Is Consumer Activism Economic Democracy

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The Second Gilded Age has also been a golden era for consumer activism. As the nation
state and organized labor have both diminished in their ability to translate public attitudes into
resource outcomes, civil society groups have turned to a third axis of social power, consumer
behavior, to bring multinational corporations to heel. We are witnessing historically high levels of
participation in market-based campaigns, boycotts, and conscientious shopping. Recent waves of
consumer activism recall the frequent boycotts that characterized the history of the early American
labor movement.
Yet whether consumer power actually furthers the project of economic democracy—that
is, social control over economic production—remains controversial. This Article argues that two
forms of consumer activism, which I call organized buying and ethical consumption, differ
fundamentally in their democratic potential. Organized buying refers to a targeted effort to use
consumer power to achieve a discrete goal; ethical consumption refers to the more diffuse
preferences of individual consumers for morally favored goods. I illustrate these distinctions
through case studies from food politics: the United Farm Workers’ grape boycotts, and the
contemporary market for organic food.
Only organized buying, I argue, has the potential to subordinate economic power to
democratic control. Ethical consumption, on the other hand, aligns with the market fundamentalist
view that all political preferences can and should be satisfied through individual purchasing
decisions. Although this Article does not deal with doctrinal questions, a more nuanced
understanding of the political economy of consumer activism should inform discussions about
product labeling, the regulation of secondary labor activity, and free speech protections for
consumer behavior.
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Published by Penn Law: Legal Scholarship Repository, 2019

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14
See, e.g.] pi2IOF TiMMOO 0 ?JIFI. VZ V1fi,Q] Corporate Cooptation of Organic and Fair Trade Standards]
2B "WRU!Z 0 VUMZ V"LUE= EAB] EA9P90 a2010`Z
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1A
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19
See, e.g.] !Z EQfI2 BiGO,] The Media That Citizens Need] 14B UZ ?"Z LZ REVZ E1B] E92P9A a199A`& ?2I2i
LiJi(] Holmes and Brandeis: Libertarian and Republican Justifications for Free Speech] 4 TZLZ 0 ?OLZ 4D1] 4D4PCC a19AA`&
RIRJi,Q VZ ?IFQO+] The Constitutionalization of Democratic Politics] 11A V"RVZ LZ REVZ 2A] 41PDD a2004`& R1hO,* ?1+*]
Reconciling Theory and Doctrine in First Amendment Jurisprudence] AA !"LUXZ LZ REVZ 2EDE] 2ECB a2000`& Mi,*I2 VZ
ROQI+J] The Value of Free Speech] 1E0 UZ ?"Z LZ REVZ D91] C01P11 a19A2`& Mi,*I2 VZ ROQI+J 0 "hhc Mi,IO
M1FFO2] Understanding Post’s and Meiklejohn’s Mistakes: The Central Role of Adversary Democracy in the Theory of Free
Expression] 10E N7Z UZ LZ REVZ 1E0E] 1ECCPB0 a2009`& X,OQO,IRG =RJi)O,] Constitutions of Hope and Fear] 124 o"LE LZTZ
D2A] DE2P42 a2014`Z But see "2Q,Of S1..OF4i2] Veil of Ignorance: Tunnel Constructivism in Free Speech Theory] 10B
N7Z UZ LZ REVZ C4B a201E` aR,I*IRIbI2K LR12+*,)R*I(I+*< *JO1,IO+ *Ji* +OOG *1 QO,I(O XI,+* "4O2Q4O2* Q1R*,I2O M,14 *JO
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20
See, e.g.] !c2*JIi E+*F)2Q] Rethinking Autocracy at Work] 1E1 V"RVZ LZ REVZ B9D a201A` a,O(IOfI2K
ELUn"BE;V "NpER=ON] ?RUV";E WOVERNMEN;@ VO7 EM?LOoER= RULE OUR LUVE= a"Np 7Vo 7E pON9; ;"LS "BOU;
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21
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I+ i .,1*OR*OQ M1,4 1M Od.,O++I12 i2Q i++1RIi*I12`Z X1, *JO +O4I2iF ,O+.12+O *1 Claiborne Hardware] +OO MIRJiOF !Z Vi,.O,]
The Consumer’s Emerging Right to Boycott@ N""!? (Z !FiIh1,2O Vi,Qfi,O and Its Implications for American Labor Law]
9E o"LE LZTZ 409 a19A4`Z
22
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U h1,,1fOQ I* 41+* QI,OR*Fc M,14 ;I4 Li2K 0 oIi22I+ Wih,IOF] A Brief History of Consumer Activism] in ;VE E;VU!"L
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24C UNIV. OF PENNSYLVANIA JOURNAL OF LAW AND SOCIAL CHANGE mV1FZ 22Z4
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24
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29
See No Relief: Denial of Bathroom Breaks in the Poultry Industry] O6X"M "MERU!"] 2 aMic 9] 201C`]
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EZ X1,hi*J] Why Is this Rights Talk Different from All Other Rights Talk? Demoting the Court and Reimagining the
Constitution] 4C =;"NZ LZ REVZ 1BB1] 1B92 a1994` ah11G ,O(IOf` aLO2O fJ1 Ji+ 21 i)*1214c i2Q 21 4Oi+),O 1M +Ji,OQ
i)*J1,I*c i* f1,G] FIGO *JO +)hHOR* 1M i2c *c,i22IRiF ,OKI4O] FOi,2+ *1 Q1)h* JO, Ri.iRI*c *1 iMMOR* *JO 1,QO, 1M *JI2K+Z<`Z
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See "2Q,Of WFc2 O* iFZ] The Rise and Fall of the Golden Age] in ;VE WOLpEN "WE OX !"?U;"LU=M@
REUN;ER?RE;UNW ;VE ?O=;7"R E6?ERUEN!E D9 a=*O.JO2 "Z Mi,KFI2 0 T)FIO* BZ =RJ1, OQ+Z] 1990`Z
E4
See T1+J BI(O2+ O* iFZ] Raising America’s Pay: Why It’s Our Central Economic Policy Challenge 10 aER12Z
?1FZ U2+*Z] B,IOMI2K ?i.O, N1Z EBA] 2014`] J**.+@YYfffZO.IZ1,KYMIFO+Y.QMYCD2ABZ.QM mJ**.+@YY.O,4iZRRY9B7B[E!pLlZ
ED
IdZ i* DAZ
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fic f1,GO,+ Ji(O +OR),OQ (1IRO fI*JI2 *JO K1(O,24O2* 1M *JO f1,G.FiROZ<`& ?i)F 7OIFO,] Promises to Keep: Securing
Workers’ Rights to Self-Organization Under the NLRA] 9C V"RVZ LZ REVZ 1BC9] 1A22 a19AE` aL;JO *,iQI*I12iF QOMO2+O 1M
R1FFOR*I(O hi,KiI2I2K I+ *Ji* I* I2*,1Q)RO+ i 41QIR)4 1M QO41R,i*IR .i,*IRI.i*I12 I2*1 *JO f1,G.FiROZ<`Z
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M1FF1fOQ *Ji* ,O.,O+O2*+ *JO 21,4iF R12QI*I12 1M QO41R,i*IR Ri.I*iFI+4Ni R12QI*I12 ,)FOQ hc i2 O2QO4IR R12MFIR* hO*fOO2
Ri.I*iFI+* 4i,GO*+ i2Q QO41R,i*IR .1FI*IR+] fJIRJ M1,ROM)FFc ,Oi++O,*OQ I*+OFM fJO2 JIKJ OR1214IR K,1f*J Ri4O *1 i2 O2Q I2
*JO 19B0+Z<`Z

