See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/305491391

Parametrization of tropical plants using ENVI-met V.4 and its impact on

urban microclimates – Sao Paulo case study

Conference Paper · June 2016

CITATIONS READS

7 1,110

3 authors:

Paula Shinzato Daniel Yoshida

University of São Paulo University of São Paulo
24 PUBLICATIONS 466 CITATIONS 14 PUBLICATIONS 18 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Denise Helena Silva Duarte

University of São Paulo
145 PUBLICATIONS 1,226 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Denise Helena Silva Duarte on 27 January 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

4th International Conference on Countermeasures to Urban Heat Island, 30-31 May and 1 June 2016,
National University of Singapore, Singapore

Parametrization of tropical plants using ENVI-met

V.4 and its impact on urban microclimates – Sao Paulo
case study
Shinzato1, Yoshida2 and Duarte3
1 Dr. Paula Shinzato, Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism – University of Sao Paulo -USP,
paulashinzato@yahoo.com
2 Daniel F. O. Yoshida, Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism – University of Sao Paulo -USP,
daniel.yoshida@usp.br
3 Prof. Dr. Denise Helena Silva Duarte, Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism – University of Sao
Paulo -USP, dhduarte@me.com

ABSTRACT

Considering that vegetation influences the microclimate and its surroundings, the aim of this
research is to quantify the impact of vegetation on urban microclimates, under the canopy, due to
soil-vegetation-atmosphere interactions. Therefore, this work considers: 1) the canopy itself,
expressed by the variables leaf area index – LAI and gap fraction (geometric openness distribution
in the canopy) and its characteristics (size and shape); 2) the soil coverage, expressed by soil
composition, soil temperature and humidity, and 3) the local microclimatic variables (air
temperature, humidity, solar radiation, mean radiant temperature, surface temperature, wind
direction and speed).
Based on the outcomes of previous studies, this work started as an investigation of São Paulo
microclimate and the reduction on air and surface temperature under the trees’s canopies, as a
result of evapotranspiration and shadowing process compared to an area without vegetation.
The method is based on 1) field measurements at Tenente Siqueira Campos Park (Trianon
Park), downtown São Paulo, registering vegetation, soil and microclimate data; 2) calibration of
measured and simulated data by ENVI-met V.4 and 3) simulation of the study area varying the
canopy characteristics (canopy shape, LAI values and gap fraction).
The LAI values were raised in the field using a non-destructive indirect method with
hemispherical photographs, processed in Can-Eye V.6 model. LAI average values were obtained at
Trianon Park, on November 2014, considering 22 measuring points in two areas of study. The results
found an average Effective LAI ~ 2.0 and an average True LAI ~ 3.7, a difference of 54% between
the two.
In ENVI-met V.4, the process for creating a new plants’ typology was carried out using Albero,
a 3D plants database. For the tree parametrization True LAI values were considered to better
express the potential for physiological functions, such as evapotranspiration rates by leaves.
According to the simulation results, for different tree canopies, it could be verified a reduction
of 0.4ºC in average air temperature and 18.5°C for surface temperature, when comparing the
microclimate inside the urban park, under a dense canopy (LAI ~ 3.7 m 2/m2) to the conditions outside
the urban park. These effects are limited to the borders of the park, especially under low wind speed,
approximately 0.5 m/s. With the results, this research showed not only the importance of the type of
vegetation selected (canopy size, shape, LAI values and gap fraction) but also the characteristics of
the surrounding environment (microclimatic and soil conditions). Furthermore, it will contribute to
support proposals for public policies aiming to mitigate urban warming effects, mainly during
daytime, in tropical cities.

