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MODULE 11.02
uk AERODYNAMICS,
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STRUCTURES
CONTENTS
2 AIRFRAME STRUCTURES – GENERAL CONCEPTS................ 2-1
2.1 AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL STRENGTH ..... 2-1
2.1.1 STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION ...................................................... 2-1
2.1.2 Primary structure ........................................................... 2-2
2.1.3 Secondary Structure ..................................................... 2-4
2.1.4 Tertiary Structure .......................................................... 2-4
2.2 FAIL SAFE, SAFE LIFE AND DAMAGE TOLERANT CONCEPTS ............ 2-4
2.2.1 Fail Safe........................................................................ 2-4
2.2.2 Safe Life........................................................................ 2-4
2.2.3 Damage Tolerance........................................................ 2-5
2.3 ZONAL AND STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM................................ 2-7
2.3.1 Zonal System ................................................................ 2-7
2.3.2 Station Identification System ......................................... 2-8
2.4 LOADS FOUND W ITHIN THE STRUCTURE – STRESS AND STRAIN ...... 2-9
2.4.1 Compression ................................................................. 2-10
2.4.2 Tension ......................................................................... 2-10
2.4.3 Bending......................................................................... 2-11
2.4.4 Torsion .......................................................................... 2-12
2.4.5 Shear ............................................................................ 2-12
2.4.6 Hoop Stress .................................................................. 2-13
2.4.7 Metal Fatigue ................................................................ 2-13
2.5 DRAINAGE AND VENTILATION PROVISIONS ..................................... 2-16
2.5.1 External Drains ............................................................. 2-16
2.5.2 Internal Drains............................................................... 2-18
2.5.3 Ventilation ..................................................................... 2-18
2.6 LIGHTNING STRIKE PROVISION ...................................................... 2-19
2.7 CONSTRUCTION METHODS ............................................................ 2-20
2.7.1 Stressed Skin Fuselage ................................................ 2-20
2.7.2 Frames and Formers..................................................... 2-21
2.7.3 Bulkheads ..................................................................... 2-21
2.7.4 Longerons and Stringers ............................................... 2-22
2.7.5 Doublers and Reinforcement ......................................... 2-23
2.7.6 Struts and Ties .............................................................. 2-23
2.7.7 Beams and Floor Structures .......................................... 2-24
2.7.8 Methods of Skinning...................................................... 2-24
2.7.9 Anti-Corrosive Protection .............................................. 2-26
2.7.10 Construction Methods – Wing ....................................... 2-27
2.7.11 Construction Methods – Empennage ............................ 2-28
2.7.12 Construction Methods – Engine Attachments ................ 2-29
2.7.13 Structural Assembly Techniques ................................... 2-31
2.7.14 Solid Shank Rivets ........................................................ 2-31
2.7.15 Special and Blind Fasteners. ......................................... 2-33
2.7.16 Bolts and Nuts............................................................... 2-38
2.7.17 Adhesive Bonded Structures ......................................... 2-43
2.7.18 Methods of Surface Protection ...................................... 2-45
2.7.19 Exterior Finish Maintenance .......................................... 2-47

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2 AIRFRAME STRUCTURES – GENERAL CONCEPTS

2.1 AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL

STRENGTH
Airworthiness requirements are necessary with respect to aircraft structures,
because established standards of strength, control, maintainability, etc. will
ensure that all aircraft will be constructed to the safest possible standard.
Requirements for aircraft above 5700kg MTWA (maximum total weight
authorised) are listed in Joint Airworthiness Requirement 25 (EASA-25) and for
aircraft below 5700kg MTWA, in EASA-23. These publications cover not only the
basic requirements, like maximum and minimum 'g' loading, but a vast range of
other requirements with respect to the structure such as:
 Control Loads
 Door Operation
 Effect of Tabs
 Factor of Safety
 Fatigue
 High Lift Devices
 Stability & Stalling
 Ventilation
 Weights
The list is all-embracing and provides a useful means of searching for specific
structural details.

2.1.1 STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION

For the purpose of assessing damage and the type of repairs to be carried out,
the structure of all aircraft is divided into three significant categories:-
 Primary structure
 Secondary structure
 Tertiary structure
Diagrams are prepared by each manufacturer to denote how the various
structural members fall into these three categories.

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In the manuals of older aircraft the use of colour may be found to identify the
three categories. Primary Structure is shown in Red, Secondary in Yellow and
Tertiary in Green.
Note: This system has been discontinued for many years, but with some aircraft
having a life of 30 or more years and still being operated, it may still be possible
to find the old system in use.

2.1.2 PRIMARY STRUCTURE

This structure includes all portions of aircraft, the failure of which in flight or on the
ground, would be likely to cause:
 Catastrophic structural collapse
 Inability to operate a service
 Injury to occupants
 Loss of control
 Unintentional operation of a service
 Power unit failure

Examples of some types of primary structure are as follows:
 Engine Mountings
 Fuselage Frames
 Main Floor members
 Main Spars

Primary Structure – Engine mountings

Figure 1

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Primary Structure: Wing Spars

Figure 2

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2.1.3 SECONDARY STRUCTURE

This structure includes all portions of the aircraft which would normally be
regarded as primary structure, but which unavoidably have such a reserve of
strength over design requirements that appreciable weakening may be permitted,
without risk of failure. It also includes structure which, if damaged, would not
impair the safety of the aircraft as described earlier. Examples of secondary
structure include:
 Ribs and parts of skin in the wings.
 Skin and stringers in the fuselage

2.1.4 TERTIARY STRUCTURE

This type of structure includes all portions of the structure in which the stresses
are low, but which, for various reasons, cannot be omitted from the aircraft.
Typical examples include fairings, fillets and brackets which support items in the
fuselage and adjacent areas.

2.2 FAIL SAFE, SAFE LIFE AND DAMAGE TOLERANT CONCEPTS

2.2.1 FAIL SAFE

A fail safe structure is one which retains, after initiation of a fracture or crack,
sufficient strength for the operation of the aircraft with an acceptable standard of
safety, until such failure is detected on a normal scheduled inspection.
This is achieved by part and full scale airframe testing and fatigue analysis by
usually by the aircraft manufacturer and by subsequent in-service experience.

