Professional Documents
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Second Edition
Computational and Experimental Methods in Structures
ISSN: 2044-9283
Series Editor: Ferri M. H. Aliabadi (Imperial College London, UK)
The scope of the series covers the entire spectrum of structures in engineering.
As such it will cover both classical topics in mechanics, as well as emerging
scientific and engineering disciplines, such as: smart structures, nanoscience
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Published:
Mathematical Methods
and Models in Composites
Second Edition
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Editor
Vladislav Manticˇ
University of Seville, Spain
NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TAIPEI • CHENNAI • TOKYO
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This book is dedicated to Professor Federico Parı́s
on the occasion of his 70th birthday
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Preface
vii
viii Preface
stress and involves both the fracture toughness and tensile strength of the
material. It is applied to semi-analytical studies of the following damage
mechanisms: a transverse crack in a layer approaching the interface with an
adjacent layer, where this crack can stop, deflect originating a delamination
crack, or cross the interface; the mechanism of crack kinking out of an
interface by considering the T-stress; and the initiation of damage at the
corner of an interface.
Chapter 13 by V. Mantič, A. Barroso, and F. Parı́s first introduces
a general semi-analytic matrix formalism for the evaluation of singular
stresses in anisotropic elastic multi-material corners, covering also the case
of sliding frictional contact surfaces. A least-squares fitting technique for
extracting generalized stress intensity factors in such corners from FEM
and BEM results is then presented and used for the singularity analysis
of a crack terminating at a ply interface in a laminate, and a bimaterial
corner in a double-lap joint. A criterion for the failure initiation at a
multi-material corner tip is proposed, and a new experimental procedure is
introduced using a modified Brazilian disc specimen for the determination
of the corresponding failure envelope for the bimaterial corner in a double-
lap joint, and tested. Finally, examples of application of the developed
procedure to the elimination of stress singularities in some bimaterial joints
are presented.
I am greatly indebted to all the contributors to this book for their
efforts in producing chapters of high quality and originality, and for their
patience in waiting for the book to be published. I sincerely apologize
to the contributors for the long delay in the publication of the book,
xii Preface
book.
Vladislav Mantič
Seville
December, 2022
c 2023 World Scientific Publishing Europe Ltd.
https://doi.org/10.1142/9781800611887 fmatter
xiii
xiv About the Editor
Contents
Preface vii
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xv
xvi Contents
Index 697
c 2023 World Scientific Publishing Europe Ltd.
https://doi.org/10.1142/9781800611887 0001
Chapter 1
Alexander L. Kalamkarov
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dalhousie University,
Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
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alex.kalamkarov@dal.ca
Abstract
The basics of the multi-scale asymptotic homogenization method and its
applications to the analysis of the advanced composite materials, thin-
walled composite structures and smart composite materials and structures
are presented. Asymptotic homogenization is a powerful mathematically
rigorous technique for analyzing composite materials and structures. The
proof of the possibility of homogenizing a composite material of a regular
structure, i.e., of examining an equivalent homogeneous material instead of
the original inhomogeneous composite material, is one of the principal results
of this theory. Method of asymptotic homogenization has also indicated a
procedure of transition from the original problem for the inhomogeneous
composite medium to a problem for a homogeneous medium. The effective
properties of this equivalent homogeneous medium are determined through
the solution of the unit-cell problems formulated within a single unit cell
of the material and derived in the process of asymptotic homogenization.
The asymptotic homogenization technique is applied to the analysis of
three-dimensional (3D) composite materials, thin-walled composite reinforced
structures, and smart composite materials and structures. The analytical
solution of the corresponding unit cell problems is obtained and the explicit
analytical formulae for the effective elastic properties of 3D grid-reinforced
composites of various structures are derived. Asymptotic homogenization of
3D thin-walled composite reinforced structures is presented, and the general
homogenization composite shell model is introduced. It is applied to the
analysis of practically important composite reinforced shells and plates,
including rib- and wafer-reinforced shells, orthotropic grid-reinforced composite
shells and plates, and sandwich composite shells with cellular cores of different
geometrical configuration. In particular, one of considered examples represents
micromechanical modeling of the carbon nanotubes. The analytical expressions
1
2 A.L. Kalamkarov
for the effective stiffness moduli of these composite reinforced shells and plates
are presented. For many problems presented in this chapter, the asymptotic
homogenization is much more effective and mathematically rigorous method
than any other analytical or numerical approach.