Key Words: Urban microclimate. Urban vegetation. Leaf area index. Hemispheric photograph.
ENVI-met V4

1
1. INTRODUCTION

The benefits of vegetation in hot climates are reduced solar radiation and lower air temperature
due to shading and evapotranspiration. Lower air temperatures are essential both to improve thermal
comfort conditions for pedestrians and to limit energy used for cooling. (Akbari et al., 2001).
The lack of vegetation influences the increase in air temperature due to the heating surfaces
(pavements and façades) throughout the day and the reduction of evaporative surfaces that perform
wet heat exchange. In addition, other factors also contribute to this effect: modification in the geometry
of the urban configuration (height –to- width ratio of the canyon), use of materials that can store large
amounts of sensible heat due to its thermal properties and emission of anthropogenic heat generated
by burning fossil fuel (Oke, 1978). Thus, increasing vegetation in urban areas is one of the major
strategies to mitigate heating in cities, as vegetation plays an important role as regulators of urban
climate (Yu; Wong, 2006).
Latent heat flux enables the solar radiation to be absorbed at the Earth's surface, returning to
the upper layers of the atmosphere without contributing in increasing the air temperature.
Furthermore, the characteristics of the soil under the canopy generate an available water content (soil
moisture) to occur evaporation process, reducing the surface temperature, particularly in the summer
period, as well as decrease the amount of long-wave radiation and the sensible heat flux emitted into
the atmosphere (Stone, 2012).
The benefits from the vegetation have been observed in several studies, among which are:
control of temperature and humidity (Dimoundi; Nikolopoulou, 2003; Sailor, 1995), the impact on air
quality (Nowak, 2006a; Nowak, 2014), the passive cooling a building by shading of trees (Heisler,
1986; Taha, 1997; Akbari et al., 2001) and influence on people's health (Ulrich, 1984; Ulrich, 1999;
Ulrich, 2002).
The effect of evapotranspiration is directly related to the stomatal resistance that relates the
amount of the stomata in the leaves with an appropriate condition on the ground (water availability)
and in the atmosphere (light availability). Thus when larger the exposed area of the leaves, the greater
the effect. In this sense the leaf area index - LAI is a key parameter to describe the exchange of
fluxes of energy, mass (e.g. water and CO2), and momentum between the surface and the planetary
boundary layer. Chen and Black (1992) have defined IAF as: "half the total intercepting (non-
projected) area per unit ground surface area."
According to Stone (2012), three main strategies need to be considered to mitigate the heat in
large urban centers: (1) planting trees or plan new settings using the vegetation; (2) increasing the
albedo strategy for incorporating techniques for cooling the toppings or replacing the more reflective
coating material; (3) energy efficiency programs with a commitment to reduce emissions of
greenhouse gases.
This study is part of an ongoing research about the impact of vegetation on urban
microclimates, using predictive models such as ENVI-met. This computational model considers the
density of leaves to simulate the micro scale interactions of surface-vegetation- atmosphere.

2. METHOD

2.1. Area of Study

The city of São Paulo is located in Southeaster Brazil (23°32’S, 46°37’W). According to IBGE,
the metropolitan area, which includes 38 smaller cities around the capital, the population is almost 20
million inhabitants, distributed in an overall area of 8051km 2, where 870 km2 of the Municipality is an
urbanized area and 65% of population lives today. Nowadays São Paulo is characterised by a
heterogeneous urban structure, which has been caused by the rapid growth of the city during the
last century. One of the effects of this growth is the social conflict and increase of informal
settlements (slums).
The Environmental Agency (SVMA, 2000) indicates that São Paulo has one of the lowest index
for green area per habitant with 14m2/inhab, as compared to other cities such as Maringá
(31,5m2/inhab) and Curitiba (64,5 m 2/ inhab). Besides, the Municipality´s green area distribution is
not homogeneous. While vegetation covers approximately 15 million m 2 (21% of the total area of
2
Sao Paulo), the downtown Districts of Bras and Bela Vista are almost devoid of vegetation. The
highest concentrations are in extreme south part, as Marsilac District presents 25.797 m2 of green
areas, with the lowest population density and rural characteristics.
In the downtown area, there are seven urban parks. This study focuses on Tenente Siqueira
Campos Park (Trianon Park), situated on Paulista Avenue, which has a total area of 48.600m 2 and
one of the few areas with native vegetation (Atlantic Forest).