2.2.2 SAFE LIFE

Safe life structure and components are granted a period of time during which it is
considered, that failure is extremely unlikely. When deciding this duration, the
effects of wear, fatigue and corrosion must all be considered. For example, if
tests show that fatigue will cause a failure in 12,000 flying hours, then one sixth of
this might be quoted as the safe life (2000 hours then scrapped). If wear or
corrosion proves to be the likely cause of failure before 12,000 hours, then one of
these will be the deciding factor.
The safe life time period may be expressed in flying hours, elapsed time, number
of flights or number of applications of load, ie; pressurisation cycles.

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2.2.3 DAMAGE TOLERANCE

The fail safe method has proven to be somewhat unreliable following some
accidents that proved that the concept was not 100% guaranteed. It was also a
severe limitation that the addition of extra structural members to protect the
integrity of the structure considerably increased the weight of the aircraft.
The damage tolerant concept has eliminated much of the extra weight, by
distributing the loads on a particular structure over a larger area. This requires an
evaluation of the structure, to provide multiple load paths to carry the loading. The
main advantage is that even with a crack present, the structure will retain its
integrity and that during scheduled maintenance programmes, the crack will be
found before it can become critical.
For example, a wing attachment to the fuselage, which in the past would have
been designed with one or two large pintle bolts, will now have a larger number of
smaller bolts in the fitting. The single or dual bolt attachment had to be heavily
reinforced to take the wing loading, adding more weight, whereas the multiple
load paths can be constructed in a lighter manner, whilst still maintaining its
strength.

Single Pin Attachment

Figure 3

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Multiple Pin Attachment

Figure 4

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2.3 ZONAL AND STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM

2.3.1 ZONAL SYSTEM

During many different maintenance operations including component changes,

structural repairs or trouble shooting, it is necessary to indicate to the engineer
where, within the structure, the correct location is to be found for the work to be
carried out.
When attempting to establish a specific location or identifying components, some
manufacturers make use of two systems, a Zonal system and a frame/station
method.
The Zonal system found in ATA chapter 6 divides the airframe into a number of
zones, (usually less than 10), to give engineers and others a rough idea of where
they need to look. The Zonal system may also be used in component labelling
and work card area identification.
In the illustration below, an engineer might have for example a work card
numbered 500376, indicating it was Job 376 located on the left wing (Zone 500).

Zonal Identification
Figure 5

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2.3.2 STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM

Most manufacturers use a system of station marking where, for example, the
aircraft nose is designated Station 0 and other station designations are located at
measured distances aft of this point. Component and other locations within the
wings, tailplane, fin and nacelles are established from separate dedicated
station’s zero.

Fuselage Locations
A particular fuselage station (or frame) would be identified, for example, as
Station 5050. This means that if the metric system of measurement is employed,
the frame is located at 5.05 metres (5050mm) aft of station zero.

Frame Stations
Figure 6

Lateral Locations
To locate structures to the right or left of the aircraft, many manufacturers
consider the fuselage centre line as a station zero. With such a system, the wing
or tailplane ribs could be identified as being a particular number of millimetres (or
inches) to the right or the left of the centre line.

Vertical Locations
These are usually measured above or below a ‘water line’, which is a
predetermined reference line passing along the side of the fuselage, usually,
somewhere between the floor level and the window line. Others may start from an
imaginary reference point situated below the lowered landing gear.

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2.4 LOADS FOUND WITHIN THE STRUCTURE – STRESS AND STRAIN
Aircraft structural members are designed to carry a load or to resist stress and a
single member may be subjected to a combination of stresses during flight.
When an external force acts on a body, it is opposed by a force within the body.
This force is called Stress. If the body is distorted by the stress, it is said to be
subject to Strain.

Stress and strain can be defined as follows:

Stress is load or force per unit area acting on a body. Stress = Load or Force
Cross Sectional Area

Strain is the distortion per unit length of a body. Strain = Distortion

Original Length

There are five major stresses and all will be found somewhere within an aircraft
structure. In the design stage, the stresses will have been assessed by the
designer and the structure made strong enough to carry them adequately.
Furthermore, a reserve of strength will also have been included for safety. The
five types of stress are:
1. Compression
2. Tension
3. Bending (a combination of compression and tension)
4. Twisting/Torsion
5. Shear

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2.4.1 COMPRESSION

Compression is regarded as a primary stress and is the resistance to any

external force which tends to push the body together. Compressive stresses
applied to rivets for example, expand the shank as they are driven in, completely
filling the hole and forming the head to hold sheet metal skins together.

Compression
Figure 7

2.4.2 TENSION

Tension is the primary stress that tends to pull an object apart. A flexible steel
cable used in flying control systems is an excellent example of a component
designed to withstand tension loads only. It is easily bent, has little opposition to
compression, torsion or shear loads, but has an exceptional strength/weight ratio
when subjected to a purely tension load.

Tension
Figure 8

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2.4.3 BENDING

Bending, when applied to a beam, tends to try to pull one side apart while at the
same time squeezing the other side together. When a person stands on a diving
board, the top of the board is under tension while the bottom is under
compression.
Wing spars of cantilever wings are subject to bending stresses. In flight, the top of
the spar is being compressed and the bottom is under tension while on the
ground, the reverse occurs, the top is in tension and the bottom is under
compression. If the wing is supported, the strut will be in tension in flight and in
compression on the ground.

Bending
Figure 9

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2.4.4 TORSION

A torsional stress is one that is put into a material when it is twisted. When we
twist a structural member, a tensile stress acts diagonally across the member and
a compressive stress acts at right angles to the tension. A good example is a
crankshaft of an aircraft piston engine which is under a torsional load when the
engine is driving the propeller.

Torsion
Figure 10

2.4.5 SHEAR

A shear stress is one that resists the tendency to slice a body apart. For example
a clevis bolt in a flying control system is designed to take shear loads only. It is
normally a high strength steel bolt with a thin head and a fat shank. These bolts
secure the flexible steel cables to the control surfaces and allow the cable to
move with the control surface without bending. The air load on the control surface
attempts to slice the bolt apart or shear it.

Rivet Joint in Shear

Figure 11

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2.4.6 HOOP STRESS

An aircraft which has its fuselage pressurised inside to allow the carriage of
passengers at altitude, will have other stresses acting on the fuselage skin. The
circumferential load about the fuselage is known as hoop stress and resisted by
the fuselage frames and tension in the so called stressed skin. The longitudinal
(axial) load along the fuselage is also resisted by tension in the skin and by the
longerons and stringers.

