SPE
International
.
SPE 98827
Modelling Channelized Systems: A Robust Approach
Ikechukwu Chike and 2Mike Onyekonwu
1
1. Laser Engineering and Resources Consultants Ltd.
2. PTDF Gas Research Group, University of Port-Harcourt.
Copyright 2005, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 29th Annual SPE International
Technical Conference and Exhibition in Abuja, Nigeria, August 1-3, 2005.
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Abstract
The importance of capturing the architecture of
depositional facies within a system cannot be
overemphasized. For a channel system as in most cases
in the Niger Delta, the problem of accurately
describing the geometry of these channels exists.
Ideally, object based models are best suited to
reproduce facies architecture, but this is generally
hindered by the rigidity of this algorithm. Moreover,
the application of outcrop analogue in the object model
to reproduce the subsurface could be stalled by the
differences in diagenesis between the outcrop and the
reservoir. Thus, the need to modify the algorithm in
modelling the system arises.
We adopted a robust object and pixel based model to
capture the reservoir heterogeneity while honouring
hard data. The approach includes integrating several
available options for a particular channel setting in the
software used (for the object based model) to come up
with a flexible descriptor. Depositional trend were also
built to capture the upward fining sequence of tidal
channel sands. This was accomplished by building a
complex transformation sequence to ensure accurate
petrophysical description within the facies using a pixel
model.
Society of Petroleum Engineers
The result is a model that incorporates morphologic
information and petrophysical trends from analogue
while accurately describing the rock and fluid property
using well data.
Introduction
The architecture of the Niger Delta channel sands
results from an interplay of one or more of the various
depositional energies (fluvial, wave and tides). These
interactions and the abundant supply of fluvial
sediments make the geometry of the channels
complex1. To reproduce the architecture and
subsequently model the petrophysical setting is thus
very challenging.
Over the past few years, a lot of work has been done in
the modelling of channel systems, Schatzinger et al.,
1999 emphasized the link between lateral cyclicity of
petrophysical properties and the scale of primary
bedding features, which can be transferred from
outcrops directly into the subsurface because scaling
problem are avoided. Hauge et al., 2003, showed how
sandbody geometry can be modelled using object
models. The studies by Knox et al., 1999 suggested that
fluvial reservoirs deposited early in an intermediate
frequency cycle contains several narrow laterally
isolated channel belts, whereas adjacent reservoir
deposited late in the cycle(as in our case) contains a
single broad channel belt that is internally
heterogeneous. The dimension of complex channel of
deep water deposit (Beaubouef, 2004) and several
analogue geometry documented by Robert, 2004 are
used as guide in choosing the geometry. These
distributions provide constraints for conditioning the
area, shape, placement, and preferred orientations of
sedimentary units in reservoir models2.
The major and most prevalent method is the application
of outcrop analogue in an object based multipoint
geostatistics technique. This has proved quite helpful in
2 I. Chike and M. Onyekonwu SPE 98827

the capturing of the reservoir heterogeneity. However,

it is very difficult, to find a true analogue for any
reservoir (unless the very formation crops out in the
“neighbourhood”). More so, the outcrop records are
enigmatic3, reducing our confidence in their geometry
as analogue for an object model, since object models
are often applied in modelling facies architecture where
the geometry are well known. This fact has led to the
use of pixel based approach by some authors in
modelling the architecture of channel reservoirs3. This
does not however reproduce the geometries as the
object base models. Their argument is in the flexibility
of the pixel based algorithm. Hence increasing the
flexibility of the object based algorithm is important, Figure 1: Conceptual 3D view of fluvial-wave-tide
for it to be used. Thus, a robust algorithm of an object influence of the Niger delta (after Oomkens,1974)
based modelling technique is paramount in reproducing
the facies architecture and subsequently the rock Facies Modelling
properties, using a Sequential Gaussian simulation with The lithofacies mentioned above form the main basis
trends4 (pixel based). A detailed transformation for defining the architecture of the facies. The facies
sequence is used to ensure that both the facies and well log was constructed using the calculated volume of
data are honoured. For instance we used a depositional shale (Vsh) by applying cut-offs. The Vsh log was
trend to ensure the upward fining of some reservoir chosen in place of the Gamma ray log used by some
parameter in tidal channels. authors because of the presence of hot sands. This
resulted to the following facies: tidal channel sands
The objective of this paper is to present a robust (Green), shaly sand barriers (Red) and shales (Purple).
algorithm (“flexible object” – pixel based) that Figure 2 shows the facies.
incorporates morphologic information and
petrophysical trends from analogue (documented in
literatures) and well data analysis, bearing in mind the
major constraints.

