REPUCLIC OF TURKEY

ERCIYES UNIVERSITY
ENGINEERING FACULTY

Design and Optimization of Lattice Structures

Preparers
1030110227 Mehmet Ali Can
1030110199 Bahri Aslan
1030110231 Emre Ardıç
1030110196 Kemal Faruk Şahin

Supervisor
Prof. DR Mustafa Kemal Apaak

Mechanical Engineering Department

Machinery Design and Applications I

DECEMBER 2023
KAYSERI
 CONTENTS

Design and Optimization of Lattice Structures

PAGE NUMBER

CONTENTS………………………………………...………………………………….2

LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………….…....3

1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………...5

2. LATTICE STRUCTURES………………………………………………………......7

2.1 The definition and classıfıcatıon of lattıce structures……………………………....7

2.2. Properties and Applications of Lattice Structures……………………………........9

2.2.1. Properties ………………………………………………………………………..9

2.2.2. Applications …………………………………………………………………….11

2.3. Disadvantages of Lattice Structures……………………………………………....13

2.4. Manufacturing Methods of Lattice Structures………………………………...….14

3. Design and Optimization of Uniform Lattice Structures…………………………...16

3.1 Design and Optimization of Non-Uniform Lattices…………………………….…18

4.1 Poisson Ratio ……………………………………………………………………...19

4.2 Abstract…………………………………………………………………………….34

4.3 References………………………………………………………………………….34
 LIST OF FIGURES
NUMBER PAGE

Figure 1. . Different types of celluar structures………………………………………………...6

Table 1. Aplications of celluar structures …………………………………………………...7

Figure 2. . ……………………………………………………………………………………..8

Figure 3. Gradient lattice structures…………………………………………...……….……...9

Figure 4. Deformation of samples in compression test……………………………….……....10

Figure 5. Applications of lattice structures…………………………………………..………..12

Figure 6. Investment casting fabricating lattice structure……………………………..………14

Figure 7. Examples of three different lattice families………………………………………....15

Figure 8. Topology optimization of uniform lattice structure………………………...…….…16

Figure 9. Design and optimal material……………………………………………..………..…18

Figure 10. Non-uniform lattice structure based on SMS method……………………..……......18

Figure 11. Non-uniform lattice structure based on SGM method…………………..………..…..18

Figure 12. Poisson ratio ……………………………………………………………………....…..19

Table 2. Poisson’s Ratio for Common Materials ……………………………………….............20

Figure 13-A and Model (A4)>Geometry>Part 2>Figure and Table 3..........................................21

Figure 13-B and Model (A4)>Geometry>Part 2>Figure and Table 4-Model A(4)>Mesh...........22

Figure 14 Model (A4)>Mesh>Figure and Table 5-Model (A4)>Analysis....................................24

Table 6 Model (A4)>Explicit Dynamics (A5)>Solution(A6)>Results…………….………..…..25

Figure 15 Model (A4)>Explicit Dynamics (A5)>Solution(A6)>Results and …..……..……........26

Table 7 Model (A4)>Explicit Dynamics (A5)>Solution(A6)>Total Deformation………………26

Figure 16 Model (A4)>Explicit Dynamics (A5)>Solution(A6)>Total Deformation>Figure..........27

Figure 17 Model (A4)>Explicit Dynamics (A5)>Solution(A6)>Total Deformation>Figure.........27

Figure 18 Model (A4)>Explicit Dynamics (A5)>Solution(A6)>Equivalent Elastic Strain……....28

Table 8 Model (A4)>Explicit Dynamics (A5)>Solution(A6)>Equivalent Elastic Strain……….28

Figure 19 Model (A4)>Explicit Dynamics (A5)>Solution(A6)>Total Deformation>Figure……..29

Figure 20 Model (A4)>Explicit Dynamics (A5)>Solution(A6)>Equivalent Elastic Strain>Image..29

 LIST OF FIGURES
NUMBER PAGE

Figure 21 Model (A4)>Explicit Dynamics (A5)>Solution(A6)>Equivalent Stress………………...30

Table 9 Model (A4)>Explicit Dynamics (A5)>Solution(A6)>Equivalent Stress………………...30

Figure 22 Model (A4)>Explicit Dynamics (A5)>Solution(A6)>Equivalent Stress>Figure………...31

Figure 23 Model (A4)>Explicit Dynamics (A5)>Solution(A6)>Stress Tool>Safety Factor………..31

Table 10 Model (A4)>Explicit Dynamics (A5)>Solution(A6)>Stress Tool>Safety Factor………..32

Figure 24 Model (A4)>Explicit Dynamics (A5)>Solution(A6)>Stress Tool>Safety Factor>Figure..32