Hoop stress
Figure 12

2.4.7 METAL FATIGUE

The phenomenon of metal fatigue has long been known, but has become of
greater concern in recent years with aircraft which remain in service long after
their original expected fatigue life has expired.
It is relatively easy to design a structure to withstand a steady load, but aircraft
are subjected to widely varying loads in flight and many components experience
load reversals, an example being the wings, where the aerodynamic forces
during flight manoeuvres cause tension and compression loads to alternate
continually. Unfortunately, any metal part subjected to a wide variation or reversal
of even a relatively small load is gradually and progressively weakened.
The subject was vividly highlighted in 1954, with another type of load reversal,
that of pressurisation cycles of the passenger cabin. This resulted in a number of
disastrous accidents with the De-Havilland Comet airliner. Small fatigue cracks in
the fuselage skin accumulated around the corners of the square shaped windows
and hatches and led to a fatal explosive decompression of the cabin.
Following the incidents the most extensive research to this hitherto unwarranted
menace was undertaken, and led to fatigue loading being included into future
design considerations.
Metal fatigue refers to the loss of strength, or resistance to load, experienced by a
component or structure as the number of load cycles or load reversals increases.

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Load reversals refer to a material being continually loaded and unloaded and as
long as the elastic limit is not exceeded, the material should be unaffected and
return to its original state.
In reality, however, the load application may result in minute, seemingly
inconsequential cracks, which, as the cycles continue, get larger and join up with
other, newer cracks. Eventually, after many cycles, the cumulative effect will be
such that the strength of the metal will be compromised and could result in
catastrophic failure.
The fatigue strength of a metal can be found by experimentation on full scale
fatigue rigs, which can be subjected to a programme of load reversals, 24 hours a
day, 365 days a year, to accumulate information and a fatigue life, years ahead of
the oldest aircraft of the particular type in the fleet.
How the in-service aircraft subsequently consumes this fatigue index, depends on
its operating theatre. For example, the numbers of times the pressurisation cycles
are applied to aircraft on long or short haul flights, steep or conventional take off
and landing etc., are taken into account to calculate fatigue life consumed.
Stress amplitude can be plotted against endurance for one particular value of
mean stress, the so-called ‘S/N Curve. Using a chart such as this, it can be
determined at what point, in cycles, the metal has reached its minimum
acceptable strength. This will be the ultimate fatigue life and is normally allotted a
fatigue index of 100.

Fatigue Graph
Figure 13

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Even when the fatigue index of 100 is eventually reached on each individual
aircraft, the designers can extend it beyond 100, by examining, as previously
mentioned, how the fatigue was consumed and recommending specific structural
inspection and possibly strengthening or replacement of fittings and components.
Fatigue is a natural phenomenon and cannot be prevented. The ability to
correctly predict its effects and take the necessary action is the problem faced by
the aircraft design and maintenance personnel. Different metals have different
fatigue characteristics and the way parts are designed, also affects their fatigue
life. Fastener holes, sharp changes in thickness and small seemingly insignificant
cracks for example, can directly affect the fatigue life of a part.
Fatigue cracking can also accelerate the onset of corrosion, by exposing
unprotected metal to the elements. The crack growth and the consequential
increase in corrosion can cause serious structural problems over a relatively short
period. With the ageing of the airliner fleet, a number of extra supplementary
inspections, including non-destructive testing and structural sampling techniques
have been introduced. The maintenance technician must carefully monitor the
aircraft structure, paying particular attention to the integrity of surface finish and
general corrosion.

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2.5 DRAINAGE AND VENTILATION PROVISIONS

Drainage
The aircraft structure requires many different types of drain holes and paths to
prevent water and other fluids such as fuel, hydraulic oil etc., from collecting
within the structure. These could become both a corrosion and fire hazard.
The forms of drainage can be divided into two areas.
1. External drains
2. Internal drains

2.5.1 EXTERNAL DRAINS

These ports are located on exterior surfaces of the fuselage; wing and
empennage to ensure fluids are dumped overboard. In small un-pressurised
aircraft and un-pressurised areas of larger airliners, these drains may be
permanently open. However, in pressurised aircraft, the cabin air would leak
uncontrollably through the drains and so it is necessary to use drain valves to
prevent loss of cabin pressure.
There are a number basic types of drain valve used for this purpose.
Two similar types rely upon pressurised air in the cabin to keep the valve closed.
One valve has a rubber flapper seal and the other a spring loaded valve seal.
Normally located on the keel of the fuselage, both are open when the aircraft is
un-pressurised on the ground, allowing the fluids to drain overboard. During flight,
the increased air pressure in the cabin closes the valves, thus preventing any
pressurisation losses. These valves are shown below, where it can also be seen
that a levelling compound has been used in areas which might become fluid
traps. This compound is usually a rubberised sealant which fills the cavity,
bringing the level up to the lip of the drain hole.

Fuselage Drains
Figure 14

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Another similar type of drain valve also uses the cabin air pressure to close off
the drain path, this time by moving the plunger down to seal the drain. This valve
will also be open when cabin pressure is removed.

Fuselage Drains
Figure 15

Fluids from some places, such as galleys and wash basins, require more than
simple drain holes. The temperature at cruising altitude can fall to -60°C and
water draining overboard could freeze and cause blockage problems.
The method used in these cases, are drain masts, which are like small aerofoils
projecting from the bottom of the aircraft skin, on the centre line, through which
the water is discharged. The drain masts are heated to prevent icing and also
discharge the liquids well away from the aircraft's skin.

Boeing 747 Drain Masts

Figure 16

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2.5.2 INTERNAL DRAINS

To enable the external drains to function as designed, means must be provided

within the various locations of the airframe and powerplant installation, to ensure
that all fluids are directed towards the site of the external drain points. This is
achieved by using internal drain paths and drain holes.
The internal structure is provided with tubes, channels, dams and drain holes, to
direct the flow of fluid towards the external drain points. All structural members
are designed so that they do not trap fluids by ensuring, for example, that all
lightening holes and ribs face downwards, allowing fluids to run off them.

2.5.3 VENTILATION

It is essential that the internal cavities within the structure are properly vented to
prevent the build up of flammable vapour from the drain lines and to allow any
other moisture residue to properly evaporate.
Consequently sumps, tanks and cavities will all be provided with vent pipes and
in some cases, such as engine cowlings, ram air inlets and outlets are utilised to
ensure all zones where fluids are contained are adequately ventilated.

