2 Units and Measurement 1. Physical Quantities The quantities which can be measured by an instrument and by means of which we can describe the laws of physics are called physical quantities. eg. length, velocity, acceleration, force, time, pressure, mass, density etc. > Fundamental or Physical quantities Basic quantities are of three types | + Derived Quantities + supplementary Ouantities 1.1 Fundamental Quantit * These are the elementary quantities which covers the entire span of physics. © Any other quantities can be derived from these. © All the basic quantities are chosen such that they should be different, that means independent of each other. (ie, distance, time and velocity cannot be chosen as basic quantities as V = $). An international Organization named GPM : General Conference on weight and Mensures, choose seven physical quantities as basic or fundamental Length Time Mass Temperature Electrical Luminous Amount of, (T(x) current Intensity stance wt Example Which of the following sets cannot enter into the list of fundamental quantities in any newly proposed system of units? (A) length, mass and velocity (8) pressure, density and velocity (©) force, velocity and time (0) force, momentum and time Ans. (B,D) Solution: For (A); Length [L], mass [M] and velocity [LT”'] are independent. For (B): Pressure [M'L"T™I, density [M'L“T"] and velocity [M°LT" are dependent For (C): Force [MLT", velocity [LT” and time [T] are independent Momentum Time = force, momentum and time are dependent. For (D): Force = Units and Measurement 11.2 Derived Quanti Physical quantities which can be expressed in terms of basic quantities (M,L,T...) are called derived quantities. i.e., Momentum (P = mV) 1.3 Supplementary Quantities Besides seven fundamental quantities two supplementary quantities are also defined. They are + Plane angle (The angle between two lines) Plane angle is the radius measurement of rotation of line along a plane. Plane angle (0) = Sc tength _ s radius radius —> are Planeangle + Solid Angle It Is the aD analogue of an angle. Such as, that subtended by cone or formed by planes meeting at a point dA Solid angle (a) 2. The International System of Units In earlier times scientists of different countries used different system of units for measurement. There such systems, CGS, FPS (or British) and MKS system are in use extensively till today. The base units for length, mass and time in these systems are as follows: ‘+ In.CGS system there are centimeter, gram and second respectively. + In FPS system there are feet, pound and second respectively. + INMKS system there are meter, kilogram and second respectively. E] Units and Measurement3. SI Base Quantities and Units Length (meter): Meter is the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second (1983). It is denoted by m. Mass (kilogram): Kilogram is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram (@ platinum-iridium alloy cylinder) kept at International Bureau of Weights and Measures, at Sevres, near Paris, France. (1889). It is denoted by kg, Time (second): Second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom (1967). It is denoted by s. Electric Current (ampere): Ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10” Newton per metre of length, (1948). It is denoted by A. ‘Thermodynamic Temperature (kelvin): Kelvin, is the fraction 1/2736 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. (1967). It is denoted by K. Amount of Substance (mole) many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12, (1971). It is denoted by mol Luminous Intensity (candela): Candela is the Luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source jole is the amount of substance of a system, which contains as that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 10” hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian (1979). It is denoted by Cd. ‘+ Slunits of derived Quantities displacement + meter, + velocity = a time + second So unit of velocity will be m/s * Acceleration = © Momenturn = mv 0 unit of momentum will be = (kg) (mm/s) = kg m/s © Force = ma (kg) « (m/s*) = kg m/s” called newton (N) (N) « (m) = N m called joule (J) + Power = Mork ‘time Unit = J/s called watt (W) Units and Measurement aea 4 as Units and Measurement Can Pressure (P), density (p) and velocity (v) be taken as fundamental quantities 7 Convert 7 pm into jim v= 90 km/hour convert it into m/s If unit of length is doubled, the numerical value of Area will be. Force acting on a particle is SN. If unit of length and time are doubled and unit of mass is halved than the numerical value of the force then the new unit will be. Dimensions The nature of a physical quantity is described by its dimensions. All the physical quantities represented by derived units can be expressed in terms of some combination of seven fundamental or base quantities. We shall call these base quantities as the seven dimensions of the physical world, which are denoted with square brackets [ ]. Thus, length has the dimension [L, mass [MI, time [T], electric current [A], thermodynamic temperature [KI luminous intensity {cd}, and amount of substance [mol]. The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers (or exponents) to which the base quantities are raised to represent that quantity. Dimensional Formula, Dimensional Equation & Characteristics {An equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its dimensional formula is called the dimensional equation of the physical quantity. Thus, the dimensional equations are the equations, which represent the dimensions of a physical quantity in terms of the base quantities. For example, the dimensional equations of volume [V], speed [v}, force [F] and mass density [p] may be expressed as (= (M'LT} = IMLT} [Fl=(MLT"] Ip] = IM LT") * All trigonometric ratios, powers, exponential and logarithmic functions are dimensionless. * All ratio of physical quantities having same dimensional formula are dimensionless. e.g. relative density, relative permeability, dielectric constant, angles, refractive index etc. * Dimensions do not depend upon magnitude. * Dimension of a physical quantity will be same, it doesn’t depend on which formula we are using for that quantity. Principle of Homogeneity of dimensions : It states that in a correct equation, the dimensions of each term added or subtracted must be same. Every correct equation must have same dimensions on both sides of the equation.Example 5: Find out the dimensional formula of the following Density (id) Velocity (il Acceleration (iv) Momentum (¥) Angle (vi) Torque Solution: , mass] _ M1 ay ity (y= Displacement] _ [Ld © [Density] = Flame] Te [ML] Gil) Velocity (v] Tamed ral wv LT) Gill) Acceleration (a) = [LT] (iv) Momentum (P) = mV = [M'L'T”] a TT (W) Angle (0) = =o [M°L°T°} (Dimensionless) (w) Torque = Force x Arm length = (M'L'T x [L) = [MT] Example 6: To increase the temperature of a body by AT, Heat required is Q = ms AT Here ‘s'is specific heat capacity. Then find out the dimensional formula of 's’ Solution: (9) = [rl [3] [97] Here Q is heat : A kind of energy so (q= (wr) [M277] = [M] [8] [K] Is} = (WUT) Example 7: If any spherical ball of radius (r) moves with velocity (v) in a viscous liquid, then viscous force acting on it is given by Here 1 is coefficient of viscosity. Find out the dimensional formula of x! Solution: OF.) = (62) fn) (1) (weir 9} =) Om) LTD (nl = IMT) Example 8: Find dimension formula for [a] and [8] (here t = time, F = force, v = velocity, = distance) 6 Units and MeasurementSolution: “1 IBl= IMU) and |r * 4 will also have dimension (M279) so he WUT a) = ELT] Example 9: a= Pog (28) whee fren Vx sy id he dimen of and dimensionless L2mIBL yey) vy COO = py) > (py = er jer UTI = = UT] fa) = FIND, gy | ETAT) wT ere = [a] = [ML 1) Example 10: The dimensional formula of product and quotient of two physical quantities A and B are given (A) Force and velocity (8) Force and displacement (C) Momentum and displacement (0) Work and velocity Ans. (8) Solution: usta [2 ones = [A] = [MLT”] = Force [a8] 19) = FEI 1 = 181 = (hy = Displacement Units and Measurement 7Example 11: The Vander Waal's equation for n moles of a real gas is on by (223) ey —nt) = a, where P = pressure of gas, V = volume of gas, T = temperature of gas, R = molar gas constant, a &b = Vander Waal's constants Which of the following have the same dimensions as those of nRT. av py? na A) PV a) cy a “@ OF ot ) Ans. (A, B, C, D) Solution: Here [P] = [tho [nb] so [PV] = [nRT] fav also {2% = [PV] = [ne] [s) (PV) = (oT) ee oa fern nb | co (Lit @4 Find out (i) Force (ill) Energy (iv) Power (v) Pressure (vi) Angular velocity (vil) Angular acceleration @2 if two bodies of mass m, and m, are placed at r distance, both feel gravitational attraction force, cmm, whose value is, Gravitational force F, = S™™ where G is a constant called Gravitational constant. Find out dimensional formula of “ Qa flight of frequency w is falling on a surface & the energy of a photon is glven by E = hv, Here h = Planck’s constant then find out the dimensional formula of ‘h’ 4 ita = Zain pr (here v= velocity, F = force, t= time). Find the dimension of « and Units and Measurement8. at Application of Dimensions To Check the Correctness of the Formula If the dimensions of the Li US and RWH.S are same, then we can say that this eqn. is atleast, dimensionally correct. So this equation may be correct, But if dimensions of LH.S and R.H.S are not same then the equation is not even dimensionally correct. So it cannot be correct. Formula for centrifugal force F, is given by (where m = mass, v = velocity, radius) we have to check whether itis correct or not Dimension of LHS is CF] = [MT] Dimension of R.H.S is fod) _ TP td tu So this eqn. is at least dimensionally correct. wiry = we can say that this equation may be correct. Example 12: av te Check whether this equation may be correct or not Pressure P, (where F = force, v felocity, t = time, x = distance) Solution: 0.2 Units and Measurement Dimension of LH.S Pa eiMe Ty Dimension of