24A UNIV. OF PENNSYLVANIA JOURNAL OF LAW AND SOCIAL CHANGE mV1FZ 22Z4
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I+ 21 R1I2RIQO2RO *Ji*] i* FOi+* I2 *JO U2I*OQ =*i*O+] ,i*O+ 1M .,I(i*O[+OR*1, )2I12Ibi*I12 Ji(O MiFFO2
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40
See RO=ENXELp] supra 21*O 4] i* 2 aLmXl1, QORiQO+ .,1Q)R*I(I*c I2R,Oi+O+ FOQ *1 ,I+I2K OR1214IR M1,*)2O+
M1, *JO (i+* 4IQQFO 1M *JO I2R14O QI+*,Ih)*I12Z ;JO R1FFi.+O 1M 1,Ki2IbOQ Fih1, QI+4i2*FOQ *JI+ K1(O,2I2K i,,i2KO4O2*] i2Q
fI*J I* *JO *IKJ* R1).FI2K 1M OR1214IR K,1f*J fI*J *JO OR1214IR M1,*)2O+ 1M i(O,iKO "4O,IRi2 f1,GO,+Z<`Z But see ?USE;;o]
supra 21*O 2] i* 24 aLm;lJI+ +.OR*iR)Fi, I2R,Oi+O I2 I2O-)iFI*c Fi,KOFc ,OMFOR*+ i2 )2.,OROQO2*OQ Od.F1+I12 1M (O,c OFO(i*OQ
I2R14O+ M,14 Fih1,] i (O,I*ihFO +O.i,i*I12 1M *JO *1. 4i2iKO,+ 1M Fi,KO MI,4+ M,14 *JO ,O+* 1M *JO .1.)Fi*I12Z<`& pOi2 BiGO,]
Behind the Gap Between Productivity and Wage Growth] !;RZ XOR E!ONZ 0 ?OL9o RE=Z aXOhZ 200B`]
J**.@YYRO.,Z2O*YQ1R)4O2*+Y.)hFIRi*I12+Y0B02k.,1Q)R*I(I*cZ.QM mJ**.+@YY.O,4iZRRYTCRo[EB?Bl ai,K)I2K *Ji* *JO QOR1).FI2K 1M
.,1Q)R*I(I*c i2Q fiKO+ Ji+ hOO2 1(O,+*i*OQ] i2Q *Ji* 4)RJ I2O-)iFI*c I+ Q,I(O2 hc )2O-)iF QI+*,Ih)*I12 i412K fiKO Oi,2O,+`Z
41
LIbihO*J !1JO2] The New Deal State and the Making of Citizen Consumers] in WE;;UNW "Np =?ENpUNW@
EURO?E"N "Np "MERU!"N !ON=UMER =O!UE;UE= UN ;VE ;7EN;UE;V !EN;URo 111] 114P1D a=)+i2 =*,i++O, O* iFZ OQ+Z]
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OR1214c fJIFO +*IFF .,O+O,(I2K *JO M,OO O2*O,.,I+O +c+*O4Z<`& see generally L"7REN!E BZ WLU!SM"N] BUoUNW ?O7ER@ "
VU=;ORo OX !ON=UMER "!;UVU=M UN "MERU!" a2009`Z
42
See infra 21*O+ 110P114 i2Q iRR14.i2cI2K *Od*Z
4E
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iR,1++ OE!p 2i*I12+Z See =*,OORG] supra 21*O 1] i* 1D] MIKZEZ ;JO,O i,O +14O Oi,Fc I2QIRi*I12+] J1fO(O,] *Ji* *JO +*,IGO 4ic
hO 4iGI2K i FI4I*OQ R14OhiRG I2 *JO U2I*OQ =*i*O+Z See "FOdIi XO,2/2QOb !i4.hOFF] A Record Number of Workers Went on
Strike in 2018] VO6 aXOhZ 1E] 2019] E@00 ?M`] J**.+@YYfffZ(1dZR14Y.1FIRc[i2Q[.1FI*IR+Y2019Y2Y1EY1A22E211Yf1,GO,[
*OiRJO,[+*,IGO+[201A[,OR1,Q mJ**.+@YY.O,4iZRRYLR;A[n"DRlZ
44
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2019l U= !ON=UMER "!;UVU=M E!ONOMU! pEMO!R"!o# 249
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XU==UREp 7ORS?L"!E@ 7Vo 7ORS BE!"ME =O B"p XOR =O M"No "Np 7V"; !"N BE pONE ;O UM?ROVE U; a2014`Z
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!c2*JIi LZ E+*F)2Q] The Ossification of American Labor Law] 102 !OLUMZ LZ REVZ 1D2B] 1C0D a2002`Z
4A
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49
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D1
SLEUN] supra 21*O C] i* 2A1] EE0] 410P411Z