Contents
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Asymptotic Homogenization Method . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Unit-Cell Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Three-Dimensional Grid-Reinforced Composites . . . . . . 13
1.4.1 Examples of 3D grid-reinforced composite
structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5 Asymptotic Homogenization of Thin-Walled Composite
Reinforced Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
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1.1. Introduction
The rapidly increasing popularity of composite materials and structures
in recent years has been seen through their incorporation in the wide-
ranging engineering applications. In particular, the advanced composites
are used to reinforce and monitor components in the civil and structural
engineering (see, e.g., [1, 2]), in the aerospace, automotive and marine
engineering components of all sizes, medical prosthetic devices, sports and
recreational goods and others. Success in practical application of composites
largely depends on a possibility to predict their mechanical properties
and behavior through the development of the appropriate mechanical
models. The micromechanical modeling of composite structures however,
can be rather complicated as a result of the distribution and orientation
Micromechanical Modeling of Advanced Composites 3
of the multiple inclusions and reinforcements within the matrix, and their
mechanical interactions on a local (micro-)level. Therefore, it is important
to establish such micromechanical models that are neither too complicated
to be developed and applied, nor too simple to reflect the real mechanical
properties and behavior of the composite materials and structures.
At present, asymptotic techniques are applied in many cases in
micromechanics of composites. Various asymptotic approaches to the
analysis of composite materials have apparently reached their conclusion
within the framework of the mathematical theory of asymptotic homo-
genization. Indeed, the proof of the possibility of homogenizing a
composite material of a regular structure, i.e., of examining an equivalent
homogeneous solid instead of the original inhomogeneous composite solid, is
one of the principal results of this theory. Theory of homogenization has also
indicated a method of transition from the original problem (which contains
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fiber
matrix l
x2
x1
vectors. The first term u0 (x) of expansion (1.3) represents the homogeneous
part of the solution; it changes slowly within the whole domain of the
material and does not depend on the fast coordinates. All the further terms
uai (x, y), i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , describe the local variation of the temperature
field on the scale of the heterogeneities. In the perfectly regular case, the
periodicity of the medium induces the same periodicity for uia (x, y) with
respect to the fast variables:
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
→ + ε−1 , → + ε−1 . (1.5)
∂x1 ∂x1 ∂y1 ∂x2 ∂x2 ∂y2
Substituting expressions (1.2), (1.3) and (1.5) into the governing boundary-
value problem (1.1) and splitting it with respect to equal powers of ε one
comes to a recurrent sequence of problems:
∂ 2 ua1 ∂ 2 ua1 f
2 + = 0 in Ω, [um1 = u1 ]|∂Ω ,
∂y1 ∂y22
(1.6)
m f
m ∂u1 f ∂u1 f m ∂u0
k −k = (k − k ) ;
∂m ∂m ∂n
∂Ω
Micromechanical Modeling of Advanced Composites 7
a ∂ 2 u0 ∂ 2 u0 ∂ 2 ua1 ∂ 2 ua1 ∂ 2 ua2 ∂ 2 ua2
k + + 2 + 2 + +
∂x21 ∂x22 ∂x1 ∂y1 ∂x2 ∂y2 ∂y12 ∂y22
= −f a in Ω, (1.7)
m f f m
f ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
[um
2 = u2 ]|∂Ω , km 2 − kf 2 = kf 1 − km 1 ;
∂m ∂m ∂n ∂n
∂Ω
and so on.
where Ω0m and Ωin 0 denote unit-cell areas occupied by the matrix and
inclusion, respectively.
8 A.L. Kalamkarov
∂u20 (x)
kij = −f , (1.11)
∂xi ∂xj
km ∂Ujm
kij = [(1 − c)k m + ck f ]δij + dy1 dy2
L2 Ωm
0
∂yi
kf ∂Ujf
+ dy1 dy2 , (1.12)
L2 Ωin
0
∂yi
Boundary, S Reinforcement
x2 Matrix
y1
x1
y3 Reinforcement
x3 ε
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.2. (a) Three-dimensional periodic composite structure, (b) unit cell, Y.
The next step is to expand the displacements and as a result the stresses
into the asymptotic expansions in powers of the small parameter ε, as for
expansion (1.3):
(0) (1) (2)
uεi (x, y) = ui (x, y) + εui (x, y) + ε2 ui (x, y) + · · · , (1.17)
ε (0) (1) (2)
σij (x, y) = σij (x, y) + εσ ij (x, y) + ε2 σij (x, y) + · · · , (1.18)
where all the above functions are periodic in y with the unit cell Y.