Rn.s = EIN) - =wer wei oy ET Dimension of LH.S and R.H.S are not same. So the relation cannot be correct. Designing an Expression of Relationship Between Variables If a quantity depends on many parameters, we can estimate, to what extent, the quantity depends on the given parameters. Example : Time period of 2 simple pendulum can dependon Mass of Length of Gravitational Pendulum the string acceleration (mm) 0 (9)So we can say that expression of T should be in this form Te (mye - (MPU =) IME LP UT (wL'r}y = (tL) Comparing the powers of M, L and T, 3 geta=0,b+e=0,-20 soa=0,b=+,c=-4 2 soTa ML" T= Qonstant fe fs The “Constant” can be found experimentally. Example 13: If velocity (V), force (F) and time (T) are chosen as fundamental quantities, express ( mass and (il) energy in terms of V,F and T. Solution: a3 Let Mx (V)(FY (1 Equating dimensions of both the sides (er) = @ ey o'r 7? oe [MET] = [MP Ls To 9 geta=-1b=4c Ma (VT FIT) = IM =(V FIT] similarly we can also express energy in terms of V, F, T Let [6] « (VF (F(T = (LT) (Mer Eye 1 jatb=2)-a-2b+e Conversion of Units nu] = constant i.e. n,{u] = n,{u,] where n is the numerical value and u is the unit. TTY where the dimensional formula of the physical quantity is [M°L'T'] Units and MeasurementExample 14: The density of a material in CGS system is 2g /cm*. In a system of units in which unit of length is 2. em and unit of mass is 4 g, what is the numerical value of the density of the material? Solution: Q1 If Aand B are two physical quantities having different dimensions then which of the following can denote a new physical quantity? a 2 A Wars (3) AB’ OF Q2 "A particle of mass m Is located in a region where its potential energy [U(x)] depends on the ab > ~ {here a & b are positive constants" i) Write dimensional formula of a & b. If the time period of oscillation which is calculated from above formula is stated by a student, as T= 4na | BF 3 Natural frequency (f) of a closed pipe depends upon () length of tube (4) (li) density of air (p) (ili) pressure of air (P) position x as Potential Energy (U(x) check whether this answer is dimensionally correct. Then find out the relation of ‘f' with all these variables Q4 If the momentum is P and mass M are chosen as fundamental quantities, then derive KE. in terms of P and M. QS p=2¢/em* convert it into MKS system 9. Limitations of Dimensional Analysis * Dimensional analysis doesn’t give Information about the “constant” (The dimensional constant). © This method is useful only when a physical quantity depends on other quantities by multiplication and power relations. (he, Fe xt y*2) It fails if a physical quantity depends on sum or difference of two quantities (ie, fexty-2) Units and Measurement "10. n. 2 2 0 iLe., we cannot get the relation tae s = ut + Lat’ from dimensional analysis. 7 ysi © This method will not work if a quantity depends on another quantity as sine or cosine, logarithmic or exponential relation. The method works only if the dependence is by power functions. = We equate the powers of M, L and T hence we get only three equations. So we can have only three variable (only three dependent quantities) So dimensional analysis will work only if the quantity depends only on three parameters, not more than that. Measurement Measurement of Length You are already fat iar with some direct methods for the measurement of length. For example, a metre scale is used for lengths from 10” m to 10” m. A Vernier caliper is used for lengths to an accuracy of 10 m. A screw gauge and a spherometer can be used to measure lengths as less as to 10° m. To measure lengths beyond these ranges, we make use of some special indirect methods. Range of Lengths The sizes of the objects we come across In the universe vary over a very wide range. These may vary from the size of the order of 10°" m of the tiny nucleus of an atom to the size of the order of 10” m of the extent of the observable universe. Accuracy, Precision of Instrument Accuracy The closeness of the measured value to the true value of the physical quantity is known as the accuracy of the measurement. Precision It is the measure of the extent to which successive measurements of a physical quantity differ from one another. The accuracy in measurement may depend on several factors, including the limit of the resolution of the measuring instrument. For example, suppose the true value of a certain length is near 3.678 cm. In one experiment, using a measuring instrument of resolution 0.1 cm, the measured value is found to be 3.5 cm, while in another experiment using a measuring device of Ereater resolution, say 0.01 cm, the length is determined to be 3.88 cm. The first measurement has more accuracy (because it is closer to the true value) but less precision (its resolution is only 0.1 em), while the second measurement is less accurate but more precise. Units and Measurement13. 