2D0 UNIV. OF PENNSYLVANIA JOURNAL OF LAW AND SOCIAL CHANGE mV1FZ 22Z4
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(1IRO+ M,14 h1*J +IQO+ 1M *JO .1FI*IRiF +.OR*,)4 Ji(O R,I*IRIbOQ *JI+ *O2QO2Rc 1M *JO R12+)4O, *1 K1
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M)2Qi4O2*iFI+4NiFF R12MFIR* 4OQIi*OQ *J,1)KJ *JO 4i,GO*] fI*J 21 ,O4iI2I2K ,1FO M1, *JO RI*IbO2Z
D2
IdZ i* E4EZ
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=EUpM"N] supra 21*O E9] i* 29] EEPE4Z
D4
IdZ i* 44Z
DD
X1, i QI+R)++I12 1M *JO QO(OF1.4O2* 1M *JO .,I(i*OY.)hFIR QI+*I2R*I12 I2 "4O,IRi2 Fif] +OO KO2O,iFFc M1,*12
TZ V1,fI*b] The History of the Public/Private Distinction] 1E0 UZ ?ENNZ LZ REVZ 142E a19A2`Z
DC
See ;J14i+ EZ 7OI++G1.M] Toward a Socialism for the Future, in the Wake of the Demise of the Socialism
of the Past] 24 REVZ R"pU!"L ?OLZ E!ONZ 1] 10 a1992` aLm=l1RIiF QO41R,i*+ Q1 21* *,c *1 Q1 ific fI*J OI*JO, *JO 4i,GO* 1,
.,I(i*O .,1.O,*c 1f2O,+JI.& I2+*OiQ] *JOc i**O4.* *1 R,Oi*O R12QI*I12+ I2 fJIRJ *JO 1.O,i*I12 1M i Ri.I*iFI+* 4i,GO* OR1214c
fIFF FOiQ *1 41,O OKiFI*i,Ii2 1)*R14O+ i2Q O2R1),iKO 41,O QO41R,i*IR i2Q 41,O +1FIQi,I+*IR .,iR*IRO+ *Ji2 f1)FQ i 41,O
R12(O2*I12iF Ri.I*iFI+* +c+*O4Z<`& cf. p1)KFi+ "Z Sc+i,] Sustainable Development and Private Global Governance] AE ;E6
LZ REVZ 2109] 21C1 a200D` aQO+R,IhI2K *JO L+O.i,i*I12I+*< (IOf *Ji* Lm.l,I(i*O R1,.1,i*I12+ +J1)FQ hO .O,4I**OQNI2QOOQ
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DB
Cf. WLU!SM"N] supra 21*O 41] i* 2E aL!12+)4O, iR*I(I+*+ +*,O++OQ *Ji* +J1..I2K] 1M*O2 )2QO,+*11Q i+ *JO
-)I2*O++O2*IiFFc .,I(i*O iR* I2 Ri.I*iFI+* +1RIO*c] fi+ I2 MiR* i2 )2i(1IQihFc .)hFIR ,O+.12+IhIFI*cZ<`Z
2019l U= !ON=UMER "!;UVU=M E!ONOMU! pEMO!R"!o# 2D1
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DA
B"RBER] supra 21*O 24] i* 12CZ
D9
Id. i* 2AAZ
C0
IdZ& see also ;VOM"= XR"NS] ;VE !ON>UE=; OX !OOL@ BU=UNE== !UL;URE] !OUN;ER!UL;URE] "Np ;VE
RU=E OX VU? !ON=UMERU=M B a199B` aLmXl,14 I*+ (O,c hOKI22I2K+ Q1f2 *1 *JO .,O+O2*] h)+I2O++ Q1KKOQ *JO R1)2*O,R)F*),O
fI*J i MiGO R1)2*O,R)F*),O] i R144O,RIiF ,O.FIRi *Ji* +OO4OQ *1 i.O I*+ O(O,c 41(O M1, *JO *I*IFFi*I12 1M *JO ;V[fi*RJI2K
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C1
Sponsorship Spending Growth Slows in North America as Marketers Eye Newer Media and Marketing
Options] E=? =?ON=OR=VU? RE?Z aTi2Z B] 2014`] J**.@YYfffZ+.12+1,+JI.ZR14YIOK+,Y2014Y01Y0BY=.12+1,+JI.[=.O2QI2K[
W,1f*J[=F1f+[U2[N1,*J["4O,IRiZi+.d mJ**.+@YY.O,4iZRRY>B6V[BVpnl& see also VELpM"N] supra 21*O 11] i* CDPCC
a.,1(IQI2K Odi4.FO+ 1M Ri)+O 4i,GO*I2K`Z
C2
LUNpBLOM] supra 21*O 2C] i* 212Z
CE
NZ !R"UW =MU;V] MOR"LU;o "Np ;VE M"RSE;@ !ON=UMER ?RE==URE XOR !OR?OR";E "!!OUN;"BULU;o
EC a1990`Z
C4
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fJi* I+ *1 hO .,1Q)ROQ R14O+ 21* M,14 *JO +1(O,OIK2 R12+)4O, fJ1] *J,1)KJ *JO 4i,GO*] I++)O+ *JO I2+*,)R*I12+ *Ji* hO2Q