System Installation Provisions

The installation of various systems within the airframe, require adaptations from
the perfect ‘drawing-board’ design. When systems like the air conditioning and
pressurisation, hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, avionics and others are designed,
there must be facilities incorporated in the plans, to provide a location for all the
system components, their associated lines and cables.
It must also be borne in mind that many components have to be either serviced
‘in-situ’, or will be a line replaceable unit (LRU), both of which requires easy
access for the maintenance engineers.
To this end, on modern aircraft, there are normally compartments allocated to
each of the major systems where the majority of components will be installed.
Thus, it can be possible to find dedicated Avionics bays, Hydraulic bays, Air
conditioning bays, etc., all of which allow access for the easier replacement of
'black box’ LRU’s and mechanical components like control units, valves, filters
etc,.
Older aircraft will still have components scattered throughout the airframe, with
difficult access in some places through small panels, all of which will obviously
make maintenance on these systems much more difficult.

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2.6 LIGHTNING STRIKE PROVISION
When aircraft are flying in cloud or in close proximity to storms, there is always
the risk of the aircraft being struck by lightning. Whilst this is a rare occurrence,
there are many protection devices installed in the aircraft to ensure that a strike
does as little damage as possible when it does happen. A lightning strike on an
aircraft can have a peak current of up to 100,000 amperes, so precautions must
be taken to ensure that the least damage is done to the aircraft, its systems and
components as the charge passes through.
Most important is the electrical bonding of all the major components of the
airframe. Bonding is achieved by electrically connecting all the components of an
aircraft structure together. These precautions will ensure all components are at
the same electrical potential by providing a return path through the airframe,
since modern aircraft utilise an earth return system. This means that current from
the lightning strike cannot build up on one part of the structure and create a
voltage high enough to allow it to jump to another part, which might be electrically
separated, such as flying control surfaces.
Note: Electrical bonding also protects equipment from the build up of static
electricity known as precipitation charge, which is produced as the aircraft
collects ions from the atmosphere as it passes through. Bonding cables are
referred to as secondary conductors.
As well as electrical bonding, dedicated lightning protection systems are
employed to cater for the high current and these are usually known as primary
conductors. They can be found, connecting system earth returns, as mentioned
earlier, connecting power-plants to the airframe and ensuring that all major
structural items, (which are often manufactured in different factories in different
countries), are properly connected together after final assembly. Occupants of the
aircraft are also protected from electrical shock in this way by the surrounding
aircraft structure with what is referred to as a ‘Faraday Cage’.

Electrical Bonding
Figure 17

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2.7 CONSTRUCTION METHODS

2.7.1 STRESSED SKIN FUSELAGE

As previously covered, a variety of loads act on the airframe during flight. If a

proportion of these loads can be carried by the skin covering, the underlying
framework can be made lighter without loss of overall strength.
In early aircraft, all loads were taken by the framework and the covering of fabric,
doped to pull it taught or of thin sheets of wood achieved streamlining, but
contributed little or nothing to the strength of the airframe. As aircraft design
evolved, the fabric and wood was replaced with aluminium alloy sheet. Because
of its extra strength, a large part of the load can be borne by this skin, reducing
the weight of underlying structure. This is called Stressed Skin construction and
this method also provides a very smooth surface, because the skin is stiff enough
not to be distorted by the airflow. With the advent of pressurised cabins the
usefulness of a strong skin is evident when considering pressurisation loads.
A method of construction where the skin carries all the loads without supporting
structure is called pure monocoque construction. A good example of a pure
monocoque construction is a chicken’s egg, since it has no internal support, only
the egg shell carries the load. In practice, this construction is difficult to achieve,
as the skin would have to be so thick, that the extra weight penalty incurred,
would severely impair the ability to fly. However, the principle is sometimes used
in the construction of composite material external fuel tanks, mainly for military
aircraft and even here some internal strengthening is necessary.

Monocoque Construction
Figure 18

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In a stressed skin fuselage construction, about half the loads are carried by the
skin and half by the supporting structure. This type of construction is called semi
monocoque and its advantage is that the space within the structure is
unobstructed and is used for passengers and freight.

Semi-Monocoque Construction
Figure 19

2.7.2 FRAMES AND FORMERS

Frames and formers provide the basic fuselage shape, with the frames, being of
more robust construction, providing strong points for attachment of other fittings
such as the wings and tailplane.

2.7.3 BULKHEADS

Where extra support is required within a fuselage for mounting of components

such as wings and landing gear, bulkheads are to transfer the loads to the
fuselage structure without producing stress raising points.
Bulkheads can be either a complete or a partial circular frame, which usually
reinforces a fuselage frame. Other examples are solid pressurisation bulkheads
which are normally found at the front of the fuselage ahead of the flight deck and
at the rear of the pressure cabin, or an engine firewall on the nacelles.

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2.7.4 LONGERONS AND STRINGERS

Longerons are used in fuselage construction, where either an aperture such as a

door or window requires greater support, or where a number of structural high
load points such as floors, landing gear attachments, etc. need to be
interconnected. They are usually of much heavier construction than stringers and
can be solid extrusions or fabricated multiple part construction.
Stringers provide longitudinal shape and support to the fuselage skin. They are
also the spanwise members of the mainplanes, vertical and horizontal stabilisers
and flying control surfaces. Often stringers are attached to frames with fillets or
gussets.

Longerons and Stringers

Figure 20

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2.7.5 DOUBLERS AND REINFORCEMENT

Where the skin requires extra strengthening, at the junction of plates or around
small apertures, a second layer of skin is attached over the original to reinforce it.
This extra plate is known as a doubler or a doubler plate.

Where loads are concentrated within the structure, it can be strengthened at

these places by either making the material thicker, or by the addition of a number
of layers of similar material. The actual amount of reinforcement being dictated by
the amount of stress carried in each area.

Doubler Plate
Figure 21

2.7.6 STRUTS AND TIES

Any structural item that is designed solely to take a compressive load is called a
strut. Whereas an item that only takes a tensile load is called a tie. They can be
found throughout a modern aircraft structure, although an ideal example would be
a high performance biplane. In this type of aircraft often used for aerobatics, the
struts which separate the pairs of wings, in compression and the interconnecting
flying wires, in tension, take all the loads produced by the wing.

Struts and Wires

Figure 22

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2.7.7 BEAMS AND FLOOR STRUCTURES

Beams are often used laterally and longitudinally along the fuselage to support
the flight deck and passenger cabin floors. Additionally they provide strong point
attachments for the crew and passenger seats and as such, constitute primary
structure. Modern cabin flooring is usually made up from a number of removable
composite honeycomb core panels, examples of which are shown below,
whereas the flight deck is often made from metal panels supported on beams.

