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Repeaters :
• A repeater or regenerator is an electronic device that operates on only the physical layer of
the OSI MODEL.
• A repeater installed on a link receives the signal before it becomes too weak, or corrupted
regenerates the original bit pattern and puts a refreshed copy back on to the link
• A repeater helps in extending only the physical length of a network.
• Repeater forwards every frame it has no filtering capability
• A Repeater is a regenerator not an amplifier

Hub :
• A hub is a multiport repeater
• A hub is used as a central device to connect the computers in star topology.
• Hubs are simple devices that broadcasts the data packets to all the connected devices
But only the intended recipient whose MAC address matches accepts it
• Hubs work at the physical layer of OSI model
• They cannot filter network traffic.

Types of hub :
Passive Hub: - It simply forwards the data signals to the multiple devices connected to it.
Active Hub: - It amplifies the data signals before forwarding them to the multiple devices
connected to it.
Intelligent Hub: It is an active hub which can performs functions such as bridging routing
switching and network management

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HUB SWITCH
It functions in a physical layer. It functions in the data link layer.
It uses broadcast technology It uses point to point technology
Hub is less intelligent Switch is more intelligent
It sends received packets to all ports It sends received packet only to the
destination port
Hub is less expensive Switch is more expensive
Supports half duplex communication Supports full duplex communication
Data transmission is in the form of electrical Data transmission is in the form of frame
signals or bits (layer2) switch and packet (layer3) switch
Collision occur in network set-ups using Collision does not occur in full duplex switch
hub

Bridge :
A bridge is used for linking two networks that work with same protocol
• Bridge can divide larger network into smaller segments
• It has a table used in filtering decision
• Bridges can be programmed to reject packets from particular network
• By looking at the MAC address of the devices connected to each segment, bridges can
forward the data or block it .
• A bridge operates at data link layer..

Types of Bridges:
Simple bridge: A simple bridge links two segments and contains a table that lists the addresses of all the
stations included in each of them
Multiport bridges: A multiport bridge can be used to connect more then two LANs
Transparent bridges: Transparent bridges only perform the function of blocking or forwarding data
based on MAC addresses. These MAC addresses are used to build tables and make decision regarding
whether a frame should be forward or blocked.
Source Routing Bridge: In source routing bridge networks, the stations that transmits a frame include, as
part of the frame, the route that frame should travers
Local Bridge: It simply reads the addresses and pass or discard the packets. This is also called MAC
layer bridge
Translation Bridge: Translation bridges are useful to connectsegments running at differentspeeds or
using different protocols such as Token ring and Ethernet network. These bridges are slower and
expensive.
Remote Bridge: Remote bridge connects network segments at different locations, using WAN link such
as modem or leased line.
Wireless Bridge: This bridge connects with another bridge without wiring between them.

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Advantages of bridges
• Extend physical network
• Reduce network traffic with minor segmentation
• Reduce collisions
• Connect different architecture
Disadvantages of bridges
• Slower than repeaters due to filtering
• Do not filter broadcasts
• More expensive than repeaters

Bridge
Bridge operates at the data link layer of OSI
Model.
The complete frames is understood by bridge.
Destination address is used in the bridge to
determine where to forward a frame.
Bridge connects two networks in a well
organized manner.
Filtering of the packets in network is achieved
by the bridge.
Bridges are relatively expensive and used to
extend a LAN.
In the network, if collision occurs in the one
segment, it is not forwarded to another segment
Repeater
Repeater operates at physical layer of OSI
Model.
Repeater do not understand complete frame
Repeaters
are not able to recognize the
destination address.
Repeater expands the limit of the signals in the
network.
Repeater cannot performs packet filtering.
Repeater is also used to extend a LAN, but
comparably economical than the bridge.
Repeater forwards the collision from one
segment to another.

Switch
• A network switch can be defined as the device that connects the network devices or
network segments , Switches are available with 4,8,24,64 ports
• A switch works at data link layer of OSI model
• A switch filters and forwards the data .It forwards the data only to the port on which
destination device is connected .It does this by looking at the Media Access
Control(MAC ) address of the connected devices to determine the correct port
• By forwarding the data only to the intended recipient the switch decreases the amount
of traffic on each network link

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Types of Switches
⚫ Layer 2 switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model and are
responsible for forwarding data between devices on the same network segment.
⚫ Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the OSI model and can route
data between different network segments, used in larger, more complex networks.
⚫ Gigabit switches: These switches support Gigabit Ethernet speeds, which are faster than
traditional Ethernet speeds.
⚫ Managed switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options They are suitable for
larger, more complex networks and allow for centralized management.