2.2. Field Measurements

Climate monitoring was carried out during the period between November 13 th and 16th of 2013
in the area of the Park. The main goal of these measurements was to create an initial database for
air temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation, surface temperature, wind direction and wind
speed. Besides, this information was important to calibrate the ENVI-met model for local conditions.
Figure 1a shows the location of two points for measurements at Trianon Park.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1: (a) Location of two points for measurements at Trianon Park; (b) Meteorological stations at Point 1;
(c) Meteorological stations at Point 2.
For LAI measurements, an indirect method was applied based on gap fraction distribution with
the analysis of hemispheric photographs, using the software Can-Eye (Weiss et al., 2004). During
planning process, a grid of 20x20m was created over the site plan of the park to define points for
measurements (Fig.2a). The Area 1 was located close to the main entrance of the park from Paulista
Avenue, which has low-density trees (points 1-6). The Area 2 is in the middle of the second block of
the park and it has a very dense group of trees (points 7-22).

(a) (b)

Figure 2: (a) Map of Trianon Park with 22 points for LAI measuments; (b) Some of the hemispherical
photograghs taken during field measuments.

Hemispherical images of a canopy is an indirect and non-destructive method for studying plant
canopies using photographs acquired through a hemispherical (fisheye) lens from beneath the
canopy (oriented towards zenith) or placed above the canopy for downward looking. Furthermore,
the use of fish-eye lens allows the gap fraction to be evaluated in all viewing directions, which
increases the accuracy of the derived biophysical variables (LAI) and there is a potential to
characterize the azimuthal distribution of the foliage and the departure to non-random leaf
arrangement. In addition, it is also possible to derive estimates of the leaf area index for canopies
growing on sloppy terrains (Jonckheere et. al., 2004).

3
 For Trianon Park, a coupled system based on a fish-eye lens (Sigma 8mm Fisheye) and a
digital camera (Canon T3i) were used under overcast sky conditions. The hemispherical
photographs were registered on November 2014.
Firstly, the camera and lens were calibrated to define optical center and projection function.
Then, each image was pre-processed in the model Can-Eye. The pixel brightness values for the
blue band are extracted from each RGB image to achieve maximum contrast between leaf and sky,
because absorption of leafy materials is maximal and sky scattering tends to be highest in that band
(Jonckheere et al., 2005). Thresholding procedures were applied in order to identify the optimal
brightness threshold and distinguish vegetation from sky.
The model Can – Eye calculates the value of true LAI and estimates the effective LAI. The
effective LAI can be defined as one half of the total area of light intercepted by leaves per unit
horizontal ground surface area based on the assumption that foliage elements randomly distributed
in space; and the true LAI as one half of total leaf area per unit surface ground area” (Zheng; Moskal,
2009). The true value is determined by the Poisson law assuming the leaves are randomly distributed
in the crown and it is valid only for species with homogeneous canopy. The relationship between
effective and the true LAI is given by the expression:
LAIeff = λo LAI Eq. 1

Where:
LAIeff = effective LAI
LAI = true LAI
λo = clumping index
According to Can-eye model, the distribution of leaves in the canopy can be calculated by
the following equation (Nilson, 1971):
−𝐺(𝜃).Ω.L
𝑝(𝜃 ) = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) Eq. 2

Where:
p(θ)= gap fraction
L = true LAI
Ω = clumping index
Based on hemispherical photograph method, results showed an average of true LAI values of
3.7 and an average value of effective LAI of 2.0, calculated from 22 defined points at Trianon Park.
This study was important to quantify an average value for LAI for existing trees in the city. As Trianon
Park is considered a dense vegetated area compare to other city´s urban parks it also set an average
value for LAI when simulating in ENVI-met.

