or
frequently consists of combination of these three. These people who have considerable
difficulties in their adaptation toward stress situation or unsatisfactory adaptation, the people
who constitute problems, potentially coming to the attention of social case workers. A person
may be unable to cope with it; it increases his tensions, and the more overwhelmed and helpless
he may feel.

Caseworkers develop increasing skill in relation to their understanding of client’s

tension fears and frustration to his social environment and economic conditions. Caseworker
has to learn the meaning of the attitudes and develop skill in reducing the fear, in restoring the
damaged self-esteem by giving individual attention, privacy, acceptance and non-judgmental
attitude.

4. Professional communication
Although social workers from different types of relationships with different systems, there are
common elements in all professional relationships which make them different from personal
relationships. Three major characteristics of social work relationships can be identified.

4.1 Social workers from relationships for a professional purpose. In everyday life,
satisfying personal relationship may be an end in itself.
4.2 In professional relationships the worker devotes himself to the interests of his clients
and the needs and aspirations of other people rather than his own interests.
4.3 The worker forms relationships based on objectivity and self-awareness which allow
him to step outside of his personal struggles and emotional needs and to be sensitive to
the needs of others.

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The Caseworker Relationship

Client-worker relationship is established with the purpose of attaining objectives of

helping. The relationship is the dynamic interaction and psychological interplay both between the
worker and client with their own particular attitudes and feelings in a particular situation. The
worker is keenly aware of the importance and dynamics of his involvement, or “professional use
of self” in relation to the dynamic nature of the interaction, the purpose and qualities of the
relationship. The relationship if guided and directed toward therapeutically positive
communication maintaining or promoting client’s inner security and self-esteem, mobilizing his
inner and outer resources and realistic level of relationship both as means to promote individual’s
growth and development and to achieve a better adjustment between himself and his situation.
However, it operates with the constructive limitations.

The relationship is professional relationship which requires self-awareness, objectivity and

self-discipline in the joint involvement of problem-solving process.

5. Components of Relationship

5.1.1 Reality
5.1.2 Transference
5.1.3 Counter-transference

5.1.1 Reality

- is realistic and objective perception of existing condition or situation.

5.1.2 Transference

- is unconscious and not reality based. It is unrealistic attitude and response.

However, it has both positive and negative significance on the establishment on the client-
worker relationship. It will be positive corresponding to emotional security (love, affection,
trust, etc.) felt for the parental figure or close members of the family. Transference reactions
are client’s displacement on the worker of particular feelings and attitudes he originally
experience toward his family members or people he is close to. In most cases, mother or father
in his early childhood stage of development, and then he responds and relates to the worker as
if he were the person. In the client-worker relationship, the transference is activity operating
on the unconscious level of the client. This is a complicated phenomenon; involving dynamic
unconscious forces which operate through such mechanism as projection and identification.

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5.1.3 Counter-transference

- Is also unconscious and not reality based. It is carrying over of worker’s

particular feelings and reactions to a person in worker’s past and applying them to the client.
The nature of feelings and attitudes that exist between worker and client affects the relationship
between them.

- It is the worker’s professional responsibility to recognize, control and

manage transference and counter-transference, appropriately and emphasizing the reality
aspect of the relationship.

6. Task and Strategies

Identification and statement of the problem, analysis of the dynamics of the situation and
the setting of goals and targets provide help in three specific areas: 1) determining actual and
potential members of client, action and target systems with respect to the method and outcome
goals; 2) suggesting points of entry in dealing with the problem; and 3) indicating resources
which the worker will be able to utilize, resistances he is likely to encounter, and the kind of
relationships he will be able to establish.

Social worker’s activities can be characterized under one of three approaches to

intervention which encompass all the various worker function. These approaches can be called
education, facilitation, and advocacy.

6.1 The education approach covers a cluster of roles such as those of the teacher, expert,
and consultant. The objective is to help people and the system acquire information,
knowledge and skills. Typical activities the worker might engage in are giving
information and advice, providing feedback, teaching skills, role playing and
modelling, and demonstrating behavior. This role cluster operates within the general
stance of collaborative relationship.
6.2 A second general approach, facilitating, encompasses a role cluster including the
enabler, supporter, mediator and broker. Objectives are to stimulate and mediate
linkage within and between systems, strengthen the integration of systems and help the
overcome apathy and disorganization and help systems mobilize internal resources as
well as secure external ones. The worker’s activities must include eliciting expression
of feeling interpreting behavior, discussing alternative courses of action, clarifying
situations, providing encouragement and reassurance, practicing logical reasoning and
recruiting members.
6.3 The third general approach, advocacy, include the roles of advocate on behalf of
specific client or client groups and helper for people who want or need to advocate on
their own behalf. The objective of this strategy is to help an individual or system obtain
a needed resource, disinterested or unresponsive system.

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 Stabilization of the change effort

The worker must be concerned with, at the time of termination, the stabilization and
generalization of the change effort. He needs to assess the steps which must be taken to make
sure that the positive changes and gains will be maintained after he is no longer involved. In
assessing needs with regard to the stabilization of change, the worker will explore the increased
ability of the client system to cope with its own problems. To help stabilize the change the
worker looks for the kind of continuing support the client system might need and arranges for
it.

7. Assessment of Client’s Workability

Workability is combination of motivation and capacity that enables a person to engage himself
(with greater or lesser degrees of effort and effectiveness) with the persons and means of solving
his problem. It means both “ability to work” and “responsiveness to therapeutic influence.”

7.1 The client’s motivation for casework help

Willingness in the client’s conscious mobilized intent to involve himself in using

help. Willingness has the adaptive functioning of thee ego form perception of need and
goal to organization and mobilization of energies directed toward achievement.
Client’s participation is an important clue to his willingness. The client should see
himself as an active agent working it in the present. The client’s effort to engage in the
interview work is indicative of his willingness. Whether he can communicate, respond,
or think appropriately depends upon his capacity. Another indication of the client’s
motivation or willingness occurs when the worker injects into discussion the realities
of the kind of help that is available and its conditions. The client’s willingness may be
seen in his effort to bear the frustration of waiting and working and in his expression
of hope and trust in some later solutions. He is willing to postpone gratification because
his hope and confidence sustain him and also because he is trying to trust what he has
perceived as trustworthy person and place.

7.2 The client’s capacity to use casework help

Capacity refers to the qualities of emotional and personality make-up, of

intellectual and physical endowment, that the individual has and can use in the task of
problem-solving.

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 7.2.1 Emotional Capacity

Emotional Capacity is being able to relate to another. A client who relates

realistically to the worker does so with some reverse – he restrains the full play of
his communication. He acts in relation to the other rather than his own monetary
needs or impulses. He perceives with his eyes and other sensing organs what the
other seems like, and he responds appreciatively to what his senses convey to him.
The client who relates well and appreciatively, sees and accepts the caseworker’s
professional identity. His responses to the worker as a helping partner are relevant
(positive worker-client relationship)

Relationship capacity is seen in the client’s account of his relationship with other
persons in his current life and in the concerns and feelings he shows in speaking of others.
It is indicated by a client’s differentiated reactions to different relationships which mean
that he brings perception and pliability to interpersonal encounters rather than a fixed
pattern of response. He is also able to admit to having feelings rather than having insistently
to deny or project them. Yet they are subject to his efforts and control.

7.2.2 Social Intelligence capacity

Essential feature of intelligence is perceptiveness. Perceptiveness is considered

good where a person observes clearly and precisely and sees into things dimensionally in
breadth, depth and relatedness. He reads valid meaning into what happens and thereby is
able to make connections and differentiation. This person has perceptiveness of reality.
The client who is accounted perceptive is he who sees or can readily be brought to see –
not only his problem in relation to the agency and to casework help.

A second attribute of social work intelligence as the ability to communicate, both

within oneself, and to another. This is ability to communicate accurately what one senses,
feels, thinks and does. Social intelligence is gauged by the client’s ability to convey
meaning in words and why. Communication represents the adaptive and integrative
functioning of the ego.

Another element is a capacity for attention the ability to pay attention to an idea or
a problem involves both motivation and interest in something outside the self. Capacity for
attention in problem-solving is to require both focusing and devoting. Attention is for the
purpose of coming to some understanding grasp of an idea or situation which in turn, is for
the purpose of making some judgment or conclusion about it. Good judgment is a major
asset in social intelligence. It follows upon realistic perception, upon the connections made
between cause and effects, between past and present, and present and future acts and
consequences, upon the ability to remember and from this to anticipate the plan.

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 7.2.3 Physical capacity

Physical capacity is relatively easy to assess. However, when the problem situation
is centered in the physical area detailed and appropriate analysis becomes necessary. This
requires usually a consultation with a physician and joint work with related disciplines for
problem-solving.

B. INTERVIEWING: ITS PRINCIPLES AND DYNAMICS

The principal tool used by the worker in social casework is interviewing. Interviewing in
casework involves communication between two people; the person seeking help, that is the client,
and the person in a position to offer help, the professional worker. The communication maybe
called a professional conversation, the theme of which is to assist the person seeking help, to feel
and think through his problem with the professional worker contributing his know how in bringing
about an ordering process in the client’s effort to solve his problem.

Interviewing is an art, a skilled technique that can be improved and eventually perfected
primarily through continued practice. Skills can be developed to their fullest potentialities only
when practice is accompanied by knowledge about interviewing and self-conscious study of one’s
own practice.

1. Purpose of interviewing

1.1 To obtain information

1.2 To give help to individual
1.3 To help the individual arrive at the right solution of his problem

2. Essential Conditions of Good Interviewing

2.1 Physical setting

2.1.1 Privacy – is a must for a good interview

2.1.2 A comfortable and relaxed atmosphere is needed
2.1.3 Length of time depends on purpose of interview
2.1.4 There must be time between interviews for the worker to think over each
interview quietly and not its significant aspects.
2.1.5 The place must be preferably be in the office.

2.2 Recording

Jotting down notes should be done after interview is over and not sharing the interview.

2.3 Confidential nature of the interview must be observed.

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 2.4 Specific and general background knowledge of the interview. The worker must have
good general knowledge of the dynamics of human behavior and dynamics and
techniques of interviewing and the whole process of casework.

3. Guides or steps in Proper interviewing

3.1 Observation
a) Observe what the interview says
b) Note equally what the interviewee does not say, what significant gaps there are in
his story
c) Note things such as bodily tensions, excitability and objection because they
supplement and sometimes even belief the picture given by the interviews.
3.2 Listening
a) A good interviewer is a good listener
b) One who frequently interrupts is not a good listener
c) A common error is to be embarrassed by silence and feel that he must fill them with
questions or comment.
d) Learn the values of “letting off steam” catharsis.

3.3 Listening before talking or “being where the client is”

a) Help the interviewee to relax and feel comfortable

b) Encouraging him to talk and then listen carefully while he speaks of what is on the
top of his mind in connection with that interview
1) Give the interviewee a change to become acquainted with the
interviewer
2) Try to clarify questions
3) Wait for interviewee to reveal answer to many questions without being
asked and he will suggest methods of approach for obtaining additional
information required.
4) Control any preconceived ideas about him which the interviewer may
have allowed himself to entertain.
3.4 Questioning
a) The Central Method of interviewing is the fine art of questioning.
b) The method of seeking questions should be such that worker understands and can
be of assistance to the client.
c) A good method is to ask questions for only one or two purposes; to obtain
specifically needed information, and to direct the client’s conversation from
fruitless to fruitful channels

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3.5 Talking

Interviewer should comment only for purposes similar to those for which he asked
questions to measure or to lead discussion further on relevant matters. This should be
done when client is ready to accept them.

3.6 Answering personal questions

Many social workers are threatened when asked pointedly by client about their
personal life. One must look at the significance of such questions and answer them as
carefully as possible, those re-direct client to focus on his own problems.

3.7 Leadership or direction

A skilled interviewer actually leads the client consciously throughout the interview
but constructively.

3.8 Interpretation

This only comes after a clear understanding of client’s problems is reached by the
interviewer and as soon as the client has been prepared, or has the readiness to benefit
from an interpretation. This requires diagnostic skills to make client benefit from this.

3.9 Things to look for in an interview for diagnosis, inference and action

3.9.1 Association of idea – statements which may prove as clues as to the real
problem but may sound so far-fetched.

3.9.2 Shifts in conversation may be a sign of not revealing a painful experience,

withdrawal or manifestation of unwillingness to give too much information due
to lack of confidence yet on the interviewer, or a realization of wild feeling for
overly revealing.

3.9.3 Opening and closing sentences

The first words a client says are often usual significance. Concluding remark
is also noteworthy, often a summing up of what the interview meant to him.

3.9.4 Inconsistencies and gaps

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 Client’s story may lack consistencies and may indicate his confusion,
ambivalence or his deep scaled internal pressures of guild feelings.

Client may also hide part of an episode and will go into great lengths of
details of one aspect of the story and leave a big gap in the sequences.
Interviewer should look for clues for the reasons of his behavior.

3.9.5 Conceited meaning

Listen to what the client “says” and what he actually means.

4. Things to understand in interviewing

The most important task of the social worker in order to become an effective interviewer
is to understanding the following:

4.1 Understand facts about human nature

4.1.1 Human motivation

Recognition that meets human motivation is unconscious. One must not seek
intellectual reasons too often for behavior because most of the reasons for man
behavior are psychological causes, rooted in feelings and emotions.
4.1.2 The danger of passing judgment on the client’s behavior and personality may
confront the social worker during the interview and the entire casework process,
especially in the shifting of the materials presented by the client in determining
what is reality and the emotional world of the client.
4.1.3 Every situation has objective and subjective aspects: “reality situation versus
the emotional situation.”
4.1.4 All of us suffer from ambivalent feelings. The degree of manifestation and
resolution of these feelings depend to a large extent on our early childhood
development, our early environment we had been exposed to.
4.1.5 In the relationship between the client and the worker positive and negative
feelings are bound to exist and negative feelings are more concealed than
positive ones because of social standards of politeness.

4.2 Worker’s understanding of his own attitudes

4.2.1 Awareness of his own prejudice which means control of feelings rather than
absence of feelings on the art of the worker.
4.2.2 Acceptance
- Real acceptance involves positive and active understanding of feelings and
not merely a negative and passive refusal to pass judgment.
-

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C. RECORDING: PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES

1. What is a Social Casework Record?

A record in social casework is an abstraction of what happened in a social situation between

the client and the worker in the process of the former’s seeking help and the latter responding to
the former’s needs. It is a reproduction of the significant things that happened in this particular
social situation which can be used to define the problem of the client, his capacities for
relationships and use of resources within himself and his immediate environment, and the use of
feelings and thinking on his problems. However, such a reproduction also reveals the skills of the
social worker is seeing through his senses. In observing, in shifting or relating the significant data,
in evaluating and analyzing all these dynamic configuration of persons and situations, as revealed
by the clients. It also reveals the skills of the worker in making use of himself in a social situation
of stress, his skills in guiding the client to make known his problems, and to help him to develop
form, order and structure in his solving process.

2. Why should a social worker record his process of helping?

The social caseworker, just like any profession has some inherent responsibilities. He is
not only responsible to himself, but most of all to his client, his agency and to the community, and
also to his profession. To all of them he is obliged to communicate, and the basis for any
communication in professional practice is a record. Not only is a record needed for
communications. It is also needed by the caseworker to guide him in his self-appraisal of what has
gone before, or what is going on, to help him see through himself and another person in need and
the situation and reflect for a moment on what he has done so far, what ought to have been done,
what is to be done, together with the person he is ought to help. A record makes a professional
social worker see through his own involvement in the process of giving help and therefore this
affords him opportunities to learn more about his client, to develop insight about his practice, to
develop more skill to improve service.

3. Purpose of the record

After discussing the reasons for the existence of the social casework records. It is
worthwhile touching even briefly on the purposes of the record which are as follows:

3.1 For practice

3.2 For administration

3.3 For supervision

3.4 For teaching

3.5 For research

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 The most important thing about a professional record in its content in recording. The most
important things to show are the nature of case situation, the client’s doing about his problem and
how caseworker carries the responsibility of offering help in problem-solving through precise
intervention,. Since the nature of the case situation itself is so complex, so dynamic and fluid. It is
very difficult to determine actually what to include in the record. But it is a must that a professional
worker write down what he thinks could be very well accurately record the situation which would
be useful in helping the client make a decision and for the worker to decide on a professional plan
of intervention.

5. Style in Recording should suit the material

Good style and good contents are inseparable. Good style is also responsive to agency purpose.
A good rule for content and style should be “look at the applicant, talk to him, write about him,
his attributes, and his needs, his relationships to others and to you. Don’t ever see him, think about
him or write about him as a type”

There is no such thing as model record and in the professional record skill in practice and in
recording are so interrelated and almost inseparable. The style will be conditioned throughout by
the casework concept and practices as reported. The best records will not only contain objective
facts, events or behaviour, but are supposed to bring out clearly precise assessment and the
interventive plans as well. Each case is a sort of abstraction, a professionally conceived body of
elements relevant to our purposes which does make for some unity. The meaning of a case,
professionally emerges as the case progresses, so that our grasp of the significant is dynamic, rather
than ultimate, practical rather than theoretical. A good professional style means that it was written
by a competent professional social work practitioner or else the record cannot achieve a “problem-
solving unity.” Also a good professional style shows a mastery of the interventive process with
clarity of direction because one knows what the client and the worker are doing together.

The best records not only contain objective facts, events and behaviour but are supposed to
bring out clearly precise assessment of the person in situations with defined problems for focus.
Narrative and summarized recording are equally useful and a well-balanced record will employ
both styles. In professional records interpretation of the meaning of the case is as essential as the
reporting of facts.

Records are used for teaching and study purposes will tend to include more details than do
records used chiefly for practice.

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6. Three Most Important Styles in Recording

6.1 Narrative
This is the primarily style for the social case record. It is the style which is good for
reporting of facts in a descriptive manner and the sequence of the interview. Facts do not
only include events that are happening, an understanding of circumstances. In the case, but
also behavior, whether gesture and/or movement. Narrative as it is a “fluid” or “running”
style ran also describe interpersonal relationship and the significant interactions between
the client and the worker in the casework process.

There are two types of narrative recording the narrative condensed and the narrative
process.

6.1.1 The narrative condensed is generally useful form for all types of casework
agencies. It is good for reporting acts of practical helpfulness, events and most
collateral visit or conferences. It may be used to show the contents of the
interview in all instances, except when the process itself and use of relationship
have special significance.

There is rarely any good reason for verbatim reporting of interviews other
than those of the intimate “patient group.” In application interviews or with
sustained relationship it is important often to give the persons’ own words and
to show the verbal role of the caseworker, but in a collateral visit, typically one
is conferring rather than interviewing, so there is no need to recapture emotional
expression and it is simpler to give the gist of the discussion with or without the
emotional overtones of the participants. When there is a minimum of emotional
significance in an interview, when the anger or aggression or fears are obvious,
or when the casework relationship is not involved to any great extent or when
social resources are realistically utilized by self-directing clients, or when
information is sought on straight question answer basis, all these and much else
can be condensed, arranged and summarized.

6.1.2 The narrative process style is used to elaborate more on interpersonal

relationships in records. Process is used to show the process of interaction,
within the interview, with a “play interview”, or in group interview to show
group interaction. It is a good medium when attention should be directed to
attitudes, behavior and motivation. It is often used for intake or early interviews,
when the client’s feeling toward his situation and toward what he wants of the
agency are likely to be apparent. It is not easy to reproduce feeling. The client
may not express his feeling spontaneously through free association; only the
skilled interviewer with any certainty may catch the overtones and react to
them. As workers become more skilled, they become more secure in effective

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 materials and relationships and are better able to bring the emotion to the
surface, through responsive questioning, comment and restating conflict.

In all casework interviews in which transference phenomena are prominent

because a treatment relationship is deeply involved therein, the client’s words
may carry special meaning which should be explored in the interview and often
should assure us that the affective quality will be grasped and whenever the
interaction does make the emotional overtones self-evident comment is
desirable and even necessary.

6.2 Summarized recording

The summary recording is a good device for organization and analyzing

facts. Routine services such as arrangement for use of a social resources or
uneventful period of supervision can be summarized. Summaries include social
histories, diagnostic summaries, periodic evaluation, transfer and closing
summaries and also case abstracts from other records. Summaries are either topical
or condensed chronological summaries. Summaries not only point up facts but they
point into the meaning and relative importance of the material gathered. A careful
summary made at appropriate intervals reduces bulk, clarifies direction for both
client and worker and spells out activities to be done; and saves the worker’s time.

6.3 Interpretative style: diagnosis and evaluation

This kind of recording points out the meaning of facts. This record not only presents
the facts but tells the nature and condition of these facts (assessment). It gives out the
opinion of the worker of the meaning of these facts. As the worker is expected to carry
on treatment, this kind of record reflects the goal towards social ends. It gives an
evaluation of social situations and social values of a person. This really calls for
intellectual discipline to deepen knowledge, to clarify goals and to strive for greater
development and control of skill. The record is a medium of communication, and an
assessment precision, represents the highest level of communication we can achieve
therein.

The interpretative style contain the social interpretation of the worker. It shows his
intellectual sensitivity and discipline in trying to wrest out the meaning of the facts of
the case. In this kind of recording, we have a worker whose eyes are trained to derive
the significance of events and also to see and hear and report accurately, to serve a mind
that is trained to reflect.

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 2. WORKING WITH GROUPS (Social Group Work)

1. Groups:

1.1 basic properties or characteristics:

- Size (number of members)

- Amount of physical interaction among members

- Level of solidarity

- Locus of control and group activities

- Extent for formulation of rules governing relations among members

2. Assumptions about Groups:

2.1 Groups are inevitable and ubiquitous

2.2 All groups are alike and all groups are different i.e. there are characteristics common
to all groups, but each group has unique characteristics making it different from any other.

2.3 Groups mobilize powerful forces which produce effects of utmost importance to
individuals. Groups serves to accomplish the following:

2.3.1 Meet personal and social needs (belonging, recognition, socialization,

adventure, accomplishment, service, prestige, status, skill)

2.3.2 Media through which individual and social norms are changed.

2.3.3 Means through which controls in society are maintained.

2.3.4 Customs, norms and values are passed on by society.

2.4 Groups may produce good as well as bad consequences

2.5 A correct understanding of the forces operating in groups (group dynamics) permits the
possibility that desirable consequences from groups can be deliberately enhanced, that
groups can be used for better ends or to achieve desirable goals.

3. How Groups Effect Change

To understand how groups effect change requires that we view groups in at least three
different ways:

3.1 The group itself is seen as source of influence over its members (the group as a medium
of change)

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 3.2 The group itself has becomes the target of change (even if the goal is to also change
the behavior of individuals, the group is the target change)

3.3 The group itself becomes he instrument or medium through which change comes about
(the groups, as agent of change)

4. Group Process

As defined, it is the network of psychological interaction that goes on in every group; it is

everything that happens in a group, and is affected by the kind and quality of interaction among
the members. In this sense, it is used to also mean the group dynamics. Understanding group
process requires understanding of the many different forces operating in groups, among them:

4.1 Social Integration – the dynamic interplay of forces in which contact between persons
results in modification of the attitudes and behavior of the participants

4.2 Communication – the means through which information, symbols, messages are given
or transmitted and received; maybe verbal and/or non-verbal. It basic to interaction.

4.3 Status – the position of a person occupies in relation to others in hierarchy of positions
in any given group. Every individual has a status set depending on the group and functions ascribed
or assigned. A person can therefore have different statuses in a group at different times. Ranking
depend on the tasks to be performed or emotional needs of the members. In general status is always
related to cultural values and the purposes of individuals and the group as a whole.

4.4 Roles – the term role refers to a set of expectations (behaviors, activities) from a person
who occupies certain position. In a given status certain roles become implicit. As a group also
becomes organized, certain roles emerge. A person can occupy several roles at the same time.

4.5 Values and Norms – values are indications of what we consider as important or
unimportant. Desirable or undesirable, right or wrong, etc. norms are the generally accepted ways
of doing things in a group. Groups develop norms in the course of their development.

4.6 Group Bond – the feeling of belonging in a group which develops as result of the ties
or relationships among its members. Bond may change in time. It may become anger or weaker.
Natural groups (family, friendship, etc.) usually start with the same bond; but develop it in the
course of working together. A group cannot exist for long without bond. A strong bond is always
beneficial to group members; a weak one always indicates a poor group experience. Bond is also
referred to as group unity or solidarity.

4.7 Affectional structure – the way in which persons relate with one another is the heart of
the group process. Love, empathy, cordiality, and positive identification create associative or
uniting relationships, whereas hatred, hostility, repulsion, and prejudices are dissociative or

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divisive in effect. “A feeling that one is accepted in a group and that he, in turn accepts other
members, is a powerful dynamic in the process of change. All people need to be accepted.

4.8 Conflict – the essence of this force is difference. A group that shows no conflict is a
dead one, indicating either an extinction of its members – individuality or pretense at it – with
underlying deep cleavages. A group that is in constant conflict with no way of solving it is a sick
one, giving no satisfaction to its members and keeping them in a state of insecurity and hostility.
Conflict-solving is a major of task groups.

4.8.1 Types of Conflict-solving

a) Withdrawal of one part of the group;

b) Subjugation, a willful silencing of one part of the group either by the leader
of the composition or by a subgroup. This can be accomplished through
violence, including death, or threat, ridicule, or any display or superior
power on the part of a subgroup within the total group.
c) Majority rule – also a form of subjugating the minority although not quite
as arbitrary as other forms of subjugation.
d) Minority consent to majority rule; subjugation is out since deliberations
preceded the final solution and the minority has agreed to abide by the
majority decisions.
e) Compromise; neither side gets full satisfaction, but each agrees to the limits
to be set on its own suggestion.
f) Consensus; issues/problems are presented and threshed out until general
agreement is reached by the group.

4.9 Contagion – the process through which a member(s) consciously or unconsciously

spreads his own ideas, feelings or emotions, in a group, thereby affecting i. This effect is generally
seen in the way the other person(s) picks up or gets “contaminated” by the member’s ideas,
feelings, etc.

4.10 Subgroups – one part of the natural workings of the group process. They may
consist of two (pairs or diads) or three (triads) or more members of the group. Subgroups are
inevitable and legitimate, and the worker’s acceptance of them is a prerequisite for good and
skillful group work. Subgroups may enhance the quality of the total group when they feel part of
the group and contribute to its strength and growth. These are the subgroups with “wals,” called
cliques. Sensitivity to their beginning before they get to be full blown and destructive is part of the
task of the worker.