Substituting Eqs. (1.17) and (1.18) into Eqs. (1.15) and (1.16), while
considering at the same time the periodicity of u(i) in y, reveals that u(0) is
independent of the fast variable y; see [5] for details. Subsequently, equating
terms with similar powers of ε results in the following set of equations:
(0)
∂σij (x, y)
= 0, (1.19)
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∂yj
(1) (0)
∂σij (x, y) ∂σij (x, y)
+ = fi , (1.20)
∂yj ∂xj
where
(0) (1)
(0) ∂uk ∂uk
σij = Cijkl + , (1.21)
∂xl ∂yl
(1) (2)
(1) ∂uk ∂uk
σij = Cijkl + . (1.22)
∂xl ∂yl
Due to the separation of variables in the right-hand side of Eq. (1.23) the
solution of Eq. (1.23) can be written as follows, as with Eq. (1.8):
(0)
∂uk (x) kl
u(1)
n (x, y) = Nn (y), (1.24)
∂xl
where Nnkl (y) (n, k, l = 1, 2, 3) are periodic functions with a unit cell Y
satisfying the following equation:
kl
∂ ∂Nm (y) ∂Cijkl
Cijmn (y) =− . (1.25)
∂yj ∂yn ∂yj
Micromechanical Modeling of Advanced Composites 11
It is observed that Eq. (1.25) depends only on the fast variable y and
it is entirely formulated within the unit cell Y. Thus, the problem (1.25)
is appropriately called an elastic unit-cell problem. Note that instead
of boundary conditions, this problem has a condition of a periodic
kl
continuation of functions Nm (y).
If inclusions are perfectly bonded to the matrix on the interfaces
kl
of the composite material, then the functions Nm (y) together with the
kl
∂Nm (y) (c)
expressions [(Cijkl + Cijmn (y) ∂yn )nj ], i = 1, 2, 3, must be continuous
(c)
on the interfaces. Here, nj
are the components of the unit normal to the
interface.
The next important step in the homogenization process is achieved
by substituting Eq. (1.24) into Eqs. (1.21) and (1.22), and the resulting
expression into Eq. (1.20). The result is then integrated over the domain Y
of the unit cell (with volume |Y |), remembering to treat x as a parameter
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Similarly, substitution of Eq. (1.24) into Eq. (1.21) and then integrating
the resulting expression over the domain of the unit cell Y yields:
(0)
(0) 1 (0) ∂u
σij = σij (y)dv = C̃ijkl k . (1.28)
|Y | Y ∂xl
Equations (1.26) and (1.28) represent the homogenized elasticity
boundary-value problem. The coefficients C̃ijkl given by Eq. (1.27) are the
effective elastic coefficients of the homogenized material. They are readily
determined as soon as the unit-cell problem (1.25) is solved and the
kl
functions Nm (y) are found. It is observed that these effective coefficients are
free from the complications that characterize the original rapidly varying
elastic coefficients Cijkl (y). They are universal for a composite material
under study, and can be used to solve a wide variety of boundary-value
problems associated with the given composite material.
12 A.L. Kalamkarov
parameters within the unit cell, not to be confused with the small parameter
of inhomogeneity.
For a small volume fraction of inclusions, c cmax , one can use the
three-phase model [29–31]. It is based on the following assumption: the
periodically heterogeneous composite structure is approximately replaced
by a three-phase medium consisting of a single inclusion, a matrix layer and
an infinite effective medium with homogenized mechanical properties. An
asymptotic justification of the three-phase composite model is given in [29].
For laminated composite materials, the unit-cell problems (1.9) and
(1.25) are one-dimensional and they can be solved analytically. Using this
analytical solution, the effective properties of laminated composites can be
obtained in an explicit analytical form from Eqs. (1.12) and (1.27); see
[5, 27]. In the more complicated case of generally anisotropic constituent
materials, explicit formulas for the effective elastic, actuation, thermal
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−1
C̃ijkl = Cijkl − Cijm3 Cm3q3 Cq3kl
−1 −1 −1 −1
+ Cijm3 Cm3q3 Cq3p3 Cp3n3 Cn3kl , (1.29)
where the angle brackets denote a rule of mixture, and as earlier indicated
all Latin indexes assume values 1, 2, 3, and repeated indexes are summed.
For fiber-reinforced periodic composites the unit-cell problem (1.25)
becomes 2D, and it can be solved analytically for some simple geometries,
or numerically; see [5, 33, 34].
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.3. (a) Cubic grid-reinforced structure and (b) its unit cell.
y2
η2
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η1
y1
y3
η3
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.4. Unit cell for a single reinforcement family in original (a) and rotated
(b) microscopic coordinates.
one must naturally accept the error incurred at the regions of intersection
between the reinforcements. However, our approximation will be quite
accurate because these regions of intersection are highly localized and do
not contribute significantly to the integral over the entire volume of the
unit cell. A mathematical justification for this argument in the form of the
so-called principle of the split homogenized operator can be found in [4].