Table 11 Structual Steel>Constant……………………………………………………………...…...33

Table 12 Structual Steel>Compressive Yield Strength…………………………………………...…33

Table 13 Structual Steel>Tensile Yield Strength……………………………………………………33

Table 14 Structual Steel>Tensile Ultimate Strength………………………...………………………33

Table 15 Structual Steel>S-N Curve……………………………….………………………………..33

1. INTRODUCTION

The lattice structure is a highly desirable material for several design applications, such as
aerospace, mechanical engineering, biological engineering, etc. It possesses excellent
properties such as light-weighting, high specific strength and stiffness, efficient heat
dissipation, and many others. Before the advent of the lattice structure, the cellular structure
was commonly used. The concept of cellular structure was initially defined by Gibson and
Ashby, Evans, Hutchinson, et al. According to Gibson and Ashby, cellular structure includes
foams (open-cell and closed-cell foams), honeycombs. However, lattice structure, being a
different type of cellular material from foams and honeycombs, differs mainly in unit cell
topology and scale, as well as properties. For clear classification of cellular structures, Dhruv
Bhate, Tao and Leu classified them into three categories: foams (open-cell and closed-cell
foams), honeycombs, and lattice structures. The shape of unit cells in foam structures is
randomly generated, and the cell walls have random orientations in space. In the book, "Metal
Foams: A Design Guide," Ashby, Evans, and Fleck et al. have provided detailed information
about the properties, applications, and manufacturing methods of metallic foam structures.
Davies and Zhen clearly stated that metallic foam structures have high porosity ranging from
40% to 98%. Foams are the most common cellular structures, and various foams can be seen
in cork, cancellous bone, and wood. Honeycomb structures have a regular shape, and unit
cells have the same shape and size. There are many cell shapes in honeycombs, such as
tetrahedron, triangular prism, square prism, hexagonal prism, and so on. At present, the re-
entrant honeycomb auxetic structures and chiral honeycomb structures are considered
attractive, as they improve the performance and extend the application of honeycombs.
Lattice structures are architectural patterns that are formed by the spatial array of unit cells
with edges and faces. The cellular shape and size of the lattice structures are highly
customizable.

Cellular structures can be either uniform or non-uniform. In some academic studies, foam
structures are often treated as lattice structures, due to the neglect of the differences between
lattices, foams, and honeycombs. However, lattice structures have been found to have better
mechanical properties than foams and honeycombs. Studies by Queheillalt et al. and Clough
et al. have shown that lattice structures can improve compressive and shear strength over
foams and honeycomb structures, provided they are designed to suppress buckling.

Moreover, lattice structures have many superior properties that foams and honeycombs lack,
thanks to their unique property of tailoring. Each unit cell and even each strut in the lattice
structure can be set as the design variable and optimized to satisfy specific requirements
functionally, which means mechanical properties of lattices are more flexible to be controlled
than foams and honeycombs. Therefore, it can be concluded that lattice structures have better
performance than foam structures and honeycomb structures.To classify cellular structures
more clearly, Dhruv Bhate, Tao and Leu classified them into three categories: foams (open-
cell and closed-cell foams), honeycombs, and lattice structures. The shape of unit cells in the
foam structures is randomly generated, and the cell walls have random orientations in space.
Honeycomb structures have regular shape, and unit cells have the same shape and size. There
are many cell shapes in foams, such as cork, cancellous bone and wood.
 (a) (b)

(c)
Figure 1. Different types of cellular structures: (a) foam ; (b) honeycomb; (c) lattice structure

Lattice structures are categorized based on the arrangement of unit cells, and generally, they
are divided into two types: random and periodic structures. However, conformal lattice
structures, which were initially proposed by Wang and Rosen, can strengthen or consolidate
complex surfaces, and are considered as a third type of lattice structures. Dong et al. provided
a detailed classification of lattice structures, dividing them into three categories: random
(disordered), periodic, and pseudo-periodic (conformal). In the case of pseudo-periodic lattice
structures, each unit cell has only the same topology, but different sizes. However, it is
challenging to classify gradient lattice structures as periodic or aperiodic cellular structures, as
the cell topology and arrangement are different between steps. Further, researchers have started
studying non-uniform lattice structures with different Poisson's ratios, which are generally
referred to as non-uniform structures. To summarize, lattice structures are classified based on
the arrangement of unit cells in space, and non-uniform and gradient lattice structures represent
a new avenue of research in the field.
 Table 1. Applications of cellular structures.

________________________________________________________________________________

Type of Cellular Structures Applications

________________________________________________________________________________

Foams Energy absorbers,Filters, Silencers,Flame arresters,

Heaters and heat exchangers, Eelectro-chemical

devices.

________________________________________________________________________________

Honeycombs Energy absorbers,Biomedical implants, Filters,Sensors,

Actuators, Vibration absorber or damper.

________________________________________________________________________________

Lattices Energy absorber,Heaters and heat exchangers, Engine

hood,Biomedical implants,Wings,Gas turbine engine fan

blades,Vibration absorber,Robotic system,Spacecraft and

aircraft structures (i.e., fuselage, rib).