Router
• A router is device that routes packets based on their logical addresses (host-to-host
addressing). using shortest path
• A router normally connects LANs and WANs in the Internet and has a routing table
that is used for making decisions about the route.
• The routing tables are normally dynamic and are updated using routing protocols
• Router works at the network layer of OSI model

Types of router
1) Static router
Static routing is a process of predefining route paths across data networks .The administrator
has to configure and setup all routes manually
2) Dynamic router
In dynamic routing only the first route has to be manually configured after that
additional routes are automatically discovered ,the route is decided by the router on the
basis of traffic and cost.

Router
Router works in Network Layer.
Router is used to connect various
networks.(LAN and (WAN)
Router uses routing table.
Router reads the IP Address of device
Router sends data in form of packets.
Cost is high
Routers are more intelligent
Routers can block any broadcast or
multicast traffic
Routers are slower than bridges as they
connect networks that use different
protocols
Bridge
Bridge works in Data Link Layer.
Bridge main objective is to connect various
LANs.
Bridge do not use routing table
Bridge reads MAC Address of device
Bridge sends data in form of frame.
Cost is low
Bridges are less intelligent
Bridge does not block any broadcast or
multicast traffic
Bridges are faster than routers as they
connect networks that use same protocols

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ParamPParameter EPON GPON

Stands for Ethernet Passive Optical Gigabit Passive Optical Network
Network
Standard IEEE ITU-T
Splitting ratio 1:32 1:32 , 1:64 ,1:128
Protocol Ethernet Ethernet ,ATM ,TDM
speed 1.25Gbps symmetric 1.25Gbps upstream
2.5Gbps downstream
cost Simple and less expensive Complex and costly
Transmission distance 20Km 20Km
Mode of communication simplex Simplex
wavelength Tx: 1490nm Tx: 1490nm
Rx:1310nm Rx:1310nm

Gateway

• Gateway work at all seven layers of the OSI model.

• Gateway is a network device which interconnects two heterogeneous networks.
• Gateways is a connectivity link between two networks that use dissimilar protocols and
architecture.
• A gateway is a network element that acts like as an entrance point to another network.
Gateway is used to connect different types of networks.
• The term gateway is applied to any device, system, or software application that can
perform the function of translating data from one format to another.

Advantages of Gateway
• Gateways are being used to expand the network.
• It is a server that provides major security.
• We can effortlessly connect two different types of network.
• Gateways are so easier to access, that one can quickly access the device from one to
another.
• Protocol conversions can be done with the gateways component.
• It accommodates the feature through gateways can add and configure smart devices
quickly and simply.
• Gateways are quite easy to create a rich and beneficial user interface.
Disadvantages of Gateway
• More expensive than the other valuable devices.
• Never filter out the information/data.
• The transmission rate is slower.
• Gateways are quite hard to handle.

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Types of Gateways

1.Physical layer gateways: Carries out translation from one speed t another or from one medium to another, i.e.
10mbps ethernet to 100mbps
2. MAC Gateway: Translates one MAC protocol to another, i.e. token ring to ethrnet and viceversa
3.Architecture Gateway : Changes the packet from one protocol stack (architecture) to another i.e (SNA to
TCP/IP)
4.Application Gateway : These can translate application layer protocol or actual end user application

IEEE Standards
• IEEE 802.1 :Internetworking standard for LAN
• IEEE 802.2 : General standard for data link layer in the OSI model (LLC Standard)
• IEEE 802.3 :Defines the MAC layer for bus network that use CSMA/CD.This is the basis of
Ethernet standard

Features of IEEE 802.1(Internetworking Standard)

• IEEE 802.1 handles the architecture ,security management and internetworking of LAN,MAN and WAN
standardized by IEEE 802.1
• The following are the key IEEE 802.1 tasks:
• Design and implement standards that regulate network management practices
• Provides services including LAN/MAN management media access control(MAC) bridging ,data
encryption/encoding and network traffic management.
• IEEE 802.1 is comprised of four groups that focus on different standard and policies in the following areas:
• Internetworking
• Audio/video bridging
• Data centre bridging
• Security

Features of IEEE 802.2 (Logical Link Control Standard)

• IEEE 802.2 specifies the general interface between network and data link layer
• The 802.2 standard referred to as Logical Link control (LLC) manages data flow control and error control
for other IEEE LAN standards.
• LLC is the upper half of data link layer .the job of LLC is to provide uniform interface to layers above the
data link layer i.e network layer.
• The other sublayer in data link layer is MAC layer which is hardware dependant
• LLC sublayer provide interface between media access methods (ex. Ethernet,802.11 etc) and network layer
protocol such as internet protocol
• The IEEE 802.2 provides following modes of connection
1) Unacknowledged connectionless mode:The frames can be unicasted,multicasted or broadcasted
2) Connection oriented mode :The frames are numbered ensuring the frames are received in order and are not
lost
3) Acknowledged connectionless service .It supports point to point communication(unicasting)