Floor Structures
Figure 23

2.7.8 METHODS OF SKINNING

Skins for light aircraft are usually simple, thin sheets of aluminium alloy, wrapped
around and riveted to the internal structure.
Larger aircraft, developed since the 1950’s have their skins manufactured from
heavier material with the additional use of even thicker sections in certain places
where more strength is required.
As the aircraft designs became more complex, the excess weight of thicker skins
in places where they are not necessarily required became too big a penalty. To
overcome this problem, the skins were rolled individually to produce a variety of
differing thickness across each sheet, to cater for variations in stress.

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The latest methods are to machine or mill each skin panel individually from a
solid billet, to include all stringers and risers and to provide a varying thickness all
over the sheet. In this way, the skin panel is exactly the right thickness at each
location, with no excess material and hence no extra weight. This method results
in what is termed milled skin or machined skin. Milled wing skins give maximum
strength and rigidity with minimum weight.
Panels containing areas of different thickness can also be produced from a
chemical etching process where areas which have been treated, will be removed
to about half their thickness by the chemical etch. The nature of the etching
process ensures that no ‘stress raisers’ are introduced into the material. So called
‘waffle plates’ can be produced in this way, and are shown in Fig 24.

Skinning Methods
Figure 24

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2.7.9 ANTI-CORROSIVE PROTECTION

Materials used in aircraft construction are selected primarily for their strength and
tenacity. Unfortunately, many may readily suffer serious damage from corrosion
unless effectively protected and the rate of corrosion attack can be extremely
rapid in certain environments. One of the main considerations in the design of
aircraft structure therefore, are measures for the control and prevention of
corrosion.
During manufacture and assembly, a range of surface treatments are applied.
Materials are heat treated to refine grain structure, sacrificial coatings in the form
of plating and cladding are employed, to retard the onset of corrosion. Epoxy
primers, special paint finishes, wet-assembly techniques and the use of barrier
sealants to prevent the ingress of dirt and moisture between component parts, all
help to reduce the risk of corrosion. Additionally, drain holes, drainage paths and
attention to good corrosion resistant design techniques for each component part,
ensure that aircraft newly off the production line are protected as much as
possible, before entering airline service.
Aircraft are required to operate in widely varying, often highly corrosive
environments throughout the world and despite the high standard of protective
treatments applied during manufacture, corrosion will still occur.
Corrosive attack may extend over an entire metal surface, may penetrate locally
to form deep pits or may follow the grain boundaries within the metal. The
weakening effect of corrosive attack may be aggravated by stresses in the metal
and result in premature failure of the component. These stresses may be due to
externally applied loads or may be internal stresses locked into the metal
structure during manufacturing processes, despite the care taken to keep the risk
to a minimum.
Whatever the cause and type of corrosive attack, unless preventative
maintenance is carried out, damage may become so severe, it could present a
serious hazard to the airworthiness of the aircraft. Rectification of advanced
corrosion damage is time consuming and much of the corrosion during service
can be prevented or contained by simple corrosion prevention measures
Corrosion seldom occurs on a clean dry aircraft especially if the protective
coatings are completely in tact. Since aircraft have to operate outside throughout
their lives, they are difficult to keep dry, but keeping the protective coatings free
from scratches, dents and scores, ensuring drains which might allow water to
accumulate are kept clear and keeping the aircraft clean and free of dirt are all
within the scope of a good maintenance engineer.
In addition, the engineer should clear up spills from the galleys and toilets and
remove deposits from engine exhausts as these are also very corrosive if left on
the skin for too long.

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2.7.10 CONSTRUCTION METHODS – WING

The basic requirement for wing construction, particularly with cantilever types is
for a spanwise member of great strength, usually in the form of a spar.
Conventionally, there are three general designs, monospar, two-spar or
multispar.
Most modern commercial airliners have a wing comprising top and bottom skins
complete with spanwise stringers, front and rear spars and a set of wing ribs
running chordwise across the wing between the spars. This forms a box-like
shape which is very robust and the addition of nose ribs and trailing edge fittings
produce the characteristic aerofoil shape.
Wing structures carry some of the heaviest loads found in aircraft structure.
Fittings and joints must be carefully proportioned so they can pick up loads in a
gradual and progressive manner and redistribute them to other parts of the
structure in a similar manner. Special attention must be paid to minimising stress
concentrations, by avoiding too rapid a change in cross section and to provide
ample material to handle any concentration in stress or shock loading that cannot
be avoided, such as landing loads.

Typical Wing Construction

Figure 25

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2.7.11 CONSTRUCTION METHODS – EMPENNAGE

The vertical and horizontal stabilisers, elevators and rudder are constructed in a
manner similar to the wings but on a smaller scale. The main structural members
are the spars, with the stringers, ribs and stressed skin completing the basic
design.

Typical Stabilizer Construction

Figure 26

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2.7.12 CONSTRUCTION METHODS – ENGINE ATTACHMENTS

Engine mountings consist of the structure that transmits the thrust provided by
either the propeller or turbojet, to the airframe. The mounts can be constructed
from welded alloy steel tubing, formed sheet metal, forged alloy fittings or a
combination of all three. Some typical examples are shown in Figures 27 to 29.
All engine mounts are required to absorb not only the forward thrust during
normal flight, but the reduced force of reverse thrust and the vibrations produced
by the particular engine/propeller combination..

Fabricated Piston Engine Mounting

Figure 27

Tubular Turbo propeller Mounting

Figure 28

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Machined Turbojet Side Mounting

Figure 29

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2.7.13 STRUCTURAL ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES

The integrity of an aircraft joint depends on the way the parts are attached
together. The most common method of attachment is by the use of rivets or more
sophisticated types of rivets, known as fasteners. However, where high strength
is required, nuts and bolts are used whilst other structural assembly is achieved
by the use of adhesive bonding techniques.
Although aluminium alloy is the most common material for aircraft construction,
more and more structural components and in some cases, complete aircraft, are
being manufactured from composite materials like glass or carbon fibre.
Riveting is generally divided into two types: (1) solid shank rivets and (2) special
fasteners. The special fastener category is sub-divided further into special and
blind fasteners.

2.7.14 SOLID SHANK RIVETS

The vast majority of aircraft structure is held together with solid rivets. As will be
explained later, many of the more modern designs use special fasteners and
some bonded construction, but the majority are still solid rivets.