4.11 Isolation - the isolate is a member either neglected or highly rejected by the group,
yet present in it. The neglected isolate is in the most lonely situation. He has no bridge, no
communication with the group. Isolates are frequently people who are most in need of group
acceptance; they yearn for nearness to others; and yet they have a low self-concept and cannot

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reach out. They find tenuous satisfaction in just being tolerated by the group or in pretending to
themselves that they are really part of the group. The rejected isolate is more actively involved in
the total group situation. He usually reaches out to other members of the group or the group as a
whole, but finds himself rebuffed. The person who violates the mores of the group may find
himself in this position. The rejected isolate sometimes becomes the scapegoat of the group.

4.12 Leadership – a process of influencing others for the purpose of performing a shared
task. This process requires to a greater or lesser extent than one person direct, coordinate, or
motivate, others in the group in order to get the assigned task accomplished. In grossly
oversimplified terms, the leader, may use the power of his position to enforce compliance or he
may persuade and cajole his members to do his bedding.

The indigenous leader grows out of the group and should not be confused for the group worker
who is not considered a leader in the context of social group work.

A groupworker, besides understanding the forces at play when people interact in groups
must also realize that individuals who comprise a group have their own personality
dynamics. We must understand that every group member brings his self to the group, that
self being the product of constitutional psychological, sociological, cultural, and physical
factors. Each group members brings such a self to the group and he being in the group
results in the network of the forces described earlier. Unquestionably, one has to understand
each group members background (what he brings to the group) if one is to really understand
the dynamics of a group. And this is no ll. One must go even further and see the group in
the context of community processes - - the forces operating outside the group itself which
invariably affects its processes workings, and operations, e.g. social problems including
poverty, crime and delinquency, pollution, population explosion, technology, socio-
political climate, etc.

5. The Social Group Work Method

There are several conceptions of the functions of group work service which have
shaped the selection of goals and methods. In the order of their historical emergence, these
conceptions are:

5.1 The cruciality of small groups in the maintenance of a democratic society: At the
turn of the century, some were troubled by the emergence of a mass society and by
problems of urbanization. It was believed that special devices were necessary to conserve
humanistic values. These values appeared to be threatened by trends toward centralization
and concentration of power, and pressures toward anonymity and conformity. Small groups
within or linked to a larger social units were viewed as providing significant opportunities
for collective decision making, for facilitating individual participation in important social
movements, and for articulating the otherwise isolated citizen participation, decentralized
but share decision making and active pursuit of social goals. This connection is more likely

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 to be asserted by practitioners in settlements or other agencies directly concerned with a
disadvantage stratum of the urban population. Central to the conception, then, are goals of
social participation and democratic decentralization.

5.2 Individual developmental processes can be facilitated by training in social skill and
the inculcation of social values mediated for clients through guided group experiences.
Such group experience benefits the individual by developing potentialities which might not
otherwise achieve fulfillment. In general, these outcomes of social group work maybe
regarded as serving socialization or development goals, seeking fulfillment of individual
capacities and preparation for responsible assumption of social roles.

5.3 A third conception of group work focuses on its utility in ameliorating the adverse
condition of individuals whose behavior is disapproved or who have been disadvantages
by the workings of an imperfect society. This conception emphasizes manifest personal
and social problems and the rehabilitative potentials of guided group processes in
alleviating these problems. Clientele most appropriate for such service includes the
physically or mentally handicapped, legal offenders, emotionally disturbed, isolated or
alienated person, etc.

This conception stresses treatment or rehabilitative goals, and focuses on the small group
as a means for altering individual identity, performance or status. This conception is more
typical of practitioners in agencies concerned with problems or deviance and disability,
such as juvenile correctional institutions or vocational rehabilitation programs.

There are no clear-cut or fixed boundaries between these various conceptions, and those
who emphasize one or another do not necessarily deny the validity of others. They do no
represent, however, organizing themes with reference to which orientations are clustered
and strategies are formulated.

These conceptions are historically successive. They also represent orientations of

professionals clustered according to the functions of agencies in which they are practicing.

6. Essential Elements in Social Group Work

6.1 The Group as Client

“A social group which is the framework within which personalities develop and
mature or also become disorganized, maybe through of as a number of persons who have
common activities, and who are stimulating to reach other – a social group consists of
human beings in inter-stimulation.

In social group work, the client is the group which is made up of individuals whose problem
situations are seen as better served with the group as both the means and the context for
helping.

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6.1.1. Characteristics of “Group Work” Group

6.1.1.1. The group should be small enough to enable the members to know one
another intimately and to have a part in the functioning of the group. It
should be small enough to allow the worker to know and understand the
members of individuals.

6.1.1.2. The group must have some degree of cohesiveness, some bond that will
hold the members of the group together for at least a minimum period of
time. This bond may be interest in a certain activity; it may be personal wish
and need to be with one another. It could be the wish to do something about
a social problem or the desire to explore some unknown area of human
experience. Whatever it may be, the group must have a reasonable
expectancy or remaining together for a sufficient period of time to achieve
its objectives.

6.1.1.3. The group work must have at least a minimum degree of organization,
formal or informal, so that the members have a way of agreeing on
objectives, sharing the duties and assuming responsibility for group
decisions. If the members went and are willing and able to take their share
of responsibility for the group, it is a group work group.

6.1.1.4. The group work group must have some agreed-upon way of selecting and
admitting members to the group, so that social controls can emerge and their
group can take the responsibility for its own conduct. This admission
process must be worked out in cooperation with the agency and in keeping
with the agency’s policies. Group must have boundaries that are known to
the members.

6.2.1. Types of agencies using the social group method.

I. Character-building agencies; youth-serving agencies like Girls

Scout, CWCA, etc., recreational agencies, neighborhood and
settlement houses, community centers.

II. Treatment-oriented settings; correctional institutions, guidance

clinics, psychiatric hospitals, etc.

The foregoing however may be considered as constituting the traditional

categories of group work agencies, for today, with the developments in
social work practice, such as the focus on the developmental function of
social work in the Philippines, these categories may no longer apply. Not
only are we having an increase of social work practice outside of the

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 traditional setting of a social agency (e.g. integrated social work practice in
open community setting, sans agency sponsorship), but many of the social
agencies which would fall under the terms “character-building” or even so
called “therapeutic settings” are expanding their functions as to include a
broad range of programs and services many of which are development-
oriented, but still relying on the method of social group work as its main
mode of helping individuals/clients.

An important thing to remember is that not all agencies serving groups are
social group work agencies. Agencies become social group work agencies
when trained practitioners work with organized groups using the method of
social group work. The recreation movement was a vital root of group work,
but social group work as it is conceived today must be clearly distinguished
from recreation. Many recreational activities, however, do continue to be
used as program tools by social group workers. Recreation can be an end in
itself, but social group work is a methodology for helping individuals using
the group as the medium for helping.

6.2.2. Factors to be considered by an agency in formulating sound policies

pertinent to the development of group programs and services:

6.2.2.1. Agency goals/purposes

6.2.2.2. Community situation

6.2.2.3. Agency resources

6.2.2.4. General knowledge about working with groups

6.2.3. What the Group Worker Should Know and Understand About the Agency:

6.2.3.1 The worker should have an understanding of the purpose and

function of the agency and should agree to work within it,
accepting its changing and evolving nature.

6.2.3.2. The worker should have the knowledge about the general
constituency the agency is set up to serve, it is defined in
terms of age, sex, geographical location, interests and needs.

6.2.3.3. The worker should have the knowledge of how the agency
helps groups to form and how it accepts group into a
relationship with it. Conditions of group facilities with the
agency must be clearly understood. If the worker is to

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 interpret properly the agency to the group and the group to
the agency.

6.2.3.4. The worker should have an understanding of inernal

operating policies particularly as they relate to fees, hours
scheduling, sharing the facilities with other groups, record
required and regulations regarding work with other groups
which may be carried on away from the agency.

6.2.3.5. The worker needs to know his relationship to other workers

on the staff and the kind of supervision he may expect to
receive.

6.2.3.6. It is important for the worker to know the way in which

individuals who seek to affiliate with the group may be
helped to establish an effective relationship with the group.

6.2.3.7. The conditions or criteria by which groups are to be

evaluated by the agency should be understood from the
beginning of the worker’s relationship with the agency.

6.3 The Group Worker (Social Worker)

6.3.1. Some Specific Responsibilities

6.3.1.1. Understand the group with whom she is working

6.3.1.2. Know every group member

6.3.1.3. Should help make group experiences meaningful

6.3.1.4. Draw on knowledge of individual growth and group dynamics.

6.3.2. Some Specific Functions

6.3.2.1. meeting with groups

6.3.2.2. conferring with individuals

6.3.2.3. writing reports and records

6.3.2.4. representing the agency in community work

6.3.3. Some Specific Skills: In addition to basic skills needed in working with all types of
client systems, the following specific skills are essential in work with groups.

6.3.3.1. skill in establishing purposeful relationship

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 6.3.3.2. skill in analyzing the group situation

6.3.3.3. skill in participation with the group

6.3.3.4. skill in dealing with group feeling

6.3.3.5. skill in program development

6.3.3.6. skill in using agency and community resources

6.3.3.7. skill in evaluations

6.3.4. The Social Worker in Relation to Group Program Development

Program: this involves the various activities which workers may design for group
participation. The following therefore, are essential.

6.3.4.1. Worker must have some knowledge of the total range of program
possibilities.

6.3.4.2. Worker must think in terms not only of specific activities, but of the
sequential development of program over a series of group sessions.

6.3.5. Specific tasks of worker in relation to program planning

6.3.5.1. help the members plan the program

6.3.5.2. help discover and arouse interest

6.3.5.3 facilitate or arrange for use of appropriate equipment and facilities

6.3.5.4. work with limitation imposed by materials, rules and situations

6.3.6. Some Principles of Programming:

6.3.6.1. Activity should be directed at meeting those individual and group

needs which are relevant to treatment (helping) objectives.

6.3.6.2. The worker must analyze the consequences of activities for the
participants and chose or modify activities appropriately.

6.3.6.3. Worker’s choice of activities should be specific and with reference

to the capabilities and interest of group members.

6.3.6.4. Activities should be embedded in a sequence aimed toward the

(treatment) goals of the helping relationships.

6.3.7. Program, to be of maximum value in group work should:

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 6.3.7.1. be person-centered and meet specific needs

6.3.7.2. develop out of the interest and needs of the group members

6.3.7.3. involve the members themselves in planning to the maximum

amount of their ability and

6.3.7.4. utilize the worker as a helping person rather than a dispenser of

entertainment

The social group worker’s specific knowledge relates to the understanding

of the impact of the group processes on the individu al. His specific skill
lies in the use of group interaction of individualizing inside the group and
in the conscious use of differential activities according to the needs of the
specific groups with whom he is working.

6.3.8. Areas of the Social Group Worker’s Practice:

6.3.8.1. Basic group work practice – direct social work practice with
small groups

6.3.8.2. Supervision of workers

6.3.8.3. Administration of agencies providing social group work

services.

6.3.8.4. Community planning and coordination of services.

6.4. The Helping Process

Social group work as a method of social work “helps individuals to enhance their social
functioning through purposeful group experiences to cope more effectively with their
personal group or community problems.”

Group work is a way of serving individuals within and through small face-to-face groups
in order to bring about desired changes among the client participants. This method of
practice recognizes the potency of social forces that are generated within small groups and
seeks to marshal them in the interest of client change. The composition, development, an
processes of the group are deliberately guided by the practitioner toward achieving his
service goals for the clients intervention in the experience of the group is the primary means
of affecting change, although practitioner engages in many other activities with or on
behalf of their clients in addition to conducting group sessions.

This method involves an orderly process which takes place within a meaningful, purposive
relationship between worker and group. This helping process is generic or common to all

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 social work practice, and involves the following steps in problem-solving; assessing the
problem, planning solutions, implementing the plan, and evaluating the outcome (Boehm).
When applied to work with small groups, this helping process can be broken-down into
more specific steps or stages. The entire process is referred to as the social treatment
sequence.

6.4.1. Intake: the process by which a potential client achieves client status. On the client’s
part this often involves some kind of presentation of himself and his problem or “need” as
his experiences it. On the worker’s part, this typically involves some assessment of the
client and his problem – a preliminary diagnosis – and of the adequacy of resources
available to resolve the problem. This stage ends in either of the following: the worker or
the client decides not to process, for whatever reasons, or the client commits himself to
client status and worker commits himself and his agency to provide service (however,
limited). The intake process of course does not mean only that the client goes to an agency
and applies for help. Many agencies today reach out to clients. In social group work
practice this is particularly true, with workers reaching out to informally or loosely
organized groups, or actively recruiting member for groups it can service. In the context of
agency goals and priorities.

6.4.2. Diagnosis and Treatment-planning:

This marks a more rigorous and exacting assessment by the worker of the client’s problem
or problems, of his capacities for help and change and of the various resources that might
be marshaled in this effort. It involves a preliminary statement of the treatment goal – the
changes which hopefully can result if the intervention effort is successful. It involves a
preliminary plan of the general ways in which this helping process will be undertaken, and
of the general directions in which it will be guided. This stage often necessitates the
collection of additional information about the client and his situation, the use of
consultation, etc. This phase should culminate in a concrete statement prepared by the
worker, which serves to crystalize his assessment of the client, making explicit the
objectives he will pursue and the means by which he will seek to implement these
objectives. This is called a diagnostic statement which essentially serves the same purposes
as the social case study in casework. It is an analysis and summary of the problems of the
client, his resources and potential for change and the barriers or constrains which might
impede change. It also includes the treatment goals or recommendation for change, and
propose plan of treatment.

Information for the working diagnostic statement is obtained by the worker from the client
and or relevant others. The working diagnostic statement, however, represents the present
worker’s synthesis of the information collected and his judgment of treatment potential. It
is usually completed after the practitioner has had the opportunity to observe the client in
the group situation on a few occasions. Part of the task is the decision as to whether or not

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client will receive group treatment (service or help) or not. If not, the diagnostic statement
is thus prepared for use by other professional personnel. If the client is accepted for group
treatment, the diagnostic statement may have to be revised from time to time a new
information is obtained about client, or a new behaviour is observed in the group situation,
etc.

6.4.2.1. Sources of information for diagnostic statement

6.4.2.1.1. intake procedures

6.4.2.1.2. collateral contacts

6.4.2.1.3. home visits

6.4.2.1.4. observation in the group

6.4.2.1.5. interview with an observation of client

6.4.2.2. Treatment Goals

Specific treatment goals must be established for each member of the client group.
This follows from the fact that individuals never enter the treatment sequence with
identical problems and capabilities.

Treatment goals are these specific ends the practitioner pursues in the interest of
particular clients within particular groups. A treatment goal is a specification of the
statement or condition in which we would like this client to be at the end of a
successful treatment sequence. Some considerations pertinent to treatment goals
are:

6.4.2.2.1. Treatment goals must be realistic in that they contemplate probable

outcomes of group work service.

6.4.2.2.2. Treatment goals must be directly related to conceptions of the presenting

problems of individual clients (a treatment goal must anticipate some
amelioration in the problematic state of social functioning defined by
individual assessment and diagnosis).

6.4.2.2.3. The treatment goals must be linked to diagnosis in that it should seek the
reduction of the stress or difficulty as experienced by the client. Treatment
goals must bear a relationship to the capacities of the clients and to their
readiness or motivation to change.

6.4.2.2.4. The treatment goal should refer to a state of improved client functioning
that will occur outside of and beyond the treatment group itself.

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6.4.3. Group Composition and Formation

At this stage worker assigns individual clients to group composing them of persons whom
he believes can be served together. He also sets the purpose of the group, at least within
broad limits, in accordance with his treatment goals for its individual members.

He begins the establishment of relationships with the group members, and helps the group
to commence its program.

6.4.3.1. Some Criteria also (guidelines) for group composition

6.4.3.1.1. The worker’s goals and purpose for the group is established and served and
what is expected to accomplish.

6.4.3.1.2. Compatibility (not similarity) of client attributes or characteristics, e.g.

interest, age, interaction style, maturation level, even pathology, etc. “It is
impossible to attain homogeneity”, but at least an attempt can be made to
“match” individuals who will be in the same group.

6.4.4. Group Development and Treatment

The worker here seeks the emergence of simple goals, activities and relationship
which can render the group an effective means of treatment (helping) its members. The
worker guides the group’s interaction and structures its experiences in order to achieve
those treatment goals which he holds for each member. The particular nature and degree
of group cohesion, self-determination, program, and governing procedures are defined by
those specific treatment goals, and not by any uniform standards workers have about
“successful” or “well organized” groups. His main concern is that each group becomes the
most potent means possible to attain the ends he seeks for its members.

Since practitioner do not hold the same goals for all groups and because of differences
among the members who composed them, no two groups ever appear to have the same
experiences or advance along the same developmental path.

6.4.5. Evaluation and Termination

Group services may be terminated when under any of the following conditions:

6.4.5.1. When the treatment goals have been substantially achieved;

6.4.5.2. When it appears that maximum benefits for the members clients have been
attained.

6.4.5.3. When any additional gain that can be anticipated is insufficient to merit
continuation.

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 6.4.5.4. When clients drop out (this is often a problem when groups “die a natural
death,” and in many cases can be traced to lack of skill on the part of the
worker, or things he “does or does not do” in relation to the group.

6.4.5.5. When the agency for certain reasons, e.g. other priorities, decides to
terminate its group programs.

6.4.5.6. Other reasons like lack of staff, etc. The decision to terminate necessitates
a review of progress made by each of the client members, and an estimation
of whether continuation of the group would be worthwhile. The worker is
compelled, therefore, to return to his original diagnostic statements
(containing his treatment goals for each group member), and to evaluate the
movement made in terms of these goals.

In general, evaluation (and the decision to terminate a member or group) is based on two
major factors: individual change in the context of treatment goals for each member and
group growth or movement.

It is seldom, if at all, that an entire group is terminated, since group members will show
different degrees of movement. Accordingly, the worker may reconstitute the group
keeping as members only those who have not shown satisfactory progress (but who may
be expected to do so), terminating those for whom maximum benefits have been achieved,
and adding new members. Persons may also be transferred to different groups or other
services.

The preceding five stages in the group work helping process ("treatment sequence", Vinter)
represent general patterns, not ideal periods that ought to be neatly accomplished. In reality,
it is often difficult to determine the end of one stage, and the beginning of another.
Regardless of these stages, worker must engage in activities that are responsive to the
group's process and will advance his treatment goals.

6.4.6 The following are some activities that are constantly occurring and may occur at any stage.

6.4.6.1 Continuing search for diagnostic information to enhance understanding of clients.

6.4.6.2 Inclusion of a new member even long after others has been admitted.

6.4.6.3 Periodic evaluation movement of individuals/group.

The "treatment sequence" described is necessary for helping individuals through

small face-to-face groups. There are diverse service procedures and approaches
which center on the use of client groups each of which may have utility in pursuit
of distinctive service objectives. The approach ("treatment sequence", Vinter) to
group work practice described "focuses on its utility in ameliorating the adverse

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 conditions of individuals whose behaviour is disapproved, or who have been
disadvantaged by the workings of an imperfect society. It emphasizes manifest
personal and social problems and the rehabilitative potentials of guided group
processes in alleviating these problems. Persons who are the recipients of such
group work service are individuals who exhibit socially relevant problems through
their performance in conventional social roles.

The foregoing "treatment sequence" need not apply only to groups whose members
present pathologies, or deep seated personal problems requiring "treatment". It is a
theoretical formulation which offers "a coherent and prescriptive strategy of
intervention" that the student or practitioner may adapt or modify as necessary (as
to apply to group work service that are primarily preventive and developmental in
orientation). For this reason this "treatment sequence" is viewed as essentially
constituting the steps or stages in the social group work helping process.

3. WORKING WITH COMMUNITIES (Community Organizing)

The Community: Stage for Community Organization

1. A Community Defined: A Community involves an aggregation of people in a place or

geographical entity.

A community is an aggregation of families and individuals, settled in a fairly compact and

contiguous geographical area, with significant elements of common life, is shown by manners,
customs, traditions, and modes of speech.

The word "community" is used to refer to people and the pattern of social relationships
among them when these relationships may be characterized by 1) a common system of values,
2) normatively, defined relations, 3) interdependence, 4) a recognition of belonging, 5) a
system of stratification, and 6) locality. Sometimes the term is used to describe people and the
potter of relationships among them when these are ordered by a special interest, such as the
church, school, or welfare community. The "geographic" community is composed of many
"special interest" communities. In addition, smaller segments of the geographic community
may be referred to as communities in microcosm, i.e. an area, district, neighbourhood, block.
When the C.O. practitioner works with a community, he is working with the members and
representatives of one or more of the "special interest and geographical" sub-communities.
These different although related, smaller systems are increasingly referred to in
communication among professionals of the client system.

No social worker is prepared to practice intelligently in a community until he has known

certain basis of the community. He must knew about the community's 1) geography, 2)history,

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 3)population, 4)government, 5)housing and planning, 6)economic basis, 7)educational,
8)health, 9)recreational, 10)social welfare, 11)religions, 12)traditions, 13)attitudes, 14)
relationships. All communities possess these fundamental elements of community life and
structure, and yet each community is unique.

Community Organization

1. Community Organization Defined

1.1 The New Community Organization: Arthur Dunham

Community organization is the mobilization of forces around real and created

conflict in order to force communication and movement. Controversy is used as a tool for
organization of a strong citizen based group which can affect the decision-making process.
Through such means, citizens are helped to become articulate, informed and politically active, and
to

2) Conscious use of the social relationship patterns of the community or sections of it

to confront and resolve community welfare problems.

3) Formulation and evaluation of policy programs and action proposals for the
consideration of community representatives in dealing with community welfare problems.

4) Evaluation and modification of existing institutional services and programs in terms

of their contribution to the well-being of the community.

5) Guidance of community representatives through a process of rational community

problem-solving.

2.3.4 This knowledge may be categorized into at least five broad content areas:

1) The development and operation of the community and its constituent groups and
institutions, the functional relationships of its subparts, its processes of growth and
change. The worker needs to know such things as the institutional make-up of the
community; the scope and strength of the authority which these institutions
exercise; the dominant cultural patterns of the community; the stratification
arrangement; the influence structure; the dynamics of community life; the people
who belong to the community; their distribution in the community; the changes that
are taking place in the institutional and cultural life of the community; the speed of
those changes.

2) The indicators and causes of community disintegration and breakdown; the

meaning of community and institutional dysfunction upon the life of the individual

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 members; the significance of individual breakdown for the community. The worker
needs to have knowledge of behaviour; the dynamics of social functioning of the
individual; the consequences of institutional change upon individuals as a result of
scientific, industrial and social inventions; the natural history of problematic social
phenomena, the distribution and prevalence of these phenomena, the factors,
personality and social, which contribute to these phenomena.

3) The contribution (present and potential) that welfare and related institutional
policies, programs, and action can make towards the control, alleviation and
prevention of community dysfunction. Among the specifics of welfare services:
standards of services, methods of measuring effectiveness of services techniques
and methods of packaging services for greater usability; goals, attitudes, methods
or related professions having a role and contribution in the solution of community
welfare problems.

4) The means by which community representatives can be aided in making decisions

which lead to effective action in protecting and promoting the well-being of the
total community. Included here is knowledge about the development of structure
and organization; the process and methods of establishing goals and ends; says of
achieving consensus around goal means; the determination of priorities of need;
motivations for retaining or altering the status quo; strategies of implementation
and leverage points of action.

5) The role which the practitioner must selectively use in working to carry out the
purpose of community organizations. Included here is knowledge about such specifics as
understanding or self in terms of motivation and personality needs; the criteria for selecting
subroles to be assumed at a given time; the dynamics of establishing and maintaining
relationships with individuals of a variety of capacities and statuses; methods of modifying
individual behaviour in relation to the performance of defined participant roles.

2.4 Sanction

The general community sanction is necessary for creating and sustaining these
institutional and organizational arrangements of society which make community
organization practice possible. Sanctions may be expressed in various ways, including law
and legal statuses; governmental regulation or directive; approval by voluntary
organizations; consent and approval of citizens and groups.

2.5 Methods, Techniques, Skills

2.5.1 Definition

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 The aim of community organization has been defined as being concerned
with task goals, process goals, and relationship goals. This indicate why community
organization, that is, a distinctive way of working to achieve task, process, or
relationship goals.

2.5.2 Problem-solving

The Social Work Problem Solving Four Methods Intimately

Process Connected with the Problem-Solving Process

1) Fact finding 1) Fact Finding

2) Problem Identification 2) Analysis
3) Plan of Action 3) Evaluation
4) Implementation 4) Planning

Steps in Ross’ Definition Steps in Problem-Solving Process

1) Community identifies its needs 1) Recognition of the problem

or objectives
2) Establish priorities among the needs 2) Analysis, fact finding if any and necessary
3) Develops the will to work at these needs 3) Planning
4) Finds the necessary resources 4) Action
5) Takes action 5) Evaluation
6) Extends and develops cooperative
Attitudes and practices

“ASPECT OF THE PROBLEMS-SOLVING METHOD”

I. Identification of the client system.

II. Community assessment (getting acquainted with the community, assessing “the
motivation and capacity of the client system” and “winning acceptance for himself as
a person willing and able to help in the change process.”)
III. Problem identification;
IV. Problem diagnosis
V. Mobilization of resources;
VI. Mobilization of energy;
VII. The plan of action;
VIII. Evaluation and maintenance of change processes;
IX. Planning strategy - - “throughout the procedure,”
X. Building lines of communication
XI. Leadership development

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XII. Use of conflict; (“The worker employs community conflict and controversy as a tool
in this process by encouraging the airing of different views in an environment:
conducive to rational discussion.”)
XIII. Management of power; (“where power is diffuse and ineffectual, he (the worker/helps
to create centers of powers through organizational procedures; where there is
concentration or monopoly of power; he helps broaden the base of decision-making”
through education. Involving new leadership, and “creation of new structures”.)
XIV. Interdisciplinary emphasis (encouragement of “the development of team approach…”)

2.5.3 Techniques – are considered as sub-parts of method, the specific ways in which the
worker applies his method in specific settings.

Skill implies not only knowledge but the ability to put knowledge to practical use;
it connotes competence, ease, and precision or execution, dexterity, efficiency d
effectiveness in performance. Skill has been called the “ability to do thing right the first
time.” Skills is concerned primarily with doing rather than with either knowing or
feeling. At least three different kinds of skills are involved in the practice of
“community organization.”

First, there are skills which are basic to the practice of any kind of social work, for
example, establishing relationships with individuals and groups and what is frequently
referred to in social work literature as the “use of the professional self” (the professional
use of self).

Second, there are skills connected with each of the methods of community
organization – fact finding, analysis, evaluating, planning and so on. We have already
notes that the term “technique” (detailed application of methods) carries the
connotation of skill.

Third, there are broader community organization skills that cut across and transcend
specific methods.

