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Module 2

 Moulding materials and mould design; Pattern types and design

 Casting processes: sand casting, investment casting, pressure die
casting, centrifugal casting, continuous casting
 Casting analysis
 Casting defects and their remedies

Introduction
 One of the oldest manufacturing processes, but first step in
manufacturing
 Liquid metal is poured into mould cavity and is allowed to solidify
 The product is taken out of the mould cavity, trimmed and cleaned to
shape
 Inspection and identification of any defects

Basic features of various casting processes

• The melting temperature of the job and mould material
• The solubility and chemical reaction between the job and mould material
• The thermal properties (conductivity and thermal expansion coefficient) of mould and
job materials
• Reaction with the atmosphere at different temperatures

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Casting

Steps in casting process Metal

Heating
i. Pattern and mould preparation Liquid

ii. Melting and pouring of molten metal

Mould cavity
iii. Solidification and cooling
Solidification

iv. Defect inspection Product

v. Finishing (machining) processes (Finishing processes)

Final product

Figure: Schematic of Casting process

3

Moulding materials and mould design

Pattern - replica of the component to be cast. To prepare mould cavity

Mould - assembly of two or more metal blocks or bonded refractory particles

making the cavity. It hold the liquid materials. It also contains secondary cavities
like pouring channel, reservoir and connectivity channels to primary cavity.

Mould cavity - holds the liquid material

Mould types - green sand mould, plastic mould, metal mould, shell mould and
investment mould

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Moulding materials and mould design

Based on material: Green sand mould, plastic mould, metal mould
Based on method of making: Shell mould and investment mould
Large number of castings – metal mould
Single time use – mould of refractory material

Green sand mould:

Mixture of sand, clay, water and organic additives
Sand must have a specific grain shape and size distribution
Grains are almost equal size with smooth round shape – bulk density of mix is very
low and results in increased void and higher permeability (various casting defects) –
not preferred
Grains are of various sizes and sharp corners – preferred

 Clay with water act as bonding agent and imparts tensile and shear strength to the
moulding sand
 The organic additives burn at high temperature and save the mould from crumbling
5

Moulding materials and mould design

The following properties of moulding sand is important

 Strength – compressive strength
 Permeability – gas flow rate through the specimen to balance pressure
difference
 Deformation – change in length at the point of failure
 Flowability – ability of sand to flow around the pattern during ramming
 Refractoriness – ability of sand to remain solid as a function of temperature
 Optimum water content to retain both strength and permeability
• Low water content – dry clay powders fills up the voids between the sand
particles and reduces the permeability
• High water content – moist clay forms coating on the sand particles and thus
enhances the permeability
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Pattern types and design

Pattern - replica of the component to be cast. To prepare mould cavity

Shrinkage, machining and draft allowances – Pattern is always made larger than the final job. The excess dimension is the
allowance

Shrinkage allowances (s) = α×l×(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇0 )

α - coefficient of thermal expansion of the material

l - dimension of the casting
Tf - freezing temperature
T0 - room temperature

Machining allowances – Machining is required to produce the finished surface. The excess in dimension of the casting over
final job to take care of machining is machining allowance.
It depends on the material and overall dimension of the job, but not linear as shrinkage allowance

Draft allowance: intentionally provided in the pattern that refers to a taper put on the surface parallel to the direction of
withdrawal of the pattern from the mould cavity

Casting terminology

Flask: Rigid metal or wood frame that holds the

moulding aggregate
Cope: Top half of the pattern/casting
Drag: Bottom half of the pattern/casting
Core: A core is a sand or metal shape that is
inserted into a mould to produce the internal
features of casting such as holes or passages for
water cooling
A core print is a feature that is added to a pattern
to locate and support a core within the mould
Riser: Additional void in the mould act as
reservoir of additional molten metal

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Casting components

Typical two-part sand mould

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Pattern types and design

Materials: Wood – relatively easy to make and used when small quantities are required
o It is not dimensionally stable, sensitive to humidity
o Metal pattern are more expensive but stable and durable.
o Hard plastics are preferred with processes that uses hard and organically bonded sands that tend to
stick to another pattern materials
o Investment casting uses patterns made from wax.