13.4 @ i ain 32 13.3 13.4 Errors in Measurement Systematic Error The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one direction, either positive or negative. Some of the sources of systematic errors are’ Instrumental Error Instrumental error that arise from the errors due to imperfect design or calibration of the measuring instrument, zero error in the instrument, ete. Imperfection in Experimental Technique systematic errors can be minimised by improving experimental techniques, selecting better Instrumental and removing personal bias as far as possible. For a given set-up, these errors may be estimated to a certain extent and the necessary corrections may be applied to the readings. Personal Errors Personal errors that arise due to an individual's bias, lack of proper setting of the apparatus or individual's carelessness in taking observations without observing proper precautions, etc. Random Errors The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and hence are random with respect to sign and size. These can arise due to random and unpredictable fluctuations in experimental conditions Least Count Error The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called its least count. All the readings or measured values are good only up to this value. The least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument. Permissible Error Error in measurement due to the limitation (least count) of the instrument, is called permissible error. From mm scale + we can measure upto 1 mm accuracy (least count). From this we will get measurement like ¢ = 34 mm Max uncertainty can be 1mm, Max permissible error (A) But from any other instrument, we get ¢ = 34.5 mm then maximum permissible error (Ad = 0.1 mm and if from a more accurate instrument, we get ¢ = 34.527 mm then maximum permissible error (4) = 0.001 mm = place value of last number Maximum permissible error in a measured quantity is equal to the place value of the last number Units and Measurement B2s "4. “ sible Error in Result Due to Error in Each Measurable Quantity Let Result f(x, y) contains two measurable quantity x and y Let error in x is + Ax x © (K~ AK, X + AK) error in y is # Ay ie. y © (y - Ayy + Ay) case : (1) Ifo yexty df= dx + dy error in F= Af= Ax Ay max possible error in f = (At), ax of (# AX + Ay) (Pag = AX + AY Case : (I!) ff =x-y df= dx - dy (af) = + ax = ay max possible error in f = (Af), = max of (t Ax = Ay) > (Aya, = AK+ AY For getting maximum permissible error, sign should be adjusted, so that errors get added up to give maximum effect le f= 2x-3y-2 (OP yyy = 20K + Bay + Az Absolute Error, Relative Error and Percentage Error Suppose to measure some quantity, we take several observations, a, a,, a absolute error in each measurement and percentage error , we have to follow these steps. a, Jo find the First of all mean of all the observations is calculated : a ,,, at a, 4a, +t a,) /n. The mean of these values is taken as the best possible value of the quantity under the given conditions of measurements. Absolute Error The magnitude of the difference between the best possible or mean value of the quantity and the individual measurement value is called the absolute error of the measurement. The absolute error in an individual measured value is: a, The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is taken as the final or mean absolute error. = (Uda + Wag! + [AajttonnnnctlayD/n Units and Measurement‘+ Relative and Percentage Error Relative error is the ratio of the mean absolute error and arithmetic mean Relative error = “8mm. When the relative error is expressed in percent, it is called the percentage error. Thus, 2 pom Percentage error = “nem x 100% Example 15: Following observations were taken with a vernier caliper while measuring the length of a cylinder: 3.29 cm, 3.28 cm, 3.28 cm, 3.31 cm, 3.28 cm, 3.27 em, 3.29 cm, 3.30 em. Then find: (a) Most accurate length of the cylinder. (b) Absolute error in each observation, (©) Mean absolute error (A) Relative error (e) Percentage error Express the result in terms of absolute error and percentage error. Solution: (a) Most accurate length of the cylinder will be the mean length = 3.28875 cm = 3.29 cm (b) Absolute error in the first reading = 3.29 - 3.28 = 0.00 em Absolute error in the second reading = 3.29 - 3.28 tem Absolute error in the third reading = 3.29 - 3.29 = 0.00 em Absolute error in the forth reading = 3.99 - 3.31 = -0.02 «m Absolute error in the fifth reading = 3.29 - 3.28 = 0.01 cm Absolute error In the sixth reading = 3.29 - 3.27 = 0.02 cm Absolute error in the seventh reading = 3.29 ~ 3.28 = 0.00 cm Absolute error in the last reading = 3.29 ~ 3,30 = -0.01 cm (©) Mean absolute error i Rial ae OD DOE ee oot em (6 Retatve error in tength = AZ = 291 - 9030208 = 000s (e) Percentage error = St x 100 = 0,003 x 100 = 0.396 7 So, length 3.29 cm + 0.01 cm (in terms of absolute error) =6 29 cm + 0.30% (in terms of percentage error) Units and Measurement 515. Combination of Errors In Sum :If Z = A 8, then AZ = AA + AB, maximum fractional error In this case az dA, AB Zi Ae8 ALB In Difference : if Z = A ~ 8, then maximum absolute error is AZ = AA + AB and maximum fractional error in this case AA where AZ/Z is known as fractional error. In Division : If Z = 4/8, then maximum fractional error Is In more general form if Z then the maximum fractional error In Z is AZ AA, yAB, gAC za) oe Example 16: Two resistors of resistances R, = (100 # 3) ohm and R,= (200 + 4) ohm are connected (a) in series (b) in parallel. Find the equivalent resistance of the (a) series combination, (b) parallel combination. Use for (a) the relation R = , + R, and for (b) Solution: (a) The equivalent resistance of serles combination R= R, +R, = (100 +3) ohm + (200 + 4) ohm = 300 +7 ohm. (b) The equivalent resistance of parallel combination pia Ra. 200 «667 ohm RR, 3 Then, from We get, AR! _ AR, | AR, (ger) 7B (Goo) $* (a0) 4= "8 Then, R' = 66.7 + 1.8 ohm (Here, AR is expressed as 1.8 instead of 2 to keep in conformity with the rules of significant figures) 16 Units and MeasurementExample 17: If measured value of resistance R 05 ©, wire diameter d = 0.60 mm, and length & then find maximum permissible error in resistivity. (nd?) Rad) i Given p = .01 2 (least count) d= 0.60 mm > Ad = 0.01 mm (least count) (= 75330 0.1 cm (least count) 0.018, 0.01mm | O.41¢m ),. (ae) 201mm | OEM ) 46 (2) 7 (casa eo men 753 om Example 1! To find the value of ‘g' using simple pendulum. T = 2.00 sec; / = 1.00 m was measured. Estimate maximum permissible error in ‘g’. Also find the value of ‘g'. (use x” = 10) Solution: T = ate 7 At, at Myott T 0.01) 2x POT) 100 % = 2% 2.00 4n¢_ 4x 10x1.00 a 10.0 m/s? TF (200° value of g= (48) = 2 so Man 2 UB yuc” 08 °° 0.0" * 700 80 (AB), 0.2 = max error in‘! 80 ‘'g’ = (10.0 £ 0.2) m/s* Units and Measurement 7Example 19: Find the relative error in Z, If Z = A‘B™"/CD™. Solution: The relative error in Z is AZ. (4A), 1/8) , (x0) , 3( 0) BAG) ae) ea Example 20: The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is T= 2nyi 7g - measured value of L is 20.0 cm known to 1mm accuracy and time for 100 oscillations of the pendulum is found to be 90s using a wrist watch of 1s resolution. What is the accuracy in the determination of ¢ ? Solution: e=4rL 7? 1 vere, T= ana AT all 9 On ae The errors In both Land tare the least count errors. Therefor (AL) (aT) 4-(S AZ) ral Ag. 04 (1) e200 **\a0} Thus the percentage error in g is 0.027 $8 BScem > 0.085 m 4 4 85000 mm 0.000085 kr = 8.5 10'mm = 8.5% 10%km All should have two S.F. The following rules support the conservation of S-F. Rule 4: From the previous example, we have seen that, 0.09 km —> also should has two SF, 8 and5 Not significant So leading Zeros are not significant. In the number less than one, all zeros after decimal point and to the left of first non-: are insignificant (arises only due to change of unit) 0.000305 —_has three S.F. > 3.05% 10 has three S.F. Rule 5: From the previous example, we have also seen that 85G0D ium —> should also has two SF. 8 and 5 Not significant So the trailing zeros are also not significant. The terminal or trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are not significant. (Also arises only due to change of unit) 184 m = 18400 cm = 154000 mm 154 x 10° nm all has only three S.F. all trailing zeros are insignificant Units and MeasurementRule 6: There are certain measurement, which are exact i.. oo oe Number of apples are = 12 (exact) This type of measurement is infinitely accurate so, thas 2 SF Numbers of students in class = 125 (exact) Speed of light in the vacuum = 299,792,458 m/s (exact) 16.2 Rules for Arithmetic Operation with Significant Figures (In multiplication or division, the final result should retain as many significant figures as are there in the original number with the least significant figures. (li) In addition, or subtraction, the final result should retain as many decimal places as are there in the number with the least decimal places. 17. Rounding off the uncertain Digits The result of computation with approximate numbers, which contain more than one uncertain digit, should be rounded off. The rules of rounding off numbers to the appropriate significant figures are obvious in most cases. Rules of Rounding Off © If removable digit is less than 5 (50%) ; drop it Roundoff 41.833 —FiTone decimal place 47® * If removable digit is greater than 5(50%), increase the last digit by 1. Roundoff 47.802 Tl one decimal place” 47° If removable number Is exactly 5(60%) IlastThumber If last numbers odd is evendrop 5 increase the last cit by 1 20.85 20.15 206 208 Example 22: In ohm’s law exp., reading of voltmeter across the resistor Is 12.5 V and reading of current 0.20 Amp. Estimate the resistance in correct S.F. Solution: Units and Measurement V_ 125 > 3sF roo = 6250 7 > 620 70.20 25F EFExample 23 Write down the number of significant figures in the following: (a) 165 (b) 2.05 (©) 34.000 m (4) 0.005 (e) 0.02340 N m* Solution: (@) 3sF (b) 3 SF (SSF (a)1sF () 4 SF 18. _ Experimental Skills 18.1 Least Count The smallest value of a physical quantity which can be measured accurately with an instrument is called the least count (L. C.) of the measuring instrument, Least Count of Vernier Caliper Suppose the size of one main scale division (M.S.D.) is M units and that of one vernier scale division (V. S. D.) is V units. Also let the length of 'a! main scale divisions is equal to the length of 'b’ vernier scale divisions. aM=bV> V =M~ 2Morm=ve (223) w-vem= 2M orm —v= (28) m The quantity (M- V) is called vernier constant (V. C.) or least count (L. C.) of the vernier caliper. (One cm on the main scale of vernier caliper is divided into ten equal parts. if 20 divisions of vernier scale coincide with 8 small divisions of the main scale. What will be the least count of caliper? Solution: 20 dof vere sale = 8d of main sate 21.8.0. [2] w.s.0. Least count =1M.