2. Lattice Structures
2.1. The Definition and Classification of Lattice Structure

Lattice structures are a type of structure composed of interconnected cells arranged in a three-
dimensional space. The definition of lattice structures has been a topic of debate among
scholars, as there is no consensus on it.
Gibson and Ashby defined two-dimensional cellular structures, like honeycombs, as lattice
structures where the cell walls have a common generator. They also defined three-
dimensional cellular structures, like foams, as lattice structures where cell walls have random
orientations in space. However, many scholars have their own understanding of lattice
structures based on Gibson and Ashby's definition.
Tao et al. defined lattice structures as an architecture formed by an array of spatial periodic
unit cells with edges and faces. Dong et al. defined them as truss-like structures with
interconnected struts and nodes in three-dimensional space. Seharing et al. defined lattice
structures as porous and hollow structures formed by arranging unit cells in three-dimensional
space. Helou et al. defined lattice structures as space-filling unit cells that can be tessellated
along any axis with no gaps between the cells.
Although the above definitions have a common point that lattice structures are three-
dimensional space structures, they still have some limitations. Tao's definition, for example,
only emphasizes the periodic unit cells arrangement but ignores the aperiodic unit cells.
Moreover, gradient lattice structure appears in structural design, which cannot be defined by
distinguishing periodic and aperiodic unit cells arrangement.
Lattice structures are categorized based on the arrangement of unit cells, and generally, they
are divided into two types: random and periodic structures. However, conformal lattice
structures, which were initially proposed by Wang and Rosen, can strengthen or consolidate
complex surfaces, and are considered as a third type of lattice structures. Dong et al. provided
a detailed classification of lattice structures, dividing them into three categories: random
(disordered), periodic, and pseudo-periodic (conformal). In the case of pseudo-periodic lattice
structures, each unit cell has only the same topology, but different sizes. However, it is
challenging to classify gradient lattice structures as periodic or aperiodic cellular structures, as
the cell topology and arrangement are different between steps. Further, researchers have
started studying non-uniform lattice structures with different Poisson's ratios, which are
generally referred to as non-uniform structures. To summarize, lattice structures are classified
based on the arrangement of unit cells in space, and non-uniform and gradient lattice
structures represent a new avenue of research in the field.

Figure 2
Based on the cited literature, this paper aims to define and classify the lattice structure. Lattice
structure is a three-dimensional porous spatial structure that is formed and tessellated by unit
cells with different topological geometries, and it belongs to cellular structures, including
foam structure, honeycomb structure, and lattice structure. Based on the uniformity of cell
distribution, the lattice structures are divided into two categories: uniform lattice structures
and non-uniform lattice structures. Uniform lattice structures refer to porous structures with a
uniform distribution of unit cells, formed by the same topological shapes and geometric sizes
of unit cells repeatedly arranged in space. On the other hand, non-uniform lattice structures
refer to porous structures in which unit cells have different topological shapes or geometric
sizes and are not arranged repeatedly; in other words, the materials are unevenly distributed.

2.2. Properties and Applications of Lattice Structures

2.2.1. Properties

Lattice structures are widely used in lightweight structure design as they help minimize
material loss and energy consumption during the manufacturing process. By optimizing the
lattice structure, we can effectively save energy, material, and time in the manufacturing
process. Additionally, lattice structures are known for their good mechanical properties,
making them a popular choice in many different applications.
1-Strength-to-Weight Ratio:

Lattice structures are known for their excellent strength-to-weight ratio. The repeating
geometric patterns distribute forces efficiently, providing structural integrity while
minimizing material usage.

2-Flexibility:

The modular nature of lattice structures allows for flexibility in design. Engineers can tailor
the lattice geometry to meet specific requirements, making them adaptable for a wide range of
applications.

3-Heat and Mass Transfer:

Lattice structures exhibit enhanced heat and mass transfer properties due to their open and
interconnected designs. This makes them suitable for applications where efficient thermal
management is essential.

4-Reduced Material Usage:

By minimizing the amount of material used, lattice structures contribute to lightweight

designs. This property is particularly beneficial in industries such as aerospace and
automotive, where weight reduction is critical.

5-Vibration Damping:

The inherent damping properties of lattice structures make them suitable for applications
where vibration control is essential. This property is advantageous in aerospace, automotive,
and construction engineering.

6-Customizability:

Lattice structures are highly customizable, allowing engineers to tailor designs based on
specific requirements. This flexibility makes them suitable for a wide range of applications
across different industries.

Figure 4. Deformation of samples in compression test: (a) solid; (b) hollow; (c) lattice.
2.2.2. Applications

Lattice structures offer excellent properties that can significantly improve the manufacturing
industry by providing better performance. The lightweight and high-strength features of
lattice structures make them ideal for use in the aerospace and automotive fields, including the
structural design of aircraft, rockets, and other vehicles. Moreover, the bio-compatibility and
high strength of lattice structures allow them to be designed into the shape of human tissue,
making them useful in the medical field to replace diseased organs and bone. Lattice
structures are versatile, and their flexible mechanical properties and structural characteristics
enable them to meet specific requirements in various processing and manufacturing methods,
such as water jet cutting, investment casting, electroless plating, electrodeposition, fused
deposition modeling (FDM), selective laser melting (SLM), selective laser sintering (SLS),
electron beam melting (EBM), binder jetting (BJ), and more. Figure 5 shows some specific
applications of lattice structures.