Types of pattern:
 One-piece or solid pattern – cheap to construct, slow moulding process, shape is simple and number of
duplicate casting is small
 Split pattern – moderate quantities of castings, divided into two segments
 Match-plate pattern – made in two halves mounted on both sides of a match plate conforming to the contour of
the parting surface. Several patterns can be mounted on the same match plate
 Cope-and-drag pattern – enable independent moulding of the cope and drag segments of a mould, large mould
can be handled more easily in separate segments and small mould can be made at a faster rate
 Loose-piece pattern – When the geometry of the product is such that a one-piece or two-piece pattern could not
be removed from the moulding sand, loose-piece pattern can sometimes be developed
 Sweep pattern: It is used to generate the surface of revolution in large castings
 Gated pattern: One or more than one loose pattern with attached gates and runners
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Pattern types and design

11

Melting and pouring of molten metal

Melting – Furnaces are used for melting
The selection of furnace depends on metal chemistry (control of standard elements, machinability),
maximum temperature (fluidity – thin and thick sections), metal delivery rate and mode (batch or
continuous melting)
Example: Induction furnace (1750°C), Cupola (1650°C), side-blow converter (1700°C)
Gases in metal casting
- Mechanically trapped (proper venting)
- Variation in their solubility at different temperatures and phases
- Due to chemical reactions

Entrapment of mainly hydrogen and nitrogen - leads to defects

Based on the solubility of hydrogen two groups are considered
Endothermic – Al, Mg, Cu, Fe, Ni (absorbs less H2) – solubility of H2 increases with temperature
Exothermic – Ti, Zr (absorbs more H2) – solubility of H2 decreases with temperature
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Melting and pouring of molten metal

Solubility (S) of hydrogen S = 𝐴𝑒 [−𝐸𝑠 /(𝑘𝜃)]
𝐸𝑠 - heat of solution on 1 mol of hydrogen (positive for endothermic)
θ - absolute temperature, A and k are constants
H2 dissolve interstitially in exothermic metals and causes lattice distortion
H2 dissolve in lattice defects for endothermic metals and causes no defects
According to Sievert’s law, amount of hydrogen dissolved in a melt
% hydrogen present = 𝐵 𝑃ℎ𝑎
𝑃ℎ𝑎 - partial pressure of hydrogen in the atmosphere over the melt
B - constant
Main source of hydrogen - melt-furnace dampness, oil, air and grease
 H2 removal techniques is based on reduction of partial pressure of H2
 Bubbling of dry insoluble gas through the melt
- Nonferrous metal – Cl, N2, He, Ar; Ferrous metals – CO (removes both N2 and H2)
Currently – vacuum melting is used to control the gases

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Pouring of molten metal (Gating design)

Molten metal is poured into mould cavity. Gating design ensures distribution of material
without excessive temperature loss, turbulence and entrapping gases
Proper gating design - prevent pre-solidification of molten metal (too much superheating causes gas solubility
problem)
- achieve optimum liquid metal velocity (at too high velocity the mould surface may erode)
Vertical gating system Atmospheric pressure
Pressure at ‘a’ = pressure at ‘c’ = atmospheric pressure a
hc
Velocity at ‘a’ (va) = 0 (since level ‘a’ is maintained constant) b
Pouring cup

Bernoulli's equation of any two points (1 ha Sprue

hb
and 2) in a steady streamline flowing fluid
is usually written as c
Open to
1 1 Mould
𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑣1 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑣2 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 atmosphere
2 2
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Pouring of molten metal (Gating design)

Energy balance (Bernoulli's) equation Atmospheric pressure

a
between ‘a’ and ‘c’ hc
b
Per unit mass (assuming no energy loss) Pouring cup
𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑣𝑐 2 /2 ha Sprue
hb
𝑣𝑐 = 2𝑔ℎ𝑎
c
g - acceleration due to gravity Open to Mould
𝑣𝑐 - velocity of liquid metal at the gate atmosphere

Volume flow rate Q = 𝐴𝑔 𝑣𝑐 𝐴𝑔 - cross-sectional area of the gate

𝑉
Time required to fill the mould (𝑡𝑚 ) =
𝑄
V - volume of the mould
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Pouring of molten metal (Gating design)

Bottom gating system

Bernoulli’s equation between point ‘a’ and ‘c’ a
Pouring cup
b
2
𝑝𝑐 𝑣𝑐
𝑔ℎ𝑎 = + ha Sprue
𝜌 2 hb
Mould
𝑙
𝜌𝑙 - density of molten metal d
𝑝𝑐 - gauge pressure at point ‘c’ c
h hm

Runner
Between ‘c’ and ‘d’
𝑝
𝑔ℎ = 𝜌𝑐 by neglecting KE. at ‘c’ and 𝑣𝑑
𝑙

Velocity of molten metal at the gate

𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑐 = 2𝑔 ℎ𝑎 − ℎ (1)

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Bottom Gating System – time to fill mould

At time interval of ‘dt’ the height of metal goes up to ‘dh’

with 𝐴𝑚 and 𝐴𝑔 as cross-sectional area of the mould and gate

𝐴𝑚 𝑑ℎ = 𝐴𝑔 𝑣𝑔 𝑑𝑡 (2)
a
Using Eq. (1) Pouring cup
b
𝐴𝑔 1 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡 = (3)
𝐴𝑚 2𝑔 ℎ𝑎 −ℎ
ha Sprue Mould
At t = 0, h = 0 and at 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑓 , ℎ = ℎ𝑚 hb
dh
𝐴𝑔 𝑡 1 ℎ𝑚 𝑑ℎ hm
‫𝑡𝑑 𝑓 ׬‬
𝐴𝑚 0
= ‫׬‬
2𝑔 0 ℎ𝑎 −ℎ c
h