Seven major categories of community organization skills:

1) Organizing
2) Planning and policy-making
3) Political and legislative skills
4) Inter-personal and small group skills
5) Administrative skills
6) Strategy design and implementation
7) Promotion and communication

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 Skill, when it is highly developed brings about automatic or nearly automatic responses to
situations. Skills at its highest are no longer concerned with a set of external techniques;
rather, st its best, skills becomes a part of the self.

2.5.4 Fact finding, Planning and Related Methods

1) Fact finding

- - includes activities designed to aid in the discovery, ascertainment, assembling,

completion and recording of facts. The term is used here in a broader sense than research.
Fact finding includes the technique of formal scientific research, but as used by community
organization practitioner, it also includes certain important informal activities that could
not qualify for the name research.

2) Planning

- - in the sense used here, means determining a proposed future action or course of
action. This may include choosing methods, procedure forms of organization or
instruments to be used in the future.

Planning implies:

1) A problem which is recognized

2) A planner or planners concerned about the problem
3) A process involving analysis, evaluation, and decision-making
Some types of planning which may be involved with community organization
are the planning of extensive or long-range course of action – such as legislative
strategy, program alternatives; and organization; a budget; a time schedule for
a survey; a fund raising campaign; the establishment of a new agency for the
relationship between analysis and

The plan should embody these elements:

1) Objective of the project

2) Programs, functions, services, activities
3) Organization structure and personnel
4) Territory of operation
5) Time scheduling (chronological order)
6) Policies
7) Method
8) Budget
9) Standards

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3. Analysis

Analysis lies midway between fact finding and planning.

It involves breaking up a problem, situation or collection of data, exploring the content and
examining and setting forth of the various aspects; issues and relationships involved. The purpose
of analysis is to gain insight and understanding, particularly to understand the relationship involved
in the content. The outline, the chart, the written statement, and the “kind” are all forms of
recording and presenting the results of the analysis.

Analysis seeks to answer these questions:

1) Why is the project being undertaken?

2) What is the nature of the project?
3) Who are to perform the activities? What relationships are they have?
4) What is the project to be carried out?
5) When is the project to be initiated and carried on?
6) How is the project to be carried out?
7) Under what general policies? What method?
8) How is it to be financed?
9) Also, how well is the job to be done? What standards will be observed?

Analysis is the most typical method of dealing with problem in community organization.
No complicated problem can be intelligently attacked wholesale. It must be first be resolved
into its elements or into number of specific problems.

Analysis is closely related to both fact-finding and planning. However, we may have fact-
finding without analysis. Statistics may be merely “collected” without ever being analyzed; data
may be gathered and left in undigested masses without being subjected to the analytical process
which would reveal their meaning.

Planning can sparsely exist without analysis. The two are complementary. Analysis is the
breaking up of the problem, planning is the synthesis, the putting together of proposals for future
action. A second plan normally implies that the planner has the facts that the facst and probkmes
have been analyzed as a basis for the formulation of the plan.

4. Evaluation

Evaluation or appraisal is closely related to both analysis and planning, but it has a
distinctive aspect. Evaluation concerns making value judgment about certain phenomena.
Thus it goes a step beyond analysis but not necessarily as far as planning.

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 The essence of evaluation is the comparison of actualities for proposals with certain
standards of assumed values. Some of these values or norms are expressed in written
formulations – statutory provisions for characteristics of a “workable plan”, licensing
standards for child-caring agencies, or membership standards for a national formulated in
writing. They may be implicit in the philosophy, convictions, general professional
standards or experience of the evaluators. They may be vague ad colored by subjective
factors. In general no social welfare evaluation that involves judgment is better than the
capacity or equipment of the evaluator.

Evaluation implies selection or raking. “Out of 14 community action proposals,

these nine conform to the established criteria,” priorities. Thus a budget committee may
have ten valid requests for the budget increases, but only a few of them can be financed at
this time. The committee will probably have to establish priorities and rank the requests in
order of importance, in eight of the particular circumstances.

Although evaluation is grouped in this classification of methods along with fact-

finding, analysis and planning, in practice, evaluation may come either before, during, or
after a project, thus group may evaluate the methods to be used in a forthcoming legislative
campaign or it may evaluate what was done in the campaign that just has been concluded.
Of course, in one sense, even evaluation after the fact looks forward to using evaluated
experience in some possible future action.

Models of Community Organization Practice

1. Community Development
1.1 Community Development Defined

There are many definitions of community development as a process, a

method, a program or as a goal. In its barest context community development is an
approach to “bringing about community change with the active participation of a
largely upon the initiatives of the community. As an instrument for nation-building
it is the formulation or creation of a system of communities or bodies of politics
capable of solving an increasing number of their own problems through the
initiative of the community and the active participation of the people themselves,
and to promote institution that will contribute to the development of these
communities.

The term community development was first normally introduced into the
Philippines in 1965. The Office of the Presidential Assistance on Community
Development (PACD) was created. A new breed of grassroots workers called
community development workers was thus born.

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 1.2 Community Problems
Of the approximately 3 billion people in the world, about half live in the
newly developing, or technically less-developed countries. Most people in these
countries live in the rural village.

By and large, then, living conditions in villages in the newly developing

countries are likely to be characterized by the following major problems:

1) Poverty – related to agricultural under-production, economics, under-development,

unemployment. Sometimes actual hunger or famine.
2) Ill-health – lack of sanitary environment, prevalence of disease, and the lack of
adequate care are major factors.
3) Lack of adequate education – facilities for education are usually inadequate and often
do not include all children. Large proportions of adults are illiterate.
4) Apathy – and lack of incentive for bringing bout change. These attitudes may be
reinforced by cultural patterns and traditions, by religious attitude of acceptance of
what exists is divinely appointed, and by the drain on the human systems caused by
malnutrition and chronic illness.
1.3 Components of Community Development

Community development seeks not only to improve conditions of living in

the rural communities but to help each community deal creatively and effectively
with its own problems. Community development usually includes these five
elements.

1.3.1A focus on the goals, needs of the community

1.3.2The encouragement of self-help
1.3.3Technical assistance from governmental or voluntary organizations, which may
include personnel, equipment, supplies and money
1.3.4 Integrating various specialties such as agriculture, animal industry/husbandry,
public health, education., home economics work
1.3.5 Basing the program, so far as possible, on the felt needs of the people in the
community.
2. Social Action
2.1 Social Action Defined

The term social action come to be widely, used in a specialized sense in

relation to social welfare and the advancement of social causes. In welfare and the
advancement of social causes. In general, it implies a actual or potential conflicts
situation, and the promotion of a cause or objective by a party to the conflict.

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 Social action may be defined as public promotion of a cause, measure, or
objective in an effort to obtain support or official action. Ordinarily, social action
involves organized efforts to influence public opinion or official policy or executive
action through enlistment of the support of groups or individuals.

2.2 Approaches

Social action embraces two broad methods of approaches; procedural and direct
action.

2.2.1 Procedural or political social action

Means social action carried on through established parliamentary or

formal organizational procedure. The aim is usually to obtain a favorable vote
by a legislative body or by the voters, or a favorable decision by an executive.

2.2.2 Direct Action

Refers to personal activity of some type other than procedural social
action. Direct action usually implies more physical and emotional involvement
and often a deep commitment and a militant spirit.

2.3 Methods of resolving conflicts

2.3.1 Conquest – in conquest one party seeks to destroy, injure or remove the
opponent or render him powerless. Conquest is usually associated with violence
or at least coercion.
2.3.2 Procedural victory – essentially, this is a victory through established
parliamentary or other procedure. Normally, the decision is made by vote,
usually the vote of a legislative body; sometimes as in the case of constitutional
amendment or bond issue – it is the electorate that makes the decision. The
underlying assumption is that the will of the majority shall prevail and that the
minority will acquiesce in the decision.
2.3.3 Award by arbitration – in this situation the contestants decide to submit their
case to an arbitrator agreeing in advance to abide by arbitrator’s decision.
Examples include a grievance committee in an agency, an “Impartial chairman”
appointed.
2.3.4 Conciliation and mediation – this implies resolution of a conflict by the parties
themselves but with the aid of a neutral conciliator or mediator. The conciliator
is invited or at least accepted by the parties to the conflict. But they do not agree
in advance to abide by his judgment, and he is not permitted to make any
decision. His role is advisory and consultative and his services may be
dispensed with at any point by the disputants.

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 2.3.5 Compromise – a conflict may be resolved thru a process of direct negotiation,
bargaining and compromise by the parties to the conflict. In a compromise, each
party gives up something in order to gain something else that he values even
more.
2.3.6 Consensus – this means the resolution of conflict by agreement which
represents the thinking and the wishes of all parties to the conflict. In the
consensus there is a real group idea or “sense of meeting”, not mere
acquiescence. In this case, majority and seniority disappear is common
agreement. The group decides and moves forward as a unit.
2.3.7 Ending without resolving

A conflict may end – permanently or temporarily – without being resolved, that is

without the real issue being decided. This may happen in a number of ways:

1) Separation – In this case, one or both parties avoids the other and the conflict ends because
there is no confrontation.
2) Intervention - a conflict may be brought to an end by someone with sufficient authority and
power to stop encounter, usually in his own initiative.
3) Postponement of further conflict – controversial motion may be laid on the table or
postponed to the next meeting, by the time it is taken up again everyone may wonder why
it seemed so important and why everyone was so excited about it.
4) Acceptance of the conflict – a controversial motion may sometimes end with the parties to
a conflict “agreeing to disagree”, “to live and let live”, to ignore the conflict and focus
attention on matters where they can reach a decision by one method or another.

3. Social Planning

The third model of community organization as practiced in the Philippines is an

offshoot of the development thrust: social planning. It consists of a rational, technical process of
solving such substantive community social problems as population explosion, malnutrition
, educational wastage, unemployment, low levels of income, etc. The economic aim is to
ensure the wise and maximum utilization of resources in order to raise the levels of living
and achieve a more equitable distribution of wealth and property. The social objective is to
humanize the process of development and create the conditions necessary for the exercise of the
equality and popular participants.

3.1 Social Planning Defined

Social planning is the process of defining and measuring problems affecting social
and human welfare, understanding the causes of these problems, establishing goals and objectives

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based on needs and existing resources, and developing a constructive program of action and
services to move toward these goals or objectives.

Social planning is the integration of social aims and projects into development plan:
to ensure that plans and policies are fully responsible to the needs and aspirations of the people, to
alleviate the most urgent social problems without undue delay, to minimize if not entirely eliminate
the adverse consequences of modernization, and to see to it that the benefits of development are
more equitably shared among the people.

Social planning has a much broader scope than social welfare planning. It is
concerned with such fields as health, nutrition, education, manpower development, and housing
and of course social welfare, but which require a cross-sectional or an integrated approach.

Through social planning the community is alerted to make satisfactory provisions

foe enabling every individual to acquire material foundations for his dignity, such as food, shelter,
clothing and adequate opportunities for education, employment, income security and the
enjoyment of social and cultural growth. Social planning brings to light social deficiencies so that
they may be corrected in time, and the social problems arising from modernization so that these
may be drastically minimized if not entirely be avoided.

3.2 Aspects of social planning

There are two aspects of the social planning process: the rational technical aspect
and the other, the political aspect.

As a technical process, social planning is scarcely any different from economic

planning, except in subject matter. It is primarily concerned with “people”, hence with the social
planning requirements, social factors, and social costs of development besides the humanitarian
considerations. Its tools development, implementation and assessment.

As a political process, planning is much more subjected to the values, interests,

assumptions and ideologies of the decision makers, and not to say the least, the finances available.
Social planning is getting people to make what in the final analysis are value judgments on data
and information scientifically gathered, analyzed, interpreted, and presented. It is reaching a
consensus in the midst of diversity. Oftentimes it is getting them to integrate a social policy into
what is basically on economic scheme.

Few social workers are involved in the technical process. Majority are involved in
the second. In the simple planning stage the social worker is more likely to act as an enabler by
bringing together the people who could work out judgments in needs and resources. Planning for
development even of only a small community is a new behaviour for Filipinos and the social
workers helps them learn and acquire the simple intricacies of planning. She facilitates the
decision-making process although she may not be directly responsible for the plan. Perhaps the

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plans may have been brought down from the higher levels or from another place, leaving to the
community concerned the responsibility for making a choice from several alternatives courses of
action. What the social worker does is get the people to clarify their problems, identify their needs,
and develop the capacity to deal with their own problems effectively. Many social workers at the
grassroots level operate in this fashion.

3.3 Settings

Social planning is practiced in other settings besides development planning

authority. Under the aegis of a social welfare agency itself when plans are drawn up for the
initiation of new or changed services such as establishment of revitalized socio-economic
advancement program for needy families; planning for social service under other auspices as for
example under the leadership of presidential committee on housing and urban development; or
acting in concert with others to achieve environmental or institutional changes on a broad front,
e.g. the promotion of cooperatives.

3.4 Planning experts

In more complex community setting where a coordinating council of organizations

exists or an had-hoc committee has been set up for the solution of the community problems or for
community improvement the social workers though attached to a social welfare agency sooner or
later finds herself as the social planner, drawing attention to social problems which in her technical
opinion need to be resolved besides the economic ones. Id she proposes the adoption of a social
policy, she is expected to back up her stand with social data critically analyzed, indicate the
preferred course of action, design a strategic plan, and express judgment on issues. In this way she
helps direct the course of development efforts.

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SOCIAL WORK SECONDARY METHODS

SOCIAL WORK ADMINISTRATION

I. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF SOCIAL WORK ADMINISTRATION

1. Definitions

Several authorities have given various definition of social work administration as

follows:

Johns – “Administration is the process of setting objectives and establishing policies,

creating and maintaining an organization, making plans and carrying them out, and evaluating
the results.

Kidneight – “Social work administration can be defined as the process of transforming

social policy into social services, and the use of experience in recommending modification of
policy.”

Scwarts – “The process and the organization of people toward objectives which entails the
production of goods or the provision of services.”

Stein – “A process of defining and attaining the objectives of an organization through a

system of coordinated and cooperative effort.”

2. Social administration involves organization and management.

2.1 Organization is the setting up of the framework or structure of the different units of
the system to carry out or perform distinct tasks for a specified objective.
2.2 Management is the scientific utilization of manpower, money, machines, materials,
methods, time and space for the achievement of agency goals.

3. Common elements according to Trecker.

3.1 Administration is a continuous, dynamic process.

3.2 The process is set into motion in order to accomplish a common purpose or goal.
3.3 The resources of people and material are harnessed so that the common purpose or
goal may be achieved.
3.4 Coordination and Cooperation are the means by which the resources of people and
material are harnessed.
3.5 Implicit in the definition are the elements of planning, organization, and leadership.

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4. Assumptions about social work administration.

Social work administration is seen as a method practiced by social work

administrators to enable all people involved in the agency’s work to fulfill their
responsibilities in accordance with their functions and to make the maximum use
of resources to the end that the agency provide the best possible services to the
people of the community.

People, resources and purpose are brought together by administration, dynamic

process.

5. Dimensions of administration.

5.1 A central dimension is the task or work assignment within the agency structure.
5.2 The community within which the agency works.
5.3 The psychosocial dimensions within which people release their feelings and energies
which are properly channeled and directed by administrators to enable people to
accomplish their tasks in relation to the goals of agency service.

6. Social work administration is different from the administration of other enterprises.

Social work administration requires the content of social work knowledge and the
skills of administration. The content of social work knowledge would primary
include the nature and purpose of social work as well as social work’s values and
methods.

Social work administration is working with people. It is a dynamic process based

upon an ever-increasing knowledge and understanding of human behavior, human
relations and human organization.

7. Groups involve in social work administration.

Social work administration is a continuous shared by many persons. The Social

work administrator, the staff members, board members, clients, and the community
must engage in or become involved in the over-all administrative process at point
appropriate to their contribution and function.

8. Major areas of administrative responsibility.

8.1 Study the community and determine agency purpose as basis for the selection of
clientele.

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 8.2 Develop agency policies, programs and procedures for the implementation of agency
purpose.
8.3 Provide financial resources, budgeting and planning.
8.4 Select and work with agency leadership and professional and non-professional boards,
committees and service volunteers.
8.5 Provide and maintain physical plant, equipment and supplies.
8.6 Develop a plan, establish and maintain effective community relations, interpretation.
8.7 Keep full and accurate records of agency operations and regular reports.
8.8 Continuously evaluate programs and personnel, plan and conduct appropriate
research.

II. THE SOCIAL WELFARE AGENCY

1. Definitions

The social welfare agency is the structural framework within which administrative
tasks are carried out. The agency structure inevitably conditions and controls the
specifics of the administrative process in a given situation. In as much as social
agencies are wholes and their parts are interrelated, administration likewise must
be thought of as a total process rather than a series of segmented acts.

The social work agency is an instrument of society. It has been established by

governmental of voluntary effort to meet the social needs of people to achieve a
social goal.

The modern social agency is a complex social system involving many people.
These may include the board, administrative staff, other staff, volunteers, members,
clients or persons served, and the supporting community. It is a social system with
each part bearing a relation to every other part and all are interdependent.

2. A Social System

2.1 Definition

A social system is a whole with each part bearing a relation to every other
part and all are interdependent.

Under the systems concept, consideration must be given to the means for
the interrelation and coordination of the various sub-systems. These parts
are integrated through various processes, such as the information and
communication network, the decision systems, and built-in equilibrium
mechanisms which exist in every organization.

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 The social system is not impermeable to other social systems and is affected
by other systems.

2.2 Elements of a Social System

2.2.1 Interaction – written, oral or non-verbal
2.2.2 Position
2.2.3 Status (legitimate power based on position or authority)
2.2.4 Power – informal (influence); charismatic (personal qualities)
2.2.5 Roles – expectations; norms
2.2.6 Sanctions – if role is performed well, a positive sanction is given
2.2.7 Psychological identification
2.2.8 Boundary maintenance

2.3 Organizational System

1) The organization is a subsystem of society. Its goals must conform to societal

goals.
2) Technical subsystem – knowledge of performance of tasks; techniques used in
transforming inputs into outputs.
3) Psycho-social system consists of individual’s behavior and motivation, status, role
relationship, group dynamics, influence system. This is influence by external
environment, technology, tasks and structures.
4) The organizational structure system involves task differentiation and division of
labor (differentiation) and coordination (integration) of those activities.
5) Managerial system – spans the entire organization by relating it to the
environment, setting the goals, planning, organizing, programming and controlling
activities.

2.4 System Analysis

System analysis may be defined as inquiring to aid in the process of decision

making to choose the course of action by investigating proper objectives,
comparing qualitatively, where possible, the cost or strategies for achieving
them and formulating additional alternatives. This is necessary when
objectives are multiple, conflicting and involves a large element of
judgment.

System analysis is an orderly study of the system designed to help the

decision-maker identify a preferred course of action among possible
alternatives.

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 In cost-benefit analysis the comparison is expressed in terms of their cost
and effectiveness in attaining a desired objective.

In developing plan, this means that linkages must be established between

the program, the budget and the goals.

Example: The need for social indicators as well as economic indicators for
national economic and social development must be emphasized.

2.5 Classification of social welfare agencies

2.5.1 Governmental agencies supported by taxes.
2.5.2 Private agencies supported by private contributions and donations or income
contributions and donations or income from services
2.5.3 Semi-private - a private agency that receives some subsidy, either in money or
in kind, from the government.
A government agency is created

- By constitutional mandate
- By legislative act
- By executive order of the president/presidential decrees/letter of instruction
A private social welfare agency is created by a group of citizens who have decide
to organize to meet the felt/identified needs of the community or groups of people,
utilizing community resources to render social services to the people. It has
constitution and by-laws, a governing board responsible for policy formulation,
policies to guide its programs and trained personnel to implement its programs. It
generally draws volunteers from the community that help in social services
delivery.

Characteristics of governmental agencies:

Their creation, functions and programs are determines by law and can
be changed only by law. Their organizational structure is bureaucratic and they are
less flexible than programs of private agencies. They have budgets approved by the
legislature and may have more facilities and funds. Very often they can work only
with government agencies. They also must conform to government procedures
especially in accounting and auditing of funds and property. They have to follow
standards of quality and service to clients. Government agencies may purchase
services form private agencies if they do not have such services. Their employees
are subject too civil service rules and regulations.

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 Characteristics of private welfare agencies or non-governmental organization
(NGO’s):

They are created, not y law, but organized as voluntary response of

private citizens to meet people’s needs in the community. They may also be
national chapters of international welfare organizations such as the Red Cross,
YMCA, YWCA, Girl and Boy Scouts. They may be sectarian or non-sectarian.

They are governed by their own charter, constitution and by-laws and
by a governing board.

Their organizational structure does not follow a bureaucratic pattern

and, therefore they are more flexible in their policies and programs and can respond
to people’s needs more quickly. In the case of religious-sponsored agencies they
adhere to policies of their doctrinal beliefs and this makes them less flexible. Their
concepts, philosophies and methods of work follow their religious belief.

Private agencies can pioneer and have demonstration projects which

later can be turned over to the government which can expand the program on a
larger scale, because they have more resources. Private agencies often complement
government effort. Welfare agencies can be primary setting when the main program
is social welfare.

3. Constituencies
Board policy-making body in the agency

3.1 Functions:

3.1.1 Provide citizen participation

3.1.2 Provide public acceptance and support to agency
3.1.3 Give prestige and help secure funds or property
3.1.4 Establish policies and approve funds
3.1.5 Interpret agency to the community
3.1.6 Negotiate and sign contracts and other legal matters
3.1.7 Adopt, approve and authorize reports, recommendations and budget
3.1.8 See that professional standards are kept

3.2 Selecting Board Members

Qualifications for membership to Board of Directors Include:

3.2.1 Vital interest , understanding of and the belief in the purpose and policies of the
agency

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 3.2.2 Ability, capacity that will contribute to the agency programs and services
3.2.3 Representative of the different sectors of the population
3.2.4 Skill in working with people and groups
3.2.5 Has the respect and confidence of the agency
3.2.6 Has time to perform assigned tasks

3.3 Communities – working within the Board.

Executive or steering committees, buildings, membership, program, finance – are
examples of special constitution committees and AD HOC for special projects.

3.4 Executive – the administrator and leader in the organization.

3.4.1 Functions of the Executive

1) Participate in the formulation and determination of policy

2) Guide and direct the planning process
3) Organize the staff
4) Provide guidance, direction, supervision, coordination and fiscal control
5) Provide continuous interpretation of agency to the public including the
annual report
6) Provide continuous evaluation to improve agency standards
7) Represent the agency in coordinating councils and other similar bodies in
the community
3.4.2 Qualifications of the Executive

1) Profession competence
2) Leadership qualities
3) Integrity and respect of the community and her peers
4) Broad vision and deep insight into peole and situations
5) Ability to inspire both staff and volunteers
6) Ability to work under limitations and frustrations
7) Good public relations

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III. FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT IN ADMINISTRATION

1. Policy formulation
2. Planning and programming
3. Organizing
4. Staffing
5. Directing
6. Controlling
7. Supervising
8. Coordinating
9. Communicating
10. Budgeting and financing
11. Reporting and recording
12. Public relations
13. Evaluation and research

1. Policy Formulation

1.1 Definition

Policy formulation is a process of developing guidelines for an agreed

course of action – a process by which statements of intention adopted by the
board or policy-making body are for the implementation by the management
and staff to achieve agency goals.

1.2 Policy is a verbal or written or implied expression of agency purpose that

provides the guideline for execution action. It is stated course of action adopted
and followed by the agency in doing its work.

Agency policies are written statements formally adopted by the Board or

legal authority and made public so that persons will know the conditions under
which services will be rendered. The community, the constituency, and the staff
should be clear on the nature and purpose of the specific policy and its
interpretation.

In a government agency, the national policy is expressed in the law creating

it.

1.3 Eight stages of policy formulation identified

1.3.1.1 Identification of the problem

1.3.1.2 Analysis

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 1.3.1.3 Informing the public
1.3.1.4 Developing policy goals including other agencies
1.3.1.5 Building public support
1.3.1.6 Legislation
1.3.1.7 Implementation and administration
1.3.1.8 Evaluation and assessment

1.4 Principles of policy determination (Trecker)

1.4.1 Policy must be based on and developed out of agency purpose

1.4.2 Policies must be based on adequately evaluated facts and experience. Persons
affected by policy should share in its creation.
1.4.3 Policy implies focus and direction for the achievement of the agency purpose.
1.4.4 Unity and consistency between the various policies of the agency and between
policies and purposes is essential.
1.4.5 Although the board is responsible for the enactment of policy, the entire agency
should participate in the policy formulation process.
1.4.6 Policy should relate the agency purpose to the realities of the community setting
(including other agencies and special needs) and of the agency’s own facilities
and resources.
1.4.7 Policy-making, planning and operation are integrally related and cannot be
separated.
1.4.8 New policies should develop out of an evaluation of the existing policies in
practice as they are systematically reviewed and studied.
1.4.9 Through knowledge of policy on the part of every staff member is essential.
It is the administrator’s responsibility to make policy statements available to
staff in written form.
1.4.10 Policies should be expressed in positive forms so that their constructive use is
emphasized.
1.4.11 The carrying out of policies in the spirit of their intent is a major responsibility
of the organization.
1.4.12 Conflict between the statement of policy and actual practice is a signal to the
administrator of a need to evaluate both.

2. Planning and programming

2.1 Definition

Planning is laying out or charting the course of translating agency policies

into programs and services. It involves looking ahead, assessing future probabilities,

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 getting the facts and arranging systematically the steps to be taken and the methods of
doing them to give focus and direction. It establishes the future by:

- Determining priorities
- Determining the short-term and long-term goals
- Determining the human and material resources that are needed and available
- Plans must be dynamic and suitable existing situations
- Must be realistic, practical and feasible for accomplishment
- Must have a good sense of timing

2.1.1 Plans are two types:

1) Plans to achieve program objectives are substantive.

2) Those for the organization structure are procedural

Substantive planning calls for formulations of broad issues confronting the program,
whereas procedural planning reflects concern for day-to-day details.

2.1.2 Steps in the planning process:

1) Becoming aware of a possible need for formulating a plan

2) Formulating a precise statement of the objective of the plan to be prepared

3) Preparing a broad outline of the proposal or plan

4) Obtaining approval of the proposal

5) Organizing planning staff and assigning responsibility

6) Determining the specific outline of the plan

7) Establishing contact with all cooperating units

8) Obtaining necessary data

9) Evaluating data

10) Formulating tentative conclusions and preparing tentative plans

11) Testing components of tentative plans and making adjustments where

appropriate

12) Preparing the final plans

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 13) Testing the plan and making adjustments where necessary

14) Submitting the plan for approval

2.2 Programming

2.2.1 Definition

Programming is developing a set of planned purposive activities. A

program is a unit of planned activities. It is a coordinated group of activities
maintained over period of time, aimed at producing a specific type or types
of services.