1-Aerospace Industry:

Lattice structures are used in aircraft and spacecraft components to reduce weight while
maintaining structural integrity. This contributes to fuel efficiency and overall performance.

2-Mechanical Engineering:

Trusses and frames with lattice structures are commonly used in mechanical engineering for
load-bearing structures in bridges, buildings, and industrial applications.

3-Biomedical Engineering:

Lattice structures find applications in the design of implants and prosthetics, where the
balance between strength and weight is crucial. Additive manufacturing enables the creation
of customized lattice structures for patient-specific needs.

4-Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing):

3D printing allows for the precise fabrication of lattice structures. This technology is used to
create lightweight and complex components for various industries, including automotive,
healthcare, and consumer goods.

5-Energy Storage and Conversion:

Lattice structures are explored in the development of materials for batteries and fuel cells. The
open structure facilitates efficient ion and electron transport, improving the performance of
energy storage and conversion devices.

6-Optics and Photonics:

Photonic crystals, which exhibit lattice-like structures, are employed in optics and photonics
for manipulating light. They find applications in telecommunications, sensors, and optical
computing.
7-Metamaterials:

Lattice structures play a crucial role in the development of metamaterials with unique
properties not found in natural materials. These materials have applications in cloaking
devices, superlenses, and advanced sensing technologies.

8-Construction and Architecture:

Lattice structures are utilized in architectural designs and construction for creating
aesthetically pleasing structures with optimal load distribution. They contribute to innovative
and sustainable building solutions.

In summary, the properties of lattice structures, including their strength-to-weight ratio,

flexibility, and efficient heat transfer, make them versatile for applications across diverse
industries, from aerospace and engineering to healthcare and construction. Advances in
manufacturing technologies, especially additive manufacturing, have further expanded the
possibilities for utilizing lattice structures in innovative ways.

Figure 5. Applications of lattice structures: (a) winding of helical rib (b) aerial vehicle wing structure
(c) fan blade (d) biomedical implant structure (c) fan blade (d) biomedical implant.
2.3. Disadvantages of Lattice Structures

While lattice structures offer many advantages, they also come with certain disadvantages and
challenges. It's important to consider these aspects when choosing or designing lattice
structures for specific applications. Here are some potential disadvantages:

1-Complex Design and Analysis:

Designing lattice structures can be complex, especially for applications with specific
requirements

2-Manufacturing Challenges:

Precision is crucial, and certain manufacturing methods, especially traditional ones, may
struggle to achieve the necessary level of detail.

3-Vulnerability to Impact Damage:

The open and interconnected nature of lattice structures may make them more vulnerable to
impact damage compared to solid structures.

4-Sensitivity to Manufacturing Defects:

Lattice structures may be more sensitive to manufacturing defects or inconsistencies, which

could affect their mechanical properties. Quality control measures must be implemented to
ensure structural integrity.

5-Difficulty in Repair and Modification:

Repairing or modifying lattice structures can be more challenging than working with solid
structures. Accessing and restoring specific lattice elements may require specialized
techniques and tools.

6-Cost of Additive Manufacturing:

While additive manufacturing allows for intricate lattice designs, the cost of 3D printing can
be relatively high. This cost factor may be a consideration, especially for large-scale
production.

7-Challenges in Surface Finishing:

Achieving smooth surface finishes on lattice structures can be challenging, particularly in

additive manufacturing processes. Surface irregularities may impact the performance or
aesthetics of the final product.

Despite these challenges, ongoing research and advancements in materials science and
manufacturing technologies aim to address some of these disadvantages and further optimize
the use of lattice structures in various applications. Engineers and designers need to carefully
weigh the advantages and disadvantages based on the specific requirements of their projects.
2.4. Manufacturing Methods of Lattice Structures

Manufacturing lattice structures involves various methods, each with its own set of
advantages and limitations. The choice of manufacturing method often depends on factors
such as the material being used, the complexity of the lattice design, cost considerations, and
the desired properties of the final product. Here are several manufacturing methods
commonly used for lattice structures:

Figure 6. Investment casting fabricating lattice structure.

1-Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing):

 Description: Additive manufacturing, particularly 3D printing, is a widely used

method for creating lattice structures. It builds up the structure layer by layer directly
from a digital model.
 Advantages: Allows for intricate and complex lattice designs, customization, and
rapid prototyping. Suitable for a variety of materials.
 Limitations: Production speed, size constraints, and post-processing requirements can
be limitations. Some materials may have limited availability for 3D printing.