𝐴𝑚 1 Gate
𝑡𝑓 = 2( ℎ𝑎 − ℎ𝑎 − ℎ𝑚 ) (4)
𝐴𝑔 2𝑔

𝑡𝑓 - mould filling time

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Example – Gating design

Example: Top and bottom gating design for a mould of 30 cm × 20 cm × 10 cm are shown below.
The cross-sectional area of gate is 7 cm2 . Calculate the mould filling time for both the gating system.

a a
b b
10 cm
14 cm 10 cm 14 cm
10 cm 7 cm2
7 cm2 10 cm
c c
20 cm

20 cm 30 cm

30 cm
Bottom gating

Top gating

Solution:
Given ha = 14 cm, 𝐴𝑔 = 7𝑐𝑚2 , ℎ𝑚 = 10 𝑐𝑚 Solution:
cm Area of mould (Am ) = 30 × 20 = 600 cm2
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑐 = 2 × 981 × 14 𝐴
𝑡𝑓 = 𝑚
1
2 ℎ𝑎 − ℎ𝑎 − ℎ𝑚
s 𝐴𝑔 2𝑔
= 165.7 cm/sec 600 1
𝑉 30 × 20 × 10 = ×2 × 14 − 14 − 10 s
7 2×981
𝑡𝑚 = = s = 6.74 s
𝐴𝑔 𝑣𝑐 7 × 165.7
= 5.17 s
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Ref: A. Ghosh and A K Mallik: Manufacturing Science, EWP, New Delhi

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Aspiration effect in gating design

Molten metal pressure may drop below atmospheric pressure in the gating system
Gases and air from outside may enter into the molten metal stream – produces porous casting.
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between ‘b’ and ‘c’
2 2 Atmospheric pressure
𝑝 𝑣𝑏 𝑝𝑐 𝑣𝑐 a
𝑔ℎ𝑏 + 𝜌𝑏 + = + (5) hc
2 𝜌 2 b
𝑙 𝑙

Assume pc = 0 and vb= vc Pouring cup

ha Sprue
Hence, 𝑝𝑏 = −𝜌𝑙 𝑔ℎ𝑏 hb
(Hence cylindrical design is not recommended)
c
Shape must be different to avoid negative pressure
Mould
At least pb = 0 (atmospheric) in equation 5
2 2
𝑣𝑏 𝑣𝑐 2 2
∴ 𝑔ℎ𝑏 + = 𝑣𝑐 − 𝑣𝑏 = 2gℎ𝑏
2 2

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Aspiration effect in gating design

𝑣 𝐴
From continuity equation 𝑣𝑏 = 𝐴𝑐 = 𝑅
𝑐 𝑏
2 2
⇒ 𝑣𝑐 1−𝑅 = 2gℎ𝑏
b
2gℎ𝑏
⇒ 𝑅2 = 1 − 2
𝑣𝑐
Ideal
2gℎ𝑏
⇒𝑅= 1− Actual
2𝑔ℎ𝑎

ℎ𝑏 c
⇒𝑅= 1−
ℎ𝑎 Mould

ℎ𝑐 𝐴
⇒𝑅= = 𝐴𝑐
ℎ𝑎 𝑏
(Parabolic sprue is recommended)
• Construction of parabolic sprue is difficult, hence straight sprue is mostly used to
maintain positive pressure
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Gating design

Pouring basin: Reduces the eroding force of the liquid

metal stream coming directly from the furnace. A
constant pouring head can also be maintained by
using a pouring basin
Strainer: A ceramic strainer in the sprue removes
dross
Splash core: A ceramic splash core placed at the end
of the sprue also reduces the eroding force of the
liquid metal stream
Skim bob: It is trap placed in a horizontal gate to
prevent heavier and lighter impurities from entering
the mould
Gating design to prevent impurities

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Cooling and Solidification in casting

Solidification - an important role in defining the mechanical properties of
welded joints
Mode of solidification - final shape and size of the weld microstructure
 Temperature of the weld pool falls below the liquidus temperature

Cooling
Temperature

Temperature

TL
Melting point curve
TS

Time Time
Pure metal Alloy system
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Solidification in casting
Cooling curve for binary alloy
- Completely soluble

A A+B A+B
Temperature

Temperature
B

Time A Composition B

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Cooling and solidification

Proper solidification - can avoid defects like shrinkage cavity, cold shut, misrun and hot tear
Pure metal
• liquid need to be cooled below the freezing point
• Let at time t0 the temperature is θ0 (i.e. pouring temperature)
• The mould face act as nucleus for crystal growth, if conductivity is high, equiaxed grains near the
mould face.
• Temperature gradient exist in the casting between t1 and t2, columnar grain grows inwards
t0
θ0 t1 Preferred growth
Temperature

direction
t2
Equiaxed grains
θ1
Mould
θ2

Distance from mould face

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Cooling and solidification - alloy