Examples: family welfare program, child welfare program,

rehabilitation program, etc.

2.2.2 Parameters of programming activities

1) Defining existing resources in the community including agency

resources and identifying service areas.

2) Identifying gaps in service and/or resources

3) Identifying the factors related to gaps

2.2.3 Definition of areas of service

1. Identify the interventive approach to be taken – the forms that the

service will take to meet the needs.

2. Review of available resources of the agency

a) Administrative structure

b) Manpower

c) Funding

3. Strategy and project planning

a) Setting specific objectives

b) Defining strategies to meet this objectives

c) Defining support needed to achieve objectives

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3. Organizing

3.1 Definition

Organizing is the setting up of the framework of structure of the different

units of the system to carry on or perform distinct tasks for a specified objective.

3.2 Principles of organization

3.2.1 Unity of Command

Each person reports to one immediate superior to whom he is
accountable. The organization chart indicates the flow of authority and
responsibility. This avoids confusion and chaos.

3.2.2 Span of Control

There is a limit as to the number of people a person can supervise
well; usually from five to seven is a good number. Factors affecting the
span of control include the following:

- Distance
- Time
- Ability and competence of workers and staff
- Availability of adequate facilities like the telephone, vehicles, etc.

3.2.3 Homogenous assignment

- Jobs must be relates or allied

- Functions must not overlap
- Functions must be specified, clear—cut
- Every assignment or task must be within the range of
accomplishments of the person assigned to the job
- All functions of every unit must be assigned to specific persons

3.2.4 Delegation authority

- Responsibilities assigned must carry with them corresponding
authority for decision-making
- Scalar authority from top to bottom
- Limit the number of delegated functions
- Delegation of authority and responsibility stems at the lowest
operational level
- Command of responsibility rests with the administrator

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 3.2.5 Hierarchical or scalar principle
Men are organized in groups under leaders with ascending and
descending levels of authority. When shown inn chart, the hierarchy
assumes the form of a pyramid.

3.2.6 Line and staff principle

The line people are directly involved in the implementation
and accomplishments of objectives. The staff people assists the line
personnel by their specialized knowledge and skills. The authority of
staff people is the authority of knowledge and ideas. Their work is along
planning, advising, etc.

3.2.7 Division of labor

For the vast organization to achieve its objective there must be
division of labor. Only those qualified for the performance of special
function should be assigned to the job.

3.2.8 A short chain of command

There should be as few levels of supervision between the top
management and the rank and file. The shorter the administrative
distance, the less chances there are for distortion of orders, and the better
is the flow of communication.

3.2.9 Balance
There must be reasonable balance between:

- The size of different departments

- Centralization and decentralization in decision-making
4. Staffing

4.1 Definition

Staffing or personnel administration is the function of selecting, hiring,

training and maintaining a competent work force in such a way as to accomplish
with maximum efficiency and economy, the functions and objectives of the agency.

The administrator’s most difficult task is the handling of men. Personnel

administration includes the proper selection and training of people, working out job
descriptions, specifications, and ratings which form the bases for the salary and

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 wage plan. Proper incentives, motivation, and morale, are ingredients of successful
administration. It is important to recognize that the informal organization provides
the means for the fulfillment of human satisfactions.

5. Directing
5.1 Definition

Directing is overseeing, guiding and supervising people in the organization.

The social work administrator is the professional leader of the staff. He

carries major responsibilities for helping the staff to set goals, achieve high
standards of work productively, and provide high quality of services.

6. Controlling
6.1 Definition

Controlling is seeing to it that the objectives of the organization are carried

out. Feedback should have both formal and informal means.

Example: Management information system (MIS) includes feedback.

Plan
Plan, review and alter depending on feedback
Implementation

Evaluate

The administrator must be able to demonstrate adequate control over the

formal organization in order to win the allegiance of his staff. He must command
the respect of his workers in order to contribute to the development of cohesive ties
which bring unity.

Power and authority are closely related concepts.

Power is the capacity to change others or that which can affect the activity
of others.

The power that evolves from a managerial position is authority. People with
authority have power, but power does not always denote authority.

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 Example: A subordinate may have no authority, but he can have a great deal
of power.

7. Supervising
7.1 Definition

Supervision is defined as the art of enabling workers and students to perform their
functions under the guidance of someone with authority and competence.

Wilson and Ryland define supervision as dynamic enabling process by which

individual workers who have direct responsibility for carrying out some of the agency’s
program plans are helped by a designated staff to make the best use of their knowledge
and skills, and to improve on their abilities so that they do their jobs more effectively and
with increasing satisfaction to themselves and to the agency.

The supervisor’s responsibilities are both administrative and educative in nature.

Regularly scheduled consultation is one of the primary means of supervision. The focus
of the supervision will shift with the development and growing abilities of both the worker
and the supervisor.

The ultimate objective of supervision is making possible a more effective work

performance on the part of the workers so that the agency’s services are improved in
quality and its central purposes are fulfilled.

8. Coordinating
8.1 Definition

Coordination is an activity that interrelates the various parts of the agency so that it
functions as a whole.

It has been defined as the activity that allocates and directs various persons,
functions, specialties and spaces with a view to their reciprocal relations so that they
contribute maximally to the accomplishments of an organization’s purposes.

8.2 Likert gives five conditions of coordination in an agency:

8.2.1 It must provide high levels of cooperative behaviour between the supervisors
and subordinates and especially among peers.

8.2.2 Favorable attitudes, confidence and trust are needed among its members.

8.2.3 It must have the organizational structure and the interaction skill required to
solve differences and conflicts and to arrive at creative solutions.

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 8.2.4 It must have the capacity to exert influence and to create motivation and
coordination without the traditional forms of line authority.

8.2.5 Its decision-making processes and superior-subordinate relationships must be

such as to enable a person to perform his job well and without hazard when he has two or
more superiors.

9. Communicating
9.1 Definition

According to Bellows, “communication determines the quality and climate of

human relationships and pervades work activity throughout the organization.
Communication is intercourse by words, letters, symbols or messages; it is interchange
of thoughts, opinions or prejudices; it is a way that one organization members shares
meaning and understanding with one another.

It is a two-way channel for transmitting ideas, plans, commands, reports and

suggestions among all appropriate tasks within an organization. It is the link that unites
executives, employees and customers in a common enterprise and establishes a liaison
between business, government and the public.”

For the proper coordination of all units, channels of communication must

be maintained open at all times, vertically and horizontally. Circulars, special orders,
memoranda, bulletins must be issued as often as necessary to avoid confusion and
misunderstanding and to ensure information and compliance by those concerned.

Ways for insuring good communication:

- Regular staff conferences with advanced agenda

- Standard operating procedures and manual of instruction
- Attention to the informal organization and the “grapevine” because they
provide the means of expression for feelings and sentiments.
- Setting up of internal controls such as vouchers, charge slips, inventories,
daily report system, etc.

10. Budgeting and Financing

10.1 Definition

Budgeting is the process of setting estimates of the financial needs of the

organization. It is usually done on an annual basis.

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10.2 Characters

10.2.1 The agency budget is the annual estimate of the financial needs of the
organization

10.2.2 A budget is a document containing words and figures, which proposes

expenditures for certain items and purposes. The words describe items of
expenditures (salaries, equipment, travel) or purposes (improving mental health,
providing housing), and the figures attached to each item or purpose.

10.2.3 The budget is a link between financial resources and human behavior to
accomplish policy objectives.

10.3 Budget preparation

10.3.1 The first step in budget preparation is to look again at the purposes of the
agency and the needs it is designed to meet.

10.3.2 A decision is made as to the resources required to achieve the purposes.

10.3.3 Involving heads of departments and other key staff members in the budget
preparation.

10.3.4 When the budget estimate has been drawn up it must be presented to the board
of the voluntary agency to the executive branch of the governmental agency.

10.3.5 Budget hearing – the administrator, often assisted by departments’ heads and
fiscal officers, must interpret the budget request, pointing out why funds are needed.

10.3.6 Budget management and evaluation

Living within the budget becomes the responsibility of the administrator once
allocations have been made. Controls have to be set up on a monthly basis and care
must be taken to see t it that expenditures conform to the intentions expressed under
the budget prepared and submitted. When budget adjustments must be made,
approval has to be sought from higher authority especially if the change is major in
scope. If deficiency appropriations are required to meet emergencies or unanticipated
needs, these requests must go through the regular process.

Sound fiscal administration requires:

1) Sound organization plan which clearly defines authority and responsibility.

2) Honest and trustworthy personnel.
3) Well-planned policies for operational funds including salaries and wages.
4) Efficient accounting procedures and internal controls.

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 5) Budgeting for programs and services should enable the agency to determine the
cost-benefit of each service.
6) All programs should have firm and adequate financing.

11. Reporting and Recording

11.1 Definition

Reporting is a form of accounting work to the public.

11.2 Characteristics

Reports and records are the basis for planning, programming, research,
evaluation and budgeting. It shoes if the resources are used efficiently for producing
services. Public money is a trust for which the agency is accountable.

Reports come in different forms: daily, weekly, monthly or yearly. It can

include statistical, comparative narrative or anecdotal date and information.

Case records are used for teaching, supervision and training of students and
for research.

Records must be clear, complete, accurate, updated and properly signed.

Records must be filed for reference in the future. They are important for legal
protection of the agency in case of complains.

12.2 Characteristics

Public relations is a simple as a thank you note and as complicated as a four-

color brochure. It is as specific as writing a news release and as general as sensing
community attitudes. It is a direct as a conversation between two people and as broad
as a television panel show reaching thousands of people. It is as inexpensive as a
phone call to an editor or as a costly as a full page advertisement. It is as visual as a
poster as literal as a speech.

It embrace everything that helps or hinders programs being known,

understood, liked, used and supported.

13. Evaluation and Research

13.1 Definition

Evaluation is the process through which the affectivity of services are gauged
against the goals which the agency sets out to achieve. Research provides the tool
for evaluating agency efficiency and effectiveness.

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 13.2 Characteristics
Evaluation is the heart of program development process. It provides a
direction for future courses of action. It is an element interwoven in the total process
of policy formulation and program development.

IV. CRITERIA OF AN EFFICIENT AND EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT

1. Efficiency - output/input
- Result/resources
- Ratio of output over input is high
- Measure is both qualitative and quantitative. This means that it
includes financial or material cost as well as the human factor or
individual or group satisfaction and the contribution of the
agency to the community.
2. Effectiveness - the extent to which a program has reached services in the
stated objectives, the impact of the community.
3. Equity - the distribution of benefits to the greater number
4. Responsiveness - determination of needs through a systematic study and making
efforts to meet them.

V. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD ADMINISTRATION

1. When it is adapted to the nature of its objectives.
2. There is a definitely placed and logical assignment of responsibility and authority.
3. Lines of authority and of responsibility are clearly shown
4. Have good personnel policies especially in lines of promotion
5. Channels of communication are open, vertically and horizontally for proper coordination.
6. Supervision and direction are adequate.
7. There is proper distribution of work, balance and sequence.
8. There is adequate financing and proper fiscal control.
9. Reports and record are relevant and accurate.
10. Proper interpretation of agency programs and policies to the community and ice-versa,
feedback of community needs to policy-making body.
11. There is regular evaluation and research of the agency operations so that it is responsive to
the changing community needs.

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SUPERVISION IN SOCIAL SERVICES

Historical Development and Nature of Supervision

Supervision- referred to the control and coordinating function of a state Board of Supervisors a
state Board of charities or a state Board of control.

 Applied to the inspection and review of programs and institution rather than to supervision
of individual workers within the program. And also concerned with the administration
supervision agencies.
 Supervision and education in charity by(Jeffrey R. Bracket)
 The first social work text that used the word supervision
 Was concern with supervision of welfare agencies and institution by public board
commission.

Sidney Eisenberg- who wrote a short history of supervision in social work.

Mary Richmond- one of the original contributors to the development of supervision of social
work.

Overtime supervision became infused with addition duties .In addition to the efficient and
effective administration of agency services.

1. education
2. support

In the service of administering agency services the social worker develop practice knowledge
and skills ,and providing emotional support to the person in the social work role.

During 19th century- supervision was originated in the charity organization movement .

A concern for the possible consequences of indiscriminate almsgiving led to organization of

charity on a rational basis. The agencies granted financial assistance after a rigorous investigation
but such a help was regarded as only one aspect of the service offered The more important
component of help was offered by friendly visitors volunteers who were assigned to families to
offer personal support and influence behavior in a socially.

Desirable direction “Not alms but friend”– the catchphrase of the charity organization movement.

1878-charity organization societies were developed in most of the larger eastern cities in buffalo
New York.

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Friendly Visitors-they are the direct service workers, the foot soldiers of the organization.

Paid agents-are the early predecessors of the modern supervisor .They responsible for recruiting,
training, directing new visitors and responsible for a sizable number of visitors.

1890-There are 78 Charity organization societies with 174 paid workers 2017 volunteer friendly
visitors.

1843- The New York association for improving the conditions of the poor "maintained a paid staff
who were supervise and train volunteers and thus provide Continuity of service". The quote points
to the historical antiquity of administrative and education supervision.

Zilpa Smith-general secretary of Boston associated charities, director of Smith College Training
school of psychiatric social work.

-One of the people who wrote on supervision and training o visitors .She exhorted the work is
satisfactory or if any suggestion can make it so. Here the administrative requirements of ensuring
that the "work is satisfactory" is coupled with the education task of supervision.

Educational task- "Aiding and advising". They were given educational literature including rules
and suggestions for visitors. They also attended the weekly conferences And had periodic talks
with agent.

Gardiner-"ill results from mistaken" by friendly visitors are easily guarded against proper
supervision.

Supportive supervision-had to deal with the feeling responses of visitors to their work

Inspiring these who become discourage in their work and to offer support.

Development of Education for Social Work

-Evening reading groups met to discuss current literature and share experiences.

-conduct more formal training programs which involved systematic education of those selected to
be paid agents in service training program.

-participated in group teaching sessions conducted by the general secretary of the organization.

-The experienced agents met periodically with the general secretary to discuss problems of
educational supervision.

1879-It was the first National conference of Charities and correction was held in Chicago. They
published proceeding of these kinds of conferences providing material literature that spoke to the
concerns of people working in the field.

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 -Text and tracts devoted to the work of charities agency personnel were also published.

1887- an annual report of the Brooklyn Bureau of charities state that " the nucleus of library has
been formed at the central office and now includes some twenty five hundred books, pamphlets
and papers relating to the principles and methods of charities work and cognate subjects. The
collection is already worth the attention of those interested .And gradually a body of practice
wisdom was being developed codified and made explicit in communication through published
channel.

Social Work- a group of practitioners interested in a particular phenomenon and was

being identified and developing a sense of conscious self-identification.

The development of a knowledge base made it possible to offer course on social work

Content in colleges and universities the beginning of professional education -by

Department of Sociology and Economics.

1894- it was reported that 21 of 146 colleges and universities were teaching courses in

charities and correction.

1890s-University of Wisconsin offered courses in practical philanthropy.

Richard T. Ely- was responsible for the development of that program.

Anna L. Dawes-credited with the initial suggestion for "training schools for a new

Profession".She argued that it ought to be possible for those who take up this work to find some
place for studying it as a profession.

By the turn of century:

>Educational apparatus of a profession was being organized and was assuming the main
responsibility for training.

>Perform an educational function.

>The process itself became more formalized as to the time, place, content, procedures and
expectation.

>Professional education was gradually transferred from the agency to the universities, medical
school work agencies and schools.

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Developing a Literature on Social Work Supervision

Supervision -became the subject of social work scholarship.

1920-1945-family and social casework published some 35 articles devoted to supervision.

A number of books were devoted exclusively or primarily to social work supervision.

1. Supervision in Social Case Work by Virginia Robinson.

2. The Dynamics of supervision Under Functional Control (1949)

3. Learning and teaching in the practice of social work by Bertha Reynolds.

4. The learner in education for professions.

5. The literature of psychoanalytic supervision (its objective is to developed therapeutic

competence).

Executive treatment approach- where the worker of friendly visitor knew what was best for the
clients knowing this, the worker offered the client clear advice as to what should be done, and he
or she arranged ,independently of the client , to make resources available on the clients behalf.

Dawson- explicitly stated the functions of supervision in traditional terms as follows:

1. Administrative- the promotion and maintenance if good standards of work,

Coordination of practice with the policies of administration, the assurance of an efficient and
smooth working office.

2. Educational- the educational development of an individual worker on the staff in a manner

Calculated to evoke her to fully realize her possibilities of usefulness.

3. Supportive- the maintenance of harmonious working relationships, the cultivation of esprit de

corps.

Clinical supervision- an interdisciplinary journal of supervision in psychotherapy and mental

health began publication in 1983.

Ellis and Ladany (1997) - have reviewed 104 studies of supervision in social work and social
work psychology, one fifth of which were found in journals identified with social work and 27 of
which were published after 1990.

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Supervision in Group work and Community Organization

Almost all of the literature mentioned previously reflects a traditional case work. Orientation to
direct social work practice in agency settings rather than to any of the models of group worker or
community worker interaction. As kutzik notes, consultation rather than supervision "was the rule
among settlement staff ".Supervision in group work is less clearly formalized in group work
agencies and even less explicitly formulated Spellman noted 6the odd assortment of practices
which had grown up" in response to the need to perform supervisory functions but without explicit
consideration of the process.

We've had a trouble shooter method "let me know if anything goes wrong and you need Me for
any emergency and I’ll be right there. Another is the hit and run method". I’ll see you in the hall a
couple of minutes after the meeting is over. Community organizers is often work in agencies .The
nature of the community organizers often tends to be diffuse and goals amorphous ,no hierarchal
structure that includes supervisory personnel supervision is not only associated with the agency
and its bureaucracy but also with professionalism.

Functional requirement of supervision in community organization

1. Assignment of work

2. Review and assessment work done

Administrative Supervision- the primary problem is concerned with the correct, effective, and
the adherence to policy and procedure.

Educational supervision- the problem is worker ignorance and/or ineptitude regarding the
knowledge, attitude and skills required doing the job; the primary goal is to dispel ignorance and
upgrade skill.

Supportive supervision- is the worker's morale and job satisfaction, the primary goal is to
improve the morale and job satisfaction.

DIFFERENT THEORIES OF MANAGEMENT

Management

- a process of planning, organizing, controlling and directing towards to achieve specific goals.

-getting things done through other people.

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Classical Management Theories

A. Scientific Management Theory

The first identifiable theories of management, collectively labeled "scientific management", really
had their origins in the apprenticeship method of nineteenth century. Frederick Winslow Taylor
(1856-1915), an engineer by profession ,is the name most often associated with scientific
management .He is often regarded as "father of scientific management" offered numerous
suggestions at the turn of the twentieth century for improving efficiency and effectiveness .His
studies and recommendations were specific and meaningful .He suggested that efficiency could be
obtained by division of labor ,piecework incentive, and careful use of time .Scientific management
was based on a number of assumptions about people and their behavior in the work place.

B. Administrative Theory

Another approach to management was also taking shape during the first half of the twentieth
century. Henry Fayol (1841-1925). A French mining engineer was advocating numerous changes
to improve production in his country. He believed that there are certain management principles
that are universally appropriate for higher administrative levels in different settings .People can be
taught to do a better job of management wherever they manage if they adhere to his basic principles
.These basic principles are outlined below.

1. Division of work. Fayol believed that specialization will produce more and better work without
increased effort.

2. Authority and responsibility for Fayol, authority (the right to give orders and expect
obedience) is closely related to responsibility. Responsibility is a natural consequence of authority.
A manager not only possesses but also encourages others to accept responsibility.

3. Discipline - Fayol saw discipline as part of the 'contract' between workers and employers and
as absolutely essential for the smooth functioning of an organization.

4. Unity of command- Fayol believed that an employee should receive instructions and be
accountable to only one boss .Any other situation undermines authority and causes major problems
for the organization.

5. Unity of direction. Fayol believed that a group of activities that are designed to achieve the
same objective should have one plan (and one leader).

6. Subordination of individual interest to the general interest. Fayol believed that each human
characteristics as selfishness and laziness could produce an organization in which self-interests of
organization which unless supervision, certain agreement, firmness and example of supervisors
precluded it.
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7. Remuneration. Fayol believed that it should be fair and whenever possible, satisfactory to both
employer and employee .He advocated some innovative (for his time)methods of compensation
such as bonuses and profit-sharing.

8. Centralization. Fayol viewed centralization as always present(to a greater or lesser

degree)within an organization However, he thought that the balance between centralization should
vary, based largely on the characteristics of managers and their subordinates .He believed that the
manager's job was to achieve the most appropriate balance between them given the uniqueness of
the situation.

9. Scalar chain. Fayol believed that strict adherence to the chain of command could cause
problem, especially when prompt communication is required .He suggest that organizations
sometimes need to create a shorter, more direct route that are much more efficient for
communication flow, even if they do not coincide with the chain of command.

10. Order. Fayol believed strongly that everything and everyone in an organization needs to be in
their proper place. He placed great emphasis on matching employees to the appropriate positions
so that employees would find themselves in a job where they could make their greatest possible
contributions.

11. Equity. Fayol viewed fairness as being more than justice based on convention. He stressed the
need for common sense and kindliness in making decisions that would be perceived as fair.

12. Stability of tenure of personnel. Fayol observed that prosperous firms tend to be stable .they
tend to have relatively little staff turnover. He noted the high cost of training new person advocated
job security through such methods permanent employee status .

13. Initiative. Fayol recognized the importance of managers

Initiative among employees of an organization. But he believed that this must be balanced by
respect and discipline.

14. Esprit de corps. Fayol valued unity and harmony within an organization

C. Bureaucratic Theory

The third "school" of what is collectively referred to as classical management theory , bureaucratic
management , is quite familiar to most social workers .Bureaucracies are very much evidence
within the human services . As with the two theories discussed previously, one name is most
frequently associated with bureaucracies: Max weber (1864-1920). Like scientific management
and administrative management, it emphasized efficiency. However, weber focused on the
efficient handling of clients ("peoples processing") through methods of staffing and structure,
whereas the emphasis is scientific management and administrative management was on economic
efficiency (profit) .

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A bureaucracy is really an organizational design, one specially constructed along certain principles
that are believe to promote efficiency.

These principles are familiar to anyone who has ever worked in a human service organization. For
example, bureaucracies are usually characterized by:

1. A vertical organizational hierarchy. The person on the top is the boss; power decreases at
each respective lower level of hiererchy. Everyone's behavior is monitored by somebody else.

2. Well-defined guidelines that limit functions. Rules and policies are widely used written
procedures also are common .and there are even decision-making rules to govern and control
behavior when no other formal guidance exists. The idea is that they will function within
organizations much as habits work for individuals.

3. Promotion and other rewards based on the demonstrated technical competence.

“Do your job well and you will be rewarded,” often with the promotion to the next level in the
organization’s hierarchy.

4. Formal, rigid communication channels. There is a strict adherence to the chain of command
in communication (and in other activities).

5. Job security for full-time employees. “Do your job and you cannot be fired”.

6. Division of labor. People have very specific jobs to do. They know exactly what their job
entails and so does everyone else. Detailed job descriptions are used.

7. Emphasis on written documentation. “When in doubt, always put it in writing.”

Common shortcomings of the Classical Management Theories

Four of the common problems can be seen in the scientific, administrative and bureaucratic
approaches to management. All three classical management theories tend to ignore (1.) power of
the group norms on individual behavior; (2.) the degree of individual differences that exist among
people, particularly in regard to their motivation; (3.) the irrational side of human beings that
results in their doing things that are not always in their best interest; (4.) the existence of a very
powerful force, namely the informal organization that they may bear a little resemblance to what
appears on a tidy organizational chart.

Responses to Classical Management Theory

Taylor, Fayol, Weber and other classical theorists saw managers as rational people capable
of possessing the necessary knowledge to make the right decisions. Managers simply identify the
various available alternatives and project consequences of each. Then based on previously

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identified priorities, they decide and act. It all sounds perfectly logical. The idea is to seek out the
perfect solution referred to in the literature as ‘optimizing’.

Based chiefly on recognition of the complexity of human behavior, those writers who have
been especially critical of the classical theories held somewhat different perception of managers.
They viewed managers more as pragmatists, making acceptable decisions based on limited
information and with knowledge that even good decisions guarantee success. As opposed to the
optimizing of the classical theorists, Herbert Simon viewed managers as ‘satisfying,’ that is,
searching until they find an acceptable solution, one that is good enough rather than optimal. The
term ‘bounded rationality’ was used to described managers’ approach to decision making.
Because they cannot consider all possible alternatives and cannot fully understand all the variables
involved limits (boundaries) are placed around the amount of information that will be processed
prior to making a decision.

RECENT THEORIES

A. MODERN STRUCTIONALIST
-assumes that there is an inevitably a lack of congruence among persons who
work in an organization.
CONFLICT- occurs within the organization due to the different goals and
agenda of the employees.
LEWIS COSER (1913-2003)- suggested that conflict has many positive
functions including:
 Producing group cohesiveness
 Promoting changes in norms and values
 Informing leaders of problems that exist
 Preventing stagnation

IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS OF

THE SOCIAL WORK:

 Insights into conflict within organization

 The inevitable stress between the organization and its external environment.

B. HUMAN RELATIONS
- Stress the complexity of human motivation

ELTON MAYO (1880-1949)- Father of Human Relations

- Concluded that social issues as well as the content of the job itself can
influence worker productivity.

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 HAWTHORNE EXPERIMENTS- adjusted the working conditions of young
women in a Western Electric Plant in order to study their effect on productivity.

C. CONTINGENCY THEORY
- Argue that there is no one best way or no correct decision that will work for
all the situations.

FRED E. FIEDLER (1922)- concluded that there is are no such thing as an ideal
leader or a universally one best way to manage.

- Proposed that a good leadership style is one that matches the needs of a given
situation.
-
D. PARTICIPATIVE THEORY
- Probably better understood as an application of a manager’s belief that human
beings are more productive, more loyal, and are more trustworthy if they are
granted a role in decision making in areas that affect them and their jobs.
- Promote consensus between individual goals and the goals of the organization.

PREREQUISITE FOR PARTICIPATION IN DECISION MAKING

 Knowledge Experience
 Expertise

ZONE OF INDIFFERENCE- is based on the assumption that we all have

many areas of our life where we really do not have much investment in a
decision one way or another.