Reservoir Geology and Lithofacies

The reservoir is bounded to the north and south by an
East-West trending boundary faults. These primary
faults constitute the main trapping mechanism of the
reservoir. The minor faults strike in an East-West
direction and assume an en-echelon arrangement with
the major boundary faults. All the faults are
downthrown southwards as with most reservoirs in the
area. The occurrence of few minor faults suggests
minor tectonics and recent sedimentation. The sand
marks the end of a second depositional cycle of the Y
sand, rapidly deposited in a progradational deltaic
sequence. The multiple, fining-upwards sequences
occur in an overall coarsening-upward sequence
observed from well logs, typical of tidal sands of the
Niger Delta, suggesting a truncation of the coastal
barrier sands initially deposited by the fluvial wave
interactions. The offshore mud is therefore overlain by
the tidal channel sand. The sand is however intercalated
by minor shales. A conceptual model of the reservoir is
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 2: Showing various lithofacies
The tidal channel sands are modelled as objects that are
placed in a background of the shale5. This is the general
mark point process. However, the internal algorithm is
modified to suit our purpose. Instead of modelling
single cut and fill channels we used multi-channel
model(channels internally composed of genetically
related channels1), to represent the complex geometry1,6
appropriately. In this model the initial focus was on the
belts properties before attention is shifted to the
individual channels inside the channel belts. Each
channel belt is basically described by its reference point
in the reservoir, azimuth, dimension, and its amplitude
and sinuosity. The reference point and azimuth
3 Modelling Channelized Systems: A Robust Approach
98827
orientation defines the channel belt axis. Based on the
drawn channel belt axis, a channel belt line is drawn
with a specified amplitude and sinuosity to give the
channel belt’s horizontal fluctuations around the
channel belt axis. Based on the drawn channel belt line,
the axes of each of the channels inside the channel belt
are drawn as displacements of the channel belt line. The
stacking of the channels in the belt was achieved by
simulating the channel axes from two normal
distributions (Figure 3), the standard deviations of the
two distributions were specified as belt dimensions,
while the “expectation values” were such that the
average axis is identical to the channel belt line. Figure
4 shows the hierarchical modelling of multichannel
belts. This algorithm gives an anastomosed channel
pattern. This solves the problem of using single channel
dimension.
Figure 3: Normal distribution of channel axes
SPE
Figure 4: Illustration for modelling multiple channel
belts
Trend that are normal to the average strike direction
were defined using the center of the “simulation box”.
Two methods were used to control the total number of
objects; constant value and 1D trend function, Z
(simbox). They were used within a tolerance of 0.005.
This defines how close the volume fraction used must
be at the end of the simulation. The 1D trend function
were calculated using VPC(which represent the
fraction of facies
computed in the wells at different levels parallel to a
reference). Lateral variations in the proportions of each
facies were also taken into account since the wells are
at different locations. Constant values (global volume
fraction) were later modified using results of the VPC,
this gave a more realistic facies distribution. The
fraction of Shaly sands lithofacies were specified as a
fraction of the volume of channels (and not as a
fraction of the channel system volume).
The channel dimension: Vertical thickness and channel
axis width were specified using two normal
distributions. A correlation of factor of 0.6 was used to
relate the relationship between the vertical thickness
and channel axis. The orientation of tidal channels
supports low ratio of channel length to valley length1,
we used 1.2 to represent this ratio.
The channel form were modelled to allow enough
flexibility in the model for well conditioning and to
generate realistic channel appearance. Their attributes:
4 I. Chike and M. Onyekonwu SPE 98827

Width/thickness rugosity, vertical amplitude and

sinuosity were modified to meet these criteria.
Width/thickness rugosity attribute describes small scale
width-thickness variation along an object. Two 1D
Gaussian fields were used, one for width variations and
the other for thickness variations. Each field has the
following attributes: relative amplitude and absolute
range. The relative amplitude multiplies the channel
width, to ensure that the narrow channels have smaller
width variations than wider channels. This is an
improvement on past algorithms. The absolute range
gives a correlation range for the width/thickness
variation.