In order to calculate the effective coefficients of the simpler structure
of Fig. 1.4, the unit-cell problem given by Eq. (1.25) must be solved and
subsequently Eq. (1.27) must be applied. The problem formulation for the
structure shown in Fig. 1.4 begins with the introduction of the following
notation [5, 35]:
kl
∂Nm (y)
bkl
ij = Cijmn (y) + Cijkl . (1.30)
∂yn
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With this definition in mind, the unit cell of the problem given by Eq. (1.25)
can be solved as:
⎡ mm ⎤
λ1 {Cm1 q21 + Cm6 q22 + Cm5 q23 }
⎢ ⎥
⎢ +λmm
2 {Cm1 q31 + Cm6 q32 + Cm5 q33 }⎥
⎢ +λmm {Cm6 q21 + Cm2 q22 + Cm4 q23 }⎥
3
bmm
mm = C mmmm + ⎢ ⎥, (1.31)
⎢ +λmm
4 {Cm6 q31 + Cm2 q32 + Cm4 q33 }⎥
⎢ +λmm {Cm5 q21 + Cm4 q22 + Cm3 q23 }⎥
⎣ 5 ⎦
+λmm
6 {Cm5 q31 + Cm4 q32 + Cm3 q33 }
⎡ mm ⎤
λ1 {Cmn11 q21 + Cmn12 q22 + Cmn13 q23 }
⎢ ⎥
⎢ +λmn
2 {Cmn11 q31 + Cmn12 q32 + Cmn13 q33 } ⎥
⎢ +λmm {Cmn12 q21 + Cmn22 q22 + Cmn23 q23 }⎥
3
bmn
mn = Cmnmn + ⎢ ⎥, (1.32)
⎢ +λmn
4 {Cmn12 q31 + Cmn22 q32 + Cmn23 q33 } ⎥
⎢ +λmm {Cmn13 q21 + Cmn23 q22 + Cmn33 q23 }⎥
⎣ 5 ⎦
mm
+λ6 {Cmn13 q31 + Cmn23 q32 + Cmn33 q33 }
are symmetric, i.e., CIJ = CJI . The coefficients qij in Eqs. (1.31) and (1.32)
represent the components of the matrix of direction cosines characterizing
the axes of rotation in Fig. 1.4. The constants λkl
i in Eqs. (1.31) and (1.32)
satisfy the following linear algebraic equations:
A1 λkl kl kl kl kl kl kl
1 + A2 λ2 + A3 λ3 + A4 λ4 + A5 λ5 + A6 λ6 + A7 = 0,
A8 λkl kl kl kl kl kl kl
1 + A9 λ2 + A10 λ3 + A11 λ4 + A12 λ5 + A13 λ6 + A14 = 0,
A15 λkl kl kl kl kl kl kl
1 + A16 λ2 + A17 λ3 + A18 λ4 + A19 λ5 + A20 λ6 + A21 = 0,
(1.33)
A22 λkl kl kl kl kl kl kl
1 + A23 λ2 + A24 λ3 + A25 λ4 + A26 λ5 + A27 λ6 + A28 = 0,
A29 λkl kl kl kl kl kl kl
1 + A30 λ2 + A31 λ3 + A32 λ4 + A33 λ5 + A34 λ6 + A35 = 0,
A36 λkl kl kl kl kl kl kl
1 + A37 λ2 + A38 λ3 + A39 λ4 + A40 λ5 + A41 λ6 + A42 = 0,
where Akli are constants that depend on the geometric parameters of the
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unit cell and the material properties of the reinforcement. The explicit
expressions for these constants can be found in [35]. Once the system in
Eq. (1.33) is solved, the obtained coefficients λkli are substituted back into
Eqs. (1.31) and (1.32) to determine the bkl ij coefficients. In turn these are
used to calculate the effective elastic coefficients of the 3D grid-reinforced
composite structures by integrating over the volume of the unit cell.
The effective elastic moduli of the 3D grid-reinforced composite with
generally orthotropic reinforcements with a unit cell shown in Fig. 1.4 are
obtained on the basis of Eq. (1.27), which, on account of notation (1.30),
becomes:
1
C̃ijkl = bkl dv. (1.34)
|Y | Y ij
Noting that the bkl ij are constants in the considered case, and denoting
the length and cross-sectional area of the reinforcement (in coordinates
y1 , y2 , y3 ) by L and A respectively, and the volume of the unit cell by V,
the effective elastic coefficients become
AL kl
C̃ijkl = b = Vf bkl
ij , (1.35)
V ij
where Vf is the volume fraction of the reinforcement within the unit cell.