2-Selective Laser Melting (SLM) and Selective Laser Sintering (SLS):

 Description: SLM and SLS use a laser to selectively melt or sinter layers of powder
material, creating a solid object layer by layer.
 Advantages: Suitable for metals, polymers, and ceramics. Offers high precision and
can produce complex lattice structures.
 Limitations: Limited in terms of material options, and post-processing may be
required to improve surface finish.
3-Casting:

 Description: Casting involves pouring a molten material (often metal or plastic) into a
mold with the desired lattice structure. After cooling and solidification, the final
product is obtained.
 Advantages: Applicable to a wide range of materials, including metals and polymers.
Suitable for large-scale production.
 Limitations: May have limitations in achieving intricate lattice designs. Tooling costs
for creating molds can be high.

4-Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) and Extrusion-Based Printing:

 Description: FFF and extrusion-based printing involve layering and extruding

materials in a controlled manner to build up a lattice structure.
 Advantages: Cost-effective, widely used for polymers and certain composites.
Suitable for rapid prototyping.
 Limitations: Limited in terms of material options compared to some other methods.
Precision may be lower.

5-In Situ Fabrication (e.g., Welding):

 Description: In some cases, lattice structures can be created in situ, for example, by
welding or joining individual elements together.
 Advantages: Can be applied to a variety of materials. Suitable for large-scale
structures.
 Limitations: Limited in terms of design complexity. Post-processing may be required.

The choice of manufacturing method depends on the specific requirements of the application,
including material properties, design complexity, production volume, and cost considerations.
Advances in additive manufacturing have significantly expanded the possibilities for creating
intricate lattice structures with improved efficiency and precision.

Figure 7. Examples of three different lattice families. On the left, we have surface-based
lattices, in particular TPMS surfaces. In the centre, we have a strut-based lattice and on the
right, we see a planar or 2.5d lattice.
3. Design and Optimization of Uniform Lattice Structures

Uniform lattice structures are a type of lightweight and strong material configuration
commonly used in engineering applications, including aerospace, automotive, and structural
components. The design and optimization of uniform lattice structures involve considerations
such as material selection, lattice topology, and structural performance. Here's a general guide
for designing and optimizing uniform lattice structures:

1-Define Objectives and Constraints:

Consider practical limitations, such as manufacturing constraints, available materials, and cost
limitations.

2-Material Selection:

Consider material behavior under various loading conditions, including tension, compression,
and shear.

3-Topology Optimization

Utilize topology optimization algorithms to determine the optimal distribution of material

within the design space.

Figure 8. Topology optimization of uniform lattice structure: (a) unit cell; (b) lattice
structure.

4-Lattice Geometry:

Select an appropriate lattice geometry that suits the loading conditions and
requirements.Consider the manufacturing process and ease of fabrication when choosing
lattice geometry.

5-Cell Size and Density:

Determine the size and density of individual lattice cells. Optimize cell size to balance
structural performance and material usage.
6-Mesh Density:

Optimize mesh density to capture the details of the lattice structure without unnecessary
computational cost.Use fine meshing in critical areas where stress concentrations are
expected.

7-Load Conditions and Boundary Conditions:

Analyze the expected loading conditions (e.g., static, dynamic, thermal).Use finite element
analysis to assess the structural performance.

8-Manufacturability:

Consider the ease of manufacturing when designing lattice structures.Evaluate the feasibility
of additive manufacturing (3D printing), casting, or other production methods.

9- Sensitivity Analysis:

Perform sensitivity analysis to understand the impact of design parameters on the

performance of the lattice structure.Identify key design variables and their influence on the
overall structure.

10-Iterative Optimization:

Use optimization algorithms to iteratively refine the lattice structure based on simulation
results.Balance conflicting design objectives and constraints during the optimization process.

11- Validation and Testing:

Validate the optimized lattice structure through physical testing and compare results with
simulation predictions.Adjust the design based on experimental findings.

12- Documentation and Reporting:

Document the optimized lattice structure design, including key parameters, simulation results,
and testing outcomes.Provide clear guidelines for manufacturing and assembly.

13- Lifecycle Analysis:

Consider the environmental impact and lifecycle analysis of the lattice structure, including
material sourcing, manufacturing, and end-of-life considerations.

14-Continuous Improvement:

Incorporate lessons learned from previous designs and continually improve the design process
based on feedback and advancements in materials and technologies.

15. Collaboration and Interdisciplinary Approach:

Foster collaboration between materials scientists, engineers, and manufacturing experts to

ensure a holistic approach to design and optimization.
By following these steps, you can systematically design and optimize uniform lattice
structures to meet specific performance requirements while considering practical constraints
and ensuring manufacturability.

Figure 9. Design and optimal material. (a) optimal unit cell; (b) lattice structure.

3.1 Design and Optimization of Non-Uniform Lattices

Designing and optimizing non-uniform lattice structures involves creating configurations with
varying cell sizes, densities, or topologies to meet specific engineering requirements. Non-
uniform lattices offer advantages in tailoring mechanical properties to match the load
distribution in different regions of a structure.

Figure 10. Non-uniform lattice structure based on SMS method.