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.,1Q)RO,+Z O2O R,I*IRI+4 1M R12+)4O, iR*I(I+4 I+ *Ji* I* I+ Q114OQ *1 MiIF),O hORi)+O I* *,IO+ *1 L.Fic
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But see TOi2 Bi)Q,IFFi,Q] Consumer Society] in !ON=UMER =O!UE;o UN "MERU!"N VU=;ORo@ " RE"pER
EE] 4E aLif,O2RO BZ WFIRG4i2 OQZ] 1999` ai,K)I2K *Ji* WiFh,iI*J I2R1,,OR*Fc i++)4O+ i hi+OFI2O iKiI2+* fJIRJ R12+)4O,
.,OMO,O2RO Ri2 hO )2QO,+*11Q i+ Li,*IMIRIiF<`Z
CC
Sc+i,] supra 21*O C] i* CE2Z
CB
Cf. W,OfiF 0 ?),Qc] supra 21*O 2] i* B aL;JO (O,c IQOi 1M i L4i,GO*< Ji+ 21 1.O,i*I12iF R12*O2* fI*J1)* i
+O,IO+ 1M .,I1, .1FI*IRiF QORI+I12+ *Ji* QOMI2O i2Q iFF1Ri*O OR1214IR ,IKJ*+] +)RJ i+ .,1.O,*c i2Q *JO .1fO, *1 R12*,iR*NfJ1
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See =EUpM"N] supra 21*O E9] i* 1EEZ
C9
See BRO7N] supra 21*O 1D& 7ENpo BRO7N] EpWE7ORS@ !RU;U!"L E=="o= ON SNO7LEpWE "Np
?OLU;U!= EBPD9 a200D`Z
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V"LUE UN E;VU!= "Np E!ONOMU!= a199E`Z
B1
BRO7N] supra 21*O C9] i* 4EZ RORiFF Mi,Ki,O* ;Ji*RJO,9+ Mi41)+ i.J1,I+4 *Ji* L;JO,O I+ 21 +)RJ *JI2K
i+ +1RIO*c Z Z Z ;JO,O i,O I2QI(IQ)iF 4O2 i2Q f14O2 i2Q *JO,O i,O Mi4IFIO+Z< ;VE !OLLE!;Ep =?EE!VE= OX M"RW"RE;
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U2I*OQ SI2KQ14 aOR*Z E1] 19AB``Z
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BRO7N] supra 21*O C9] i* 4DZ
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BRO7N] supra 21*O 1D] i* 42P44Z
B4
B"RBER] supra 21*O 24] i* 2A1P290Z
BD
IdZ i* 294Z
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See T1+gO T1J2+*12] The Citizen-Consumer Hybrid: Ideological Tensions and the Case of Whole Foods
Market] EB ;VEORo "Np =O!9o 229] 242 a200A`Z
BB
IdZ i* 24CZ
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T1 LI**FO,] What’s Wrong with Ethical Consumption?] in E;VU!"L !ON=UM?;UON@ " !RU;U!"L
UN;ROpU!;UON 2B] EE a;i2Ii LOfI+ 0 E4IFc ?1**O, OQ+Z] 2011`Z
B9
!i++ RZ =)2+*OI2] On Mandatory Labeling, with Special Reference to Genetically Modified Foods] 1CD UZ
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Sc+i,] supra 21*O C] i* DEBZ
A1
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MUL;ON XRUEpM"N] !"?U;"LU=M "Np XREEpOM 1E aEQ OQZ 2002`Z
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?ROTE!; "Np ?OLU!o EV"LU";UON 2BP2A a2004`Z
AB
See ;I4 7Z p1,2I+ 0 ;J14i+ 7OI2] Trademarks, Comparative Advertising, and Product Imitations: An
Untold Story of Law and Economics] 121 ?ENN =;Z LZ REVZ 421] 442P4E a201C` aLO2O ,O+)F* 1M h,i2QI2K i2Q .O,+)i+I(O
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See Wih,IOF TZ !JI2 0 T1J2 O,412QO] The War Against Chinese Restaurants] CB pUSE LZTZ CA1 a201A`Z