3. ENVI-MET V.4 MODEL SIMULATIONS

The three-dimensional microclimate model was chosen for this study due to its advanced
approach on plant-atmosphere interactions in cities. ENVI-met is one of the few models that seeks
to describe the major climate processes acting in the urban environment, including turbulence, the
turbulent transport of sensible and latent heat, the radiation fluxes within the urban structures and
the influence of vegetation. The numerical model simulates aerodynamics, thermodynamics and the
radiation balance in complex urban structures with resolutions between 0.5m and 10m according to
the position of the sun, urban geometry, vegetation, soil and various construction materials by
solving thermodynamic and plant physiological equations. (Bruse and Fleer, 1998; Huttner, 2012;
Bruse, 2016).
This model, instead of using LAI, considers the parameter Leaf Area Density – LAD1 to
calculate plants physiology. According to the ENVI-met 1D plants database, there are 11 types of
vegetation, which have specific characteristics according to the following aspects: CO 2 fixation (C3
or C4 plants), minimum stomata resistance, short-wave albedo, height of the plant, total depth of the
root, Root Area Density - RAD and Leaf Area Density – LAD.

1
LAD is a parameter defined as the total one-sided leaf area (m²) per unit layer volume (m³) in each horizontal
layer of the tree crown.
4
 In ENVI-met V4, besides the 1D plants database, a 3D plants database Albero was also
implemented with a more sophisticated way to create new types of vegetation. In this version, it is
allowed to edit and create new plants using this module. There are also the forcing feature with the
possibility to set some initialization values and define the diurnal variation of the atmospheric
boundary conditions of the simulation.
3.1. Calibration Process
Preliminary studies were done considering field measurements data during the period between
November 13th and 16th of 2013 in the area of the Park. These sensitivity tests were important to
investigate the model main variables and verify the influence for each parameter in the input data.
The calibration process was fundamental to adjust the model values to the same climatic conditions
for São Paulo and results showed close similarity between adjusted and measured data, proving
reliable results for simulations in the area of study (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Results for simulated air temperature in ENVI-met and the data measured for
meteorological stations - between November 13th and 16th 2013.
The input data for the simulations are shown in Table 1 and the input area file is presented in
Figure 4. The solar radiation, which is calculated depending on latitude, was adjusted to measured
radiation by applying 0.1 octas for high clouds cover. The adjustment factor for solar radiation was
1.2. The only additional climate data (not derived from local measurements) was that for specific
humidity at 2500m, which was obtained from local Campo de Marte Airport surroundings (ca. 3.3km
North of the site), available from the homepage of University of Wyoming. The soil temperature for
upper layer was measured using Campbell 107 temperature probe and humidity was estimated from
results of Simple Biosphere Model – SIB2, provided by IAG Laboratory of Climate and Biosphere, at
University of Sao Paulo.
Simulation of the study area (base case scenario) in ENVI-met V.4 Preview III was built with
input area domain formed by 2 blocks for Trianon Park with 165m x 120m (19.800m2) each, and 10
blocks around the park. The total area for the modelling was 115.600m2 with a grid of 68 x 68 cells
and each cell with dimension of 5mx5m and 5m height.

Table 1 Input configuration data applied in the ENVI-met simulations.

Start Simulation at day 13.11.2013
Wind Speed in 10m ab. Ground [m/s] 0.5
Wind Direction (0:N/ 90:E/ 180:S/ 270:W) 250
Specific Humidity in 2500m [g Water/ kg air] 7.95
Relative Humidity in 2m [%] 52.5
Initial Temperature Upper Layer (0-20cm) [K] 291.76
Initial Humidity Upper Layer (0-20cm) [%] 50

5
 Figure 4: The base case scenario at ENVI-met v.4 Preview III.
3.2. Parametrization of tropical trees
In order to verify the influence of vegetation in the area of study, the simulation process
consisted of parametric studies testing a new trees typology (spherical canopy form), with leaf
density of LAI 3.7 m2/m2, based on LAI measurements
The LAD profile can be calculated by integrating LAI values, based on Lalic and Mihailovic
(2004) studies, which has a simplified method to obtain a LAD profile from few parameters, such as
type, height and maximum LAD value.
Using Albero module in ENVI-met V.4 Preview III, a existing type of trees in the 3D plants
database were modified to adjust the LAD profile for each tree typology and with maximum LAD
located in the middle height of the crown. It has 20m high and its leaf density started 4m above the
ground to avoid obstruction for wind flux at the pedestrians’ level.