Figure 11. Non-uniform lattice structure based on SGM method

4.1 Poisson Ratio
Poisson's ratio is defined as the negative sign of the lateral stress and axial stress ratio
for a uniaxial stress state. If a tensile load is applied to a material, the material will elongate in
the direction in which the load is applied (perpendicular to the stress plane), as shown in
figure (A). Under compressive load, the axial dimension will decrease as shown in figure (B).
If the volume is constant, there must be a lateral contraction or expansion corresponding to
the deformation. This lateral change should show a constant relationship with the axial
change. The described axial-lateral deformation relationship is called Poisson ratio, after its
discoverer. It is usually symbolized by v.

Poisson's ratio is sometimes expressed as the ratio of the absolute values of axial and
lateral strains. Since both strain values are unitless, the Poisson ratio is also unitless. For
stresses in the elastic range this ratio is approximately constant. Poisson's ratio is 0.25 for a
perfectly isotropic elastic material. However, for most materials this value is in the range of
0.28-0.33. For steels, the Poisson's ratio is approximately 0.3. This expression means that if
there is a 1 mm deformation in the direction where the force is applied, there will be a 0.3 mm
deformation on the side perpendicular to the direction of application of the force. Poisson's
ratio can be negative in lattice structures commonly used today.

Rubber has a Poisson's ratio close to 0.5 and is therefore virtually incompressible.
Theoretical materials with a Poisson's ratio of exactly 0.5 are truly incompressible because the
sum of all strains results in zero volume change. Mushrooms, on the other hand, have a
Poisson ratio close to zero. This makes the cork useful as a bottle stopper. A cork under axial
load will not swell laterally to resist insertion into the bottle cap.

Figure 12. Poisson ratio

Poisson's ratio is limited by two theoretical limits:

The above situation arises because the elastic modulus/Young modulus (E), shear modulus
(G) and bulk modulus/volumetric modulus (K) are all positive and interdependent.

Table 2: Poisson’s Ratio for Common Materials

Material Poisson’s Ratio

Rubber 0.4999

Magnesium 0.252–0.289

Titanium 0.265–0.34

Copper 0.33

Aluminum-alloy 0.32

Clay 0.3-0.45

Stainless Steel 0.3-0.31

Cast Iron 0.21–0.26

Concrete 0.1–0.2

Glass 0.18–0.3

Cork 0.0

Foam 0.10–0.50

Sand 0.20–0.455
 FIGURE 13-A
Model (A4) > Geometry > Part 2 > Figure

TABLE 3
Unit System Metric (m, kg, N, s, V, A) Degrees rad/s Celsius
Angle Degrees
Rotational Velocity rad/s
Temperature Celsius
Length Unit Meters
Display
Style Body Color
Bounding Box
Length X 0,253 m
Length Y 0,135 m
Length Z 0,15 m
Properties
Volume 3,4869e-004 m³
Mass 1,9911 kg
Scale
Factor 1,
Value
 2D
Tolerance Default (1,e-005)

FIGURE 13-B
Model (A4) > Geometry > Part 2 > Figure

TABLE 4
Model (A4) > Mesh

Object Name Mesh

State Solved
Display
Display Style Use Geometry Setting
Defaults
Physics Preference Explicit
Element Order Linear
Element Size Default (6,488e-003 m)
Sizing
Use Adaptive Sizing No
Use Uniform Size Function For Sheets Yes
Growth Rate Default (1,5)
 Max Size Default (6,488e-003 m)
Mesh Defeaturing Yes
Defeature Size Default (6,488e-004 m)
Capture Curvature Yes
Curvature Min Size Default (3,244e-003 m)
Curvature Normal Angle Default (72,°)
Capture Proximity No
Enable Washers No
Size Formulation (Beta) Program Controlled
Bounding Box Diagonal 0,32363 m
Average Surface Area 2,694e-003 m²
Minimum Edge Length 4,e-003 m
Enable Size Field (Beta) No
Quality
Check Mesh Quality Yes, Errors and Warnings
Target Element Quality Default (0,2)
Target Characteristic Length (LS-DYNA) Default (6,488e-004 m)
Target Aspect Ratio (Explicit) Default (5,)
Smoothing High
Mesh Metric None
Inflation
Use Automatic Inflation None
Inflation Option Smooth Transition
Transition Ratio 0,272
Maximum Layers 1
Growth Rate 1,2
Inflation Algorithm Pre
Create Inflated Tetrahedrons (Beta) Yes
View Advanced Options No
Batch Connections
Mesh Based Connection No
Advanced
Number of CPUs for Parallel Part Meshing Program Controlled
Straight Sided Elements
Rigid Body Behavior Full Mesh
Triangle Surface Mesher Program Controlled
Use Asymmetric Mapped Mesh (Beta) No
Topology Checking Yes
Pinch Tolerance Default (2,9196e-003 m)
Generate Pinch on Refresh No
Sheet Loop Removal No
Statistics
Nodes 6182
Elements 6829
Show Detailed Statistics No
 FIGURE14
Model (A4) > Mesh > Figure