VARIABLES THAT ARE IMPORTANT IN OTHER MANAGEMENT DECISIONS:

 Manager
 Other people involved (staff)
 Situation

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VARIATIONS ON PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT

A. Theory Z – Japanese Management

Quality Circles- voluntary group led by a supervisor and consisting of fewer than
fifteen (seven or eight is ideal) workers.
B. Total Quality Management – relies on graphs and statistical analysis to monitor activities
and to provide accurate data for decision making.
-Emphasizes continuous improvement and the elimination of
defects within an organization and its activities.
-Largely a response to the shortcomings of an earlier
management model called Quality Assurance (QA)

Focuses on outcome
measures, that is, indicators of service
effectiveness in organizations like
hospital and public welfare or mental
health centers.
E. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
- Express the belief that organizations, just like societies, have a unique culture
that must be understood. It consist of:
 Experience
 Beliefs
 Values
 Attitudes
 Managers must learn to understand them to be successful, especially if they hope to
overcome resistance to changes that must be implemented.

EDGAR SCHEIN- his model consist of three (3) levels:

1. It can be easily seen, if not always easily understood.
2. It is what the staff members profess and what they consciously believe to be
what the organization.
3. It most deeply embedded and the most difficult to discern.

I. BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES
A. X and Y THEORIES – suggested by Douglas Mc Gregor
 THEORY X- describes the working situation in which leaders are
authoritative, autocratic and maintain close control.

TRADITIONAL VIEW OF DIRECTION AND CONTROL:

a. The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid
it if he can.

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 b. Because of this human characteristic of dislike of work most people
must be coerced, controlled, directed, and threatened with punishment
to get them to put forth adequate effort toward the achievement of
organizational objectives.
c. The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid
responsibility, and has relatively little ambition, wants security above
all.
 THEORY Y- stresses a work climate and situation in which democratic
participation is practiced and the rights and suggestions of the workers are
encouraged and supported.

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS:

a. The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as

play or rest.
b. External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for
bringing about effort toward organizational objectives.

c. Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with

the achievement.
d. The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to
accept but to seek responsibility.
e. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination,
ingenuity, and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is
widely, not narrowly distributed in the population.
f. Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual
potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilized.

B. MOTIVATION-HYGIENE THEORY (1966)

- Proposed by FREDERICK HERZBERG
- Two-factor Theory

HYGIENE FACTORS influences the health (i.e. stress) of the

employee.
MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS influences the interest (an employee is
encourage) of an employee

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 HYGIENE FACTORS MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS

- Company Policies - Achievement

- Quality of Supervision - Career Advancement
- Relations with others - Personal Growth
- Personal Life - Job Interest
- Rate of pay - Recognition
- Job Security - Responsibility
- Working Conditions

FUNCTIONS OF SUPERVISION

1. Administrative- the promotion and maintenance of good standards of work,

coordination of practice with policies of administration, the assurance of an efficient
and smooth-running office.
2. Educational- the educational development of each individual worker on the staff in a
manner calculated to evoke her to realize her possibilities of usefulness
3. Supportive- the maintenance of harmonious working relationships, the cultivation of
spirit de corps.

Objectives of Supervision

Short range objectives on:

1. Educational Supervision- to improve the worker’s capacity to do his job more efficiently.
2. Administrative Supervision- to provide the worker with a work context that permits him or
her to do the job effectively.
3. Supportive Supervision- to help the worker feel good about doing his or her job.

Long term Objectives:

1. To effectively and efficiently provide clients with the particular service the particular
agency is mandated to offer.

Hierarchical Position of Supervisors

Supervision- a middle management position.

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 Supervisors- responsible for the performance of the direct services workers and is
accountable to administrative directors.

- “in-between” functionary
- “leaders of their subordinates” but are subordinate to the agency administrator.
- “highest level of employee and the lowest level of manager”, a “sub-administrator and a
supra-practitioner”

3 Levels of Organizational Hierarchy (Talcott Parsons, 1951)

1. Institutional Level
2. Managerial Level
3. Technical Level
DEFINITIONS OF SUPERVISION

 The word supervision derives from the Latin word “Super” which means “over”
and “videre” to watch, to see”. Hence a supervisor is defined as an overseer, one
who watches over the work of other with responsibility for its quality.
 A dynamic enabling process by which an individual worker who have a direct
responsibility for carrying out some of the agency’s program plans are helped by a
designated staff member to make the best use of their ability so that they can make
their job effectively and with increasing satisfaction to themselves to the agency.
(Gertrude Wilson and Gladys Rayland)
 The first edition of the encyclopedia of Social Work (1965) defines supervision as
an educational process. It is the “Traditional method of transmitting knowledge of
Social Work skills practice from the trained to the untrained, from the experienced
to the inexperienced student and worker”.
 The second (1977) editions of the encyclopedia emphasize the administrative
function. It defines supervision as administrative function, a process of getting the
work done and maintaining organizational control and accountability”.
 It is an art and process of enabling workers and students to perform their functions
under the guidance of the supervisor. (PASWI, 1997)
 It is an administrative process in the conduct of which staff development is a major
concern. In this process the supervisor has three functions administrative, teaching
and helping. (Charlotte Towle)
 According to Alfred Kadushin, each of the definition presented is partially correct.
It is true that supervision is both administrative and an educational process. The
Social Work supervisor has the responsibility for implementing both functions in
contact with supervisees. There is, however, an additional and distinctively
different responsibility that needs to be included in the definition. This is the
expressive-supportive leader function of supervision. The supervisor has the

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 responsibility to sustaining the worker morale, helping with job related
discouragements and discontents, giving supervisees sense of worth as
professionals, a sense of belonging in the agency, and sense of security in their
performance.
 A social work supervisor is an agency administrative staff member whom authority
is to delegate, direct, coordinate, enhance and evaluates the on-the-job performance
of the supervisees for those who work he or she is hold accountable.

Empirical Validation of Definition

 In 1977, the Wisconsin department of Health and Social Services sponsored a study of the
tasks performed by those holding the position of Social Work supervisor I.
 Administrative supervisor is the largest number of task performed by the largest
number of supervisors (60% of all tasks performed)
 Tasks related to educational supervision constituted 10% of tasks performed
 Tasks related to supportive supervision were rarely explicitly identified
 Patti (1997) asked 90 Social Welfare managers to delineate the activities they engaged in
during typical work week.
 Administrative and educational functions and activities of supervision are clearly
identified in the findings.
 Shulman reports on a study in which 109 supervisors were asked to indicate the percentage
of time they allocated to various tasks.
 About 49% of the supervisors’ time was spent in administrative supervision
 About 40% of the time devoted to educational supervision.
 Poertner and Rapp (1983) did a task analysis of supervision in a large public child welfare
agency.
 80% of the tasks performed were concerned with administrative supervision.
 20% of the tasks performed were divided between supportive and educational
supervision.
 In 1989, Kadushin distributed a questionnaire containing a series of questions about
functions performed by supervisors to 1500 randomly selected Social Work supervisors.
 44% identified educational functions as most important.
 32% cited administrative functions as most important
 24% cited supportive functions as most important.
 Erera and Lazar operationalized and tested the social work supervision in Israel
7 Distinct Supervision Factors
1. Policy modification, planning and budgeting
2. Quality control
3. Contacts with community services
4. Professional skills and techniques
5. Professional boundaries

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 6. Knowledge and information
7. Support

SIGNIFICANCE OF SUPERVISION IN SOCIAL WORK

We have noted that historically, supervision has always been an important element in social
work. Supervision is not, of course unique to social work, but the function and supervision have
achieved special importance in social work as contrasted with other professions. This prominence
might be explained by some distinctive aspects of the profession, the nature of its service delivery
pattern, the problems with which it is concerned, the clientele to whom service is offered, and the
characteristics of social workers.

1) Social work offer services to the client group through an agency

Social work, as contrasted with other, more entrepreneurial professions, has
traditionally offered service to the client group through an agency. An agency is a
complex organization and therefore needs to develop some bureaucratic structure if it
is operate effectively. Because the greatest percentages of social workers perform their
professional functions within an agency, they find themselves in a bureaucratic
structure in contact with the supervision that a bureaucracy requires.

Social work, however, from its inception has been organizationally based. Considerable
education and training effort is expended in helping social work recruits understand and identify
with organizational models and values.

As Scott notes, “Social workers, unlike members of other profession, expect to enter an
organization where their work will be subject to routine hierarchical supervision. “As a result of
tradition and training, the “social worker is a sophisticated and accomplished “organization man”.

2) Social workers use resources provided by the community.

A significant component of social agency activity is concerned with the distribution of

services and supplies that the agency does not own. As Levy notes, “Organization funds, materials,
and all other resources placed at the disposal of staff members are not personal assets. They are
assets held in trust for the community”. Howe suggests that professions such social work, which
“involve economic externalities” that are provided by the community and whose use affects the
community, cannot expect to be fully autonomous.

Policies established by the community regarding eligibility requirements for certain

programs and definitions needs channel people to the agencies. As a result, 3the social work
situation brings great pressure from the community for explicit accountability procedures
regarding agency activity. This again leads directly to a need for supervisory apparatus.

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 Under typical managed-care rules the social worker must obtain prior authorization to get
paid for addressing a well-defined problem with a well- defined protocol for a predetermined
number of sessions. These trends may lead to growing demand for private social work supervision.

3) The profession is required to implement policies formulated by groups outside the agency.

The finances and resources that the agency employs to help its clients, as well the policies
that the agency implements, often originate elsewhere. The agencies are then answerable to these
entities for correct implementation of policy. This circumstance creates an organizational pressure
for some system of accountability for workers’ activity within the agency.

The fact that social work agencies are concerned with problems that pose not only a
financial but also an ideological danger to the community again leads to external control of agency
policy and internal agency control of work autonomy.

4) Social workers perform their functions on clients who have little or no trust to the workers.

The autonomy granted any member of a profession reflects the degree of autonomy granted
the profession as a whole. If the community is hesitant about granting full autonomy to a
profession, there will be a pressure toward supervision of the individual professional. Where
powerful segments of the community disagree about the ultimate aims of a profession’s activity,
there will be greater reluctance to grant autonomy to the profession, as this will permit the
profession to decide on its own objectives.

Community confidence in the competence of a professional group to effectively implement

society’s mandate is a necessary prerequisite for the grant of full autonomy. Whether the opinion
is justified or not, it seems clear that the community has doubts about social work competence.

5) Social work is concerned with non- uniform tasks in uncertain and unpredictable context
toward the achievement of diffused and ambiguous objectives with heterogeneous
population.

Research suggests that when a profession, such as social work, performs non- uniform
tasks in an uncertain and unpredictable context toward the achievement of diffuse and ambiguous
objectives with heterogeneous populations, there is more decentralization of decision making and
a greater need for worker autonomy. These findings logically argue for less bureaucratic structure
because they suggest difficulty in codification of procedure, formulation of standardized rules of
action, and routinization of performance. They could also seemingly argue for a less elaborate
supervisory apparatus.

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 One can, however, deduce the opposite need from the same considerations. Where
objectives are unclear, where there is a great uncertainty as in how to proceed, where the effects
of interventions are unpredictable and the risk of failure is high, workers may need and want the
availability of an administrative representative with whom they can share responsibility for
decision making, from whom they can receive direction, and to whom they can look for support.
Consequently, the conditions under which the work of the profession is performed argue for the
desirability of a supervisory cadre.

6) Social workers perform their functions under conditions that do not permit direct
observation, or privately.

Social workers perform their functions under conditions that do not permit direct
observation. Social workers hold interviews in private and discourage observation as an intrusion
on the privacy of the encounter. Workers contend that direct observation of social work practice
would create hazards for effective worker-client interaction. Workers thus create an unusual
situation of role performance invisibility and interdicted observability. This being the nature of
practice procedures, the client would be left without system for supervisory review of what the
worker is doing.

7) Social work is concerned with outcomes that are difficult to discern and evaluate
objectively.

The cause-and- effect relationship between social work activity and changes in the clients’s
situation is much more subtle and difficult to define. Because the damaging effects of poor practice
are not so self- evident and observable, protection of the client requires a procedure for explicit
periodic review of worker activity and practice outcomes.

8) Social workers perform their tasks on clients who often have no alternative options.

Two additional aspects of the social work delivery system create a need or supervision: the
agency provides the workers with their clientele, and the clients are often “captives” of the agency.

The professional entrepreneur, the lawyer or the doctor, pays a price for ineptude,
inefficiency, and outmoded professional skills by a reduction of income owing to loss of clients.
The social worker, operating in an agency that provides clients, does not face the same kind of
penalties that alert him or her to the need for examining and correcting his practice. The setting
again dictates a greater need for controls. The worker could be afford to be somewhat more
indifferent to client concerns in this content of limited client control. Given the chronic pressure
of case overload, losing a client might even be perceived as rewarding.

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9) Large numbers of workers who hold the job title social worker, and perform social work
tasks are not trained nor have no sense of identification with the profession.

Kaufman identifies the significant conditions that ensure that the autonomously operating
worker will be self- supervised so that agency policy will be adhered to and the needs of the client
protected. These conditions include extensive professional education, a strong interest in the tasks
to be performed, a commitment to the ends to which these tasks are directed, and periodic agency
indoctrinization reinforcing the saliency and legitimacy of these goals. The result of these
conditions is to socialize is to socialize the worker so that he or she does, as a matter of personal
preference and professional conscience, those things that are professionally required. The
composition of social work agency staff, now and in the past, raises questions about the degree to
which these conditions are met. In the absence of these conditions, there is greater pressure to
develop a supervisory control system to ensure that work performance is in accordance with
professionally desirable norms.

A worker must develop a professional conscience, an elaborate process of professional

socialization, during a period of prolonged program of intensive training, that permits workers in
all professionals to operate autonomously, free of external direction and control on the basis of
competence and values incorporated during training.

A larger number of workers hold the job title of social worker and perform social work
tasks that often have to come to the job fortuitously, because an opening was available. They often
had no prior exposure to social work, have not considered it seriously as a career, have had little
or no education or training for the job, and have little or no identification with and commitment to
social work. Thus, there always has been and continues to be a need for agencies to induct, train
and socialize new recruits. Because of tenuous commitment to the mission of social work on the
part of many recruits, social work has had to perform the functions of educational and
administrative supervision.

10) Absence of effective organizational controls on the part of the profession itself.

The need for organizational controls in supervision on the part of the agency is made more
imperative by the absence of effective organizational controls on the part of the profession itself.
The ability of professional social work organizations to guarantee the conduct and competence of
the social worker’s performance is seriously limited. This absence of effective professional control
groups in social work, as compared with more traditionally established professions, argues for an
alternative control systems, such as agency supervision.

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11) Limited knowledge base and technology available.

Bureaucratization, of which supervision is a component, results also from the limited

knowledge base and technology available even to fully trained workers. In a profession in which
the level of development of knowledge and techniques is such that the professional often finds
himself encountering situations in which he cannot operate with full confidence that he knows
what to do and how to do it, as is true in social work, there is a greater tendency to share the
decisional responsibility with a supervisor and less readiness to resist supervisory “suggestions”
and rules that dictate action.

12) The nature of the problem encountered and the tasks performed by social workers.

The principal instrumentality for helping the client is the worker him- or herself so that the
failure to help may be sensed as a personal failure. The responsibilities are great, the solutions are
ambiguous, and the possibilities for happy solutions are limited. The risks of guilt, anxiety,
discouragement, and frustration are numerous. There are few professions that come close to social
work in developing in the worker the need for support, encouragement, reassurance and restoration
of morale- a need met by supportive supervision.

The nature of social work… is work with people through relationships where the personality of
the worker is one of the tools for the work. It can be argued that no one, however, skilled or
experienced, can ever be entirely objective about the way they use themselves in relation to another
person. A third person is essential to help the social worker stand back from the relationship and
then return to it in ways which are helpful to the client. If one accepts such argument then, in the
words of one social worker, “Supervison is essential for every social worker.” (Parsloe and
Stevenson)

ADMINISTRATIVE SUPERVISION
Introduction: Organizational Bureaucracy

Supervision is a special aspect of organizational administration. When number of people are

brought together and hen provided with the necessary equipment and facilities to get a particular
job done, there needs to be systematic coordination of effort if the objectives of the group are to
be efficiently accomplished. The systematic cooperative, coordinated effort of a group of people
in getting a desired job efficiently accomplished, if sustained for any period of time, leads
inevitably to the development of some kind of formal organization of the work.

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Organization- “the rational coordination of the activities of a number of people for the
achievement of some common explicit purpose or goal through division of labor and function
and through a hierarchy of authority and responsibility” (Schein)

-“As a social unit that has been established for the explicit purpose of achieving certain
goals.” (Blau & Scott)

Bureaucracy- is theoretically, the most rational, efficient, and effective organizational format
for coordinating efforts of a sizable group of people, each of whom is engage in a different task
necessary for the achievement of common organizational objectives.

A bureaucracy may be characterized as follows:

1. There is specialization of function and task, a division of labor among units of the
organization and among different employees within each unit.
2. There is a hierarchical authority structure, different people being assigned positions of
greater or lesser responsibility and power.
3. People in the hierarchy exercise authority on the basis of the position they hold.
4. People are recruited, selected, and assigned to position in the organization on the basis of
objective, impersonal technical qualifications rather than on the basis of whom they are
or whom they know.
5. There is a system of rules and procedures, universally and impersonally applied, that
determine the rights and duties of people occupying each of the positions in the agency.
6. All organizational activities are deliberately and rationally planned to contribute to the
attainment of organizational objectives. Bureaucracy described as the “rational
organization of collective activities.”

Administration- “is a process of defining and attaining the objectives of an organization through
a system of coordinated and cooperative effort.”

ADMINISTRATIVE TASKS OF A SUPERVISOR

Tasks

What specifically are the tasks the supervisor is called on to perform in discharging the
responsibilities of administrative supervision? They include the following:

1. Staff recruitment and selection

2. Inducting and placing works
3. Work planning
4. Work assignment
5. Work delegation
6. Monitoring, reviewing, and evaluating work

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 7. Coordinating work
8. The communication function
9. The supervisor as advocate
10. The supervisor as administration buffer
11. The supervisor as the change agent

1. Staff recruitment and selection

 Supervisors charged with hiring people as agency social worker seek to select
candidates who are likely to “fit-in”.
 The task requires selecting applicants who have the personal characteristics,
attitudes, and maturity that will allow them to feel comfortable and accepting in
implementing agency objectives.
 The supervisor is often in the best position to know the details of the job and the
attitudes, skills, and knowledge required to do it.

2. Inducting and placing workers

 He supervisor prepares to induct the worker by prompting the office manager or
personnel office to obtain required information and paperwork from the new
worker, reviewing his or her personal folder, informing other workers in the unit
that a new worker has been hired, finding an office and a desk, selecting some
reading material about the agency and its functions, an choosing a limited number
of tasks to discuss with the worker for possible assignment.
 The supervisor personally introduces the worker to peers, office personnel with
whom he or she will be working, and administrative officers.

3. Work planning
 Once the direct service worker has been recruited, hired, inducted and placed, the
supervisor has to plan what the agency need him or her to do.
 The supervisor is directly in charge of a group of employees responsible for
maintaining a productive flow of work, which “flow from points of decision to
points of action.”
 The supervisor is provided with human resources, staff resources and service
resources.
 The supervisor has to plan to organize the work force available, divide and assign
the work, and allocate staff an service resources so as to accomplish the work
assigned to the unit in a way that contributes to achieving the mission of the
agency.
 Planning the distraction is not automatic mathematical process. Good planning
requires familiarity with the supervisee and with the cases requiring action. It also
requires familiarity with the tasks the units responsible for, so that all tasks will be

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 concluded within a given time frame without unduly overloading the workers or
requiring overtime work.
 The supervisor has to have the competence to plan for judicious deployment of
his or her workforce. Planning involves deciding what needs to be done and how
it is going to get through selective assignment and delegation of tasks to staff.
 Planning involves decisions regarding scheduling and prioritizing work- not only
who will do it, but when it has to get done.
 The unit supervisor has some responsibility for long-range planning as well as for
immediate planning. Long-range planning involves preparation of a unit budget as
a component of total agency budget.

4. Work Assignment

 Having planned the overall work of the unit, the supervisor selects tasks for individual
workers in line with total unit work plan. In making task assignments, the supervisor needs
to take a variety of factors into consideration.
Criteria for assignment
1. Strengths and weaknesses of individual workers
2. Job pressures
3. Variety
4. Stimulation of challenge
 Work assignment and caseload management involve scheduling.
 Assignments need to be made and tasks allocated with some understanding of the time span
in which the work needs to be completed, so that deadlines can be met.
 The supervisor is responsible for scheduling that ensures the workers’ ability to perform
their jobs without undue stress. The scheduling of meetings, supervisory conferences,
dictation time, and deadlines must be made with some appreciation of the total load
imposed on the workers and the time available to do the work.
Work assignment procedures:
“Based on knowledge of case characteristics, worker ability and experience”.
(Haring 197:5)
“Division of labor by staff members among themselves either at periodic meetings or by
rotating responsibility for intake” (haring 1974:4)
 An innovative alternative to assignment of cases by the supervisor alone is assignment by
unit members in a group meeting. The cases to be assigned are introduced and summarized,
and supervisor and supervisee decide on assigning the cases together.
Problems in Work Assignment

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5. Work Delegation

 Task delegation indicates how it is to be accomplished.

 There are a variety of procedures that can be used to delegate tasks in a way that can
modulate the extent of autonomy granted. One can provide a series of explicit and detailed
directives as to how the task should be carried out; one can provide a very general series
of directives, giving the worker considerable flexibility on detail; one can plan
cooperatively in discussions with the worker how the task should be carried out; one can
even just leave the worker free to implement the task with no particular restriction other
than general objectives and a time limit.
 The decision around task delegation and the degree of autonomy granted the worker in
implementing a task are determined by such factors as the complexity of the task, level of
worker skill and interest, worker caseload in terms of nature and number of cases,
vulnerability of and risk to client, sensitive nature of the problem, likely visibility of error,
readiness of supervisor and supervisee to incur, and administrative penalties for
supervisory failure.

6. Monitoring, reviewing, and evaluating Work

 Monitoring the assignment to see that it gets done in the allotted time and in a way that is
in line with agency procedures.
 Monitoring involves obtaining verbal reports from workers, reading records, and reviewing
statistical reports.
 The objective of performance monitoring and review is to see that no harm is done.
 Work review is necessary to determine if the work is being accomplished as planned.
 Work review also involves the general responsibility of seeing that supervisees are
available to cover the work load. This function, then, involves monitoring both the worker
and the worker’s work.
 The supervisor needs to be concerned with tardiness, absences, and requests for time off,
sick leave, vacation schedules, and projected and emergency overtime personnel needs to
ensure adequate coverage of work assignments.
 paradoxically, supervisors have reported spending relatively little time monitoring
worker performance; monitoring worker performance is an unsatisfying duty that
supervisors tend to object (Kadushin 1992a)
 The supervisor or administrator not only has to review the assignment to be assured that it
is actually being accomplished and in a accordance with agency policies and procedures,
but also has to make some judgment as to whether it is being accomplished at a minimally
acceptable level.
 The supervisor then has responsibility for evaluation.

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7. Coordinating work

 Through coordination, the supervisor brings workers into relationship with other workers
involved in activities that are reciprocal, supportive or supplementary to their own work.
Coordination unifies different worker’s effort toward achievement of agency objectives.
Cooperation among workers and work units is maximized conflict minimized, and greater
complementarities assured.
 The supervisor also coordinates and integrates her own unit with other units of the agency
and with other agencies in the community’s social welfare network. The supervisor thus
not only occupies a position in the vertical hierarchy but relates horizontally to other
administrative units on the serve hierarchical level.
 Coordination involves ensuring that the different workers understand the goals and
objectives of the agency in the same way and accept them – or at least behave as though
they accepted them do each worker can operate in the confident expectation that others in
the group are working together rather than cross purposes.

8. The communication function

 Process in Organizational Communication

 Downward organizational communication
 Upward messages
 The supervisor has the responsibility of encouraging relevant communication from
supervisees and establishing a climate of receptivity and a readiness to listen.
 Conversely, the supervisor has to demonstrate a readiness to share relevant information
with supervisees, keeping them informed, indicating a willingness to answer questions
fully and to correct misconceptions.
 The supervisor should avoid assumptions. “Don’t assume that the supervisees know; tell
them. Don’t assume that you know how they feel; find out. Don’t assume that they
understood; clarify” (U.S Civil Service Commission 1955:22).
 The supervisor has a variety of channels through which to communicate information
personal, face-to-face communication; phone communication; or writing e-mail messages,
memorandums, or reports.
 Problems in Organizational Communication
The foregoing discussion suggests one of the principal barriers to the free flow of
communication up and down administrative channels: the supervisor may be reluctant to
communicate negative information to people to whom he or she is administratively
responsible or accountable, because he or she fears incurring hostility or displacement.
Similarly, the supervisee is reluctant to communicate negative information to the
supervisor because he or she fears rejection, a negative evaluation, or a censuring reaction.

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 Consequently, rather than sharing dissatisfactions and problems in offering service,
communication is carefully restricted to telling others only what they want to hear or what
will reflect favorably on one’s own performance. The safest procedure may seem be to act
the part of a not to obvious yes-mam and “play it close to the vest”.
 Lateral Communication (horizontal)
 We have noted that the supervisor as a channel of communication in the vertical hierarchy.
The supervisor also communicates horizontally within the agency and with other agencies,
between his or her unit and other unity through peers at the supervisory level.
 Horizontal Communication- is the process of exchanging information between peers at
any organizing level, usually to coordinate activities. It is apparent in horizontal
communication that information/messages are shared and activities are coordinated.
 Informal Communication- is not officially sanctioned by organization; the grapevine (or
rumors) is the most familiar example.

9. The Supervisor as Advocate

 Advocacy is tied to communication. It is through vertical and horizontal communication

that the supervisor advocates for staff with administration, either agency units, and with
the community of agencies.
 Downward communication requires being understood and accepted. There is no similar
mandate in upward communication from supervisor’s administrator. Such communication
achieves acceptance through the supervisor’s persuasive communication of messages and
through active advocacy in behalf of messages with administration.

10. The Supervisor as Administrative Buffer

 The supervisor serves as a buffer in relation to agency clients (Burke 1997). Administration
looks to the first-line supervisory staff to handle problems relating to service.
Consequently, the supervisor performs the function of dealing with clients who want to
discuss a complaint with someone other than the worker.

11. The Supervisor as Change Agent and Community Liaison

 Supervisors can be an active participant in the formulation or reformulation of agency

policy.
 If the supervisors sees a need for change, then he or she should actually encourage and
collaborate with supervisees in seeking them, rather than being a mere mediator.