Solidification of an alloy - over a temperature range and depends on
a) Composition gradient in the casting
b) Variation of solidus temperature with composition
c) Temperature gradient in the mould
• Solidification start (i.e. solid start to separate out) when temperature decrease below TL
for the alloy of composition C0 and ends at Ts.
• Freezing range ∆T = TL-TS
initial
Cooling of liquid Tf composition, CO
TL
Temperature

Solidification begins
TL TS

Temperature
TS
Solidification ends Liquidus line
Solid
Solidus line

C1 CO % Composition
Time 25

Cooling and solidification - alloy

• Columnar dendrite starts from mould surface
• Localization of small temperature gradient - randomly oriented
crystals may appear inside the casting
• Presence of solid crystal ahead of the S/L interface makes feeding of
liquid metal difficult, cause voids within the casting called as center
line shrinkage. Preferred growth direction
• By using chills (metallic block with high thermal conductivity), Mould face
higher temperature gradient can be achieved in the casting and
Mould center line
above problem can be avoided.
Distance from the mould

Liquid
The difficulty of feeding for an alloy in a mould is expressed
by, center-line feeding resistance (CFR)
time interval between freezing start and end at the centerline Solid
CFR =
total casting solidification time
𝐵𝐶 Mould face
CFR = × 100% O, A B C
𝑂𝐶 time
Feeding is considered to be difficult if CFR>70%
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Solidification in casting
 Driving force is undercooling or
Supercooling
 Phase transformation in two steps -
Nucleation and Growth
Temperature
 Nucleation involves the formation
of small stable particles (nuclei) of
the new phase from the liquid
 In the growth stage the stable
nuclei’s size increases as a result
the parent phase disappear
partially or fully
Phase change
with temperature 27

Solidification in casting
Progress of phase transformation:
Nucleation and Growth Undercooling
Temperature

 Homogeneous Nucleation
 Heterogeneous Nucleation ∆𝑇

Homogeneous Nucleation Time

Formation of a critically sized solid from the

Evolution of latent
liquid heat after undercooling

Driving force: high undercooling without an

external interface
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Solidification
Volume free energy – free energy difference between the liquid and solid phases
Surface energy – energy needed to create a surface for the spherical particles
4
Total free energy Change ΔG = 𝜋𝑟3ΔGv + 4πr2γ
3

γ → specific surface energy of the particle

r*
d(ΔG)/dr = 0 when r = r*
ΔG*
∗ 16𝜋𝛾 3
𝑟 = − 2𝛾/Δ𝐺𝑣 ∆𝐺 ∗ = 0

ΔG
3 ∆𝐺𝑣 2 radius, r
𝐿 ∆𝑇
∆𝐺𝑣 =
𝑇𝑚
∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇
L – latent heat
𝑇𝑚 - equilibrium solidification temperature
29

Solidification
Heterogeneous Nucleation – Formation of a critically
sized solid from the liquid on preexisting sites (surface
or interface)

Energy barrier for heterogeneous nucleation is less

∆𝐺 ∗ ℎ𝑒𝑡 = ∆𝐺 ∗ ℎ𝑜𝑚 𝑆 𝜃

𝑆 𝜃 - shape of the nucleus r*

0<𝑆 𝜃 <1
∆𝐺 ∗ ℎ𝑜𝑚

0
ΔG

∆𝐺 ∗ ℎ𝑒𝑡

30

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Basic solidification modes

Planar Cellular

Columnar dendritic Equiaxed dendritic

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Rate of solidification
A thin layer begin to form near the relatively cold mould wall, and as time
passes the thickness increases and completes the solidification. Air Mould Solid Liquid
The heat rejected by liquid metal is dissipation through mould wall as Tf
Temperature

shown in the figure.

Thermal resistances – 5 components (follow figure) Mould-metal
∆T interface
Large casting in an insulated mould (sand or investment
casting) – thermal resistance mainly offered by the mould Tamb
Rate of heat dissipated through mould wall
Distance
𝜕𝑇(𝑡)
𝑄ሶ = −𝑘𝐴
𝜕𝑥 Tf - freezing temperature of the metal
Solving with substitution of error function, it becomes T0 - original mould temperature
𝛼 - thermal diffusivity of mould
𝑘𝐴(𝑇𝑓 −𝑇0 )
𝑄ሶ = material
𝜋𝛼𝑡 t - time,
Total quantity of heat flow across the mould for time t1. k - thermal conductivity of mould
A- cross-sectional area of mould metal
𝑡1
ሶ = 2𝐴𝑘(𝑇𝑓 −𝑇0 ) 𝑡1
𝑄𝑡1 = ‫׬‬0 𝑄𝑑𝑡 interface.
𝜋𝛼