$.0.- 1.8.0. (2) m.s.0.-(1-2)m.s.o, 5 5 2.01 em = 0.06 em 5 41 =“ Note: for objective questions (b-a) y_ (20 Loem-v= (P23) (1M... cm) \(B)em = Sem=o08em 20 22 Units and Measurement18.2 Least Count of Screw Gauge Circular(Head)scale spindle Ratchet Scale Thimble Lease Count = ———_Fitch _ Total no. of division on the circular scale where pitch is defined as the distance moved by the screw head when the circular scale is given one complete rotation. i. piten = Distance moved by the screw on the linear scale No, of full rotations given Note: With the decrease in the least count of the meas 1g Instrument, the accuracy of the ‘measurement increases and the error in the measurement decreases. Example 25: The n* division of main scale coincides with (n + 1)" division of vernier scale. Given one main scale division is equal to 'a' units. Find the least count of the vernier caliper. Solution: (n +1) divisions of vernier scale = n divisions of main scale —2- main scale division net Least count = 1M. SD. -1V. $.D. 1 vernier divisio! at The lett cont of a etap watch le eacan. The Hine of 20 options ot pend I measured to be 25 seconds. How much will be the percentage error in the measurement of time? Solution: 1 Error in measuring 25 sec.= +sec. = 0.2 sec. : 5 0.2 percentage error = Sx 100% = 0.8% Note: The final absolute error in this type of questions is taken to be equal to the least count of the measuring instrument. Units and Measurement 2319. Zero Error 19.1 Zero Error in Vernier Caliper Main scale Main scale Main scale 0 1 a] io 3 1G 7 Vernier scale ‘Vernier scale without zero error with positive zero error with negative zero error @ @ Calculation of Zero Error for Ver ior Caliper No. of Division of VS coincided with MS).LC Negative zero error = -(Total division in VS ~ No. of division of VS coincided with MS).LC Correct Reading with Zero Error Reading = MSR + VSR x LC Positive zero error Correct reading = (Reading) - (Zero error) The zero error is always subtracted with sign from the reading to get the corrected value. 19.2. Zero Error in Screw Gauge If there is no object between the jaws (ie. jaws are in contact), the screw gauge should give zero reading. But due to extra material on jaws, even if there is no object, it gives some excess reading. This excess reading is called Zero error. Negative Zero Error Positive Zero Error (Bdkision error i.e, ~0.003 em (2diision error). 40.002 em ‘piven scale Fc che is io 2a ote cca a one oe Ravens 0 R° _zeto ot he ciscutar E, sea is above the oe sa above th 2et0 of main seale bs s0 Main cle” es reference line Main sale reference line Calculation of Zero Error for Screw Gauge Reading = LSR + CSR x LC Positive zero error = (No. of division of CS on MS).LC Negative zero error = -(Total division on CS - No, of division of CS on MS).LC Correct reading = (Reading) - (zero error) Remember to get correct reading take zero error with their sign. 24 Units and MeasurementExample 27: What Is the diameter of sphere shown in figure. Pitch of screw gauge is 1 mm and number of divisions in circular scale are 50 ot {ulus (1.238 cm (2)1.218 om (3) 1.228 cm (4) 1.215 om Solution: Zero Error: Least count of circular scale = = 0.02 mm 50 Reading of main scale = 0.0 cm Number of division coincied = 5 reading of circular scale = § x 0.02 Zero error = 0.10 mm = +0.010 «m For diameter sphere: Reading of main scale No. of division coincided 2em 4 Reading of circular scale = 14 0.02 = 0.28 mm = 0.028 em Reading = 1.228 em Diameter = 1.228 - 0.010 = 218 cm Example 2: Find the thickness of the cubical object using a defective vernier caliper. Main scale has mm marks and 10 divisions of vernier scale coincide with 9 divisions of main scale. mm 10 2» 30 WUT min Oren 10 3 iu {UNTILL pam] 20 Ey Ater a cube have been put between the jaws (013.8 mm (2) 13.4 mm (3) 14.1 mm (4) 13.0 mm, Units and Measurement 25Solution: 20. ean : oo -(1-8) Zero error = VSR x LC 01= 0.3mm Reading = MSR + VSR x LC = 13mm +7 «0.1 mm Correct reading = Reading ~ Zero error = 13.7 ~ 0.3 mm = 13.4 mm. 3.7 mm Order of Magnitude Order of magnitude of a quantity Is the power of 10 required to represent that quantity. This power is determined after rounding off the value of the quantity properly. For rounding off, the last digit is simply