Spherical Canopy Trees - LAI =3.7 (m²/m²)

0,000 0,100 0,200 0,300 0,400 0,500
20
16
12
8
4
0
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5: (a) Spherical tree typology; (b) Parametrization of spherical canopy tree using Albero; (c) LAI
distribution according to tree typology.

4. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

The radiation obstruction by trees varies according to LAI values. For a tree with LAI 3.7, the
percentage of solar direct radiation that reaches the ground is approximately 13% from the total
incident radiation.
Based on simulation results, the average difference between air temperatures under dense
trees (LAI=3.7) and above the streets is up to 0.4º C. The specific humidity under canopy
varied was 9 g/kg and the lowest value registered was above the street with 8.28 g/kg. For mean
radiant temperature –TRM, simulations showed differences up to 22oC comparing results in and
around the park on November 14th 2013.
Regarding the spacial distribution, results showed that the effect of vegetation in air
temperature is limited and the extension found in this study goes beyong the boarders of green area
reaching up to 25m in leeward side of the park.
For surface temperature, the vegetation (LAI=3.7) showed an average difference of 18.5ºC
between green spaces and the street, on November 2013 (Figure 6).

6
 Surface Temp.

< 21.11oC
23.61 oC
26.11 oC
28.61 oC
31.11 oC
33.61 oC
36.11 oC
> 36.11 oC

Figure 6: Simulation result for surface temperature – November 14th 2013 at 15h.

5. FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

Despite advances in quantifying the effects of vegetation on microclimate, there are few
studies focused on the impact in tropical and subtropical climates, dealing with the lack of available
data for different types of materials (building envelope); characteristics of vegetation and soil
(Johansson; Emmanuel, 2006).
The ENVI-met simulations indicated that the presence of greenery is very important in keeping
low air and surface temperature. Duo to the evapotranspiration process, air temperature reductions
up to 3°C can be achieved under the canopy in green areas, depending on the climate and soil
conditions (Oke, 1989; Givoni, 1998; Shashua-Bar; Hoffman, 2004, Chen; Wong, 2006).
The effect of tree canopy shadow has also a great potential to ameliorate the microclimate and
mitigate heat stress in a hot humid climate. The shade efficiency by trees depends on the total
amount of leaf density and its distribution inside the crown. Because of these parameters such as
Leaf Area Index and Leaf Area Density are fundamental to improve the positive impact of vegetation,
considering the plant local influence.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo –
FAPESP, Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES and Conselho
Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq. The authors are grateful to LABAUT
staff, University of Sao Paulo, for their assistance in the field measurements. Thanks to São Paulo
Environmental Agency for allowing on-site measurements. Thanks to Prof. Michael Bruse and the
laboratory’s team for the assistance on ENVI-met v.4