For structures with more than one family of reinforcements (a particular
case of which is shown in Fig. 1.3) the effective moduli can be obtained by
superposition. The influence of a fiber coating on the mechanical properties
of fiber-reinforced composites was analyzed in [37].
Micromechanical Modeling of Advanced Composites 17
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.5. (a) Grid-reinforced composite structure A1 , with reinforcements oriented along
the y1 and y2 directions. (b) Unit cell of structure A1 .
18 A.L. Kalamkarov
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.6. (a) 3D grid-reinforced composite structure A3 , with reinforcements arranged
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degree of conformity between the first and second lines validates the
accuracy of the asymptotic homogenization model in the case when the
matrix contribution is neglected. We recall that we have assumed that
the reinforcements were much stiffer than the matrix and we consequently
neglected the contribution of the latter. The discrepancy between the first
and third lines is due to the contribution of the matrix. Figure 1.7 also
validates another assumption of the asymptotic homogenization model. In
using superposition to determine the effective properties of structures with
two or more families of reinforcements, an error will be incurred at the
region of overlap between the reinforcements. However, we assume that for
the practical purposes this error will not contribute significantly to the
integral in Eq. (1.34) and thus will not appreciably affect the effective
coefficients. This assumption is confirmed by the excellent agreement
between the first and second lines in Fig. 1.7. Of course we expect that in
Micromechanical Modeling of Advanced Composites 19
E1 = E3 (FEM)
Effective elastic coefficient (MPa) Reinforcements and matrix
E1 = E3 (FEM)
Reinforcements only
E1 = E3 (AHM)
E1 = E2 = E3 (FEM)
Effective elastic coefficient (MPa)
E1 = E2 = E3 (FEM)
Reinforcements only
E1 = E2 = E3 (AHM)
E3 (AHM)
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.10. Thin 3D curvilinear composite layer (a) with a periodicity cell Ωδ (b).
22 A.L. Kalamkarov
composite shell; see [5, 27] for details. Consider a general thin 3D composite
layer of a periodic structure with the unit cell Ωδ shown in Fig. 1.10. In
this figure, α1 , α2 and γ are the orthogonal curvilinear coordinates, such
that the coordinate lines α1 and α2 coincide with the main curvature lines
of the mid-surface of the carrier layer, and coordinate line γ is normal to
its mid-surface (at which γ = 0).
The thickness of the layer and the dimensions of the unit cell of the
composite material (which define the scale of the composite material’s
inhomogeneity) are assumed to be small compared with the dimensions
of the whole structure. These small dimensions of the periodicity cell are
characterized by a small parameter δ.
The unit cell Ωδ shown in Fig. 1.10(b) is defined by the following
relations:
δh1 δh1 δh2 δh2
− < α1 < , − < α2 < , γ− < γ < γ+,
2 2 2 2
(1.36)
δ α1 α2
γ± = ± ± δF ± , .
2 δh1 δh2
Here, δ is the thickness of the layer, δh1 and δh2 are the tangential
dimensions of the periodicity cell Ωδ . The functions F ± in Eq. (1.36) define
the geometry of the upper (S + ) and lower (S − ) reinforcing elements, for
example, the ribs or stiffeners; see Figs. 1.10 and 1.11. If there are no
reinforcing elements then F + = F − = 0 and the composite layer has a
uniform thickness of the order of δ as for example in the case shown in
Fig. 1.12.
Micromechanical Modeling of Advanced Composites 23
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.11. (a) Wafer-reinforced shell and (b) its unit cell.
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Here fi , p±
i and uk represent body forces, surface tractions and the
displacement field, respectively; n± j is the unit normal to the upper and
lower wavy surfaces γ ± (α1 , α2 ) and is given by
± 2 ± 2 −1/2
± ∂γ ± ∂γ ± 1 ∂γ 1 ∂γ
n = − ,− ,1 + 2 +1 ,
∂α1 ∂α2 H12 ∂α1 H2 ∂α2
(1.38)
24 A.L. Kalamkarov
where A1 (α1 , α2 ) and A2 (α1 , α2 ) are the coefficients of the first quadratic
form and κ1 and κ2 are the main curvatures of the mid-surface of the carrier
layer (γ = 0).