ignored If it Is less than § and, Is increased by one if it Is 5 or more than 5. ‘© When a number is divided by 10° (where x is the order of the number) the result will always lie between 0.5 and 5 ie. 0.5 < N/10"< 5 Example : Order of magnitude of the following values can be determined as follows : @ 49 = 49x10'~10' Order of magnitude = 1 (b) 51 = 81x10" = 107 Order of magnitude = 2 (©) 0099 = 4.9 x10 s107 Order of magnitude = -2 (@) 0.080 = 5.0.x 10" ~ 10" Order of magnitude = ~1 (0051 = 54x10 + 107 Order of magnitude = -1 Concept Bullder-5 tT Qa Q2 Qa ‘One centimetre on the main scale of vernier caliper is divided into ten equal parts. If 20 divisions of vernier scale coincide with 19 small divisions of the main scale then what will be the least count of the caliper. If the number of divisions on the circular scale is 100 and number of full rotations given to screw is 8 and distance moved by the screw is 4 mm, then what will be least count of the screw gauge. Round off the following numbers within three significant figures - () 0.03027 kg Gi) 4.088 x 10° sec (ill) 5.2854 m (iv) 4.735 x 107 kg Units and MeasurementANSWER KEY FOR CONCEPTS BUILDERS CONCEPT BUILDER-1 1 No 2 (P10 um 3. 28 m/s 4. one fourth 5. times CONCEPT BUILDER-2 omUeny @ mur iy WUT? women y omer ow) Ir] (vil) [M°L°T" 7] a wit? a MT" 4 @) = IML 15) =I CONCEPT BUILDER-3 1% (BC) Units and Measurement (9 fa) = [mut TY, [6] = [MLT} (ii) his answer is dimensionally incorrect ax ro 2 CONCEPT BUILDER-4 (a) 5.29, (©) 0.01, (6) 0.00189, (e) 0.189% (377 £0.5)°C (49%; (i) 6% CONCEPT BUILDER-5 0.005 em, 2. 0.005 mm (9 0.0393 kg Gi) 4.08 x 10" sec (ii 5.24 m (iv) 4.74 x 10°" kga 2 Units & Quantities Which of the following system of units is ot based on units of mass, length and time alone si (3) FPS (2) Mks (4) cas The ratio of one micron to one nanometre (10° (3) 10° (2) 10" (4) 10° Temperature can be expressed as a derived quantity in terms of which of the following. () Length and mass (2) Mass and time (2) Length mass and time (4) In terms of none of these Density of wood is 0.5 gm/cc in the CGS system of units. The corresponding value In MKS units is ( 500 @os as (4) 5000 Which of the following is the smallest unit ( Mitimetre (2) Angstrom, (3) Fermi (4) Metre Which relation is wrong. (1) 1 Calorie = 4.18 Joules (Q)1A=10%m (3) 1 Mev = 1.6 « 10°” Joules (4) 1 Newton = 10°* Dynes nn Dimensions, Dimensional Analysis When a wave travels in a medium, the displacement of a particle located at distance x at time t is given by y = a sin (bt - ex) where a, b and ¢ are constants of the wave. The dimension of b/c are same as that of : () wave velocity (2) wave amplitude (2) wave length (4) wave frequency Which of the following does not have the dimensions of force ? ( Potential / length (2) Energy / length (3) Weight (4) Rate of change of momentum Which of the statement following is incorrect () A dimensionally correct equation may be correct (2) 4 dimensionally correct equation may be incorrect (@) A dimensionally may be correct (4) A dimensionally incorrect equation is incorrect incorrect equation A dimensionless quantity ( Never has a unit (2) Always has a unit (8) May have a unit (4) Does not exist Aunitless quantity (1) Does not exist (2) Always has a non zero dimension (3) Never has a non zero dimension (4) May have anon zero dimension Units and Measurement2 13. 14. 18. Which of the following is incorrect alt represented derived quantities. may be vensionally in terms of the base quantities (2) A base quantity cannot be represented dimensionally in terms of other base quantities (2) The dimension of a derived quantity is never zero in any base quantity (4) The dimen: other base quantities is always zero. A of a base quantity in Two physical quantities of which one is a vector and the other is a scalar having the same dimensional formula are : () Work and energy (2) Torque and work (3) Impulse and momentum, (4) Power and pressure The time dependence of a physical quantity P is given by P = Pe"! where ais a constant and t is time. The constant a () dimensionless (2) has dimensions T* (3) has dimensions of P (4) has dimensions T? In a particular system the units of length mass and time are chosen to be 10 cm, 10 g and 0.1 s respectively. Then numerical value of 1 N in new system will be: Mos @1 (@)10 (4) 100 Units and Measurement 7 18. 20. The dimensional formula of angular velocity is Omenry amr} @ MUTT 4) [MT Given the force (F) is given F = Pt” + Qt Here t is time. The unit of P is same as that oft () displacement (2) velocity (acceleration (4) momentum The force is given in terms of time (t) and displacement (x) by the equation: F = Acos 8x +C sin Dt Then, the dimensions of © are: 8 @ IMeU"T] (2) (MT) @ Iw) Mur) Error, Signification Digits For a cubical block, error in measurement of sides is +1% and error in measurement of mass is #2%, then maximum possible error in density is~ (1% (3) 3% (2) 5% (4) 7% To estimate ‘g" from g = 4° =), error in measurement of L 2% and error in measurement of T is +3%. The error in estimated ‘g' will be - () £8% (3) # 3% (2) + 6% (4) # 5%a. 22, 23. 