TABLE 5
Model (A4) > Analysis
Object Name Explicit Dynamics (A5)
State Solved
Definition
Physics Type Structural
Analysis Type Explicit Dynamics
Solver Target AUTODYN
Options
Environment Temperature 22, °C
Generate Input Only No
 TABLE 6
Model (A4) > Explicit Dynamics (A5) > Solution (A6) > Results
Object Name Total Deformation Equivalent Elastic Strain Equivalent Stress
State Solved
Scope
Scoping Method Geometry Selection
Geometry All Bodies
Layer Entire Section
Position Top/Bottom
Definition
Type Total Deformation Equivalent Elastic Strain Equivalent (von-Mises) Stress
By Time
Display Time Last
Separate Data by Entity No
Calculate Time History Yes
Identifier
Suppressed No
Results
Minimum 0, m 9,8564e-007 m/m 48968 Pa
Maximum 9,7753e-002 m 2,0343e-002 m/m 1,2472e+009 Pa
Average 1,2118e-002 m 5,0548e-003 m/m 2,5481e+008 Pa
Minimum Occurs On Part 3
Maximum Occurs On Solid Part 1
Minimum Value Over Time
Minimum 0, m 0, m/m 0, Pa
Maximum 0, m 1,2374e-006 m/m 48968 Pa
Maximum Value Over Time
Minimum 0, m 0, m/m 0, Pa
Maximum 9,8318e-002 m 3,0659e-002 m/m 2,095e+009 Pa
Information
Time 3,e-003 s
Set 21
Cycle Number 7938
Integration Point Results
Display Option Averaged
Average Across Bodies No
 FIGURE 15
Model (A4) > Explicit Dynamics (A5) > Solution (A6) > Total Deformation

TABLE 7
Model (A4) > Explicit Dynamics (A5) > Solution (A6) > Total Deformation
Time [s] Minimum [m] Maximum [m] Average [m]
1,1755e-038 0, 0,
1,5016e-004 7,5081e-003 5,3195e-004
3,0024e-004 1,5012e-002 1,0636e-003
4,5032e-004 2,2516e-002 1,5953e-003
6,0002e-004 3,0001e-002 2,1256e-003
7,501e-004 3,7505e-002 2,6573e-003
9,0018e-004 4,5009e-002 3,1889e-003
1,0503e-003 5,2513e-002 3,7206e-003
1,2003e-003 0, 6,0017e-002 4,2522e-003
1,35e-003 6,7502e-002 4,7826e-003
1,5001e-003 7,5006e-002 5,3142e-003
1,6501e-003 8,1013e-002 6,4553e-003
1,8002e-003 8,4895e-002 7,9539e-003
1,9503e-003 8,8643e-002 9,3162e-003
2,1003e-003 9,2245e-002 1,0689e-002
2,25e-003 9,4874e-002 1,2043e-002
2,4001e-003 9,6501e-002 1,3069e-002
2,5502e-003 9,7549e-002 1,3585e-002
2,7002e-003 9,8213e-002 1,3555e-002
2,8503e-003 9,8318e-002 1,3031e-002
3,e-003 9,7753e-002 1,2118e-002
 FIGURE 16
Model (A4) > Explicit Dynamics (A5) > Solution (A6) > Total Deformation > Figure

FIGURE 17
Model (A4) > Explicit Dynamics (A5) > Solution (A6) > Total Deformation > Image
 FIGURE 18
Model (A4) > Explicit Dynamics (A5) > Solution (A6) > Equivalent Elastic Strain

TABLE 8
Model (A4) > Explicit Dynamics (A5) > Solution (A6) > Equivalent Elastic Strain
Time [s] Minimum [m/m] Maximum [m/m] Average [m/m]
1,1755e-038
1,5016e-004
3,0024e-004
4,5032e-004
6,0002e-004
7,501e-004 0, 0, 0,
9,0018e-004
1,0503e-003
1,2003e-003
1,35e-003
1,5001e-003
1,6501e-003 6,034e-007 3,0659e-002 2,151e-003
1,8002e-003 6,8016e-007 2,4033e-002 3,4867e-003
1,9503e-003 4,1154e-007 2,4568e-002 4,4382e-003
2,1003e-003 6,1119e-007 2,1204e-002 4,6073e-003
2,25e-003 2,9957e-007 1,9144e-002 5,0712e-003
2,4001e-003 1,2374e-006 1,9313e-002 5,5751e-003
2,5502e-003 1,0499e-006 1,9906e-002 5,7652e-003
2,7002e-003 9,7371e-007 1,8334e-002 5,7432e-003
2,8503e-003 8,9126e-007 1,832e-002 5,4509e-003
3,e-003 9,8564e-007 2,0343e-002 5,0548e-003
 FIGURE 19
Model (A4) > Explicit Dynamics (A5) > Solution (A6) > Equivalent Elastic Strain > Figure