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Labor and the Law in the Gilded Age] 19AD 7U=Z LZ REVZ BCB a19AD`Z
101
See B,Ii2 =Z XOFQ4i2] The Decline of Black Business] 7"=VUNW;ON MON;VLo] Mi,ZY".,ZYMic 201B]
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T)FIi2 MZ "F+*12 0 ?JIFI. WZ ?i,QOc] Agriculture in the Global Economy] 2A TZ E!ONZ ?ER=?Z 121] 121
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LUNEB"UWV] =;O?] ;VUEX8@ ;VE !OMMON=] EN!LO=URE=] "Np RE=U=;"N!E 1C a2014`Z
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*JO *i,KO*9+ h)+I2O++ ,I(iF+N*JO h1cR1** R1)FQ (I1Fi*O i2*I*,)+* FifZ See EI2O, EFJi)KO] Making Sense of Antitrust Petitioning
Immunity, A0 !"LUXZ LZ REVZ 11BB] 120AP10 a1992`Z

2DA UNIV. OF PENNSYLVANIA JOURNAL OF LAW AND SOCIAL CHANGE mV1FZ 22Z4
;"BLE 1@ ;7O XORM= OX !ON=UMER "!;UVU=M
ORGANI#ED BUYING ETHICAL CONSUMPTION

GOAL Change in Terms of Bargaining Shift in Overall Consumption
Habits
TACTICS Inflict Injury on Specific Actor Individual Persuasion] Mass
Marketing
POLITICAL Grassroots Membership Promotional Groups, Retailers
STRUCTURE Organizations
A. The Goal: Changing the Rules, or Changing Hearts?
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10D
R1hO,* LZ ViFO] Bargaining, Duress and Economic Liberty] 4E !OLUMZ LZ REVZ C0E] C2D a194E`& see
generally ROBER; LZ V"LE] XREEpOM ;VROUWV L"7 a19D2`Z X1, i2 i..FIRi*I12 1M ViFO9+ f1,G *1 *JO Fih1, 4i,GO*] +OO
p)2Ri2 SO22OQc] The Stakes of Law, or Hale and Foucault!] 1D LEW"L =;UpZ XZ E2B] E2A a1991`Z
10C
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111
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112
See generally MONROE XRUEpM"N] !ON=UMER BOo!O;;=@ EXXE!;UNW !V"NWE ;VROUWV ;VE
M"RSE;?L"!E "Np ;VE MEpU" E4P42 a1999`Z
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114
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11D
B"Rp"!SE] supra 21*O 10A] i* 10AP110Z
11C
MIFFO,] supra 21*O 109] i* 10DZ