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Administrative Supervision: Problems in Implementation

 The Problem of Vicarious Liability

- If the action is performed incompetently, the supervisor is responsible for having
entrusted the implementation of the decision to a worker who he or she should have
known was not competent to perform it.
- Principle of respondent superior – let the master answer it.
- Reamer (1995) noted twelve malpractice suits filed against social work supervisors
between 1969 and 1990, and in the recent discussions, he suggests that suits against
supervisors are increasing.
- Example of the suit filed against the social work supervisor is the case of a child who
had been returned home by the agency after a short stay in foster care was fatally abused
by the biological parents.

Obligations of the Supervisors:

 Provide information for supervisees to obtained consent from their clients.

 Identify errors made by the supervisees.
 Oversee workers’ efforts to develop and implement comprehensive planned interventions.
 Know when supervisees need consultation.
 Monitor workers’ competence, addressing incompetence, impairment, and ethical lapses.
 Monitor the boundaries between workers and clients.
 Review and critique workers paperwork and case records.
 Provide supervisees with regularly scheduled supervision.
 Document supervision provided.
 Avoid dual relationship with workers.
 Provide workers with timely and informative feedback and evaluate their performance.

 The Problem of Authority and Power: Rationale for Authority and Power
- “To get the job done properly, a person in one position in an organization is authorized
to direct the role activities of a person in another position.”
- Assigning supervisors the responsibility for implementing the essential function of
administrative supervision without simultaneously granting them the necessary
authority is the organizational equivalent of asking them to make bricks without straw.
- The authority delegated to the supervisor ultimately derives from the community.
- In public agencies, the collective intent is embodied in the statutes that established and
in accordance with which the agency operates.

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 - In private agencies, the collective intent is manifested in the support the agency obtains
for its existence and continuation through voluntary contributions.
- Legal authority derives its legitimacy from the fact that it supposedly represents the
common good. Authority employed to achieve the common good is regarded as
legitimate. The common goal becomes the common good, which justifies the authority.

 Supervisory Authority and Sources of Power

Authority – a right that legitimizes the use of power; it is sanctioned use of power, the
accepted and validated possession of power. it is the right to issue directives, exercise
control, and require compliance. It is the right to determine the behavior of others and to
make decisions that guide the action of others; the right to demand obedience, those subject
to authority has the duty to obey.
Power – derived from the Latin ‘potere’ which means to be able. It is the ability to
implement authority. If authority is the right to direct, command, and punish, then power
is the ability to do so.

5 Distinctive Bases of Social Power

1. Reward Power – the ability to control tangible rewards.
2. Coercive Power – the ability to control punishments
3. Legitimate or Positional Power – authority of position
4. Referent Power – power that derives from the supervisee’s identification with him or
her
5. Expert Power – derives from the special knowledge that the supervisor has and the
supervisee needs
 Interrelations Between Types of Supervisory Power
Expert Power
Referent Power
Positional Power
Power of Rewards and Punishments

 Legitimation of Authority
- The supervisor can increase its effectiveness if he or she feels and can communicate a
conviction in his or her behavior. If the supervisor acts with confidence and with an
expectation that his or her authority will be respected, the directives are more likely to
be accepted.

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  Non-authoritarian Authority
- The best use of authority comes out as an expression of care and concern for the worker
and the clients.
- The supervisor needs a sensitive awareness that his or her authority is limited and job-
related.
- The most effective use of authority is minimal use.

Educational Supervision

 Is concerned with teaching the worker what he or she needs to know to do the job in helping
him or learn it.
 Sometimes called as clinical supervision. It is concerned with teaching the knowledge,
skills and attitudes necessary for the performance of clinical social work tasks through the
detailed analysis of the worker’s interaction with the client.

Strongest sources of satisfaction for supervisors are:

 Satisfaction in helping the supervisee grow and develop as a professional and,

 Satisfaction in sharing social work knowledge and skills with supervisees.

Main sources of supervisee satisfaction with supervision are related to educational

supervision are:

 My supervisor helps me in dealing with problems in my work with my client.

 My supervisor helps me in my development as a professional social worker.
In addition, both supervisors and supervisees agreed that “ensuring the professional
development of the supervisee” was one of the most important objectives of supervision
(Kadushin 1994).

Relation of Educational Supervision to Administrative Supervision

Administrative Supervision and Educational Supervision share the same ultimate objective
which is “to provide the best possible service to the clients”.

Educational Supervision
 Provides the training that enables the worker to achieve it.
 Provides the knowledge and skills that are the workers’ necessary equipment for
effective practice.
 Serves the need of the profession in developing the competent and professionally
oriented practitioners.
 It is designed to increase the effectiveness of the administrative supervision.

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Administrative Supervision

 Provides the organizational structure and the resources directed towards the goal.
 Serves the need of the organizational bureaucracy.

Educational supervision and administrative supervision also reinforce each other.

Educational supervision is designed to increase the effectiveness of administrative supervision. As
a consequence of educational supervision the tasks of administrative supervision are alternatively
implemented.

Content of Educational Supervision

The 4P’s by Helen Harris Pearlman (1947) as general content:

1. Place: For example, the agency’s mission and objectives, what kind of services the
agency offers and their eligibility requirements, how agency policy is formulated, how
the agency is organized and administered, how the agency fits into the network of social
services in the local community, the agency’s statutory authority.
2. Problem: For example, the causes of the problems, the psychosocial nature of the
problems, how the agency relate to the different problems, local community response
to problems, the effects of a problem on a client system (individual, family, group,
community).
3. Person: For example, human behavior in response to having the social problems
experienced by the agency’s clients.
4. Process: For example, how to help clients deal effectively with social problems, theory
that explains why a certain helping technology is likely to work, the sequential nature
and the stages of the helping process.
5. Personnel: For example, attitudes, feelings and behaviors that create and sustain
effective worker-client relationship, self-awareness, the directed and purposeful use of
self, sensitivity to and awareness of diversity issues.

The Individual Conference

3 phases:

 To begin the process, the supervisor structures and schedules the conference and
prepares for the meeting.
 The supervisor adopts an orientation to the process of teaching and offers helpful
feedback to the worker.
 The supervisor ends the conference.

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Beginning the conference (Structuring and Scheduling)

Scott and Farrow (1993) – he argued that scheduling and keeping weekly one-hour
individual conferences meets a minimum standard for the supervision of the new worker.

Baretta Herman and Veeder – discourage the individual supervision of professional social
workers in the belief that close supervision erodes professional autonomy, supervisors
who fail to provide adequate staff supervision may become liable for worker malpractice.
Second, supervisor who fails to supervise staff adequately may be in violation of social
work ethical standards. Third, although staff may passively withhold their practice
mistakes and ethical violations from the supervisor, empirical evidence suggests that
supervision is the prevalent mode that social workers use to resolve their ethical practice
dilemmas.

Preparing

It begins in the preparation for the conference by both supervisee and supervisor. The
supervisee submits some record of his or her work just like a written record, tape recording, case
files, work schedules, reports completed and a work plan.

Preparation involves ensuring the availability of educational materials that might be needed
in the conference teaching. If policies are to be discussed, the agency manual should be accessible.

In planning the conference the supervisor should be prepared to

1. Evaluate and address the learning needs of the supervisees

2. Review legal and ethical issues
3. Monitor and document the progress of the supervisees and their clients by observing actual
sample
4. Evaluate the performance of the supervisees and elicit their feedback

ORIENTATION TO TEACHING AND LEARNING

 EXPERIENTIAL – EXISTENTIAL
 Supervisee – centered orientation sees supervision as concerned with the
development of supervisees’ self-understanding, self – awareness, and emotional
growth.
 The emphasis on the worker’s feelings.
 The supervisee has major responsibility for what he or she wants to learn, and the
focus of supervision is on the way the worker does the work and the nature of his
or her relationship to the client.
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  DIDACTIC
 Task-centered orientation sees supervision as primarily concerned with the
development of the supervisees’ professional skills.
 The emphasis is on the worker’s thinking.
 The supervisor has the primary responsibility for what the worker is doing, the
activities with and on behalf of his or her clients.

PROVIDING HELPFUL FEEDBACK

 FEEDBACK
 Information received in response to something done.
 Reinforces learning that “works” and helps correct faulty learning.
 The supervisor teaches and the supervisee learns through feedback. We need to know how
we are doing, what we are doing right, what needs to be changed. We learn from our
mistakes only if we can find out what they are and have the opportunity of analyzing them.
 A flexible supervisor accepts the idea that supervisees will definitely make mistakes but
rejects the idea that mistakes should be tolerated indefinitely.
 As Middleman and Rhodes note, the old maxi “practice makes perfect” needs revision. It
is “practice plus feedback (knowledge of results) that makes perfect”.
 The supervisor should not apologize for corrective feedback. This discounts its importance
and attenuates its impact. The supervisee needs feedback to help overcome performance
deficiencies so that he or she can do better work.
 The supervisor is the only one sanctioned and obligated to give feedback and is explicitly
charged with this responsibility.

 feedback is more effective if certain guidelines are observed by the supervisor in offering
feedback (Abbott and Lyter 1998, Roberts 1992);
1) Feedback should be given as soon as possible after the performance.
 This increases motivation and interest in learning what might have been
improved. Rewarding commendable performance by praise as soon as possible
after the event increases the potency of reinforcement.
2) Feedback should be specific.
 One should be able to point to a specific intervention, act, or comment that
needs praise or correction. A specific illustration of poor question formulation
or a ragged, ambiguous transition is better than general feedback, with suggests
a need to improve interviewing skills.
3) Feedback should be objectifiable.

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  One should be able to point to the concrete behaviour that illustrates a
deficiency in performance. Vague, general, global statements have less
credibility.
4) Feedback should be descriptive rather than judgemental.
5) If possible, it is desirable to highlight the effects of good performance.
6) Feedback should be focused on the behaviour of the supervisee rather than on the
supervisee as a person.
7) Feedback should be offered tentatively for consideration and discussion rather than
authoritatively for agreement and acceptance.
8) Try to tie feedback as explicitly as possible to what you want the supervisee to learn,
what you think he or she needs to learn.
9) Good feedback involves sharing ideas rather than giving advice, exploring alternatives
rather than giving answers.
 It is focused on behaviour that can be modified and is accompanied by specific
suggestions for change.
10) Feedback needs to be selective in terms of the amount that a person can absorb.
 The principle is to keep the amount to what the supervisee can use, not all of
the feedback you have available to give.

ENDING THE CONFERENCE

 Toward the end of the scheduled time, the supervisor should be looking for a convenient
point of termination. It should be at point where closure has been obtained on a unit of
work. The emotional level of the interaction should not be intense. The worker should have
been given some prior opportunity to ask those questions and discuss those issues that were
of most concern.
 Termination involves a summarization of the conference and a recapitulation of points
covered and content taught.

 In general, it might be said that a good conference in educational supervision has the
following characteristics:
1) It involves planning and preparation by both supervisor and supervisee.
2) It has a shared, consensually agreed-on objective.
3) Its focus is the clinical work of the supervisee.
4) It gives priority to critical self-analysis by the worker of his or her performance,
assisted by the guidance of the supervisor and supplemented by the supervisor’s
contributions as a resource person.
5) It provides the worker with clear, unambiguous, relevant feedback designed to
help improve performance.
6) It takes place in the context of a facilitative learning atmosphere.

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 7) It follows desirable principles of learning and teaching.
8) It provides follow-through and a tie to the next conference.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SUPERVISOR-

SUPERVISEE RELATIONSHIP FOR
EDUCATIONAL SUPERVISION
RELATIONSHIP – means the nature of emotional interaction. In general, learning can be take
place when the nature of such interaction is positive, when teacher and learner accept each other
and are comfortably relaxed with each other. The level of participation is higher and anxiety is
lower in the context of positive relationship, facilitating learning.

The relationship, if positive, is the bridge over which the materials passes from teacher to learner.
If the relationship negative, communication is blocked. A positive relationship intensifies the
impact of the supervisor’s educational efforts. There is considerable empirical support for the
contention that the nature of the supervisory relationship is a powerful variable in determining the
supervisee’s openness and receptivity to the supervisor’s effort to educate toward change.
Relationship propels learning and makes content acceptable.

Identification with the supervisor heightens the worker’s motivation to learn. As a consequence of
identification, the worker wishes to be like the supervisor, to have his or her competence and to
learn to emulate him or her. Only if the relationship is positive will the worker identify with the
supervisor.

The supervisory relationship itself, its nature and use, is an educational exemplification of what
needs to be taught in developing clinical competence and it is both the context for learning and a
living learning experience in itself.

The influence effects in the supervisory relationship are like influence effects in the worker-
client relationship, which is a two-stage process.

1) The worker or supervisor, though communicating the facilitative conditions of emphatic

understanding, respect, ad acceptance, establishes or increases his or her potential for
influencing.

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 2) The second stage in the process involves actually employing this influence potential to
induce change.

The Supervisor’s Problems in Implementing Educational Supervision

1- Supervisors may exploit educational supervision to meet their own needs without being
fully aware of it.
2- The supervisor who, in response to the triadic situation of client-worker supervisor, is still
more a worker than a supervisor, will focus too heavily on the client.
3- A supervisor may be hesitant in sharing knowledge and expertise with the supervisee out
of anxiety about competition from a “sibling”.
4- A supervisor who is anxious about his or her own relationship with the administrator may
over control the worker to prevent embarrassment at worker errors for which the supervisor
is held responsible.
5- Supervisor may act out of their own rebellious impulses toward the agency through their
supervisee, from the safety of middle management positions.
6- The supervisor who has considerable therapeutic skills but limited pedagogic skills.
7- A supervisor may be sufficiently uncertain about his or her own knowledge that he or she
cannot permit the supervisee the freedom to experiment and to learn.
8- Some egalitarian supervisor may be afraid of showing what they know.

Educational component of supervision

1- The supervisor is sanctioned by the agency to engage in educational activity.

2- The supervisee, while participating in determining what should be taught and learned.
3- The supervision is responsible for evaluating whether or not the supervisee has fact learned
what it is that he or she has to know and what the supervisor has been mandated to teach.

Every supervisor has individual likes and dislikes regarding supervisee learning pattern.

1- Some supervisors like rapid, avid learners who absorb teaching quickly and voraciously
2- Some like slow, plodding learners who are less challenging and for whom considerable
repetition of content is required.

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 3- Some supervisors prefer the supervisee who presses the supervisor-supervisee educational
relationship in the direction of peer consultation and colleagueship
4- Other find gratification in the supervisee who accepts a parent-child relationship.
5- Some like the exuberant, extroverted learner; some like shy, introverted learner.
6- Some are more comfortable with the learners who do best in the individual situation

Others are more comfortable with the group oriented learning.

DIFFERENTIATING EDUCATIONAL
SUPERVISION FROM THERAPY
SIMILARITIES

 Both situations involve a continuing, intimate, highly cathected, dyadic relationship

in which an effort at exerting interpersonal influence to effect change is made by
one member of the dyad toward the other.
 Both interactions are designed to develop a heightened sense of self-awareness.
 Both are helping processes

DIFFERENCES

As to the PURPOSE

 The responsibility of the supervisor is to help the supervisee become a better

worker-not to become a better person.
 The concern is with changes in professional identity rather than changes in personal
identity.
 The supervisors ask “How can I help you do your work” rather than “How can I
help you?”
 The valid focus of attention is the supervisee’s work, rather than the supervisee
him- or herself.
 The supervisor, unlike the therapist, is not concerned with the causes of personal
pathology, only with the consequences of such problems for the worker’s
performance on the job.

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  In psychotherapy the patient essentially sets his own goals. The therapist has no
vested interest in any particular degree of change. In supervision, on the other hand,
the clinical setting, whose representatives is the supervisor, sets both its
requirement and its goals in terms of standards of professional performance and
clinical service currently rendered and to be attained.

As to the ROLE OF RELATIONSHIP

 In educational supervision, the worker contracts for the knowledge and guidance,
not the alleviation of symptoms.
 In accepting the role of the patient to therapist, certain prerogatives of privacy are
waived. In a supervisory relationship that is redirected to a therapeutic relationship,
there is no clear agreement on the part of the supervisee that he or she has agreed
to the suspension of such entitlements.
 Effective therapy requires a psychosocial diagnosis of the client and a therapeutic
alliance between therapist and the client. Effective educational supervision requires
an educational diagnosis and a teacher – learner alliance between supervisor and
supervisee.
 In therapy, unconscious feelings are explored for their genesis and worked through
for their resolution. In supervision, unconscious feelings may be identified, but they
are neither explored nor resolved.

To summarize, confusion results from the fact that educational supervision toward
developing job – related self- awareness and psychotherapy are similar in some essential respects.
The distinction lies primarily in purpose and focus and role parameters of the relationship.

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 TOOLS IN MEASURING SOCIAL WORKER’S
EFFECTIVENESS
(Staff Performance Evaluation and Personnel Action)

Staff Performance Evaluation

- If managers supervise any other individuals within the organization they are
required to perform regular performance evaluations of their subordinates (often as
specified in a Policies and Procedures)

The importance of performance Evaluation

 It answers the questions, “how well am I doing?” and “what are my greatest strengths and
weakness do I need to address?”
 It tells a lot of about the person doing the evaluation, the supervisor (evaluations can expose
the evaluator’s values, priorities, and biases).
 Can also provide other benefits (including job security) for the individual bring evaluated
(if overall evaluation is less positive, i.e. “meets expectation”, the evaluation may still
provide a level of job security, even if the evaluation is negative overall and identifies
various deficiencies, it can still be beneficial in helping to keep one’s job.).
 Can perform several valuable functions for the evaluator they provide a periodic vehicle to
call attention to individual and organizational goals and objectives.
 Can perform several valuable functions for the evaluator. They provide a periodic vehicle
to call attention to individual and organizational goals and objectives.
 Evaluation conferences can help to refocus activities and priorities of both the evaluator
and of the individual being evaluated.
 Helpful in reducing the potential for personality bias to occur.

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Characteristics of a Good Evaluation

The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) in its 1999 Code of Ethics informs
us that “Social Workers who have responsibility for evaluating the performance of others should
fulfil such as responsibility in fair and considerate manner on the basis of clearly stated criteria”.

Fairness

Why is fairness so important in a performance evaluation?

 A single unfair performance evaluation can destroy the trust and respect that the manager
needs to be effective.

Characteristics of a fair Performance Evaluation (fairness)

1. Use of Previously Performance Criteria.
(Evaluation instruments and criteria should be presented and explained to workers
as part of orientation when they are first employed. The workers know the criteria
on which the evaluation will be based and can use it for ongoing self – assessment
of their work performance.)

2. Avoidance of Comparisons.
(It is unfair to evaluate staff using other employees as reference points. i.e. selecting
an employee for performance; comparison has no place in performance evolution
of an individual.
They also create an undesirable form of competition among staff that can inhibit
cooperation and team work and promote an organizational climate of interest.)

3. Staff differentiation.
(No one benefits when all staff members are rated “outstanding” or otherwise are
rated the same. Staff members know that there are differences in the motivation,
knowledge, skills, and sometimes even the professional values of their work group.

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 They have a right to expect that a manager’s staff evaluation will reflect these
differences.)

4. Application of Realistic Expectation.

(Evaluation must be based on an assessment of what is a realistic expectation for
each worker. Such factors as the worker’s stage of career development, professional
background, stead career objectives and previous work experience are variables that
should be considered.)

5. Recognition of Problems in the Work Environment.

(There were conditions and situations in the work setting that were beyond the
control of the individual being evaluated, but yet they impacted on his or her ability
to do a job effectively. i.e. Orientation and training may not have been adequate,
co-workers may not have been cooperative and helpful, there may have been
technological breakdowns or inadequacies and etc. if these or other similar
situations existed within the group environment during period of evaluation,
fairness would suggest that the manager something in narrative description of the
performance.)

6. Use of both “hard” and “soft” criteria.

(Hard- is verifiable criteria that do not leave the manager vulnerable to changes of
subjectivity or bias. Examples are job performance, personal abilities (absenteeism,
tardiness, initiative, conduct, job knowledge and quality, and timeliness of work)
Soft – is thus more vulnerable to charges of some objectivity. Examples are inability to
work well with colleagues, lack of cultural sensitivity, or a cynical attitude about certain
clients)

Consideration

A considerate evaluation provides plenty of opportunity for input and explanation by the
individual being evaluated. It acknowledges achievements and identifies strengths as well as
weaknesses. It offers support for improvements.

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Conducting Performance Evaluation

THERE ARE TWO MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

Written Evaluation
- Consists of the work description undertaken during the evaluation period,
a form such as a scale containing the evaluation criteria used along with the
rating for each of them, and a narrative summary of job performance during
the rating period.
- When the individual being evaluated prepares as a draft of one or more
parts of the written evaluation and submits it to the evaluator prior to the
evaluation conference. However whether the individual being evaluated
prepares a draft of the entire written evaluation or just part of it, the
responsibility for it in its final form remains with the evaluator.

Evaluation Conference
- The performance evaluation process is not complete without a person-to-
person evaluation conference.
- The conference should merely be a confirmation of the messages they have
been sending through regular written, verbal, and nonverbal
communication.

- The evaluator should plan the agenda for the conference and perhaps, even
rehearse what will be said. This reduces the likelihood that anything will be
said or done impulsively that will later be regretted or, worse yet, may be
the basis for a grievance.
 The conference begins pleasantly, perhaps with the statement by the
evaluator expressing appreciation for the contribution of the staff
members.
 A review of the work accomplished may follow.
 At some point, a draft of the evaluator’s written evaluation is provided
and the staff member is given time to read it.
 The evaluator should listen to any explanations given about any
deficiencies noted in it, but should avoid getting into an argument over
them.
 The conference may end with a “look ahead”, in which the staff member
can talk about what goals he or she hopes to achieve during next
evaluation period and the evaluator can suggest ways that can be
provided to make it easier to achieve them.

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Trends in Performance Evaluation

One of the recent trends in Staff Performance Evaluation is PEER EVALUATION, in

which one’s peers conduct the evaluation.

Total peer evaluations, in which only peers evaluate the staff member, make sense only
when only when peer supervision is used. However, if other supervisory models are used, peers
may still be asked for input by the supervisor.

PROMOTIONS AND TRANSFERS

Staff evaluations form the basis for the manager’s assessment of staff competence.

Everyday observations can help assist a manager in making recommendations or unilateral

decisions as to who should be promoted or transferred when vacancies occur.

Issues to be considered

 Constraints

- In order to maintain good labor relations, they may need to adhere to union guidelines.
Affirmative action requirements and other legislative and judicial rules and policies may also
influence who may be chosen.

 Past Performance

- The past is a good indicator of the future, but it’s far from perfect. We cannot be certain how an
employee will perform if promoted, but past and present behaviours and attitudes give us some
good hints.

 Personal Characteristics

- Projections about an individual’s ability to function in a higher level position usually tend to be
based on the person’s demonstrated or assumed personal attributes. Managers should be absolutely
certain that their assessments are based on the requirements of the position, and not on the
characteristics of its previous occupant or their own personal preferences.

 Needs of the Organization

- As managers, we are committed to placing highest priority on the good of the organization and
of the clients who it serves.

 A Current Employee or a New One?

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- Competition for a position that may become available sometime in the future can be a stimulus
for productivity. Open competition for a position among both current employees and outside
applicants would seem like a good compromise. However, it’s a heavy burden for the managers.

 Other Issues to Consider

- Whenever the organization is in period of relative stability or change, the political viability of
the specific position, the condition under which the previous occupant left the position, the type of
mentoring available to assist the newly promoted employee, and the likely reaction of the
candidate’s present or co-workers.

Transfers

A job transfer, moving a staff member to another position at the same or comparable level
elsewhere in the organization, can sometimes work to the advantage of both individual and the
organization.

MANAGING STAFF MEMBERS WHO ARE NOT MEETING JOB EXPECTATIONS

Regular observations and performance evaluations of staff also reveal that some other
individuals are falling well short of meeting the expectations of their current positions. Then
managers have the responsibility to address this problem.

Use of Progressive Discipline

 Verbal Reprimands – it is referred to as simply “counseling”. It refers to a meeting to

discuss some deficiency in behavior and/or work performance. It entails a direct, one-on-
one, private, and confidential communication of the staff member’s shortcomings.
 Written Reprimands – after one or more reprimands, the next reprimand is generally a
written one. It spells out in detail what is inadequate about the staff ember’s performance.
It may contain a description of new requirements being imposed in order to address the
problem and/or a reference to sources of help.
 Warnings and Contracts – it entails another written document that is even more specific
and is usually called either a warning or contract, or sometimes even a “final reprimand”.
It describes all of the other progressive action that have previously occurred and all of the
continued problems since the last one.

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TERMINATION FOR UNSATISFACTORY WORK PERFORMANCE

Firing employees that are a liability to the organization and its clients is sometimes a task
that cannot be avoided.

What Constitutes a “Good” Termination?

1. Be fair and considerate – entails adhering to ethical standards and procedures as outlined
in policy and procedures manuals or other official documents.
2. Preserve the employee’s dignity – the process should be kept as private as possible, so as
not to unnecessary embarrass him or her.
3. Reduce legal risk to the organization – try to avoid charges of discrimination or
“wrongful discharge”.
4. Preserve the organization’s reputation – a manager should do whatever possible to help
avoid this
5. Minimize disruption of the work environment - a manager may have to make special
efforts to address any disruption before it gets too severe and begins to interfere with the
work of the organization.

Termination because of unsatisfactory work performance is a “last resort”.

Conducting Termination Interviews

 A private meeting should be scheduled.

 A witness (usually a personnel officer or higher-level administrator) should also be present.
 If there’s no sense of urgency, termination interviews usually are scheduled at the end of
the day or even on Friday afternoon.
 The manager should make it clear from the outset that termination is the interview’s focus
and that the decision is irreversible.
 A letter of dismissal should have been previously prepared. It is given to the employee at
the start of the interview. The letter should be short and factual.
 The manager should be direct and clear in what is said.
 Any benefits available to the worker should be outlined.
 After necessary information has been communicated, the interview should end.
 After the terminated employee has left, a confidential memo should be written and hand-
delivered to the same day to confirm that the termination interview took place.

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Dealing with terminated Employees

As an employee who has been employed for some length of time and is fired for
unsatisfactory work performance is likely to remain on the job for a while. Terminated employees
are given at least two weeks’ notice at the time of the termination interview, sometimes 30 days.
The opportunity for a follow-up interview should be provided while making it clear that the
decision to terminate is irreversible. Contact with terminated employees should not be avoided.
Bitter, openly hostile employees may need to be confronted and dealt with for the good of the
organization. The manager should monitor terminated employees’ emotions and behavior to
ensure that responses to termination decisions are within normal limits. If responses seem extreme
and show no sign of dissipating, it might be necessary to try to refer the terminated employee for
counseling, but not to attempt to provide it.