Head Shapes
In the past there have been a large number of rivet head shapes used in aircraft,
but in recent years these have been reduced and standardised to four main
types:
The Universal Head, sometimes known as AN70 or MS20470, is most popular
and may be used to replace any protruding-head rivet. It is streamlined on top but
thick enough to provide strength without protruding too much into the airflow.
A Round Head rivet, AN430, is used on internal structure where the thicker head
is more suitable for automatic riveting equipment.
In internal locations where a flat head rivet can be driven more easily than either
a round or universal head rivet, the AN442 Flat Head rivet may be used.
Where a smooth skin is important, flush rivets such as AN426 or MS20426, with a
100 countersink head are used. Additionally, rivets with a different countersink
angle, such as 90 and 120 degrees can be found.

Rivet Head Types

Figure 30
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Types of Alloy used for Solid Shank Rivets

The identification marks on rivet heads serve two important functions. Firstly, the
marks are used to identify the rivet alloy required for a special installation area
and, secondly, the head markings are necessary when trying to identify which
kind of rivets are being removed from an aircraft during disassembly or repair.
The alloy identifying marks are made on rivet heads at the time they are being
stamped out during manufacture.
Generally, solid rivets are manufactured in five different materials:

Solid Rivet Identification

Figure 31

For non-structural applications, rivets made from pure aluminium, sometimes

known as 'A' rivets, may be used.
A very popular rivet is the 'AD' rivet, which has copper and magnesium added to
the aluminium base metal. This rivet is heat treated during manufacture to make it
strong, whilst still being soft enough to be formed easily.
When much more strength than the 'AD' rivets is required, there are two stronger
rivets available. These are 'D' and 'DD' rivets but they must be heat treated to
make them softer before they can be formed. The 'D' types are of 2017 alloy and
the 'DD' types are manufactured from 2024 alloy. Both of these rivet types, after
heat treatment, must be formed within a specific period of time (one hour for 'D'
and ten minutes for 'DD' types) or they may be put into a refrigerator to maintain
the softening effect. Once refrigerated these will remain useable for about 10
days.

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When riveting magnesium alloy sheets, there must be no copper in the rivet alloy,
or dissimilar metal corrosion will set in. Therefore, a 'B' rivet, manufactured from
5056 alloy is used. This contains a large amount of magnesium with a little
manganese and chromium but no copper.

Dimensions
Aircraft rivet dimensions are categorised by the diameter of the shank, ‘D’, and
the length, ‘L’, measured from the end of the shank to the portion of the head that
will be flush with the surface of the metal. This means that a countersink rivet is
measured from the top of its head, whilst the remainder are measured from under
the head.

Rivet Dimensioning
Figure 32

Identification
The complete identification of a rivet includes its head style, its material, its
diameter and its length. The identification code shows the diameter as a number
of 1/32ths of an inch and the length as a number of 1/16ths of an inch.
For example, An MS20470AD4-4 has a universal head (MS20470), is made from
alloy 2117 (AD), is 1/8" diameter (4 x 1/32”) and 1/4" long (4 x 1/16”).

2.7.15 SPECIAL FASTENERS.

When solid shank rivets become impractical to use, then special fasteners are
used. These, you will remember, are of two types; special and blind fasteners.
The term ‘Special Fasteners’ refers first to their job requirement and second to
the tooling needed for the installation. In certain locations, aircraft require strength
that cannot be produced by a solid shank rivet, so a special high strength
fastener is used. For example, if high shear strength is required, then special
High Shear rivets are used. These are usually installed with special tools and will
be discussed later in this chapter.

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Blind Fasteners
There are several different types of blind fasteners which can be hollow or self-
sealing. They include the following types, all of which can be installed from one
side of the work.
 Chobert
 Avdel
 Tucker/Pop
 Cherry
Note: It is most important that the correct tools are always used with the types of
rivets mentioned above.

Chobert Rivets
These are available with a snap (round) head or a countersink head and are
closed by forcibly pulling a mandrel through the bore of the rivet. This closes the
'tail' and expands the rivet tightly into the hole. To seal Chobert rivets, a separate
sealing pin is driven into the hollow bore of the rivet.

Chobert Rivet
Figure 33

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Tucker or 'Pop' Rivets
Tucker/'Pop' rivets are manufactured with either domed or countersunk heads
and are supplied on individual mandrels. The rivets can be either ‘break head’ or
‘break stem’ and when closed, can be sealed or open depending upon their
application. Break head rivets are rarely used due to the 'foreign object' risk from
the broken off heads lying within the internal aircraft structure.
Break stem rivets are be divided into two groups, short and long break mandrels.
Long break types leave the stem in place, greatly increasing the shear strength of
the rivet.

Tucker ‘Pop’ Rivet

Figure 34

Cherry Rivets
These rivets, of American manufacture, are similar to Avdel rivets, except that the
stem is positively locked in the rivet bore. During final forming, a locking collar is
forced into a groove in the stem, preventing further movement. After the closing
operation, the remainder of the stem is milled flush with the skin.
There are many different types of Cherry rivets, two of the most popular being the
Cherry Lock and the Cherry Max. The Cherry Lock, however, requires a range of
closing tools for different sized rivets, whilst the Cherry Max series can all be
closed with a single tool.
Cherry Lock rivets are manufactured from 2017 or 5056 alloys, Monel metal or
Stainless Steel, whereas Cherry Max are made from 5056 alloy, Monel or Inconel
750. They are all available with either universal or countersink heads and due to
their positive locking method, can be installed in place of solid shank rivets.

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Cherry Lock Rivet

Figure 35

Cherry Max Rivet

Figure 36

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Avdel Rivets
These are similar to Chobert rivets, but each is fitted with its own stem (mandrel).
The stem is pulled through the rivet body to close the rivet and at a
predetermined load, breaks off proud of the manufactured head. This leaves part
of the stem inside the body which seals the rivet. The excess stem is then
removed by nipping it off and carefully milling it until flush with the surface of the
aircraft skin.
The shear strength of an Avdel rivet is greater than a Chobert rivet of equivalent
material and size and similar to a solid rivet.