2C0 UNIV. OF PENNSYLVANIA JOURNAL OF LAW AND SOCIAL CHANGE mV1FZ 22Z4
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11B
B"Rp"!SE] supra 21*O 10A] i* 1DCPC1Z
11A
IdZ i* 1BDPBCZ
119
29 UZ=Z!Z ' 1D2aE` a2012` aQOMI2I2K LO4.F1cOO< *1 I2RF)QO Li2c O4.F1cOO] i2Q +JiFF 21* hO FI4I*OQ *1 *JO
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120
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*iRI* 1, Od.FIRI*`Z
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M"R=V"LL W"Nn] 7Vo p"VUp =OME;UME= 7UN=@ LE"pER=VU?] ORW"NUn";UON] "Np =;R";EWo UN ;VE
!"LUXORNU" X"RM 7ORSER MOVEMEN; 141 a2010`Z
122
T"ME= MZ T"=?ER] ;VE "R; OX MOR"L ?RO;E=;@ !UL;URE] BUOWR"?Vo] "Np !RE";UVU;o UN =O!U"L
MOVEMEN;= 2D9 a199B`& see also supra *Od* iRR14.i2cI2K 21*O+ 49PD1 aQI+R)++I2K R1,.1,i*O ()F2O,ihIFI*c *1 h,i2Q
i**iRG+`Z
12E
The National Farm Workers’ Association Asks You, Please Don’t Buy Schenley Liquors / Delano Grapes]
;VE MOVEMEN; a=)..Z 19CC`] J**.+@YYFIh,i,IO+Z)R+QZOQ)YMi,4f1,GO,41(O4O2*Y)Mfi,RJI(O+Y+2RRY10[NX7"320B1cR1**
32019CCZ.QM mJ**.+@YY.O,4iZRRYNEVL[oTAClZ
124
IdZ
12D
B"Rp"!SE] supra 21*O 10A] i* 229Z
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+14O 1*JO, L212[R12(O2*I12iF i**,Ih)*O]< +)RJ i+ MiI, *,iQOZ O,Ki2IR Ji+ hOR14O hIK h)+I2O++Z "+
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.i,* 1M MI,4+9 (iF)O[iQQOQ .,1RO++Z<12A ;Ji* +*)Qc 1h+O,(O+ *Ji*] hO*fOO2 1990 i2Q 2010] *JO
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*1 41,O *Ji2 490 +*1,O+ i2Q i22)iF +iFO+ 1M i..,1dI4i*OFc 51C hIFFI12Z1E1 "4ib12] *JO 12FI2O
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hc *JO O,Ki2IR X11Q ?,1Q)R*I12 "R* 1M 1990] *JO U=p"9+ Ni*I12iF O,Ki2IR =*i2Qi,Q+ B1i,Q +O*+
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12C
W"Nn] supra 21*O 121] i* 9AP99 aR12*,i+*I2K *JO ,1FO+ 1M Fih1, R12*,iR*1,+ I2 *JO R12+*,)R*I12 i2Q
iK,IR)F*),iF I2Q)+*,IO+`& see also XERRU== 0 ="NpOV"L] supra 21*O 10B] i* CB aQO+R,IhI2K *JO ih)+O+ *Ji* Mi,4f1,GO,+ MiROQ
i* *JO Ji2Q+ 1M )2+R,).)F1)+ Fih1, R12*,iR*1,+] I2RF)QI2K fiKO *JOM* i2Q +Od)iF Ji,i++4O2*`Z
12B
;JI+ +F1Ki2 ,i2 I2 7J1FO X11Q+ Mi,GO* .,I2* iQ(O,*I+O4O2*+ I2 2014Z See =*)i,* EFFI1**] Whole Foods
Asks Shoppers to Consider a Value Proposition] NZoZ ;UME= aOR*Z 19] 2014`]
J**.+@YYfffZ2c*I4O+ZR14Y2014Y10Y20Yh)+I2O++Y4OQIiYfJ1FO[M11Q+[i+G+[+J1..O,+[*1[R12+IQO,[i[(iF)O[.,1.1+I*I12ZJ*4F
mJ**.+@YY.O,4iZRRYAEWM[9477lZ
12A
;J12K MOi+ O* iFZ] Substitutes or Complements? Consumer Preference for Local and Organic Food
Attributes] 9B "MZ TZ "WRU!Z E!ONZ 1044] 1044 a2014`Z
129
Id. i* 104D& ;,i(I+ "Z =4I*J O* iFZ] Does Price or Income Affect Organic Choice? Analysis of U.S. Fresh
Produce Users] 41 TZ "WRU!Z 0 "??LUEp E!ONZ BE1] BEAP40 a2009`Z
1E0
MOi+ O*Z iF] supra 21*O 12B] i* 1044Z
1E1
LXi+* XiR*+<] Whole Foods Market Newsroom] 7VOLE XOOp= M"RSE;] J**.+@YY4OQIiZfJ1FOM11Q+4i,GO*
ZR14YMi+*[MiR*+Y mJ**.+@YY.O,4iZRRY2TTp[BVA2lZ
1E2
NIRG 7I2KMIOFQ 0 MIRJiOF TZ QO Fi MO,ROQ] Amazon to Buy Whole Foods for $13.4 Billion] NZoZ ;UME=
aT)2O 1C] 201B`] J**.+@YYfffZ2c*I4O+ZR14Y201BY0CY1CYh)+I2O++YQOiFh11GYi4ib12[fJ1FO[M11Q+ZJ*4F mJ**.+@YY.O,4iZRRY
2DXp["47!lZ
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See infra 21*O+ 142P14D i2Q iRR14.i2cI2K *Od*& see generally ",IOFFO LO++I2K] A Supplemental Labeling
Regime for Organic Products] 1A MOZ ENV;LZ LZ 0 ?OL9o REVZ 41D] 42APED a2011` a+)44i,IbI2K *JO FOKiF ,OK)Fi*I12 1M
*JO 1,Ki2IR FihOF`Z
1E4
See Vi,(Oc (Z VO2O4i2] E9C XZEQ 2A] E1PE2 a1+* !I,Z 200D`Z