We introduce the following fast variables, ξ = (ξ1 , ξ2 ), and z:
α1 A1 α2 A2 γ
ξ1 = , ξ2 = , z= . (1.40)
δh1 δh2 δ
The displacements and stresses are expressed in the form of the
following two-scale asymptotic expansions:
(0) (1) (2)
ui (α, ξ, z) = ui (α) + δui (α, ξ, z) + δ 2 ui (α, ξ, z) + · · · ,
(1.41)
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Here and in the following Latin indexes assume values 1, 2, 3; Greek indexes
1, 2; and repeated indexes are summed; the mid-surface strains are denoted
as follows: e11 = e1 , e22 = e2 (elongations), e12 = e21 = ω/2 (shear),
τ11 = k1 , τ22 = k2 (bending) and τ12 = τ21 = τ (twisting).
The following notation is used in Eq. (1.43):
1 ∂U lm ∂U lm
blm
ij = Cijnβ n + Cijn3 n + Cijlm , (1.44)
hβ ∂ξβ ∂z
1 ∂V lm ∂V lm
b∗lm
ij = Cijnβ n + Cijn3 n + zCijlm . (1.45)
hβ ∂ξβ ∂z
The functions Unlm (ξ1 , ξ2 , z) and Vnlm (ξ1 , ξ2 , z) in Eqs. (1.42), (1.44)
and (1.45) are solutions of the unit-cell problems. Note that all the above
Micromechanical Modeling of Advanced Composites 25
where n+ −
i and ni are components of the normal unit vector to the upper
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The angle brackets in Eq. (1.48) denote averaging by the integration over
the volume of the 3D unit cell:
1
f (ξ1 , ξ2 , z) = f (ξ1 , ξ2 , z) dξ1 dξ2 dz.
|Ω| Ω
bmn
ij = bij
mn , zbmn
ij = b∗ij
mn , zb∗mn
ij = zb∗ij
mn . (1.49)
The mid-surface strains eλμ (α1 , α2 ) and τλμ (α1 , α2 ) can be determined
by solving a global boundary-value problem for the homogenized anisotropic
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shell with the constitutive relations (1.48); see [5, 27] for details. It should
be noted that, as can be observed from Eq. (1.48), there is a following
one-to-one correspondence between the effective stiffness moduli and the
extensional [A] coupling [B] and bending [D] stiffnesses familiar from
classical composite laminate theory (see, e.g., [36]):
A B
B D
⎡ ⎤
δ b11
11 δ b22
11 δ b1211 δ 2 zb11
11 δ 2 zb2211 δ 2 zb12
11
⎢ ⎥
22
⎢ δ b11 δ b22
22 δ b 12
22 δ 2
zb 22
11 δ 2
zb 22
22 δ 2
zb 12
22 ⎥
⎢ 12 ⎥
⎢ δ b11 δ b12
22 δ b1212 δ 2 zb12
11 δ 2 zb1222 δ 2 zb12
12 ⎥
= .
⎢δ 2 b∗11 δ 2 b11
∗22
δ 2 b11
∗12
δ 3 zb11
∗11
δ 3 zb11∗22 ∗12 ⎥
δ 3 zb11
11
⎢ ⎥
⎢δ 2 b11
∗22 2 ∗22
δ b22 2 ∗12
δ b22 3
δ zb11 ∗22 3
δ zb22 ∗22 3
δ zb22 ∗12 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
δ 2 b11
∗12
δ 2 b22
∗12
δ 2 b12
∗12
δ 3 zb11
∗12
δ 3 zb22
∗12
δ 3 zb12
∗12
(1.50)
(3) (3)
E1 (2) (w) E2 (1) (w)
b11
11 = (3) (3)
+ E1 F2 , b22
22 = (3) (3)
+ E2 F1 ,
1− ν12 ν21 1− ν12 ν21
(3) (3)
ν12 E1 (3)
b11 22
22 = b11 = (3) (3)
, b12
12 = G12 ,
1− ν12 ν21
(2) (w) (1) (w)
zb11 ∗11
11 = b11 = E1 S2 , zb22 ∗22
22 = b22 = E2 S1 ,
(3)
E1 (2) (w)
zb∗11
11 = (3) (3)
+ E1 J2 , (1.51)
12 1 − ν12 ν21
(3)
E2 (1) (w)
zb∗22
22 = (3) (3)
+ E2 J1 ,
12 1 − ν12 ν21
(3) (3)
ν12 E1
zb∗11
22 = zb∗22
11 = (3) (3)
,
12(1 − ν12 ν21 )
(3) (1) (2)
G G H 3 t1 G12 H 3 t2
zb∗12
12 = 12 + 12 − K1 + − K2 ,
12 12 h1 12 h2
28 A.L. Kalamkarov
where
⎛ ⎞
(1) ∞
96H G12 4 n
[1 − (−1) ] G
(1)
nπA t
tanh ⎝ 23
1 1 ⎠,
K1 = 5
π A1 h1 G(1) n=1 n5 G
(1) 2H
23 12
(1.52)
(2) ∞ ⎛ ⎞
96H G12 [1 − (−1) ]
4 n (2)
G nπA2 t2 ⎠
K2 = 5 (2) 5
tanh ⎝ 13
(2)
.