REFERENCES

Akbari, Hashem, Melvin Pomerantz, and Haider Taha. "Cool surfaces and shade trees to reduce
energy use and improve air quality in urban areas." Solar Energy 70 (2001): 295-310.
Bruse, M., and Fleer, H. (1998). Simulating surface-plant-air interactions inside urban environments
with a three-dimensional numerical model. Environmental Software and Modelling. Vol.13:
373-384.
Bruse, Michael, ENVI-met website (n.d.) retrieved on January, 2016 from: http://www.model.envi-
met.com/
Chen, J. M. and T. A. BLACK, (1992). Foliage area and architecture of clumped plant canopies from
7
 sunfleck size distributions. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 60: p.249-266.
Dimoundi A. and M. Nikolopoulou, (2003). Vegetation in the Urban Environment: Microclimatic
Analysis and Benefits. Energy and Buildings, 35 (1).
Givoni B., (1991). Impact of Planted Areas on Urban Environmental Quality- A review. Atmospheric
Environment, 25 (3): 289-299.
Heisler, G. (1986). Effects of individuals trees on the solar radiation climate of small buildings. Urban
Ecology, 9 (1986) 337-359
Huttner, S. (2012). Further development and application of the 3D microclimate simulation ENVI-
met. Mainz University, Germany.
Johansson, E.; Emmanuel, R. The influence of urban design on outdoor thermal comfort in the hot,
humid city of Colombo, Sri Lanka. International journal of biometeorology 51 (2), 119-133
Jonckheere, I. , Fleck, S., Nackaerts, K., Muys, B., Coppin, P., Weiss, M. and F. Baret, 2004.
Reviews of methods for in situ leaf area index determination. Part I. Theories, sensors, and
hemispherical photography. Agric. For. Meteorol., 121: 19-35.
Jonckheere, I. , Fleck, S., Nackaerts, K., Muys, B., Coppin, P. Assessment of automatic gap fraction
estimation of forests from digital hemispherical photography. Agric. For. Meteorol.,, 132, 96–
114, 2005.
Lalic, B.,Mihailovic, D. T. An empirical relation describing leaf-area density inside the forest for
environmental modelling. J.Appl. Met. 43(4) 641-645, 2004.
Nilson, T., 1971. A theoretical analysis of the frequency of gaps in plant stands. Agric. Meteorol., 8:
25-38.
Nowak, D.J., Crane, D.E., Stevens, J.C. (2006a). Air pollution removal by urban trees and shrubs in
the United States. Urban For. Urban Green. 4, 115-123.
Nowak D.J. Hirabayashi S. Bodine A. Greenfield E. (2014). Tree and forest effects on air quality and
human health in the United States. Environmental Pollution, 193, 119–129.
Oke, T. (1978). Boundary layer climate. London: Methuen & CO
Sailor D. J., (1995). Simulated urban climate response to modifications in surface albedo and
vegetative cover. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 34.
Shashua-Bar L, Hoffman ME. 2004. Quantitative evaluation of passive cooling of the UCL microclimate
in hot regions in summer—case study: urban streets and courtyards with trees. Journal of Building
and Environment 39: 1087–1099.
Santamouris M., (2001). Energy and Climate in the Built Environment. James and James, London,
UK.
Stone, B. (2012). The City and the Coming Climate: Climate Change in the Places We Live. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
SVMA, (2004). Atlas ambiental de São Paulo.
Taha, H., Akbari, H., and Rosenfeld, A. (1991). Heat Island and Oasis Effects of Vegetative
Canopies: Micrometeorological Field-Measurements, Theoretical and Applied Climatology,
Vol. 44, No. 2 (1991), pp. 123-138.
Taha H. (1997). Urban Climates and Heat Islands: Albedo, Evapotranspiration, and Anthropogenic
Heat, Energy & Buildings - Special Issue on Urban Heat Islands, Vol. 25, Number 2 (1997),
pp. 99-103.
Ulrich, R. S. (1984). View through a window may influence recovery from surgery. Science, 224: 42-
421. Ulrich, R. S. (1991). Effects of health facility interior design on wellness: Theory and
recent scientific research. Journal of Health Care Design, 3: 97-109. [Reprinted in: Marberry,
S.O. (Ed.) 1995. Innovations in Healthcare Design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, pp. 88-
104.]
Ulrich, R. S. (1999). Effects of gardens on health outcomes: Theory and research. In C. Cooper-
Marcus & M. Barnes (Eds.), Healing Gardens: Therapeutic Benefits and Design
Recommendations. New York: John Wiley, pp. 27-86.
Ulrich, R. S. (2002). Communicating with the healthcare community about plant benefits. In C.
Shoemaker (Ed.) Proceedings of the Sixth International People Plant Symposium. Chicago:
Chicago Botanic Garden.
Yu C.; Wong, N.H. (2006). Thermal benefits of city parks. Energy and Buildings, 38: p. 105-20.
Weiss, M., Baret, F., Smith, G.J. and Jonckheere, I., 2004. Methods for in situ leaf area index
measurement, part II: from gap fraction to leaf area index: retrieval methods and sampling

8
 strategies. Agric. For. Meteorol., 121: 17-53.
Wong, N.H.; Yu C. Tropical Urban Heat Islands. Climate, buildings and greenery. Abingdon: Taylor
and Francis, 2009.
Zheng, G. and L.M. Moskal. 2009. Retrieving leaf area index (LAI) using remote sensing: Theory,
method, and sensors. Sensors 9(4): 2719-2745.

View publication stats