Download ebook Multiscale Modeling Approaches For Composites Pdf full chapter pdf

Multiscale Modeling Approaches for
Composites - eBook PDF

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/multiscale-modeling-approaches-for-composites-e
book-pdf/
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission.

The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book.
This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute
endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular
use of the MATLAB® software.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek
permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements
with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can
be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others,
including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products,
instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-12-823143-2
For information on all Elsevier publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
Publisher: Matthew Deans

Acquisitions Editor: Dennis McGonagle
Editorial Project Manager: Rachel Pomery
Production Project Manager: Manju Thirumalaivasan
Designer: Mark Rogers
Typeset by VTeX
About the authors
G. Chatzigeorgiou is Research Scientist of CNRS (CR–HDR). He is

hosted in the Arts et Métiers Institute of Technology in Metz and is a
member of the LEM3–UMR CNRS 7239 laboratory. His research is de-
voted to constitutive modeling of multifunctional materials and homog-
enization theories of composites. He coauthored more than 50 papers in
peer–reviewed journals, one book, and more than 30 papers in proceed-
ings of international conferences.
F. Meraghni is Distinguished Professor at Arts et Métiers Institute of
Technology (Campus of Metz). He is the head of Composites and Smart
Materials Research Group at LEM3–UMR CNRS 7239 working on multi-
scale modeling using micromechanical approaches for homogenization of
polymer composites and shape memory alloys. As the principal investi-
gator (PI), Prof. Meraghni and his group are involved in several research
programs in collaboration with French industry or funded by the French
Agency of Research (ANR) and other funding institutions. He is a coau-
thor of more than 100 peer–reviewed papers published in journals and
one book, and he advised/coadvised 30 PhD students. Currently, he is the
Director of the Doctoral School of Arts et Métiers.
N. Charalambakis is Professor Emeritus at the Civil Engineering De-
partment of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (AUTH) and a member of
the Center for Research and Development on Advanced Materials AUTH
and Texas A&M (CERDAM). He authored or coauthored more than 70
papers in peer–reviewed journals, one book, and more than 40 papers in
proceedings of international conferences.
xi
Foreword
It is a particular pleasure to write the foreword of this extraordinary

book written by three esteemed colleagues. Multiscale approaches allow
building a connection between the continuum properties of a material and
its microstructure. This physical way for describing overall material be-
havior is particularly well adapted for modern materials like composites.
The present book fills a wide gap between fundamental treatises about
micromechanics, like Toshio Mura’s book or the Sia Nemat–Nasser and
Muneo Hori one and the abundant literature published in scientific jour-
nals. A first attempt to provide a textbook written pedagogically and pro-
viding an integrated approach to the various topics of homogenization
was due to Jianmin Qu and Mohammed Cherkaoui fifteen years ago. It
is worth noting that Mohammed Cherkaoui, Fodil Meraghni, and George
Chatzigeorgiou are linked to the micromechanical school established at
the University of Metz in the beginning of the 1980s by the late Professor
Marcel Berveiller. Under his guidance, this school has developed a vision
focused on engineering applications of multiscale modeling. Therefore it
is not surprising that textbooks oriented toward education of engineers
about homogenization techniques find some common roots at Metz.
A notable feature of the present book is its full dedication to compos-
ite materials. This clearly distinguishes it from the one authored by Qu
and Cherkaoui, mainly oriented toward polycrystalline materials. The text
provides a comprehensive development of both mean–field and full–field
scale–transition approaches; main characteristics and advantages of each
of these approaches are presented in a very pedagogic way. Restrictions
and field of application for each method are made clear. Having these two
homogenization schemes presented in the same book is a very positive
point.
Every chapter is written using both rigorous and detailed mathemati-
cal treatment and an engineering approach, which will help many people
to become familiar with the powerful tools offered by micromechanics.
Linear elasticity and infinitesimal strain framework are considered. Voigt
notation is nicely introduced and used offering a more engineering de-
scription of rank four tensors.
The reader will be happy to find numerous examples in each chapter.
Detailed solutions are given with every example, including correspond-
ing python scripts for numerical applications. That makes the book very
useful for professionals willing to improve their knowledge about scale
transition and also for graduate students taking a micromechanical class.
Major takeaways in each chapter are also clearly defined and highlighted
xiii
xiv Foreword
using color boxes. The objective of the book is to clearly provide enough
element to the reader allowing him for making sound decision about the
choice of the self–consistent Mori–Tanaka method or periodic homoge-
nization for a given practical application.
The final chapters are devoted to advanced topics in multiscale model-
ing, including a detailed exposition of the Hashin–Shtrikman bounds and
a very interesting and dense chapter about mathematical homogenization
theory for composites. The book ends with a short chapter considering ho-
mogenization in nonlinear materials. These advanced topics will clearly be
of great interest for PhD students and researchers.
To conclude, I believe the book will be of significant use to profes-
sional researchers and graduate students in engineering science interested
in modeling composites and heterogeneous materials.
Etienne Patoor
Georgia Tech Lorraine, Metz, France
June 2021
Preface
Multiscale methods for composite materials have received growing at-