24, 25. The least count of a stop watch is 0.2 second. The time of 20 oscillations of a pendulum is measured to be 25 seconds. The percentage error in the time period is (1) 16% (2) 0.8% 2) 18% (48% An experiment measures quantities x, y, Z and then t is calculated from the data is t= 22 it percentage errors in x, y and z are respectively 1%, 3%, 2%, then percentage error in t is, (10% 24% 7% (4) 13.% The mass of a ball is 1.76 kg. The mass of 25 such balls is (1) 0.44 x 10° kg, (3) 44 kg. (2) 44.0 ke (4) 44.00 kg. Zero error of an instrument introduces () systematic errors (2) Random errors (3) Both (4) None What is the fractional percentage error in nfi78 2 Given that fractional errors in T and f are £2% g calculated from T and £2% respectively. (4% (3) 6% (2) 0% (4) 2% The length, breadth and thickness of a strip are (10.04 0.1)em, (1.004 0.01)em and (0100+ 0.001)om respectively. The most probable error in its volume will be () £0.03 cm? (3) + 0.012 em* (2) £0.11 om? (4) None of these 27. 28. 29. 30. If error in measuring diameter of a circle Is 4%, the error in circumference of the circle would be: 2% 28% (3) 4% 1% The heat generated in a circuit is dependent upon the resistance, current and time for which the current is flown. If the error in measuring the above are as 1%, 2% and 1% respectively, then maximum error in measuring heat will be (H = Rt) () 2% (2) 3% (3) 6% (4) 1% The percentage errors inthe measurement of mass and speed are 2% and 3% respectively. How much will be the maximum error in the estimate of kinetic energy obtained by measuring mass and speed (k= on% (2)8% (5% (4) 1% While measuring acceleration due to gravity by a simple pendulum a student makes a positive error of 196 in the length of the pendulum and a negative error of 2% in the value of the time period. His percentage error in the measurement of the value of g will be - 2% (25% @7% (4) 10% Units and Measurement31. If the error in the measurement of radius of a sphere is 2%, then the error in the determination of volume of the sphere will be 0) 4% 2) 6% (3) 8% (4) 2% 32. In an experiment four quantities a, b, and d are measured with percentage error 1%, 2%, 3% and 4% respectively. Quantity P is calculated as follows p= 20% error in Pis ed (0) 10% 1% (3) 4% (4) 14% 33, The edge of a cube is a=1.2x 107m. Then its volume will be recorded as (9172 «10% m? (2) 1.728 x 10% m? @)17 «10% mM? (4)1.73 x 10% m? 34. When a copper sphere is heated, maximum percentage change will be observed in (on heating radius will increase) ( radius (2) area (8) volume (4) none of these (Questions 35 to 40) Find significant figures in the following observations- 38. 0.007 gm m1 @2 @3 a 36. 2.64 x 10" kg m1 @2 @3 @a 37. 0.2370 gm/cm* m1 @2 @3 a Units and Measurement 39. 40. a. 42. 43. 6.920 J/k 4 2 @3 a4 6.032 N/m? 7 (2 @s aya 0.0006032 o 2 @s aya Dimensional formula of a physical quantity is [M“L'T*]. The errors in measuring quantities M, L and T respectively are 2%, 3% and 4%. The maximum percentage error that occurs in measuring the quantity is. 9% (2) 10% (3) 14% (4) 19% If length of a rectangle is 2.1 m and width Is 1.62 m then its area will be (9 3.402 m? (2) 3.4 m? (3) 3.40 m? (4) 3m? Experimental Skills A vernier caliper has 20 divisions on the vernier scale which coincide with 19 divisions on the main scale. The least count of the Instrument is 0.1 mm. The main scale divisions are of (90.5 mm. 2) 1mm. (@)2mm (4)74 mm4a, 4s. 46. (One centimeter on the main scale of vernier caliper is divided into ten equal parts. If 10 divisions of vernier scale coincide with 8 small divisions of the main scale, the least count of the caliper is () 0.01 em: (2) 0.02 em (3) 0.05 cm (4) 0.005 em A student measured the diameter of a wire using a screw gauge with least count 0.001 cm and listed the measurements. The correct measurement is: (5.3m (2) 5.32 em (3) 5.320 cm (4) 5.3200 cm A vernier caliper has 40 divisions on the vernier scale which coincide with 38 divisions on the main scale. The least count of the instrument is 0.1 mm, The main scale divisions are of (9.0.5 mm. 1mm (@)2mm (4) 74 mm In main scale of a vernier caliper 1 cm divided into 10 equal divisions. The vernier scale has 10 equal divisions that correspond to 9 main scale divisions. The measured value by this caliper is : 2 3 4 o 5 10 () 2.82 em (2) 283 em (3) 2.87 cm (4) 2.89 cm 4s. 49, Distance moved by a screw in 5 rotation is 5 mm and total number of circular divisions is 100. The least count of the screw gauge is: (1mm (3) 0.0001 em (2) 0.001 cm (4) 0.001 mm Find the reading of micrometer? (No. of divisions on circular scale is 100) an ES z i () 3.25 mm (3) 3.30 mm (2) 3.24 mm. (4) 3.41 mm The number of circular division on the shown screw gauge is 100. It moves 0.1m on main scale for one complete rotation and main scale has 1 mm marks. The diameter of the ball is : () 2.25 mm (3)1.20 mm (2) 220 mm (4) 1.25 mm, Units and Measurement