π A2 h2 G n=1 n G12 2H
13
Here the superscripts indicate the elements of the unit cell Ω1 , Ω2 and Ω3 ;
see Fig. 1.11(b); A1 and A2 are the coefficients of the first quadratic form
(w) (w) (w) (w) (w) (w)
of the mid-surface of a carrier layer; F1 , F2 , S1 , S2 and J1 , J2
are defined as follows:
(w) Ht1 (w) Ht2 (w) (H 2 + H)t1
F1 = , F2 = , S1 = ,
Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com
h1 h2 2h1
(w) (H 2 + H)t2 (w) (4H 3 + 6H 2 + 3H)t1
S2 = , J1 = , (1.53)
2h2 12h1
(w) (4H 3 + 6H 2 + 3H)t2
J2 = .
12h2
All the non-zero effective stiffness moduli of the sandwich composite
shell with a honeycomb filler shown in Fig. 1.12 are obtained as follows (see
[5, 27] for details):
√
11 22 2E0 t0 3 EHt
b11 = b22 = 2 + ,
1 − ν0 4 a
√
E0 t0 3 EHt
b12
12 = + ,
(1 + ν0 ) 12 a
√
2ν0 E0 t0 3 EHt
b11 22
22 = b11 = 2 + ,
1 − ν0 12 a
2 √
∗11 ∗22 E0 H t0 2 2t30 3 EH 3 t
zb11 = zb22 = 2 + Ht 0 + + , (1.54)
1 − ν0 2 3 48 a
2 √
ν0 E0 H t0 2t3 3 EH 3 t
∗11
zb22 = zb11∗22
= 2 + Ht20 + 0 + ,
1 − ν0 2 3 144 a
2
E0 H t0 2t3 EH 3 t
∗12
zb12 = + Ht20 + 0 +
2(1 + ν0 ) 2 3 12(1 + ν)a
3+ν 128H $
∞ tanh(π(2n − 1)At/(2H))
× √ − √ .
4 3 ( 3π 5 At) n=1 (2n − 1)5
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— Écoutez-moi. Je vous aime. Souvenez-vous. J’ai eu tort de
vous quitter ainsi. J’étais fou… L’assassinat, la guerre, j’étais fou…
Pardonnez-moi. J’ai trop souffert… Si vous saviez !
— Et moi, croyez-vous que je n’aie pas souffert ? Elle parlait
durement, avec un accent découpé. « Ah ! vous souffriez ? Et moi, et
moi… Vous êtes parti sans un mot, sans un regard, lâchant votre
fiancée comme une gueuse… Vous ne m’avez pas même écrit. Vous
m’avez préféré je ne sais quelles idées, je ne sais quel orgueil.
Quand ma chair était happée par la guerre, vous vous êtes écarté de
l’engrenage. Vous avez préféré la paix à mon amour ! » Cette fois,
elle avait les yeux dans ses yeux. Au bout des mains serrées, ses
doigts s’étaient joints. Du talon, elle martelait les planches : « Que
faites-vous ici, quand ceux de votre âge meurent, quand Georges,
en ce moment, peut-être, tombe dans sa tranchée, quand on fusille
Richard ou qu’il s’écrase sur le sol, quand vos amis sont entre la
tempête et vous. Cela pour vous protéger. Cela pour vous, qui êtes
ici. Cela pour vos semblables, les neutres, qui se voilent les yeux
d’une main et détroussent les cadavres de l’autre. Vous, vous ! »
Elle tremblait de colère. De nouveau, elle fut très belle. Mais
comme il se sentait aimé, comme il la tenait sous sa griffe, comme
ce n’était plus ce silence épouvantable du matin, l’incertitude,
l’absence, la perspective encore de longs mois, d’années sans la
voir, sans entendre parler d’elle, il se tassa dans sa demi-victoire, il
fit front. Il ne voulut pas qu’elle pensât hors de lui-même. Il songea
au miracle de la veille, quand elle roulait dans son sillage, éperdue
de reconnaissance à ne dépendre que de lui.
— Je fais ce que je peux pour arracher mes amis au massacre,
pour arrêter le massacre. Georges vient de m’écrire. Il désespère. Il
est écœuré. Et tous ainsi, partout. Vous n’êtes donc pas encore
saoulée de sang ?