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Rate of solidification
Heat to be removed from the liquid to solidify
𝑄𝑅 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑉[𝐿 + 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑓 )] Materials Contraction (%)
V – volume of the mould, 𝜌𝑚 , L, 𝐶𝑝 - density, latent heat, specific heat of the liquid metal, 𝑇𝑝 -
pouring temperature Aluminum 7.1
Therefore, if total solidification time is ts, then
Zinc 6.5
2𝐴𝑘(𝑇𝑓 −𝑇0 ) Gold 5.5
𝑡𝑠 = 𝑄𝑅 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑉[𝐿 + 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑓 )]
𝜋𝛼
𝑉 2 White-iron 4-5.5
𝑡𝑠 = 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑀2
𝐴
where M =
𝑉
= modulus of the casting
Copper 4.9
𝐴
2 Brass(70-30) 4.5
𝜌𝑚 𝜋𝛼[𝐿+𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑝 −𝑇𝑓 )]
𝜔 = solidification factor =
2𝑘(𝑇𝑓 −𝑇0 )
Magnesium 4.2
Shrinkage
• Due to thermal expansion characteristics, metals usually shrink Gray cast
iron
-1.9

(except grey cast iron, bismuth, silicon) during the solidification.

• It can be avoided by using riser or by pressure feeding of molten
metal
33

Rate of solidification
Example: Two components are being cast of same volume but different shape: One is sphere
and other one is cube. Which component will solidify faster?
Answer: Let assume the volume as unity
1
∴ Solidification time t s ∝ 𝐴 2

For sphere
1/3 For Cube
4 3 𝑉 = 𝑎3 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = 1
𝑉= × 𝜋 × 𝑟3 , 𝑟 =
3 4𝜋 𝐴 = 6𝑎2 = 6
𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 4.84 𝜔
𝜔 ∴ solidification time t s = = 0.027𝐾
∴ solidification time t s = = 0.042𝐾 𝐴 2
𝐴 2

∴ Solidification time for cube is less than to that of a sphere.

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Rate of solidification
Example: A spherical component of diameter 10 mm takes 10 s for complete solidification.
How much time it will take for a same material spherical component of diameter 20 mm for
complete solidification.
Answer:
4 2
×𝜋×𝑟 3 𝑑 2
3
For sphere, 𝑡𝑠 = 𝜔 =𝜔
4𝜋𝑟 2 6
𝑑1 2
𝑡𝑠1 6 102 1
∴ = 𝑑2 2
= =
𝑡𝑠2 202 4
6

∴ 𝑡𝑠2 = 40 𝑠

35

Solidification time for complex contours

Three types of metal-mould interface - Convex , Plane, Concave.
Convex interface - heat flow is more divergent and rate is more than plane surface
Concave interface - heat flow is more convergent and rate is less than plane interface
Define two non-dimensional parameters
2
𝜌𝑚 𝜋𝛼[𝐿+𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑝 −𝑇𝑓 )]
𝜔=
2𝑘(𝑇𝑓 −𝑇0 )
𝑉/𝐴 (𝑇𝑓 −𝑇0 )𝜌𝑐
𝛽= and 𝛿 = 𝐿′ = 𝐿 + 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑓 )
𝛼𝑡𝑠 𝜌𝑚 𝐿′
In terms of these parameters,
Metal Metal
𝑉 2 Metal
𝑡𝑠 = 𝜔 𝐴
is rewritten as

2
𝛽=𝛿 𝜋
(for infinite plane)
Mould Mould Mould
2 1
𝛽=𝛿 𝜋
+ 4𝛽 (For infinitely long cylinder) (a) Convex (b) Plane (c) Concave
2 1
𝛽=𝛿 𝜋
+ 3𝛽
(For a sphere)
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Solidification time for complex contours

The general form of curvature effect is expressed as
2 1
𝛽=𝛿 +
𝜋 𝜑𝛽
𝜑 = ∝ for flat plate
𝜑 = 4 for long cylinder
𝜑 = 3 for sphere

Example: Calculate the solidification time of two iron casting when both are poured with no
superheats into the sand mould kept at 25°C. For iron (Tf = 1539 °C, L = 270 kJ/kg and 𝜌 =
7900 kg/m3) and for the sand (c = 1.15 kJ/kg-K, k = 0.85 W/m-K, 𝜌 = 1500 kg/m3)
a) A slab-shaped casting of 20 cm thick.
b) A sphere of 20 cm diameter.