Avdel Rivet
Figure 37

Special Fasteners
These can include Hi-Shear, Avdelock, Jo-Bolts, and Rivnuts. The first three are
all formed by means of a collar which is swaged into the grooves in fastener
shank or expanded over the shank to form a blind head. Rivnuts are formed using
a similar method to cherry locks, but with a threaded mandrel screwed into the
Rivnut. The advantage of Rivnuts, (see Fig 38), is that after closing, a fixed nut is
left behind which may be used for the attachment of de-icing boots, floor
coverings and other non-structural parts.

Rivnuts after Installation

Figure 38

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2.7.16 BOLTS AND NUTS

Bolts
A bolt is designed to hold two or more parts together. It may be loaded in shear,
in tension, or both. Bolts are designed to be used with nuts and have a portion of
the shank that is not threaded, called the grip, whereas Machine screws and Cap
screws have the entire length of the shank threaded.
The dimensions required to identify a bolt are expressed in terms of the diameter
of the shank and the length from the bottom of the head to the end of the bolt.
The grip length should be the same as the thickness of the material being held
together. This measurement can be found by reference to the applicable charts.
Bolt heads are made in a variety of shapes, with hexagonal being the most
common.

Bolt Terminology
Figure 39

General Purpose Bolts

All-purpose structural bolts used for both tension and shear loading is made
under 'AN' standards from 3 to 20, the bolt diameter is specified by the AN
number in 1/16"; for example:
AN3 = 3/16" diameter
AN11 = 11/16" diameter
The range is from AN3 to AN20 which have hexagon heads, are made from alloy
steel and have UNF (fine) threads.
The length of the bolt is expressed as a dash number. Bolts increase in length by
1/8" and the dash number(s) will show the length.

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For example:
AN3-7 = 7/8" long
AN3-15 = 1 5/8" long
Other markings will identify whether the bolt has a drilled shank, a drilled head for
locking and indicate what material the bolt is made from.

Clevis Bolts
These bolts (AN21 to 36) are designed for pure shear load applications such as
control cables. The slotted domed head, results in this bolt often being mistaken
for a machine screw.
A clevis bolt has only a short portion of the shank threaded with a small notch
between the threads and the plain portion of the shank, which allows the bolt to
rotate more freely in its hole.
Because the length of this bolt is more critical than normal bolts, its length is
given in 1/16" increments.

Clevis Bolt Identification

Figure 40

Nuts
All nuts used on aircraft must have some sort of locking device to prevent them
from loosening and falling off. Many nuts are held in place on a bolt, by passing a
split pin through a hole in the bolt shank and through slots, or castellations, in the
nut. Others have some form of locking insert that grips the bolt's thread, whilst
others rely on the tension of a spring-type lock-washer to hold the nut tight
enough against the threads to prevent them from vibrating loose.
Sometimes, nuts that are plain with no locking devices are used and prevented
from coming undone, once they have been tightened, by the use of locking wire
attached to an adjacent nut or to the aircraft structure.

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There are two basic types of nuts, self-locking and non self-locking. As the name
implies, a self-locking nut locks onto a bolt with no external help, whilst a non self-
locking nut relies on either a split pin, lock-nut, locking washer or locking wire, to
stop it from undoing.

Standard Nuts
Figure 41

Another type of nut in general use is the Anchor nut. These are permanently
mounted on nut plates that enable inspection panels and access doors to be
easily removed and installed, without access being required on the reverse side
of the work. To make fitment of the panel easier when there is a large number of
screws, the nuts are often mounted 'floating' on their mounts, which allows for
small differences in the position of the attaching screws.
Although rarely used on large commercial airliners, Tinnerman nuts are
manufactured from sheet steel and are used mainly on light aircraft, for the fitting
of instruments into the flight deck panels, the attachment of inspection panels,
etc. Some light aircraft engine cowlings have U-type tinnerman nuts fitted over
the inner edge of the cowling frame. When the retaining screws are tightened,
spring action holds them tightly and safely in place.

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Examples of self-locking nuts, anchor nuts and U-type tinnerman nuts are shown
in figures 42 and 43 below.

Self Locking and Anchor Nuts

Figure 42

U-Type Tinnerman Nut

Figure 43

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INTENTIONALLY BLANK

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2.7.17 ADHESIVE BONDED STRUCTURES

Adhesive Bonding is the technique of joining materials using special adhesives.

In the past a common type of adhesive widely used in metal to metal joints was
the ‘Redux’ epoxy resin system. ‘Redux’ is the trade name for a range of
adhesives produced by the Ciba-Geigy company and the epoxy bonding
procedure in general, refers to a hot-melt, hot-cure adhesive, which is available in
partly cured strips or sheets.
Note: This type of epoxy resin is also used to provide the reinforcement for fibre
composite construction and has already been covered as a separate topic in
Module 6.
In metal to metal bonding, the sheets of partly cured adhesive, which at this stage
resemble strips of chewing gum, are cut to exact size. With the backing paper
peeled away, they are carefully placed between each of the components being
joined together and the joint securely clamped. The complete assembly, which for
example might consist of a wing skin with all its stringers and ribs in place, is then
loaded into an autoclave (pressure cooker) to complete the curing process. The
adhesive melts and flows evenly into the narrow gaps between the component
parts and cures to produce a very strong bond.
In the autoclave the temperature limits are strictly controlled, (typically not above
100-150C, depending on type of adhesive used), and subjected to a constant
clamping force (usually by a vacuum process), resulting in perfect bonded joints
which are as strong as, or stronger than, equivalent riveted joints. For composite
repairs, figure 44, a portable Autoclave process is employed.
There are a number of aircraft, in which the majority of the primary metal
structure is joined together entirely with adhesive bonding, with very few rivets
being used. The Fokker 50/70/100 and BAe 146/RJ are good examples of aircraft
employing this technique extensively. In fact British Aerospace claims that by
using adhesive bonding techniques on the BAe 146/RJ airframe, over 10,000
rivets are not required. This means the weight of the rivets, the work that would
be expended in closing them and the risk of subsequent in-service cracks (see
Figure 45) emanating from rivet holes, are all saved on each airframe.
A further important advantage of using adhesively bonded structures, is improved
sealing of integral fuel tanks, eliminating the leakage problems that are typical of
riveted assemblies.

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Autoclave curing process during Composite Repair

Figure 45

Comparison between Machined and Bonded Structure Failure Rates

Figure 44

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2.7.18 METHODS OF SURFACE PROTECTION

As mentioned in an earlier chapter, there are many different types of surface

protection added to the basic structural materials and hardware.