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Features of IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet standard)

• IEEE 802.3 is a Ethernet standard and defines the physical layer and media access control(MAC) of the
data link layer .It is a wired LAN technology
• The original IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard provides a data rate of 10 Mbps using coaxial and twisted pair
wires.
• Fast Ethernet (802.3u) provides data rate of 100Mbps using OFC,STP or UTP.
• Gigabit Ethernet (802.3z) provides data rate of 1Gbps using OFC,STP or UTP
• The devices connected to the LAN access the medium using CSMA/CD protocol

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IEEE 802.11 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) architecture :

• Basic Service Set (BSS) − A basic service set is a group of stations communicating at the physical layer .
BSS can be of two types
• Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices through access points.
• Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in a peer-to-peer basis in an ad hoc manner.

• Extended Service set (ESS)-

• An ESS is made up of two or more BSS with access point[AP]
• The access points are connected through distribution system which is usually wired LAN
• The communication between two stations in different BSS occurs via Access points connected through
distribution system
• The ESS uses two types of stations
i) Mobile stations which are normal stations inside a BSS
ii) Stationary stations which are the access points that are part of wired LAN

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IEEE 802.11 protocol stack

Physical Layer : The minimum data rates offered in IEEE 802.11 WLAN standard are 2Mbps and the maximum
data rates offered are 54 Mbps in the 2.4 GHz ISM band .The different spread spectrum techniques supported are
Frequency hopping spread spectrum , Direct sequence spread spectrum and Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing. The modulation techniques used are FSK,PSK,QAM etc

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Distributed Coordination Function

• IEEE 802.11 defines two MAC sublayers Point Coordination function(PCF) and Distributed Coordination
function (DCF)
• DCF method uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access /collision avoidance (CSMA) at the MAC sublayer to
control access to the network
• In CSMA/CA When a frame is ready, the transmitting station checks whether the channel is idle or busy.
• If the channel is busy, the station waits until the channel becomes idle.
• If the channel is idle, the station waits for a period of time called Distributed inter-frame space (DIFS)
sends a control frame called request to send(RTS) .
• After receiving the RTS and waiting for a short period of time called Short interframe space (SIFS)the
destination sends a control frame called Clear to send(CTS) which indicates destination is ready to receive
the data
• The source waits for time equal to SIFS and sends data .After receiving the data destination waits for time
equal to SIFS and sends acknowledgement to the source
• All other stations maintains Network Allocation Vector(NAV) which specifies for how much time these
stations must not check the channel.
• Each station checks its NAV before transmiiting the frame .If NAV has expired then station can send the
data otherwise it has to wait.

Point Coordination Function

• PCF Method is used in infrastructure network
• In this access point is used to control access to the network
• It is implemented on top of DCF
• The access points perform polling for finding stations that wants to transmit data. All the stations are
polled one after the other
• To give priority to PCF over DCF point interframe space(PIFS) which is smaller than DIFS is defined

Logical Link Control

• It provides interface between the media access method and network layer protocol
• LLC determines whether communication is going to be connection oriented or connection less at the data
link layer
• It manages flow control and error control for IEEE LAN standards

IEEE 802.11 Frame Format

Frame Control : This is a two byte field and defines type of frame and some control information
• Version: Indicates the current protocol version.
• Type: Determines the function of frame i.e. management(00), control(01) or data(10).
• Subtype: Indicates subtype of frame like 1011-RTS, 1100-CTS,1101-ACK
• To DS: When set indicates frame is going to the DS(distribution system).
• From DS: When set indicates frame coming from DS.
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• More frag (More fragments): When set to 1 means frame is followed by other fragments.
• Retry: when set indicates retransmitted frame
• Power Mgmt (Power Management): When set indicates station is in power management mode
• More data: When set indicates that sender has more data to send .
• WEP: Wired equivalent privacy. When set indicates encryption is implemented
• Rsvd : Reserved
Duration / ID
• It contains the value indicating the period of time for which the channel is occupied .
Address 1 to 4
• These four addresses identify the source ,destination,source base station and destination base station
address
SC (Sequence Control)
• This 2 byte field defines the sequence number of frame to be used in flow control
Frame body
• It is a variable length field which contains information which is to be transmitted from sender to the
receiver.
FCS(Frame Check Sequence):This field is used for error detection.