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T)FIO W)*J4i2] Eating Risk: The Politics of Labeling Genetically Engineered Foods] in ENWUNEERUNW
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1EC
See SI4 =O(O,+12] Many Summer Internships Are Going Organic] NZoZ ;UME= aMic 2E] 2009`]
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1EB
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1EA
See Fresh Air: Dinner: An Author Considers the Source, N?R R"pUO BRO"p!"=; a".,Z 11] 200C`]
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1E9
See T1J2 ?i)FF] From France to the World: The International Federation of Organic Agriculture
Movements] 1 TZ =O!Z RE=Z 0 ?OL9o 9E a2010`Z
140
See, e.g.] W)*J4i2, supra 21*O 1ED] i* 14CZ
141
See ?i*,IRIi "FFO2 0 Mi,*I2 S1(iRJ] The Capitalist Composition of Organic: The Potential of Markets in
Fulfilling the Promise of Organic Agriculture] 1B "WRU!Z 0 VUMZ V"LUE= 221] 222 a2000` aL?,1.12O2*+ 1M K,OO2
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142
!I2Qc T1MMO Vc4i2] Food for Thought: Defending the Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 Against
Claims of Protectionism] 14 EMORo UN;9L LZ REVZ 1B19] 1B40PC0 a2000` ai2iFcbI2K *JO (i,I1)+ i,K)4O2*+ M1, fJc *JO
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14E
See B UZ=Z!Z ' CD1AaG` a2012`Z
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2CC UNIV. OF PENNSYLVANIA JOURNAL OF LAW AND SOCIAL CHANGE mV1FZ 22Z4
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1B1
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2019l U= !ON=UMER "!;UVU=M E!ONOMU! pEMO!R"!o# 2CB
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1BE
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1E1 aEQ OQZ 2011`Z
1B4
B"Rp"!SE] supra 21*O 10B] i* 24AZ
1BD
U2*O,(IOf hc Xi,4f1,GO, M1(O4O2* p1R)4O2*i*I12 ?,1HOR* fI*J X,OQ R1++] =,Z] I2 pic*12] OJI1 aOR*Z
19B4`] available at J**.+@YYFIh,i,IO+Z)R+QZOQ)YMi,4f1,GO,41(O4O2*YO++ic+YO++ic+YVU=;ORo320OX320X"RM7ORSER
320MOVEMEN;320Bo320XREp320RO==Z.QM mJ**.+@YY.O,4iZRRYCLEn[p97MlZ
1BC
Mi,Ki,O* R1+O] From the Fields to the Picket Line: Huelga Women and the Boycott, 1965-1975] E1 L"BZ
VU=;Z 2B1] 2BD a1990`Z