TERMINATION FOR MISCONDUCT

 It occurs because an employee is believed to have done something so in tolerable that they
need to be fire “on the spot”.
 It is sometimes referred to as “gross misconduct”
 It does not involve a course of progressive discipline.
 There’s no prior warning required
 Depending on the agency policy, there may be few or none of the other benefits that
terminated employed receive.
 It’s not a matter of discretion or judgment for the manager.
 Employees fired or suspended for misconduct generally are gone in a matter of minutes.

Common examples of misconduct:

 Drinking, substance abuse of the job

 Stealing
 Conviction of a felony
 Behavior injurious to the good of the organization or its clients
 Sexual harassment
 Violence or threats of violence
 Refusal to follow reasonable orders
 Ethical violations.

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TERMINATION FOR JOB ABANDONMENT

To dismiss an employee is either not doing the job or is chronically absent from work. It
may be possible to dismiss an employee who simply fails to work for a certain number of
consecutive days without either calling in sick or requesting in administrative leave using the
correct procedures. It requires only a written notice of the action (abandonment of position), a
listing of the dates which the employee was absent, and a reminder that they have been charged
the appropriate number of days unauthorized leave. The organization’s rule or policy is genrally
cited.

MANAGING THE LOSS OF OTHER STAFF

The loss of staff members occurs in human service organizations from time to time. When
it does, it may be either helpful or harmful to the organization. Extra attention may be required
to make the transition as undisruptive as possible.

EXIT INTERVIEWS

 Usually conducted on an employee’s last day on the job.

 Customarily is offered to all employed (except for those fired for misconduct) who are
leaving the organization.

 Generally entails a congenial exchange of compliments between the manager and the
departing employee might previously have been reluctant to make.

 For a terminated employee, exit interview is a kind of postmortem in which both parties
examine what went wrong.

SUPPORTIVE SUPERVISION

Supportive Supervision

 The 3rd major component of supervision

 It provides the psychological and interpersonal resources that enable the worker to mobilize
the emotional energy needed for effective job performance.

Ultimate Goal of Supportive Supervision

To enable the workers and the agency through the workers to offer the client the most and efficient
service.

2 Factors associated with effective supervision and leadership

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 1. Task-centered, instrumental consideration of supervision – relates to getting the job
done-seeing that the people who do the job are provided with the facilities, services,
information, and skills they need to do the job.

2. People-centered, expressive consideration of supervision- associated with seeing that the

people who do the job are comfortable, satisfied, and happy in their work and have sense
of psychological well-being.

Workers’ dissatisfaction might be related to either:

a. Technical supervision – dissatisfaction with this resulted from the fact that the supervisors
lacked competence in the technical skills they were assigned to supervise, the instrumental
component of supervision.

b. Interpersonal supervision – dissatisfaction with this resulted from failures in the human-
relations responsibilities of the supervisor, the expressive component of supervision.

Differentiation of the three functions of supervision

Administrative Supervision Educational Supervision Supportive Supervision

 Provides the organizational  Provides the knowledge  Provides the

structure and access to agency and skills required for psychological and
resources that facilitate the doing the job interpersonal context that
worker’s job. enables the worker to
mobilize the emotional
energy needed for
effective job
performance and obtain
satisfaction in doing their
job.

 Concerned with organizational  Concerned with ignorance  Concerned with

barriers to effective services barriers to effective emotional barriers to
services effective service

 Concerned with executive  Concerned with cognitive  Concerned with affective

managerial aspects aspects aspects of supervision

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 Responsible for relating  Primarily concerned with  Primarily concerned with
effective workers to effective increasing the effectiveness increasing effectiveness
organizations, increasing the of the worker through of the worker through
effectiveness of the upgrading knowledge and decreasing stress that
organizational structure and skills interferes with
resources available to the performance and
worker increasing motivation
and intensifying
commitment that
enhances performance.
 Provides a model of an  Provides a model of a  Provides a model of a
efficient worker competent worker compassionate and
understanding worker

Performance – is a function of ability, commitment, and motivation.

Motivation – determines how vigorously, conscientiously, and persistently abilities will be

mobilized to do an effective job. It energizes behavior and sustains involvement in the work.

Job commitment – is associated with a feeling of loyalty to the agency, a conviction in the
objectives of the organization, a positive identification with the group, and a desire to remain with
the agency.

Supportive supervision

- is concerned with increasing motivation, job commitment and job satisfaction.

- includes those interventions that reinforce ego defenses and strengthen the capacity of the ego to
deal with job stresses and tensions.

- it includes such procedures as reassurance, encouragement, and recognition of achievement,

along with realistically based expressions of confidence, approval and commendation, catharsis-
ventilation, desensitization and universalization, and attentive listening that communicates interest
and concern.

- Attempts to help the worker feel more at ease with themselves in their wotk.

- provides emotional supports for the worker. It encourages, strengthen, stimulate and even
comfort and pacify him.

- Concerned with tension management on the job.

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 - It involves care for the careers, who feel disillusionment, disappointment, and
disenchantment.
- Seen as an important responsibility of supervision. It showed “support” to be one of the
key functions of supervision. It was defined as “provision of emotional support to
subordinates and enhancement of subordinates’ feelings of importance and self- worth”.

Burnout: Definition and Symptoms

Burnout- can be define as a syndrome of physical and emotional exhaustion resulting from
occupational stress involving the development of negative self- concepts, negative job attitudes,
and a loss of concern and feeling for class.

- Has been defined as an exhaustion reaction, the result of constant or repeated emotional
pressure associated with the intense involvement with people over a long period of time.

Symptoms

The symptoms are physical, emotional and behavioral.

Physical

-workers experiencing burnout manifest weariness and chronic fatigue. Feeling physically
drained, they are often more susceptible to colds, tension, headaches, digestive difficulties and
sleep disorders.

Emotional

- Emotionally burnout workers feel a sense of disenchantment with the work and
alienation from the work. Discouraged, hopeless and pessimistic about the work
they are doing, they feel depresses and emotionally depleted. Workers experiencing
burnout tend to feel angry and resentful as a consequence of a sense of a work
failure and futility. There is a loss of enthusiasm, excitement, sense of mission and
a gradual erosion of commitment and interest in the job. Instead of being interested
and satisfying, the job becomes something to be tolerated and survived.

Behavioral

- Workers suffering from the burnout, or impending burnout, manifest a resistance to going
to work and increase tardiness and absenteeism. When at work they tend to watch the clock,
postpone or cancel client appointments and take notes more frequent and longer breaks.
They resist taking calls from clients and postpone calling back. They display a more
cynical, detached, indifferent, or even apathetic approach to clients in an effort to distance
themselves emotionally. There is an increase tendency to treat clients in a mechanical,
rigid, petty, bureaucratic manner, making less of an effort to help. In discussing clients,

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 they are more likely to stereotype and discharge them, show a loss of caring and concerns,
and talk about them as “cases” rather than as an individuals.

When interacting with clients, burned-out workers are more likely to avoid eye contact, increase
their physical distance from the client, subtly discourage the client from sharing emotional material
and keep the interview as short as possible. Feeling physically tired and emotionally depleted,
burned-out workers tend to be more impatient with clients and more easily irritated by them.

Burnout results in a dehumanization of the client.

Workers personality as a factor in Burnout

Subject to the same stressful stimuli, some workers burnout and others are not, and
different degrees of burn out. The attitudes that people bring to the job are a factor. The workers
who is relaxed and doesn’t take the work too seriously, who has a high self- esteem that that is not
threatened by occasional failures on the job, and who is not too self- demanding and self- punitive
is less frequently a candidate for burnout.

The worker who consistently tends to blame himself for failure rather than realistically
assigning some component of failure to the client and the social situation is more likely to respond
negatively to job stress.

The self- image characteristics of many people who select social work as a career- the
image of an accepting, tolerant, understanding, and helpful person- increases vulnerability to
burnout.

For some social worker, the job is the most important thing in their lives, having clear
priority over other interests. For others, the job is a more peripheral aspect of their lives. The
workers who builds his or her life around the job is more likely to risk burnout. Investing more of
him- or her in the job, he or she is more likely to be disappointed and depressed if things go wrong.
Workers who have difficulty in separating work from the rest of life or are unable to balance
idealism and realism are more likely candidates for burnout.

If the worker’s social, marital, or family situation is stressful, even limited additional
stresses on the job may make him or her vulnerable. Stress from the home front pills over, adding
stress on the job.

Workers who have limited personal investment in their work, who are not strongly oriented
toward seeking emotional fulfillment from the client contacts, who tend to make situational rather
than personal attributions of failure in their work, or who are bureaucratically oriented toward
acceptance of rules, regulations, and procedures are likely to have less need for supportive
supervision.

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 A worker who is concerned about but not emotionally involved in the job, who is satisfied
with meeting minimal standards, and who is primarily concerned with extrinsic rewards- pay job,
job advancement, desirable office space- is likely to be in moderate need of supportive supervision
when some situation is encountered that threatens job security.

The more dedicated the worker, the greater the livelihood of the need for supervisory
support.

The worker who is upwardly mobile and achievement- oriented may need the frequent
reassurance from supportive supervision that he or she is doing well. Any hint of work failure is
threatening and anxiety- provoking to such workers and calls for supportive supervision.

III. Sources of Job- Related Tension for the Supervisee

A. Administrative Supervision as a Source of Tension

 Administrative pressures towards compliance with agencies policies and
procedures and the requirement for work assessment and evaluation are sources of
tension for the worker.
 (Itzhaky and Hiebloom) found out that the administrative supervision engenders
role ambiguity and role conflict in workers, they face the stress related to the
conflict between the bureaucratic and services orientations.
B. Educational Supervision as a Source of Tension
 Education implies change, and the target of change efforts is the worker. Change
involves of necessity, a temporarily disequilibrium, an “unfreezing” of the old
equilibrium. Educational efforts, then, inevitably involve some anxiety.
 The old procedure is being rejected, but the new procedure is not yet fully accepted.
The transition period is characterized by anxiety and a temporary loss confidence.
 The supervisory tutorial is a threat to the student’s independence.
 Supervisees also face a threat to their sense of adequacy. The learning situation
demands an admission of ignorance, however limited.
 In admitting ignorance, supervisee exposes their vulnerability. They risk the
possibility of criticism, of share, and perhaps of rejection because of an admitted in
adequacy.
 It is also contributes to reducing tensions. The knowledge and the skills, the
problem solutions which educational supervision makes available give the worker
a feeling of confidence and a sense of assurance in job performance.
C. The Supervisor- Supervisee Relationship as a Source of Tension
 (Mayer and Rosenblatt) stated that, “the worker anxieties appeared to be basically
a function of the two main relationships in which he was involved, his relations
with his supervisor and those with his client.
 The supervisory relationship is an intense, intimate, personalize situation that has
considerate emotional change. As it true for highly catheted, meaningful

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 interpersonal relationship, it becomes infused with transference elements, with
ambivalence and resistance, with residuals of earlier development conflicts.
 Empathic supervisory relationships both exacerbate and ameliorate stress for the
workers.
 Some conflicts between worker and the supervisor result inevitably from
differences in perspective. The worker faces the client directly. The supervisor is
not exposed to administrative relation, from which the worker is buffered.
 The worker and the supervisor have different perceptions of their world.
D. The Clients as a Source of Tension
 Workers deal with people who are living under considerable stress. Such clients
encountered at a time of crises, when their emotional reactions are overt and strong.
 The worker face to face with the client in the interview is exposed continually to a
one’s taught of unrepressed primitive feelings.
 The effect of exposure to client’s feeling is intensified by the fact that social work
training is designed to increase sensitivity and response to such feelings.
 And during the course of the day’s work, the emotional expenditures in each
interview are cumulative, leaving the worker emotionally depleted and exhausted.
 There are also problems of deciding between completing needs of different clients.
Devoting a considerable amount of time to one client means neglecting another.
E. The Nature and Content of the Task as a Source of Tension.
 Bobcock says,” living on a job that is so closely allied of life itself make separation of
work from other areas of life exceptionally difficult. Since the work task and living are
often simultaneously experience, anxiety is greater than in many other fields.
 Other stresses result from the fact that the worker’s responsibilities exceed their power
and resources.
 The worker is faced with the stress behaving antithesis demands and expectations. He is
required to be objective and maintain some emotional distance from the client. But at the
same time, he is required to be empathetic, feeling what the client feels, putting himself
figuratively in the client’s situation. These are the contradictory demands.
 There are also some of the occupational stress to which workers are subjects stems from
uncertainty about not only what they should be doing but also how they should be doing.
 The worker is under stress from doubts about his competence and about the significance
of his work.
 The occupational title, Social Work Profession arouses expectations in other which
results in stress. Workers may feel a stressful pressure to live up to the expectations
communicated by the title.

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F. The Organization as a Source of Tension

 Organizational turbulence, frequent reorganization, and rule change are stressful. An

organization with highly formalized hierarchal system, and elaborately structural rules
and procedure is associated with a greater livelihood of burn-out.
 There is stress associated with salaries paid many workers. Since the lower income levels
signify that we are considered of less importance this make it difficult to maintain a
respectable level of self-esteem.
 There is also a stress that derives from the necessity of working cooperatively with other
institutions in society that are based on values somewhat at variance the values to which
the social worker owes allegiance.

G. Community Attitudes Towards Social work as a Source of Tension

 The worker is affected by the general community attitudes towards Social Work and the
functions it performs. Over the years, public attitudes towards social work have more
from approval, trust and confidence through questioning ambivalence.
 To greater measures of critical mistrust and cynicism.

The Value of Supportive Supervision: Research Findings

 One study tested the effects of supportive and non-supportive orientations to supervision
(Blane 1968)
- Counseling students with supportive supervision showed a significant difference in
empathic understanding while those with non-supportive supervision did not show
this change.
 Non-supportive supervision tends to shift the workers of focus concern away from the
client and toward him (Davidson and Emmer 1966)
 Reductions of anxiety to the worker’s results from supportive supervision (Blau 1960)
 Available research also supports that good supervision reduces the negative effects of
burnout.
 Berkeley Planning Associates (1977) – a research organization, studied worker
performance in eleven protective service demonstration projects across the United
States. “It was found that those demonstration projects in which workers report
inadequate supervision had the highest incidence of burnout. Good supervision is
crucial to workers’ performance and satisfaction.”
 Adequate supervisory structure and support and provision of timely, appropriate
and adequate information have lower levels of burnout (Armstrong 1979)
 Munson (1983:217) found that “regular supportive supervision was the most
effective aid in combating burnout.”

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 -poor supervision is associated with increased risk of burnout.
 Gillespie and Cohen (1984) found that burnout was related to failure of
supervisors to provide support and technical assistance to workers in a survey of
183 protective service workers.
 “With social support from one’s supervisor- the supervisor’s support of the worker was
found to be a mediating factor in minimizing the negative effects of the work
environment and was recommended as a strategy to prevent burnout” (Sullivan
1989:9091).
 Social workers identified “more support and appreciation” from supervisor as among the
principal factors leading to the alleviation of job stress (Gibson, and Reid 1989:15, table
7).
 A study of ninety eight social workers in a youth and community agency found that “the
worker experiencing burnout perceived that there was a little support from both their
supervisor and their work environment” and they were “less satisfied with their
supervisors’ appreciation of their abilities and needs” (McCulloch and O’Brien 1986:85).
The better the support network, less burnout occurred.
 Support network defined as including people with whom one had “enduring interpersonal
ties” and “who could be relied upon to provide emotional sustenance, assistance and
resources in time of need and who provide feedback and with whom we share values and
standards”(Pines 1982:156)
 White- concludes that provision of effective clinical case supervision is the most
consistent mechanism needed to provide staff with emotional rewards that may be only
minimally provided by their clients whom they work.
 Newsome and Pillari-found that “overall job satisfaction and the overall quality of the
supervisory relationship were positively correlated”.
 Poulin- “the level of supervisory support goes up then the level of satisfaction increases.
..”
 “Satisfaction with supervision has the most ability to predict satisfaction” (Staudt
1997:49)
 Schrofell- concluded that “workers who were satisfied with their quality of supervision
are also satisfied with most aspect of jobs.”
 Itzhaky and aviad-Heibloom tested 100 supervisees from Israel social welfare, mental
health, rehabilitation and family therapy agencies to examine on social work burnout the
effects of :
 supervisory orientation – (psychodynamic and cognitive-behavioral)
 supervisory functions – (administration, education and support)
 dimensions of role stress – (role ambiguity and role conflict)
- “the higher the emotional-supportive function in supervision, the lower the conflict
and ambiguity, and consequently, the lower the level of burnout among social
workers”

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  Rauktis and koeske (1994) – examined the direct effects of supportive supervision on the
relationship between social workers work load and job satisfaction, a proxy measure of
burnout.
- “there is an important limiting condition to supervision effectiveness, when work
demand are high, emotionally supportive supervision loses its benefits. Apparently,
even highly supportive supervision cannot overcome a work environment
characterized by excessive work demands”.
 Harkness (1997) – examined variations in supervisory empathy and its effects on the
supervisory relationship, worker skills and relationships with clients, and client outcomes
over sixteen weeks of direct practice.

Additional sources of Support for Supervises

1. The client – through appreciative comments and responses, they confirmed the worker’s
competence and sense of self-worth.
2. The peer group – workers turn to peers with whom they feel comfortable to talk about
dissatisfactions and expresses feelings and emotions.
3. Social support network – workplace is the best context of dealing with work stress;
supervisor is the best resource for dealing with supervisee work stress.
4. Supervisee’s adaptions – supportive supervision is further supplemented by the workers’
own capacity to adjust and adapt.

Supervisees’ Games

Much of the material in this section originally appeared in the article “Games People Play in
Supervision,” Social Work (1968):23-32.

Manipulating Demand Levels

□ Two Against the Agency or Seducing for Subversion

- the game is generally played by intelligent, intuitively gifted supervisees who are
impatient with routine agency procedures.

- the more sophisticated supervisee introduces the game by noting the conflict between
bureaucratic and professional orientation to the work of the agency.

- Bureaucratic orientation – centered on what is needed to ensure efficient operation of

the agency.

- Professional orientation – focused on meeting the client’s needs

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- the supervisor is induced to play this game because he or she identifies with the
supervisee’s concern for meeting the client’s needs; the supervisor has frequently
resented bureaucratic demands and so initially sympathetic to the supervisees complaints.

-the supervisor will subvert agency administration procedures allied to the supervisee if
he/she plays the game.

□ Be Nice to Me Because I Am Nice to You

- another game to control demands on the supervisee

- the principal ploy is flattery including such compliments as “You’re the best supervisor
I ever had,” “You’re so consistently helpful”.

- a game of emotional blackmail in which, having been paid in this kind of coin, the
supervisor finds him- or herself unable to hold the worker firmly to legitimate demands.

Redefining the Relationship

- A second series of games designed to lessen the demands made on the supervisee by
redefining the supervisory relationship
- Depend on ambiguity in the definition of supervisory relationship; it is open to a
variety of interpretations and, in some crucial respects, resembles analogous
relationships

□ Protect the Sick and the Infirm or Treat Me, Don’t Beat Me

- this game is one of redefinition which suggests a shift from the relationship of the
teacher and learner in an administrative hierarchy to worker and client in the context of
therapy.

- supervisee would rather expose him- or herself (personal problems) rather than his
work, so he/she asks the supervisor for help in solving personal problems.

- the supervisor is induced to play because the games appeal to the social worker in him
or her

□ Evaluation Is Not for Friends

- another game for redefinition

- it requires increased determination and resolution on the part of any supervisor to hold
the “friend” to the required level of performance

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 □ Maximum Feasible Participation

- involves a shift in roles from supervisor and supervisee to peer and peer

- supervisee suggest that relationship will be most effective if it is in democratic

participation

- he/she should be granted equal responsibility for determining the agendas of

conferences. However, joint control of agenda can easily become total supervisee control

- the supervisor is forced to play but needs to be constantly alert to maintain some
semblance of administrative authority

Reducing Power Disparity

 A third series of game which is designed to reduce anxiety by reducing the power disparity
between supervisor and worker
 Sources of supervisor’s power: position; and expertise and superior skills
 expertise and superior skills is vulnerable in this series of games
 If the supervisee can establish the fact that the supervisor is not so smart, some of the power
different is lessened and with it some of the need to feel anxious
 If You Knew Dostoyevsky Like I Know Dostoyevsky
-The effective ploy, used to score addditional points, involves asking the supervisor
rheotorically, “You remember, don’t you?”. It equally clear to both supervisee and
supervisor that the latter does not remember. At this point, the supervisee intructs the
supervisor
-the roles of teacher and learner are reversed; power disparity and supevisee anxiety are
simultaneously reduced
-The supevisor acquiesces to the game because refusal requires a confession of ignorance
on his or her part
-effects to the supervisor include: feeling of depression and general malaise at having been
found ignorant
 So What Do You Know About It?
-another game that reduces power dispaarity and permits the supervisee the feeling that he
or she, rather than the supervisor, in is control
-the supervisor trying to tune in, finds his or her older psyche is not with it.
-the supervisor here finds him/herself being instructed by those he or she is charged with
instructing; roles are reversed
 Telling It Like It Is
-more recently developed procedure for putting the supervisor down
-social action-oriented supervisee is concerned with fundamental changes in social
relationships.
 All or Nothing at All

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 -designed to make the supervisor feel that she or he has sold out, been co-opted by the
establishment, lost or abandoned abroader vision of the “good” society and become
endlessly concerned with symptoms rather than with causes.
-effective because the supervisor recognizes that there is an element of truth in the
accusation for all who occupy position of responsibility in the establishment.

Controlling the Situation

-Another series of game designed to place control f the supervisory situation more
explicitly and directly in the hands of the supervisee
 I Have A Little List
- a game designed to control discussion’s content
-the supervisee comes in with series of questions about his or her work
-the better player formulates the questions about his or her work which the supervisor has
greatest professional interest
 Heading Them Off at the Pass
-control of the initiative which is also seized by the supervisee in this game
-thus, he opens the conference by freely admitting mistakes
Pleading Fragility- this communication prevents the supervisor from exploring any painful
or threatening issues with the supervisee.
 Woe Is Me
-trades on dependence and helplessness
-a game which is legitimately played by new workers
-they take advantage of legitimate deficiences by exaggerating them so that it becomes a
form of supplication
 Little Old Me or Casework a’ Trois
-control is exerted through fluttering dependency, a case of strength through weakness
-the supervisee unloads responsibility for the case onto the supervisor, and th supervisor
shares the caseload with the worker
 I Did as You Told Me
-the supervisee maneuvers the supervisor into offering specific prescriptions on case
management and then applies them in spiteful obedience and undisguised mimicry.
-the supervisee acts as though the supervisor were responsible for the case, the worker
merely being the executor of supervisory directives
 What You don’t Know Won’t Hurt Me
-supervisee control the degree of threat in the supervisory situation by distancing
techniques
-the supervisor knows the work of the supervisee only indirectly
 Who Me? Not Me and Mea Culpa, but Just this Once
-Supervisee mannipulates the level of the supervisor’s response to worker performance
deficiences by these games

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 -Who Me?-the supervisee tries to shift the burden of responsibility onto other things
-Mea Culpa, but Just this Once-an apology coupled with a show of repentance, that
reduces supervisors reprimand the supervisee for task failures
 Yes-Butting
-game of seeming to accept wha the supervisor says but in effect rejecting the
communication
-yes- signifies initial acceptance, but- introduces the rejection

Countering Games
 Simplest and direct way of dealing with games introduces by the supervisee is to refuse the
play.
 The second response is open confrontation.
 Another approach is to share honestly with the supervisee one’s awareness of what he is
attempting to do in adjusting to work-related stress.

IMPLEMENTING SUPPORTIVE SUPERVISION

Supportive supervision of often implemented not as a separte, explicitly identifiable

acivity but as a part of the work of educational and administrative supervision.

In a study of how human servise professinal cope with burnout and the suggestion
they have for coping with it, building competence.

The supervisor’s availability in and of itself is reassuring and suportive. A

questionnaire study of worker reactioon to supervision indicated that supervisor’s availability and
regularity of contact were positively correlated with satisfaction with supervision and the level of
perceived helpfulness of the relationship.

The supervisor’s responsee to the development of stress and tension on the part of the
worker and the ultimate danger of burnout involves a specific intervention. The supervisor can act
to;

1. Prevent stress and tension from developing

2. Remove the worker from the source of stress
3. Reduce the impact of the stressors
4. Help the worker adjust to stress

PREVENTION OF STRESS
At the very beginning the probability of burnot might be reduced by the supervisor’s
effective performance of the administrative supervisory function of hiring and inductng. This
permits that there is a best fit between applicant and the work that needs to be performed.

REDUCING AND AMELIORATING STRESS

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 The supervisor can arranged for a temporary reduction in caseload or a temporary shift to
less problematic clients.
 Conferences, institutes and workshops not only provide learning and stimulatng personal
contacts but also enable the worker to get away from the office and the caseload.
 The supervisor might sanction timeout as a tension-reducing measure.
 The supervisor can remove the worker from stress by job enrichment, job diversification
and job rotaton.
 A temporary change of assignment from the field to the office with temporarily dimished
responsibility for contact with clients helps the worker catch his or her psychic breath and
recharge emotional batteries.
 In an attempt more specifically related to helping the worker cope with developing tension,
supervisors in some agencies have arranged for stress management workshops.
 The supevisors can be supportive by sharing frankly some his or her dufficulties with the
supervisee.
 The worker maybe upset about a problem he or she is facing withh the client. Discussing
it with the supervisor who is calm about the situation is supportive.
Externalization-an open expression of anxous feelings
 The supervisor reduces stress by normalizing unprofessional feelings noting that workers
may often feel negative or crtical about some clients.
 Reinforcement or confirmation of the worker’s decisions is supportive because it assures
them that the supervisor shares the responsibilty for what they are doing or planning to do.
 The supervisor mitigates stress by supportively sharing the responsibility for difficult
decisions with the worker.
Vocabularies of realism- acquiring a language for coping with failure and
human fallibility can be seen as part of the process of acquiring a professional orientation
and frame of reference toward the work of profession.

 The supervisor helps the supervisee accept the reality of human fallibility and
imperfections, the limits of technology, and the fact that all approaches are effective
sometimes but never all the time.
 The supervisor can help the supervisee in modifying stress producing self-statements
through reframing and cognitive restructing.
 The supervisor reduces tension by helping the worker resolve the problem of conflicting
role obligations.
 The supervisor provides the support of perspective.
 Supervisors provide support for workers in helping them formulate a clearer conception of
agency policies, their own work goals and their role within the agency.
 The supervisor supports by praising and commending good performance and
communicates agency appreaciation for the workers’ efforts.

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 TYPES OF SUPERVISION

Effective supervision has been an agency problem for social agencies. As social work
struggles to become more recognized and more comfortable as a profession it develoed much
energy to establishing and maintining agency standards and to organizing and transmitting its
knowledge and skills. Within agencies the mechanism for accomplishing these goals is
supervision. The following are the types of supervision generally practiced in the Philippines.