The channel variations were controlled by using

vertical amplitude and sinuosity to restrict the vertical
fluctuations around the channel axis.

Clustering of channels and channel belts were much

because of the high Sand/gross4 ratios observed from
logs (shown in Figure 2.0)
Within the channel sands we observed the shaly sand
lithofacies3. This we modelled as small facies object,
ellipsoidal in form and oriented relative to the channels’
principal axis. They constitute the barrier to flow within
the channels(K less than 10mD) as the sand is generally
clean(K greater than 300mD). We simulated the width,
thickness and length of the barrier independently from
three Gaussian distributions with specified mean and
variability values. The barriers were distributed until
the desired barrier fraction of channel volume,
specified is reached5.
The entire channel system modelling is terminated after
reaching the set number of iterations. To set the number
of iteration required, we considered the complexity of
the model, number of object to be generated and
number of wells. Ideally the simulation should
terminate successfully after having reached the
minimum number of iterations. However, to give room
for tolerance, a maximum number of iteration (slightly
higher than the minimum) was set to enable
convergence of simulation. Where this is not met, the
end temperature of an annealing function was reduced
to prioritise the convergence criterion. This is a very
important process.
Figure 5: Facies model
Petrophysical Modelling
The algorithm(model) for petrophysical modelling was
based on the application of statistical and geological
transformations and spatial correlation. The statistical
and geological transformations approximates the
petrophysical parameters(φ, NTG, Sw) to a Gaussian
distribution, after known geological trends and
variability have been taken into account. While the
spatial correlation captures the similarity between two
observations, which provides information on the
confidence with which the value of a cell not penetrated
by the well can be estimated5. The essence of this
complex transformation sequence and spatial continuity
estimation is to ensure that both facies and
petrophysical well data are correctly honoured, and the
resultant characterization is valid. The absolute
permeability in the 3-D model was estimated using the
Wyllie-Rose model by assuming an irreducible water
saturation of 12%. The irreducible water saturation
assumption is required to obtain reasonable results in
the transition zone and the aquifer8. Figure 6
summarizes the process. The petrophysical models
(Figures 7-9) are consistent with known trend in the
Niger delta. Within the facies, the K values decreased
significantly10-13.

Having defined the entire channel setting a single

realization was generated without conditioning to the
wells. This is useful to evaluate the attribute settings.
Ten Equiprobable images of the facies model were then
generated5,7-9. This is an iterative algorithm, which
makes a proposed new state in each iteration, and then
accepts or rejects it based on the likelihood under the
model.
5 Modelling Channelized Systems: A Robust Approach SPE
98827

Figure 8: Permeability model condition to facies

Figure 6: Summary of Petrophysical modelling

process

Figure 9: Water saturation model condition to facies

Multiple equiprobable images of the petrophysical

Figure 7: Porosity model condition to facies.
models were generated to assess the range of
uncertainty associated with reservoir model5-7. This is
important, because the volumetric predictions of
reservoir performance are normally based on the best
technical model. The best technical model was
determined by ranking the various realizations. A
tedious but very accurate method used was a pre
simulation run of all the most likely realizations.
Streamline simulation concept was used to minimize
the number of models used for the pre simulation run.
6 I. Chike and M. Onyekonwu SPE 98827

Reservoir volume (STOIIP) was generated for each of Characterization-Recent Advances, AAPG
the realizations simulated. However, the volumes from Memoir 71, p. 321-332.
the “most likely” model (which compared favourably
with an independent material balance calculation) was 4. Hauge, R., Syversveen, A. R. and MacDonald,
used for the initialization. This is another technique of A. C.: “Modelling Facies Bodies and
ranking the realizations. Petrophysical Trends in Turbidite Reservoirs,”
paper SPE 84053, presented at the SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition
held in Denver, Colorado, 5-8 September
Nomenclature 2003.