37

Solidification time for complex contours

Answer:
a) l, b and h are the length, breadth and thickness of the slab
Volume V = lbh and surface area, A = 2(lb + bh + lh) ≈ 2lb (as l, b ≫ h)
As superheat is zero, Tp = Tf, L′ = L and T0 = 25°C
(𝑇𝑓 −𝑇0 )𝜌𝑐 (1539−25)×1500×1.15×103
∴𝛿= 𝜌𝑚 𝐿′
= 7900×270×103
= 1.22
2
∴𝛽=𝛿× = 1.38
𝜋
𝑘 0.85
Diffusivity (mould), 𝛼 = 𝜌𝑐 = 1500×1.15×103 = 0.492×10-6 m2/s

𝑉/𝐴 ℎ/2
𝛽= = t s = 10672.75 s = 2.964 hrs
𝛼𝑡𝑠 𝛼𝑡𝑠

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Solidification time for complex contours

For sphere
2 1
∴𝛽=𝛿 + 3𝛽
𝜋
2 1
⇒ 𝛽 = 1.22 × + 3𝛽
𝜋
If we only take the positive real root, then 𝛽 =1.62
4
𝑉 ×𝜋×𝑟 3 𝑟 10
For a sphere of radius 10 cm, 𝐴 = 3 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 3 = × 10−2 m.
3

𝑉/𝐴
Therefore 𝛽= 𝛼𝑡𝑠
2
10 −2
(𝑉/𝐴) 2 × 10
ts = = 3 = 860.5 𝑠 = 0.24 ℎ𝑟
𝛼𝛽 2 (1.62)2 ×0.492×10−6
39

Solidification with predominant interface resistance

In some casting process - heat flow is controlled significantly by providing thermal
resistance in the mould-metal interface
These process include permanent mould casting and die casting.
The rate of heat flow through the interface is
𝑄ሶ = ℎ𝑓 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇0 𝐴
hf - heat transfer coefficient of the interface A - Mould Solid Liquid
surface area of the interface Tf
Tf
Temperature

Solidification front is at a distance of δ from the

𝛿(𝑡)
mould face at time t,
Rate of heat released during solidification
T0
𝑑𝛿
𝑄ሶ = 𝜌𝑚 𝐿𝐴 𝑑𝑡
L = latent heat Mould metal Distance (x)
interface

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Solidification with predominant interface resistance

𝑑𝛿 ℎ𝑓 𝑇𝑓 −𝑇0
Therefore, =
𝑑𝑡 𝜌𝑚 𝐿
ℎ𝑓 𝑇𝑓 −𝑇0
Integrating with δ = 0 at t = 0 𝛿 𝑡 = 𝑡
𝜌𝑚 𝐿

Total heat rejected by casting QR = ρm V L + Cp Tp − Tf

Substitute Tp= Tf QR = ρm VL
Heat flow during the period of solidification = hf Tf − T0 At s

𝜌𝑚 𝐿 𝑉
𝑡𝑠 = ℎ
𝑓 𝑇 𝑓 −𝑇0 𝐴

This expression is used to estimate solidification time of small thin section parts cast in a heavy metal mould as
in die or permanent mould casting.
41

Riser design and placement

Riser act like a reservoir - supply liquid metal to compensate solidification shrinkage
Riser - design with minimum possible volume but must solidify after the casting (large
solidification time)
Solidification time depends on Volume/Area ratio
Analogous to Heat content (volume) and rate of heat dissipation (Surface area)
Minimum (A/V) ratio is desirable
Volume of the riser (𝑉𝑅 ) ≥ 3 × Shrinkage volume of the casting (3𝑉𝑆𝐶 )
% shrinkage
𝑉𝑆𝐶 = × 𝑉𝑐
100
The heat transfer from the riser is need to be as minimum as possible
𝑄cube : 𝑄sphere : 𝑄cylinder ∷ 1: ? : ?
Surface area is same and assume diameter = height for cylinder.
Due to less heat transfer cylindrical is the best preferable shape of riser.
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Riser design and placement

Top cylindrical riser
𝜋 4𝑉 Riser
Volume, 𝑉 = 4 𝐷2 𝐻 or 𝐻 = 𝜋𝐷2
𝜋 H D
Surface area, 𝐴𝑆 = π𝐷𝐻 + 4 × 𝐷2
4π𝐷𝑉 𝜋
= + 4 × 𝐷2 Mould
𝜋𝐷2
4𝑉 𝜋
= + 4 × 𝐷2
𝐷
For minimum surface area (As) (i.e. for minimum heat transfer)
𝜕𝐴𝑠
=0
𝜕𝐷

𝜕 4𝑉 𝜋 D
⇒ 𝜕𝐷 + 4 × 𝐷2 = 0 ⇒H=
𝐷 2

43

Riser design and placement

Side cylindrical riser
𝜋 4𝑉
Volume, 𝑉 = 4 𝐷2 𝐻 or 𝐻 = 𝜋𝐷2 Riser
𝜋
Surface area, 𝐴𝑆 = π𝐷𝐻 + 2 × 4 × 𝐷2 H D
4𝑉 𝜋
= 𝜋𝐷 + × 𝐷2
2
Mould

For minimum surface area (As)

𝜕𝐴𝑠
=0
𝜕𝐷
4𝑉
⇒ − 2 + 𝜋𝐷 = 0
𝐷

H=D
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Riser design and placement

Method of riser design
Caines Method
• To check the adequacy of the riser size for casting, Caines method is normally used.
• It is based on the relationship that cooling rate is linearly proportional to the ratio of
surface area and volume.