1. Tutorial Model – it consists of a supervisor and a supervisee in a one-to-one relationship.

This is to guide the supervisee in his initial and inexperienced translated of theory into
practice. Problem and other difficulties encountered by the supervisee during the course of
his work are discussed during individual supervison. Supervisory conferences are usually
scheduled on a regular and frequent basis – one hour a weak affair.
2. Group Supervision – there is a designed supervisor and a group of supervisees. This
model is practiced by agencies which lack the necessary number of trained supervisors to
handle the supervision. The advantage of group supervision lies in the fact that members
of the group learn from one another as well as derive mutual support in the course of
discussion. Group supervision to be effective is done only with a homogenous group and
all the membets, more or less have some facility of expression. Such a group meets
regularly with the supervisor determining the agenda for the meeting. Case are discussed
both to provide direct help to the worker involved and to provide direct help to the worker
involved and to serve as a spring board for the discussions. Other forms of supervision
which have been and are practiced in the Western countries, particularly America, are
discussed below. These models may be applied in the Philippines to respond to the diverse
needs of different supervisees.
3. Case Consultation- here, there is a designed consultant and the worker schedules the
contacts when he needs them. The worker is primarily responsible for the focus of the
meeting. Consultations arecase focused. The worker is responsible for the decisions about
thecase, and the cnsultation is laways non-restrictig, that is, it must be clear to both parties
that the worker is not bound by the opinions of the consultants unless he considers them
useful.
4. Peer-Group Supervision – there is no designated supervisor, and all the members of the
group participate as equals. Consequently,one of the requirements for the group’s success
is that the members are mature and experienced enough to make vital contributions to case
discussion and must share common areas of competence. A peer group meets regularly, the
agenda for meeting is determined by mutual agreement and the group leader will try to ask
the members for their ideas and as a way to enlarge their understanding of a case and extent
the number of options to be considered in any situation. Members are not under any
obligation to act in accord with the ideas proposed in group discussion of their cases.
5. Tandem Supervision- this deveoped out of the peer-group model. In this case two group
members decide to function part from the group. Neither is designed the supervisor. Both

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 are experienced workers who respect the ability and opinions of each other. As a tandem,
they meet informally whenever either a case for consideration has. Decisions are the
responsibility of the person to whom the case is assigned, but as the tandem work together
for a while, both members become familiar with each other’s cases and the decision tends
to become more collaborative. At times members could cover other.
6. The team- this model consist of varied numbers within the agency structure. They meet
on a regular basis, with the agenda proposed by the members in advance. Any member has
the liberty to add a case to the agenda for discussion. It is the task of the team to arrive at
he discussion about the case through the group process during the meeting. The decision
in every case, regardless of which member is responsible for implementing it, is the team.

THE GROUP CONFERENCE IN SUPERVISION

In some agencies, the group conference is the principal form of supervision. In

manymore agencies, the group conference is used in addition to the individual conference.

A 1989 questionnaire study of some 900 supervisors and supervisees showed that
the group conference was the principal context for supervision for about 18% of the respondents.

Definition

The term group supervision is defined here as the use of a group setting to implement
the responsibilities of supervision. In group supervision, the supervisor-given educational,
administrative, and supportive responsibility for the activities of a specific number of workers-
meets with the group to discharged their responsibilities.

In group supervision, the agency mandate to the supervisor is implemented in the

group and through the group. Most simply, group supervision has been defined as supervision in
a group format.

This definition of group supervision solves some of the decisional problems

regarding group formation. The sizeof the group is determined by of supervisees for whom the
supervisor has administrative responsibility (generally 4-5). As a result, the group is likely to be
homogeneous with regard to significant factors that determine group interest and concerns.

The primary ultimate objective of group supervision is the same as the ultimate
objective of all supervision: more effective and efficient service to agency clients.

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Advantage of Group Supervision

1. One clear advantage of group supervision is economy of administrative time and effort
(Hawkins and Shohet 1989).
2. Group conference makes possible the efficient utlization of a wider variety of teaching-
learning experiences (Hawkins and Shohet 1989).
3. Group supervision provides the opportunity for supervisees to share their experiences with
similar problems encountered on the job and possible solutions that each has formulated in
response.
4. Members of the group also act as a source of emotional support (Bernard and Goodyear).
5. The opportunity for sharing common problems encountered in a job is, in itslef, a
therapeutically reassuring contributon to individual morale.
6. Workers find it difficult to assess their comparative competence because they perform their
tasks in Private and discuss their performance in the privacy of the individual supervisory
conference.
7. For some workers the group situation is the most comfortable learning environment.
8. The group context provides the safety in numbers that individual supervisees may need to
challenged the supervisor.
9. Group supervision is employed to encouraged interaction among members of the work unit
and to help develop peer group cohesion (Munson 1997; Hayes, Blackman, and Brennan
2001).
10. The group conference provides the supervisor with the opportunity of observing the
supervisee in a different kind of relationship (Bernard and Goodyear 1998, Hawkins and
Shohet 1989).
11. Group supervision permits an advantageous specialization of function.
12. It may be easier for the supervisor to achieve modification of a supervisee’s behavior
through the medium of the group conference than in an individual conference.
13. Just as the group conference permits the supervisor to observe the supervisee in a somewhat
different set of relationships, it permits the supervisee to observe the supervisor under
different condition.
14. The group settings provide the supervisee with the opportunity for using the supervisor as
a model in learning-group interaction skills (Munsom 1997).
15. Group supervision provides a gradual step toward independence from supervision.
16. Group supervision provides an opportunity for multi-cultural education.

Disadvantages of Group Supervision

1. The great advantage of individual conference is that teaching and learning can be
individualized to meet the needs of a particular of supervisee.
2. The supervisee may well learn more easily in a group conference through identification
with peers, inencumbered by feelings of dependency and hostility toward the authority of
the supervisor, but the group presents its own impediments to learning.
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 3. It is more difficult to incorporate a new apointee into a supervisory group than to provide
the same appointee with the individual suervision.
4. The individual conference forces the supervisee to come up with his or her own answers
and decisions regarding the problem he or she faces.
5. If the offers a large pool of possible sources of insights and support, it also offers more
sources of critical feedback.
6. Communication within a group risks higher probability of failure than in the dyadic
interaction.
7. The safety of numbers that allows the supervisee to raise critical questions and comments
also presents a danger that the peer group may organize against the supervisor in the group
conference.
8. The more cohesive a group is, the more the individual member feels identified with the
group, the greater are the pressure to conform to group thinking and attitudes.
9. Accepting the responsibility for the group supervision imposes heavy, perhaps unfamiliar
demands on their supervisors and their knowledge and skills.

Individual and Group Supervision: Appropriate Use

Frequently, the agenda for group conferences from recurrent problems discussed in
individual conferences; often, the group discussions are subsequently referred to in

Individual conference to group conferences to individual conferences. The flow is circular from
individual conference to group conferences to individual conferences.

The decision as to what should be taught on an individual basis and what should be taught
through the group must be on diagnostic on the educational needs of the learner.

Research Group Supervision

Looking in the experience in supervision of 671 supervisees and 109 supervisors, Shulman found
that group session were held on an average of twice a month and that “holding regularly scheduled
group sessions correlation positively with a good working relationship” (1982:261) between the
supervisor and supervisee.

In addition to the greater efficiency in time expended in group supervision, the study further
confirms some of the other hypothesized advantage of the approach “students in group supervision
felt greater freedom to communicate dissatisfaction with field instruction to their supervision and
greater freedom to with them about professional ideas”.

In studying the behavior of peers in group supervision Hoese (1987) found that peers
tended to provide mutual support to one another in developing a comfortable group environment.
Supervisors will perceive as establishing goals, providing feedback in helping group members
evaluate work, and providing direct help or suggestions regarding client contacts.

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Group Supervision: Process

Many considerations to which we might call attention regarding the process of group
supervision are not particular or unique to the group supervisory situations. They are generally true
for any circumstance in which a group is used as the vehicle for achieving the desired objective.
Awareness of the procedure that are most productive and the recurrent problem in group interaction
that are likely to be encountered is applicable to the group supervisory situation.

Group Setting

Physical arrangement is a determinant of group interaction needs to be given careful

attention by the supervisor in preparing for a group supervisory conference. A circular arrangement
permits everybody to look at and to talk to everybody else. Being able to look at as well as listen
to everyone else permits easier perception of nonverbal communication messages.

Purpose

The group meeting, like defined purse the individual conference, needs to have a clearly
defined purpose. Formed by the agency to achieve it purpose, the group is not entirely free to
determined its own purposes. Group and individual supervision have the same ultimate objectives,
and group conference are required to have purposeful outcomes that further these objectives.

Leadership and Planning

In group supervision, group interaction is employed as a ‘method used toward a specified

end and supervisory discussion are bounded discussions” (Pearlman 1950:334) limited by the
objectives of supervision.

An egalitarian stance on the part of the supervision (“I am just another member of the
group”, We are all the same here”) is seen as false by some and as an abdication of responsibility
by other. The very fact that the supervisors has the authority is, in and of itself, proof of authority.

The group is not free to develop its own solutions but needs to recognize constraints
imposed by agency budgets, legislative regulations, or agency policy.

Although leadership of the group is primarily the responsibility of the supervisor, it is not
his or her responsibility alone. The group itself has considerable responsibility for the many
decisions that relate to the group purpose and functioning.

If the supervisor is invested with the responsibility for defining and implementing-however
tentatively, however gently-the aim and the objectives of the group adequate preparation for the
group meetings is mandatory.

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 The general purpose of group supervision may be clear, but because it is stated in a very
global way, the supervisor has to help translate it into specific, clearly identifiable obejectives for
each particular meeting.

A Cleary stated purpose that has group understanding and acceptance is one of the best
guarantees against over contra and over direction of group activities by the supervisor.

Planning should include consideration of the most advantageous format for the kind of
content with which the meeting is concerned.

Content and Method

The content of the group supervisory meeting includes of general concern to social workers
in an agency-recording, interviewing, referral procedures, psychological test, caseload
management, worker-client interaction, use of consultation, the ethics of practice, and so on.

By deliberate choice supervision may become individual supervision in a group setting.

The group of supervisees might conduct sessions in which the work of a particular member of the
group is singled for the discussion.

When a group member presents his or her own material for discussion, there are additional
problems. The supervisor may work with the supervisee toward selecting the case for presentation
that is like; to have grates value for both the supervisee and the group.

Audio and videotapes are appropriately use as the basis for the group discussion.
Audiotapes are often difficult to understand, and the strain of listening to unclear, disembodied
voices can leave the group without energy for discussion.

Supervisor’s Responsibility in the Group Conference

Early on the group process the supervisor to make an explicit attempt to establish some
group norms. Agreed-on norms of productive group supervision might include the following:

1. To allow everyone to have his or her say without undue interruption

2. To listen carefully and attentively to what are others are saying.
3. To respond to what others have said.
4. To keep one’s contribution are response reasonably relevant to the focus of what is being
discussed.
5. To share material and experiences that might contribute to more effective professional
practice.

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Humor in Group Supervision

Laughter provides a welcome break for the groups. Serious consideration of clinical and
administrative problems in stressful. The refreshing interposition of a moment of humor enables
the group to return refreshed to its work.

Humor acts as a safety valve for tension in the group. Laughter together unites the group,
performing as integrative function.

A sense of humor is positive attribute of the effective supervisor (Vinton 1989). Laughing
together means that supervisor and supervised share the same meaning of the situation. It ends to
reduce status barriers.

Summary

Group supervision is the use of the group setting to implement the administrative,
educational, and supportive functions of supervisions. It is most frequently used as a supplement
(rather than a substitute) for individual supervision.

 It ensures economical use of administrative time and effort;

 It ensures efficient utilization of a wider variety of teaching-learning experiences;
 It provides a forum for discussion of problems and experiences common to group members
that not only as in the formulation of the possible solutions but also provides a wider variety
of experience to each worker;
 It provides emotional support;
 It provides an opportunity for the supervisees to share their own knowledge and give
support to others;
 It aids in the maintenance of morale;
 It provides a comfortable learning environment; one is that potentially less threatening that
the individual supervisory conference;
 It provides an opportunity to compare his or her work with that of the other supervisees;
 It gives the supervisees a chance to feel more involved with a part of the agency as a whole;
 It provides the supervisor with the chance to see the supervisee in a different light;
 It allows the sharing of supervisory functions between the supervisor and the group;
 It facilitates modification of the supervisee’s behavior through giving them a chance t learn
from peers;
 It allows the supervisees to see the supervisor in a different light; and
 It permits the development of greater supervisee autonomy; it offers the possibility of
multi-cultural education.

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EVALUATION

Definition

-Defined as the objective appraisal of the worker’s total functioning on the job ever
specified period of time.

-Is a process of systematic procedures to determine the validity the extent to which the
workers achieving the requirements of his or her position in the agency.

-Should be a judgement based on clearly specified, realistic and achievable criteria

reflecting agency standards.

-It is job related and time limited.

-Is concerned with both the quality of performance and the quantity of accomplishment.

-An administrative procedure that can and should contribute to professional growth.

-A component of administrative, educational and supervision.

-An ethical of obligation of professional supervision.

Values of Evaluation

a. Value to the Worker

- The evaluation is an opportunity for the worker to obtain explicit approval of his/her
work from somebody who is thought to have the information, ability and experience to
make such a judgement.
- It provides the worker with a presumably objective, authoritative perspective on his/her
abilities and deficiencies.
- The supervisee is stimulated to learn and change to achieve a good evaluation.
- The workers are likely to expend more energy in learning such tasks and pay more
attention to the performance of such tasks.
- It points how much the worker has leaned, how far he/she has come.
- Evaluation help set the pattern for the self-evaluation by the supervisee.

- The workers responsibility for self-evaluation and self-regulation.

- Evaluation assists the worker in career planning.

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A Value to the agency

- Evaluation conferences provide the opportunity for structuring accountability.

- Evaluation leads to communication from supervisors to administrators regarding
administrative procedures that are adversely affecting worker performance.
- Evaluation helps the agency identify special skills manifested by individual self.
- Evaluation helps the agency purpose of administrative supervision evaluation also helps
validate agency policy regarding worker selection.
- Evaluation becomes more important in the context of admonishing agency budgets and
downsizing agency programs.
- Effective evaluation procedures can protect agencies against affirmative action
challenges as well as ensure compliance with affirmative action procedures.
c. Value to the client
-The principal benefit of evaluation for the clients that as a consequence he or she is more
likely to be ensured of effective service and protected from continuation of inadequate
services.

d. Value to the superior

-Evaluation provides the supervisor to know the agenda for future educational
supervision.
-Supervisor can make a better much between tasks that need to be completed and interest
and abilities of individual workers.
-The evaluation criteria and the need to justify judgement helps discipline the
supervisor’s thinking in assessing the workers performance.

Objectives of the evaluation:

3 principal objectives of evaluation:

1. Administratively focused objective

-Evaluation provides a systematic product, a report that management uses in making

informed administrative decisions.

2. Worker’s professional growth and development

-Evaluation is a teaching-learning process that identifies strength and weaknesses in the

workers performance to enable the worker to improve his or her performance.

3. Overarching objective

-improving the outcome of agency service.

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Dislike of evaluation

Evaluation is important but at the same time crucial make one not comfortable of
performing the task.

Evaluation is among the supervisory procedures that most explicitly call attention to the
difference in status and between supervisor and supervisee. This rate and perform activity might
be taken with extreme personalism, making it hard for the supervisor to rate and so with who
performs. Evaluations can evoke negative feelings that can lead to a hostile reaction from the
supervisee and guilt from the ones who evaluate. These consequences will stage significance for
the job status and professional career of the workers. Another thing is the idea of self- centered
evaluator who evaluates to provide a kind of validation that she/ he Is a good therapist in helping
somebody in the field that is why a certain worker achieved a good evaluation. The idea of
“pakikisama” is also inflected in some ways, especially if the evaluator prefers to give
euphemistic term for him/ her to be well accepted on true circle of the workers rather than doing
the crucial evaluation.

To be comfortable with the threats posed by performance appraisal, the supervisor must
accept the legitimacy of the evaluation process an feel entitled to make an evaluation.

Positive evaluation is an endorsement while negative evaluation is a loss of staff.

The supervisor again faces the tasks of introduction orientation, and screening using the on a cost
benefit analysis balance that contains detailed formed evaluation which involves a risk of
evoking hostility, resentment or rejection for the worker.

Frank and proper evaluation is a key that will open an effective worker. From the first
step of evaluation, supervisor must be very honest with the deficiencies of the worker to avoid an
improving mistake and to prove the validity of one’s evaluation.

Failure to be appropriately critical substituted to a problem of group morale for a problem

of individual morale. In a working environment, if a worker whom must perceived to be
inefficient is given a raise along with better workers because supervisor has not been
appropriately critical, they feel resentful and cynical. It might also create a bad reputation of the
nit for an inadequate performance and to save the loss of other workers failure. Thus evaluation
is crucial and it affects the whole system.

Evaluation is not an easy task but it is the most definite expression of supervisory and a
potent instrument for control.

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Desirable Evaluation Procedure

1. Supervisors have a duty to evaluate their supervisees and point to the failure to provide
timely and relevant feedback. Supervisee should be told the amount type (formal or
informal, written or verbal), timing and frequency of evaluation procedures to be used.
2. Social work supervisors place a priority on evaluating supervisees as do their managerial
counterparts elsewhere.
3. Evaluation should be continuous process of systematic observation and assessment,
rather than an occasional event because the accuracy rating tends to increase with the
amount of time supervisors observing supervisees.
4. Supervisor might do well to maintain ongoing observational records or diaries of
supervisee performance.
5. Regularly devoting some part of each conference to assessment, however brief, helps
desensitize the workers anxiety regarding it. This practice also helps prepare him or her
for what is likely to be shared at the formal conference so that it does not come as an
unexpected.
6. The evaluation should be conducted and communicated in the context of a positive
relationship.
7. The evaluation procedure should be a mutual, shared process. The supervisor should
attempt to maximize the worker’s participation in and contribution to the evaluation.
8. Evaluations should be made with some recognition and consideration of reality factors
that might be determinants of the workers performance.
9. The principal (if not exclusive) focus of evaluation should be the work performance of
the supervisee rather than any evaluation of the worker as a person.
10. The evaluation should review both strength and weaknesses, growth and stagnation, and
should be fair and balance.

Evaluation Conference: Process

The worker should be informed at least a week in advance about the specific place and
time of the evaluation conference.

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 Ethical Dilemmas in Supervision

ETHICAL UNETHICAL

 An ethical obligation to meet the  To assign a case to a supervisee who is

legitimate needs of the supervisee, without necessary skills and
evaluate objectively and fairly, refrain knowledge to offer effective service.
from taking advantage of differences in  Unethical for either supervisors and
power, and implement the functions of supervisees to present themselves as
supervision conscientiously and competent to deliver professional
responsibly. services beyond their training level of
 Supervisors are ethically liable if they experience and competence.
fail to meet regularly with supervisees
to review their work and provide
adequate coverage in a supervisee’s
absence, or if they fail to detect or stop
a negligent treatment plan.
 There is an ethical responsibility on the
part of supervisors to avoid dual
relationships with supervisees,
particularly roles related to sexual
exploitation.
 Supervisors have an ethical
responsibility to make explicit their
expectations of the supervisee and the
arrangements for working together.
 Supervisors have an ethical
responsibility for continued self-
development, upgrading skills, and
monitoring their own effectiveness.

The supervisor has to make him or herself available in case of emergencies or at any time
when crisis decisions need to be made. The supervisor’s responsibility is initially and primarily to
the needs of the clients and only secondarily to the needs of the supervisee. A dilemma for the
supervisee becomes a dilemma for the supervisor.

 What adjustment does the supervisor advises the worker to make when needed resources
or services are denied? Should the supervisor authorize services to clients in need, even if
managed care companies refuse to authorize payments?

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  Strom-Gottfried and Corcoran- identify the root of such problem as conflicts of
interest that requires supervisor to act as triple agents, “with concurrent
responsibilities to clients, to supervisees and to employers or other entities that have
a stake in the helping process.
 Duty of Disclose- the ethical solution to this problem, making the clients aware of
conflicts of interest and giving priority to providing quality of care.
 Reamer believes that the clients should be informed of how the delivery of services
may be affected by third party policies and restrictions, made aware of procedures
for service authorization, advised of their right to appeal and forewarned that
appeals compromise their privacy.
 Duty to appeal adverse decisions- an ethical duty of the supervisors to protest the
third-party decisions contrary to professional judgment. (Appelbaum)
 How absolute are the limits of confidentiality that the supervisor asks the supervisee to
observe?
For example, if a pregnant thirteen-year-old seeks the help of the social worker in
obtaining an abortion and does not want either her parents or the father of the child notified
of her decision.
 In response to this situation, the general orientation is that the clients have the right
and the obligation to make the decision for themselves, the worker’s responsibility
being to help the clients come to a decision. But in regard to some equally difficult
questions, the worker is involved in helping the client implement the decision.
 On the part of the supervisor they find it difficult to entirely by neutral in response
to the decision the client selected, which way do they lean, or should they lean. In
response to these situations, most of these situations post ethical dilemmas that are
as yet unresolved.

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IV. SOCIAL RESEARCH

I. RESEARCH IN SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

1. How is research utilized in social work practice?

Reference: Almanzor, A. “Research in the Curriculum for Social Work Training,”
Social Work Education for Social Work Practice, Report of the 3 rd National Workshop on
Social Work Education (Manila: DSW, DEC and UNICEF), 1989.

2. Compare the process followed in social research and is social work. Cite as many scientific
principles and steps as they are observed both in research and in practice (problem-
solving).
Reference: Goldstein, H. Research Standards for Social Work, 1963; MacDonald
M. “Social Work Research: A Perspective.” In Polansky, N. (ed.) Social Work Research,
1980.

3. The importance of knowing why and how research is done.

3.1 to learn new facts of social life

3.2 to analyze the sequence and interrelationships of social facts
3.3 to analyze the sequence and interrelationships of social facts
3.4 to discover any regularities or at least hypotheses of such regularities in society

II. DEVELOPING A CONCEPT OF SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH

1) Definitions

1.1 Social Research

- “A systematic investigation intended to add to available knowledge in a form that
is communicable and verifiable.”
MacDonald, “Social Work Research: A Perspective,” Social Work Research. N.
Polansky (ed.), Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 1960, p.2.

- “The use of standardized procedures in the search for knowledge.”

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 Greenwood, cited in MacDonald’s article, lbid. P.2.

- The major goal of scientific research is to establish causal laws that enable us to
predict and explain scientific phenomena.”
Labovitch and Hagedon, R. Introduction to Social Research (New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1970, p.1
1.2 Social Work Research

- “Begins with practical problems, and its objective is to produce knowledge that
can be put to use in planning or carrying out social work programs.” MacDonald,
Op Cit. p.3.
- “Intelligent problem-solving in the interest of adding to knowledge.” Lbid.

2) Kinds
2.1 General type

2.1.1 Pure/Basic Research – academic; to gain knowledge

2.1.2 Applied Research – inherited for practical application

2.2 According to Goals

2.2.1 Exploratory/Formulative - a study for the purpose of formulating a problem or

developing a hypothesis

- To gather preliminary information

- To discover ideas and insights
- To get extensive information about a phenomenon
- To provide a basis for the selection of priorities for further investigation

2.2.2 Descriptive – to obtain complete and accurate information with provisions for
protection which is not found in exploratory studies.

Example: Community studies

2.2.3 Explanatory off Experiment

1) Special Purpose

- To test causal relationships

- To explain a phenomenon in terms of cause-and-effect relationships

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 2.3 According to Methods/Designs

a) General types: Experimental

Non-experimental

b) Tabular Comparison

III. THE METHODICAL STEPS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH

1. Defining the problem to be studied

1.1 Statement of the problem

Guidelines in stating the problem:

1.1.1 May be done in terms of a concrete statement of the purpose of the study
(objectives of the study) or in terms of specific questions which the
study needs to answer.
1.1.2 Criteria for problem-formulation statements
Source: C. Ripple “Problem Identification and Formulation, Social
Work Research by N. Polansky (ed.)

1) A precise exposition of the rationale of the study and of what it

proposes to investigate
2) Should state the specific aspect of the situation that is to be
investigated and why this aspect was chosen
3) Specifies in outline form, the coverage of the study including
hypothesis, assumptions and concepts

1.1.3 Research Manageability

Source: Selltiz, et al. Research Methods in Social Relations

The research task must be reduced too manageable size, “or divided
into a number of sub-topic, each of which can be handled in a single
study.
Breaking down the study into several aspects/dimensions/variables.

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 1.1.4 Guide question in formulating a research problem

Source: Philippines Social Science Council, Social Survey series, No.

1, trial ed.

1) What do I want to find out?

What questions need to be answered by the research?
2) Why is there a need to answer the research questions being posed?
3) Who will be using the information?
And for what purpose? “Purposes” – determine the kind and extent
of information to be gathered.
1.2 Operational Definitions – specifying the use of the term in the study and the
observable procedures used to identify the reference of the term.

e.g. Hawkers and vendors are:

a) The itinerant peddlers and sidewalk vendors who carry their wares around
b) Hawkers in semi-fixed locations . . . on pavements or sidewalks by
department stores or near churches and market areas with wares often
clipped on the walls.
c) Hawkers in more/less permanent locations. . . in kiosks around market
place, sidewalks and vacant lots in commercial areas.
Source: Guerrero, S. G. Hawkers and Vendors in Manila and Baguio, 1970.

1.3 Identification of Variables and their indicators

Definition and Kinds:

a) Variable – measurable dimension of a concept

e.g. socio-economic variables – age, sex, educational attainment, place of

origin, civil status, etc.

b) Dependent and Independent Variables – useful for hypothesis formulation,

identifying the logical cause-variable and the effect-variable.

e.g. Inter-relation between income (IV) and level of living (DV)

c) Process of elaboration – two variable analyses represent the start, not the
completion of the variable analysis. Elaboration as a next step may suggest
further investigation, hence, the possible introduction of such variables
termed as “contingent, antecedent, extraneous, intervening or suppressor.”

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 1.4 Hypothesis Formulation

a) Definition of Hypothesis
- Statement of a relationship between two or more variables
- A proposition of tentative relationship or explanation of observations
- “a proposition, condition, or principle which is assumed perhaps without belief in
order to draw out its logical consequences, and by this method to test its accord
with fats which are known or may be determined.”
- A proposition of statement to be accepted or rejected, whose role is to suggest
explanation for certain facts or to guide the investigation of others.

Source: Selltiz, et Al. Research Methods in Social Relations

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