φ = Porosity 5. Mohan, K. and Perez, G. 2002, Applied

geostatistics for reservoir characterization, p. 2
NTG = Net to gross – 15, 140 – 146
K = Permeability 6. Beaubouef, T. T.:”Deep-water Leveed-
Channel Complex of the Cerro Toro
mD = Millidarcy Formation, Upper Cretaceous, Southern Chile”
paper AAPG Bulletin, v. 88, NO. 11
SW = Water saturation
(November 2004), pp. 1471-1500
STOIIP = Stock tank oil initially in place
7. Jerry, L. J., Lake, L. W., Corbett, P.W. M.,
VPC = Vertical proportion curve and Goggin, D. J. 1997, Statistics for
Petroleum Engineers and Geoscientists, p 143
-165, 115 – 118.

Conclusions 8. Chike, I., Robert, B. and Onyekonwu, M.

A robust algorithm that models the tidal channel sands
of the Niger delta has been introduced. The model
showed a realistic level of reservoir heterogeneity that
greatly improves reservoir simulation exercise.
The characterization of the channels show that though
seismic attribute data are important in conditioning
facies modelling, in their absence, the robust algorithm
introduced works well too.
Uncertainties can not be ruled out in any reservoir
model, due to lack of sufficient data. However, a
geological software that allows reliable ranking of the
multiple realizations and presimulation run reduces the
uncertainties in the model.
References
1. Reading, H.G.: “Sedimentary Environment
and Facies”. Oxford, 1991, p. 190-209
2. Robert, S. t.:”Geomorphology: An Approach
to Determining Subsurface Reservoir
Dimensions”. AAPG Bulletin, V 88, NO. 8
(AUGUST 2004), p. 1123-1147.
3. Seifert, D.:”Evaluation of Field Development
Plans Using 3D Reservoir Modelling,1999, in
Schatzinger, R. and Jordan, J., eds., Reservoir
O.:”Preservation of Reservoir Heterogeneity
after Upscaling: a Niger delta Case Study”
paper AAPG Bulletin, in press
9. Hamman, J.G., Buettner, R.E., Caldwell,
D.H..: “A Case Study of a Fine Scale
Integrated Geological, Geophysical,
Petrophysical, and Reservoir Characterization
and Simulation with Uncertainty Estimation”.
paper SPE 84274, presented at the SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition
held in Denver, Colorado, 5-8 October 2003.
10. Schatzinger, R.A., Tomutsa, L.:”Multiscale
Heterogeneity Characterization of Tidal
Channel, Tidal delta, and Foreshore Facies,
Almond Formation Outcrops, Rock Springs
Uplift Wyoming, 1999, in Schatzinger, R. and
Jordan, J., eds., Reservoir Characterization-
Recent Advances, AAPG Memoir 71, p. 45-
56.
11. Castle, J. W. and Byrnes, A. P.: “Petrophysics
of Lower Silurian sandstones and integration
with the tectonic-stratigraphic framework,
Appalachian basin, United States” paper
AAPG Bulletin, v.89, NO. 1 (January 2005),
pp. 41-60.
7 Modelling Channelized Systems: A Robust Approach
98827
12. Knox, P. R., Barton, M. D.:” Predicting
Interwell Heterogeneity in Fluvial-Deltaic
Reservoirs: Effects of Progressive
Architecture Variation Through a Depositional
Cycle from Outcrop and Subsurface
Observations, 1999, in Schatzinger, R. and
Jordan, J., eds., Reservoir Characterization-
Recent Advances, AAPG Memoir 71, p. 57-72
SPE
13. Chike, I., Egbele, E., Ukaonu, C. and
Onyekonwu, M. O..: “Congenital reservoir
rock characterization of weak hydraulic
properties” paper SPE 88968, presented at the
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition
held in Abuja, Nigeria 2-4 August 2004.