(𝐴/𝑉)
Freezing ratio, X = (𝐴/𝑉)𝐶
𝑅

𝑉
Volume ratio, Y= 𝑉𝑅
𝐶

45

Riser design and placement

For a given casting and riser combination, if the point falls
2
right of the curve then, the adequacy of riser is ensured. Sound
casting
Volume ratio

The equation of the rising curve is of the form

𝑎
𝑋= +𝑐 1
𝑌−𝑏
Defective
a - freezing constant for the material casting
b - contraction ratio from liquid to solid, and
c - constant, depends upon media around the riser and 1
Freezing ratio
2

casting, and = 1, if the media is same around riser and cast.

Novel research Method 0.8 Sound

Volume ratio

• For complex geometries of casting, calculation of (A/V)c casting

0.6
is a tedious task, hence this method is developed.
L+W
• Shape factor = t 0.4

where L, W and t are maximum length, width and thickness 0.2 Defective
casting
of the casting 16 24
Shape factor

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Casting processes

DRY SAND MOULD CASTING

• Expendable mould is used.

• Green sand mould is baked in the oven for several

hour to achieve necessary hot strength of mould.

• The defects such as blows and porosity are less

frequent.
Dry sand mould casting

47

Casting processes

SHELL MOULD CASTING

• Used to produce small castings repetitively in large number
• Phenolic resin is used as mould material
• Used for producing circular and symmetrical shape like cylinder, cylinder head of I C engine, gear blanks, bevel
gears, crank shaft and various automobile transmission parts
• Semi precise method for producing small casting in large numbers.
• Mould is made up of phenolic resin mixed with silica in the presence of alcohol.
• The sand resin mixture is blown over the metallic (Aluminum or Brass) pattern heated above 2000 oC.
• After a certain dwell time the pattern and sand bond is inverted to clean off extra sand.
• Then the mould is heated at a temperature (300oC) for 15-60 sec to give rigidity.
• Same way another half of the mould is prepared and clamped with each other.
• Grinding can produce final product.

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Casting processes - Shell mould casting

49

Casting processes - Investment casting

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Casting processes
INVESTMENT CASTING
• In this process wax is used as pattern material and cement concrete is used as mould material
• Very suitable for casting turbine and jet engine parts due to higher dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
• Also used for producing complex shape of casting like gold and silver ornaments
• This process is used for producing high dimensional accuracy product such as turbine and jet engine parts, jewelry etc.
• Mould is made of single piece and without any parting line.
• The metal pattern is used to make die of soft material eg. Aluminum.
• Wax and plastic is used to make expendable pattern.
• Pattern is then dipped in the slurry (Silica flour, water & bonding agent).
• Pattern is taken out of the slurry and rotated to produce uniform coating.
• Silica sand is sprinkled on the wet slurry surface and precoat is obtained after drying.
• After housing the precoat in the open ended steel can, it is filled with refractory concrete slurry.
• After setting of concrete the entire assembly is put in the oven and heated to remove plastic and wax leaving behind the
mould.
• The liquid metal is pored in the mould to produce casting.
• After solidification of metal, the refractory is knock off and final product is extracted.

51

Casting processes

GRAVITY DIE CASTING

• Permanent mould is used.

• The liquid material is poured in the non-

expendable mould under the force of gravity.

Gravity die casting

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Casting processes
DIE CASTING
• The mould is made of metal, mainly tool
steel.
• Same mould can be used for infinite
number of times hence it is also known as
permanent mould casting process.
• Excellent surface finish is achieved due to
metal mould.
• Only lower melting point metal like Pb,
Sn, Zn and Al are casted
• The liquid metal is forced into the mould
cavity under high pressure.
• Based on the furnace position two types of Hot chamber die casting
process are defined, hot chamber and cold
chamber process.
• The die is water cooled for efficient cooling
of casting.
• Low melting temperature materials
(Aluminum and Zinc) are used.
Cold chamber die casting
53

Casting processes

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
• Centrifugal force is produced due to rotation of
mould and the molten metal distributes around the
circumference of mould
• Rotation of mould continue until complete
solidification
• Used to produce large hollow casting without using
core (water supply pipes)
• For producing sound casting the centripetal
acceleration is maintained between 60g to 75g.
• A permanent rotating mould is used.
• High density hollow parts can be manufactured without
using core. Centrifugal casting

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Casting processes

SLUSH CASTING
• Slush casting is produced by pouring the molten
metal into an open top permanent mould and
inverting the mould after a thin layer of liquid has
solidified on its surface.
• Thus the liquid at the center of mould drained out,
hence producing shell like casting.
• Widely used for ornament objects and making toys.
• Molten liquid material is poured in open-top mould &
inverting of mould after formation of thin solidified layer.
• Excess liquid is drained and thin shell like component is
obtained.
• Low melting temperature materials such as Tin, lead,
Zinc can be used.