IEEE 802.16 Wireless Metropolitan Network(WMAN) Architecture /Wimax architecture

• WiMAX is a WMAN technology based on the IEEE 802.16 specifications to enable the delivery of last-
mile wireless broadband access
• It operates in the frequency band of 2 GHz to 11 GHz. The bandwidth is dynamically allocated as per user
requirements

Core Network :
• The base station is connected to the backbone network of the broadband service provider.i.e standard
internet network
Subscriber station :
• A subscriber station is equipped with antenna mounted on building.
• It is connected to the Wimax base station
• Customer Premises equipment can be any device like mobile ,laptop etc.
• A subscriber station connects wirelessly to the base station, forming the last mile of the broadband
network . They receive service while they are in motion within the range of WiMAX
Base stations :
• A WiMAX base station can connect directly to the Internet using a high-bandwidth, wired connection or
It can also connect to another WiMAX tower using a line-of-sight microwave link.
• The base station is responsible for initiating and controlling transmission of frames.
• uplink connection is from subscriber station(SS) to base station (BS) and downlink from BS to SS

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IEEE 802.11 Protocol Stack

Physical Layer:
• This layer specifies frequency band, synchronization between transmitter and receiver data rate and
multiplexing scheme.
• This layer is responsible for encoding and decoding of signals and manages bit transmission and reception.
It converts MAC layer frames into signals to be transmitted. Modulation schemes which are used on this
layer includes: QPSK, QAM-16 and QAM-64.
MAC Layer:
• This layer provides and interface between convergence layer and physical layer of WiMax protocol stack.
• It provides point to multipoint communication and is based on CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Avoidance).
• The MAC protocol defines how and when a subscriber may initiate a transmission on the channel.
• The data link layer of WiMAX is divided into three sublayers as follows −
• Security sublayer − This is the bottommost layer and is concerned with the security and privacy of the
wireless network. It deals with encryption, decryption, and key management.
• MAC common sublayer − The MAC sublayer is concerned with channel management and so is the most
important sublayer.
• Service-specific convergence sublayer − This is equivalent to a logical link control layer of other
systems. layer. It accepts higher layer(Network) protocol data unit (PDU) and converts it to lower layer
PDU. It provides functions depending upon the service being used.

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Comparison of IEEE 802.11 and 802.16 standard
802.11IEEIEEE 802.11
IEEE 802.11 standard defines WLAN or WiFi.
It is designed for limited area.
It provides a coverage range of 30 m to 100m.
802.11 standard is used for indoor usage.
It operates on frequencies of 2.5 GHz, 3.5 GHz,
5.8GHz.
Standard variants of 802.11 are 802.11a, 11b, 11g,
11n, 11ac, 11ad etc.
It PROVIDES DATA RATES OF 54 Mbps in 20 MHz
channel data rate of
Number of customers connected are less
For encryption purpose it uses Rivest Cipher 4.
It does not provide any QoS but Supported in
IEEE 802.11e.
Bandwidth variants are 20 MHz, 40MHz, 80MHz
and 160 MHz.
Comparison of router and switch
Router
The main objective of router is to connect
various networks simultaneously.
It works in the network layer
Router is used by LAN as well as MAN.
Through the router, data is sent in the form of
packets.
There is less collision taking place in the router.
Router is compatible with NAT.
Router is a relatively much more expensive device Switch is an expensive device than hub. but
than switch.
The types of routing are: Adaptive and Non-
adaptive routing.
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IEEE 802.16
IEEE 802.16 standard defines WiMAX.
02.16 standard defines WiMAX.
It is designed for long distance/wide area.
It provides a coverage range of 7 km to 50 km.
802.16 standard is used for outdoor usage.
It operates on frequencies of 2.4 GHz, 11 GHzes
on frequencies of 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz.
Standard variants of 802.16 are 802.16a,
802.16d, 802.16e, 802.16m etc.
It PROVIDES DATA RATES OF 100 Mbps in 20
MHz channel data rate 20 MHz channel.
Number of customers connected are more.
For encryption purpose it uses Rivest Cipher 4.
Different QoS options are available like UGS,
rtPS, nrtPS, BE, etc
Bandwidths varies dynamically as per user
requirement from 1.5 to 28 MHz.
.
Switch
While the main objective of switch is to
connect various devices simultaneously.
It works in the data link layer
Switch is used by only LAN.
Through switch data is sent in the form of frame.
There is no collision taking place in full duplex
switch.
Switch is not compatible with NAT.
cheaper than router.
The types of switching are: Circuit, Packet, and
Message Switching.
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