Elle blêmit, mais sentit la houle guerrière monter de ses entrailles
et soulever son cœur.
— Vous savez que s’il faut le mien pour que le massacre cesse, il
cessera à l’instant. Mais à condition que le bourreau, après, jette sa
hache, rentre dans sa patrie, cultive son jardin. Je lui pardonne par
amour pour ceux de la Marne, qui lui ont cassé les genoux.
— Le bourreau, mais c’est l’internationale toute entière du
capital ! Ceux de la Marne ? Des esclaves. Avez-vous jamais réfléchi
à la somme de lâcheté qu’il faut pour se laisser jeter à la tuerie
contre son gré ? La patrie ? les patries ? elles ne commenceront à
vivre que le jour où mourra la guerre.
— Si nous ne tuons pas la guerre, vous savez bien que ce sera
le triomphe de la patrie qui croit le plus à la patrie et aura déchaîné
la guerre. Par haine du chauvin d’ici, vous en êtes un de là-bas.
— Mais eux vivent, du moins. C’est le peuple le plus vivant. Il est
organisé. Il est cohérent. Il va d’un bloc ; et nous ne sommes que
poussière.
Elle eut un rire ardent.
— La poussière a brisé le bloc. Et pour vous le bloc est force et la
poussière lâcheté. Riez donc avec moi, Monsieur le logicien. C’est
vous qui profitez du sacrifice, visitez les musées, ascensionnez,
philosophez, palabrez, c’est vous le lâche !
— Hélas ! vous savez bien que je ne profiterai pas de ce que
vous appelez le sacrifice. Vous savez bien que ma vie est perdue.
Vous savez bien que la France m’est interdite. Je suis un réprouvé.
— Alors, pourquoi as-tu fait ça ?
Il chancela.
— Ma conscience me défend de tuer.
— Niaiserie. A la guerre, on ne tue pas. On délivre. Ah ! vous
êtes un réprouvé ! Auriez-vous donc une patrie, comme les autres ?
Votre conscience est bonne fille. Elle laisse mourir les « lâches »
pour défendre le sol, les eaux, les mots, les images qui l’ont faite. Et
vous le savez bien, et vous le savez bien ! Vous profitiez plus qu’eux
de la patrie. Ils en bêchaient la terre, vous en mangiez le pain. Vous
en respiriez les fleurs, l’âme.
— C’est cette âme qui m’a appris l’amour de l’âme universelle
qu’expriment toutes les patries dans un langage différent.
— Soit. Mais si l’une de ces patries veut broyer l’âme de la
vôtre ?
Il ne répondit pas. Ils avaient quitté le petit pont. D’instinct, à
travers les rues de la ville, ils se dirigeaient vers l’hôtel. Pierre
regardait distraitement les devantures cossues, hymnes plastiques
au tourisme et à la santé, où les vingt ours taillés dans le mélèze
pour orner les encriers, les parapluies, les couteaux, les étagères,
les pendules, exprimaient des besoins esthétiques à coup sûr
beaucoup plus honnêtes que ceux dont la carte postale obscène
témoigne aux louches étalages des métropoles enragées de la
luxure et du combat. Une détresse immense environnait son amour.
Toujours hostile, mais inquiète de son silence, celle qui marchait
près de lui attendait. Il allait dire : « Je vous aime » quand, au
tournant de la dernière rue avant d’arriver à l’hôtel, ils se heurtèrent
à Clotilde qui venait au-devant d’eux, un télégramme à la main :
— Où est papa ? Georges…
— Georges, mon Georges !
Élisabeth avait saisi le papier : Georges blessé grièvement.
Venez.
Pierre serra les poings : « Hélas ! vous voyez bien.
— Quoi ?
— Lui aussi, lui aussi ! Pauvre petit ! Et vous ne voulez pas que
ça finisse ?
— Je vois qu’il paie vingt siècles d’une grandeur à qui il doit toute
la sienne, et que vous avez fait faillite, vous.
— Mais vous savez bien qu’il trouve le prix excessif ! Il n’a rien à
payer. Vous l’immolez à une idole. Et il commence à le savoir…
— Il est jeune. Il souffre. Il le dit. Je lui pardonne et je l’adore.
Vous, je vous hais.
Il lui saisit le poing :
— Pourquoi m’avez-vous dit tu tout à l’heure ?
— Parce que je vous aime.
Il eut un élan victorieux, la tira à lui violemment.
— Alors ?
Elle se dégageait, folle de rage et d’amour.
— Alors, rentrez en France, battez-vous.
— Non.
— Vous êtes une femme. Non, une fille. Adieu !
V