Slush Casting
55

Continuous casting
 Molten metal is poured continuously into a water-cooled
mold (made of copper)
 Solidified metal is continuously withdrawn in a plate or rod
form
 The speed of withdrawal is such that the S/L interface is
maintained in the shape and position
 In practice, hydrodynamic effect allow the tendency for the
flow lines to fan outward producing negative segregation
near the center
 Solidification follows the maximum temperature gradient in
the melt
 The main difference – in continuous casting the heat source
does not move whereas in welding the heat source moves

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Casting analysis

 In practice, chill blocks or thin fins are used on the casting

to increase its cooling rate.
 Chilling is effective for a cast metal having a thermal
conductivity lower than that of the chill.
 To increase the solidification time of the riser, some
exothermic compounds are added in the riser to keep it
molten for longer time.
 The thermal gradient in the last stage of solidification is
important factor that depends on the shape and size of
cross section
 A casting with low (A/V) ratio (cube and sphere), one
central riser is able to feed the entire casting.
 For a casting with higher (A/V) ratio (bar and plate), usually
more than one riser is required.

57

Casting defects

Solidification Cracking: Cracks occur during casting for the

following reasons

 Temperature gradient causes thermal strain

 Compatibility of various phases due to variation in composition

 Embrittlement of grain boundaries

 Volumetric contract during cooling

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Solidification Cracking

Mainly two types of cracks

Hot crack – Occurs at elevated temperatures (Solidification
cracking)
Cold crack – Occurs after solidification (Hydrogen cracking)
General measure to prevent cracking
 Minimize stresses from the shrinkage during cooling – change the
design
 Following slow or moderate cooling rate by avoiding rapid cooling rate

59

Solidification Cracking
Hot cracking (Solidification cracking)
 Low ductility material
 Wide range of solidification temperature
 Presence of impurity elements (low melting point) like sulfur,
phosphorus and boron
 Impurity segregation mainly at weld centerline – creates
shrinkage stress

Prevented by
 Low level of C, S, P, B
 High level of Mn
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Casting defects

Blow Scar Blister

Large, well rounded cavity formed A shallow blow found on the flat Scar covered by thin layers of a metal.

by the displacement of cope surface casting surface.

by the liberation of the gases.

Gas holes Pin holes Porosity

Entrapped gas bubble occur due to Uniformly distributed, large number of Uniformly dispersed tiny holes arises

excessive amount of gas dissolve in tiny blow holes at or just below the cast due to decrease in the gas solubility

liquid metal. surface. during the solidification.

61

Casting defects
Drop Inclusion Dirt

Irregularly shaped projection on the Non-metallic particles in the in the metal Small angular holes formed after the

cope surface of a casting. matrix. removal of sand particles, which dropped

over the top of the casting surface while
solidification.

Wash Buckle Scab

A low projection on the drag surface Long, fairly shallow, broad, V-shaped Rough thin layer of metal protruding
of a casting, commencing near the depression occurring in the surface of the above the cast surface on the top of the
gate. flat casting of high temperature metal. thin layer of sand.

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Casting defects
Rat tail Penetration Swell

Long, shallow, angular depression in Rough and porous projection formed Defect on the vertical surface of the
casting. Compressed layer fails by one when liquid metal flow between sand casting when molten sand is deformed
layer gliding over another. particle up to a certain distance in the by hydrostatic pressure caused
soft and porous mould surface. by moist sand.

Misrun Cold Shut Hot tear

Defect happened due to the insufficient Misrun at the center of the casting Development of crack due to high

superheat which results in the early residual stress.

solidification before reaching the

farthest point in casting.

63

Casting defects

Shrinkage Cavity Shift

Defect because of improper riser. Defect due to misalignment

between two halves of the mould
or core.

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Remedies of defects

Importance of heat treatment

 Phase transformations during heating
 Effect of cooling rate on structural changes
 Effect of carbon content and alloying elements

 The fast cooling rates associated with martensite

 During postweld heat treatment, martensite is tempered (transforms to
ferrite and carbides)
– Reduces hardness, Reduces strength
– Increases ductility, Increases toughness
 Residual stress is also reduced by the postweld heat treatment

65

Thank you
for your kind attention

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