2CA UNIV. OF PENNSYLVANIA JOURNAL OF LAW AND SOCIAL CHANGE mV1FZ 22Z4
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1A2
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pO41R,i*+9 MOi,+ 1M O4.1fO,I2K BFiRG +Ji,OR,1..O,+Z See Mi,R LI2QO,] Farm Workers and the Fair Labor Standards Act:
Racial Discrimination in the New Deal] CD ;E6Z LZ REVZ 1EED] 1ED1PD2 a19AB`Z ;JO Mi,4f1,GO, OdRF)+I12 I+ R1QIMIOQ i* 29
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1A4
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1AB
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See EZ MOFi2IO p)?)I+ 0 =Oi2 WIFF12] Alternative Modes of Governance: Organic as Civic Engagement]
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LO++I2K] supra 21*O 1EE] i* 44EP44Z
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See Framework for Regenerative Organic Certification] REWENER";UVE ORW"NU! !ER;UXUEp aXOhZ
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EFOi21, W,OO2O] You Can Vote Every Day – With Your Dollars] ?OR;L"Np OB=ERVER a")KZ 22] 201B]
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See generally !Ji,F1**O Wi,QO2] The Deregulatory First Amendment at Work] D1 V"RVZ !ZRZ[!ZLZ LZ REVZ
E2E a201C`& "4i2Qi =Ji21,] The New Lochner] 201C 7U=Z LZ REVZ 1EE a201C`Z
219
BLO!S 0 =OMER=] supra 21*O AE] i* 104Z
220
VON MU=E=] supra 21*O 21D] i* 2B0Z
221
See supra 21*O 14B i2Q iRR14.i2cI2K *Od*Z p1)KFi+ Sc+i, QO+R,IhO+ *JO LJO,1IR< QO4i2Q+ .FiROQ 12
41QO,2 R12+)4O,+] fJ1 i,O Od.OR*OQ 21* 12Fc *1 h11+* *JO 2i*I12iF OR1214c h)* iF+1 R1FFOR*I(OFc *1 i++IK2 (iF)O *1 .)hFIR
K11Q+Z See Sc+i,] supra 21*O C] i* CEDZ
222
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MZ pf1,GI2] Is Wealth a Value?] 9 TZ LEW"L =;UpZ 191] 19CP201 a19A0`Z
224
?OL"NoU] supra 21*O 21B] i* 14BZ
22D
See supra 21*O C i2Q iRR14.i2cI2K *Od*Z
22C
See Sc+i,] supra 21*O DC] i* 21ED aLmWl1(O,24O2*+ +I4.Fc Ri221* ih+*iI2 M,14 I2MF)O2RI2KNQI,OR*Fc 1,
I2QI,OR*FcN*JO R12*O2* 1M R12+)4O, QO+I,O+Z<`Z
22B
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supra 21*O 44] i* CCDP9EZ
229
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2019l U= !ON=UMER "!;UVU=M E!ONOMU! pEMO!R"!o# 2BD
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2E0
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MMKZ !1Z] EA0 UZ=Z 2CE] 2B4PBC a19CD`& see also ;O,,c !1FFI2K+f1,*J] Resurrecting the National Labor Relations Act—
Plant Closings and Runaway Shops in a Global Economy] 14 BERSELEo TZ EM?Z 0 L"BZ LZ B2] B2 a199E` ai,K)I2K *Ji* *JO
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2E1
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supra 21*O 10A] i* EEEPE4 aQO+R,IhI2K *JO *O,4+ 1M *JO WI)4i,,i R12*,iR* iM*O, *JO 2i*I12fIQO h1cR1**`Z
2E2
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See B"Rp"!SE] supra 21*O 10A] i* E9BZ
2E4
See supra 21*O+ DEPD4 i2Q iRR14.i2cI2K *Od*Z
2ED
2EC
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2BC UNIV. OF PENNSYLVANIA JOURNAL OF LAW AND SOCIAL CHANGE mV1FZ 22Z4
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QO41R,iRc I2 R1FFOR*I(O hi,KiI2I2K] KO2O,iFFc .,O+)..1+O i2Q M,O-)O2*Fc ,OI2M1,RO OFI*I+4 I2 hi,KiI2I2KZ<`Z
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;JO+O hi+IR R,I*O,Ii i,O Q)O *1 p"VL] supra 21*O E1] i* D9Z
244
MI,Ii4 ?ifOF] A Generation of Leaders, But Not in the Fields: The Legacy of Cesar Chavez] in "
!OM?"NUON ;O !"LUXORNU" VU=;ORo 440 a7IFFIi4 pO(O,OFF 0 pi(IQ UKFO, OQ+Z] 200A`] available at
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B"Rp"!SE] supra 21*O 10A] i* B& see also W"Nn] supra 21*O 121] i* 24BP49& ?"7EL] supra 21*O 149] i*
4DAPD9& see generally pi2i X,i2G] Where Are the Workers in Consumer-Worker Alliances? Class Dynamics and the History
of Consumer-Labor Campaigns] E1 ?OLZ 0 =O!9o EB2 a200E`Z
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B"Rp"!SE] supra 21*O 10A] i* EC0Z
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R1+O] supra 21*O 1BC] i* 2BBZ
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B"Rp"!SE] supra 21*O 10A] i* CCEZ
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2DA
XERRU== 0 ="NpOV"L] supra 21*O 10B] i* 2EDPE9Z
2D9
The Wrath of Grapes] UNU;Ep X"RM 7ORSER=] i* 01@10 a19AC`] available at J**.+@YYc1)*)ZhOY
7-4A14M*L4"#*$1410+ mJ**.+@YY.O,4iZRRYB4XW[CVWolZ
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XERRU== 0 ="NpOV"L] supra 21*O 10B] i* 2EB] 2D4Z
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MIFFO,] supra 21*O 109] i* 10AZ
2C2
B"Rp"!SE] supra 21*O 10A] i* E0DZ
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?ifOF] supra 21*O 2EA] i* 4EAZ
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Id. i* 4EAPE9Z
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See, e.g.] B"Rp"!SE] supra 21*O 10A] i* DD2PDE& W"Nn] supra 21*O 121] i* 24AZ

Is Consumer Activism Economic Democracy

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Is Consumer Activism Economic Democracy

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A. Consumers as Democratic Actors in the Second Gilded Age

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Published by Penn Law: Legal Scholarship Repository, 2019

B. The Critics of Consumer Activism

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ORGANI#ED BUYING ETHICAL CONSUMPTION

A. The Goal: Changing the Rules, or Changing Hearts?

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B. The Tactic: Concerted Pressure, or Mass Marketing?

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C. The Political Structure: Bargaining Partner, or Billboard?

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A. The Fantasy of Consumers’ Sovereignty

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B. Socializing the Market Through Organized Buying

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Published by Penn Law: Legal Scholarship Repository, 2019

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