FIGURE 20
Model (A4) > Explicit Dynamics (A5) > Solution (A6) > Equivalent Elastic Strain > Image
 FIGURE 21
Model (A4) > Explicit Dynamics (A5) > Solution (A6) > Equivalent Stress

TABLE 9
Model (A4) > Explicit Dynamics (A5) > Solution (A6) > Equivalent Stress
Time [s] Minimum [Pa] Maximum [Pa] Average [Pa]
1,1755e-038
1,5016e-004
3,0024e-004
4,5032e-004
6,0002e-004
7,501e-004 0, 0, 0,
9,0018e-004
1,0503e-003
1,2003e-003
1,35e-003
1,5001e-003
1,6501e-003 2640,2 2,095e+009 1,4279e+008
1,8002e-003 28386 1,6131e+009 1,884e+008
1,9503e-003 4067, 1,6573e+009 2,3671e+008
2,1003e-003 19253 1,1956e+009 2,3635e+008
2,25e-003 10681 1,051e+009 2,5976e+008
2,4001e-003 12784 1,154e+009 2,7452e+008
2,5502e-003 12270 1,2305e+009 2,8073e+008
2,7002e-003 13778 1,1138e+009 2,8415e+008
2,8503e-003 14615 1,2419e+009 2,6893e+008
3,e-003 48968 1,2472e+009 2,5481e+008
 FIGURE 22
Model (A4) > Explicit Dynamics (A5) > Solution (A6) > Equivalent Stress > Figure

FIGURE 23

Model (A4) > Explicit Dynamics (A5) > Solution (A6) > Stress Tool > Safety Factor
 TABLE 10
Model (A4) > Explicit Dynamics (A5) > Solution (A6) > Stress Tool > Safety Factor
Time [s] Minimum Maximum Average
1,1755e-038
1,5016e-004
3,0024e-004
4,5032e-004 15, 15, 15,
6,0002e-004
7,501e-004
9,0018e-004
1,0503e-003
1,2003e-003
1,35e-003
1,5001e-003
1,6501e-003 0,12372 5,7943
1,8002e-003 0,16069 4,3348
1,9503e-003 0,1564 3,9351
2,1003e-003 0,21679 3,5763
2,25e-003 0,24661 3,4452
2,4001e-003 0,2246 3,6708
2,5502e-003 0,21064 3,7516
2,7002e-003 0,23273 3,6369
2,8503e-003 0,20872 3,6429
3,e-003 0,20783 3,5797

FIGURE 24
Model (A4) > Explicit Dynamics (A5) > Solution (A6) > Stress Tool > Safety Factor >
Figure
 TABLE 11
Structural Steel > Constants
Density 7850, kg m^-3
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 1,2e-005 C^-1
Specific Heat 434, J kg^-1 C^-1
Thermal Conductivity 60,5 W m^-1 C^-1
Resistivity 1,7e-007 ohm m
TABLE 12
Structural Steel > Compressive Yield Strength
Compressive Yield Strength Pa
2,5e+008
TABLE 13
Structural Steel > Tensile Yield Strength
Tensile Yield Strength Pa
2,5e+008
TABLE 14
Structural Steel > Tensile Ultimate Strength
Tensile Ultimate Strength Pa
4,6e+008

TABLE 15
Structural Steel > S-N Curve
Alternating Stress Pa Cycles Mean Stress Pa
3,999e+009 10, 0,
2,827e+009 20, 0,
1,896e+009 50, 0,
1,413e+009 100, 0,
1,069e+009 200, 0,
4,41e+008 2000, 0,
2,62e+008 10000 0,
2,14e+008 20000 0,
1,38e+008 1,e+005 0,
1,14e+008 2,e+005 0,
8,62e+007 1,e+006 0,
4.2 Abstract:

Conclusion In this study, the static and dynamic behavior of a negative Poisson's ratio
honeycomb model was investigated by dropping a spherical object on it. In addition, two
sandwich composite structures were integrated to this geometric structure and the results of
mechanical behavior in different composite material structures were obtained. Considering the
advantages such as high energy absorption ability, friction resistance, lightness, tensile
strength, etc., which are revealed by the negative Poisson's ratio formation, and similar
advantages in the sandwich composite structure, positive results have been obtained by
integrating these two structures with each other. Considering the results obtained with great
advantages such as high strength, lightness, low cost and ease of production, it is undoubtedly
to create added value to industrial production areas that require resistance to high forces under
low temperature effect by using negative Poisson's ratio sandwich composite structures.

4.3 References

https://www.simscale.com/docs/simulation-setup/materials/poissons-ratio/

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/347574572_Design_and_Optimization_of_Lattice_Struct
ures_A_Review

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0734743X23003196

https://www.proquest.com/openview/9fcbf3e08c22eec5d2cb6d8e45752d74/1?pq-
origsite=gscholar&cbl=2032433

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311756044_Design_of_lattice_structure_for_additive_m
anufacturing