Anodising
A method of protecting aluminium based alloys from corrosion, especially when
cladding is impractical, is by a process called Anodising. This is an electrolytic
treatment which coats the host metal with a film of oxide. This film is hard,
waterproof, airtight and to aid in identification of some parts, will permanently
accept a coloured dye. The film also acts as an insulator, so when bonding leads
are to be attached to an anodised part, the surface treatment must be carefully
removed before the bonding lead is attached. Finally, anodising a part also
provides an excellent base for the addition of an organic finish and bonding
adhesives.
There are a number of different organic finishes applied to aircraft to protect the
surfaces:
Synthetic Enamel.- An older finish which cures by the process of oxidation It has
a good surface finish, but is poor when it comes to its resistance to chemicals or
wear.
Acrylic Lacquer.- A popular finish in the mass production market, easy to apply
and has a fairly good resistance to chemical attack and weather.
Polyurethane.- One of the most durable finishes which has high resistance to
wear, fading and chemicals. It also has a 'wet look'.

Chromating
Chromate coatings are used to protect Magnesium-based alloys, as well as zinc
and its alloys. Components are immersed in a bath containing potassium
bichromate and results in a yellowish coating on magnesium alloys. The coating
can be restored locally with Alocrom 1200 treatment.

Cladding
There are two metals most commonly alloyed with aluminium, to produce high
strength skin and component parts for aircraft manufacture. These are, Copper
and Zinc. These alloys suffer extensively from the effects of corrosion, so a
cladding technique is used as a form of corrosion protection. ‘Alclad’ as it is
termed is a soft, highly corrosion-resistant, pure aluminium skin, rolled onto the
face of each base alloy sheet, effectively sandwiching the alloy.

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Surface Cleaning
Most aircraft will be cleaned before starting on large inspections, but it is common
sense to keep an aircraft clean all of the time. Dirt can cover up cracked or
damaged components as well as trap moisture and solvents which can lead to
corrosion.
Note: Materials mentioned in this chapter are only used as an example; each
aircraft type will have a list of suitable and prohibited materials in its maintenance
manuals (AMM).

Exterior Cleaning
Exterior cleaning is an important facet of corrosion control, but there are a
number of points which must first be protected from cleaning materials and high
pressure water sprays. The pitot tubes and static vents must be properly blanked
off to prevent water ingress and the wheels, tyres and brake assemblies need to
be covered to keep them free of aggressive cleaning agents.
Only cleaning agents and chemicals recommended by the manufacturer are to
used for the job in hand or the risk of serious contamination may result. One of
the unseen effects of using non-approved cleaning agents is hydrogen
embrittlement. This is caused by hydrogen from the agent being absorbed into
the metal, causing minute cracks and will lead to stress corrosion failure.
Aircraft should ideally be washed on a proper platform with suitable drains. It is
better if the outside air temperature is not too high, so the cleaning agent does
not evaporate. Typically, a mix of water and an emulsion-type cleaner, to a ratio
of between 3:1 and 5:1 is applied, allowed to soak for a few minutes and then
rinsed off with a high pressure stream of water.
Engine cowlings and wheel well areas usually have grease, oil or brake dust
deposits that require special treatment. These require stronger mixtures ratios
and scrubbing with a soft bristle brush to loosen the dirt before rinsing off with a
high pressure water jet. It must be borne in mind however, that oil and grease
could be accidentally removed from places where they are meant to be, for
example in wheel bearings etc. These will often require re-lubrication after
washing has been completed.
Exhaust residue from both piston and jet engines is very corrosive and must be
removed on a regular basis. These deposits usually require a special proprietary
solvent to mix with the water. Sometimes a simple emulsified mix of kerosene
and water may be approved. Dry-cleaning solvent or naptha is sometimes used
for oil and grease removal. Some naptha compounds are harmless to rubber or
acrylic items, whilst others will attack these same materials, so only approved
specifications are to be used.

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2.7.19 EXTERIOR FINISH MAINTENANCE

All materials used on the exterior of an aircraft must be approved by the

manufacturer of that aircraft to ensure no abrasives or solvents are applied where
they can do damage.

Non-Metallic Cleaning
Non-metallic components sometimes require different cleaning techniques from
metal parts. For example, the slightest amount of dust on plastic or acrylic panels
will scratch and severely reduce the optical quality if rubbed with a dry cloth. This
can also build up a static charge and attract more dust so the correct procedure
in this situation is to wash down, rinse with water without rubbing with a cloth. Oil
and hydraulic fluid also attack rubber components such as tyres, so any spillages
must be cleaned up immediately. Neoprene rubber leading-edge de-icer boots
and composite structures are other examples of parts that need special cleaning
procedures, all of which will be detailed in the AMM.

Engine Cleaning
Apart from external cleaning carried out on the engine cowlings, with the
associated protection of electrical components; gas turbine engines are regularly
washed internally to remove the deposits of dust, sand and salt, that tend to
accumulate on internal parts of the engine.
This coating if not removed, can have a serious effect on the engine's
performance. Indeed, the output of the engine could fall below the manufacturers
minimum figures, resulting in an unscheduled and expensive engine change

Alignment and Symmetry

Aircraft can have abnormal occurrences during their life, when for example, a
very heavy landing could occur, some accidental external damage or the need to
replace a major component, etc. All of these instances will require special checks
to be carried out to guarantee that the aircraft is perfectly symmetrical and
aligned before its next flight.
The checks consist of measuring very accurately from a number of datum points
on the airframe, such as from wing tips, the nose, the horizontal stabiliser and the
top of the vertical stabiliser. The checks vary, depending on the requirements of
the aircraft manufacturer, but all ensure that measurements taken on the left-
hand side of the aircraft are within a minimum tolerance of the measurements
from the right-hand side. These checks are usually taken with the aircraft on
jacks and in the rigging position, ie: a nominally level ‘in flight’ attitude.

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On light aircraft, these measurements are usually taken using a surveyors tape
measure. (It is a check of comparison, not of outright measurement). As the
aircraft get larger, optical theodolite style methods are used. These can be a
microscopic level with the use of sighting rods or even a laser ranging alignment
device.
Deeper checks that are carried out after any of the above mentioned situations,
as well as on a routine basis, include checks on the wing, tail and control
surfaces to ensure that they are set at the correct angles. These checks are
usually known as 'rigging checks' and are carried out using purpose built levelling
boards and an accurate measuring device known as a Clinometer.

Rigging Checks - Older Aircraft

Figure 46

Symmetry Checks – Modern Aircraft

Figure 47

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