tention between the mechanics community in the recent years. The reason
for this interest lies on the significant increase of composite materials usage
in many engineering applications. The modern needs of civil, mechanical,
aerospace, and bioengineering industries have led to the development of
novel material systems with complex microstructural characteristics. To
identify the mechanical behavior of these systems requires advanced the-
oretical and numerical tools provided by multiscale methods.
The scope of the present book is providing, in a pedagogic manner, the
main concepts of the commonly utilized multiscale methods in the study
of composite materials. The manuscript aims at serving as a guide for iden-
tifying and utilizing the appropriate homogenization approach according
to the needs of each specific application. The book is oriented to a large
spectrum of readers, including engineers from the industrial sector and
Master and Ph.D. students. Various homogenization methodologies are
discussed in a simple and didactic way, whereas the latest chapters of the
book contain more advanced topics, suitable for students or researchers
with special interests. The adopted methodology in writing the chapters
is a combination of a solid theoretical background, practical tools for each
approach, and an assessment of the methods. Examples are included in ev-
ery chapter to illustrate the use of the discussed approaches. In addition,
Python scripts similar to Matlab codes are provided for several numerical
examples.
The book is organized in three complementary parts. Its content is di-
vided into 12 chapters, supplemented by an Appendix.
The first part of the book recalls important concepts and definitions
from tensor calculus and continuum mechanics, before passing to the main
topic, the multiscale approaches. This part contains two chapters. In Chap-
ter 1, the tensors and their properties are introduced. Moreover, the Voigt
notation that allows us to treat second– and fourth–order tensors with the
help of matrices is presented. Chapter 2 deals with concepts from con-
tinuum mechanics theory such as the strains and stresses, as well as the
relation between them in the case of elastic media. A reduction of the elas-
ticity problem from 3 to 2 dimensions is required for the study of laminate
composites, and thus it is also discussed there.
The second part is considered the “heart” of the book, since it intro-
duces various micromechanics concepts and presents the most frequently
used mean–field and full–field homogenization theories. Chapter 3 dis-
cusses the general principles of all multiscale approaches, including im-
xv
xvi Preface
portant average theorems, the Hill–Mandel principle and the notion of

the concentration tensors. The oldest micromechanics methods (the Voigt
and Reuss bound estimates) and their application in several engineering
structures are the topic of Chapter 4. Chapter 5 presents certain widely
used Eshelby–based, mean–field homogenization techniques, such as the
Eshelby dilute, the Mori–Tanaka method, and the self–consistent method.
Chapter 6 introduces the key elements of the most common full–field mul-
tiscale approach, the periodic homogenization theory. Finally, the laminate
composite plates and their corresponding modeling theory are the subject
of Chapter 7. The latter includes a comprehensive example with step–
by–step detailed solution.
The third part of the book serves for introducing in depth several con-
cepts of multiscale modeling that were not discussed in the previous part.
Most of these concepts require advanced knowledge of mathematics and
mechanics, which the interested reader needs to have for the better under-
standing of the following chapters. In addition, the part presents certain
additional specialized micromechanics techniques.
The topic of Chapter 8 is the so–called composite sphere and compos-
ite cylinder assemblage methods, which were developed for the study of
particulate and long fiber composites, respectively. The Green’s tensor, a
powerful tool used in the Eshelby theory, and its applications in microme-
chanics problems are the subject of Chapter 9. The Hashin–Shtrikman
bounds, which were presented rapidly in Chapter 5, are reintroduced and
discussed in depth in Chapter 10. The mathematical foundation of full–
field multiscale approaches such as the periodic homogenization theory is
the topic of Chapter 11. Finally, Chapter 12 contains a brief discussion of
the application of multiscale approaches to nonlinear composites; details
for certain simple mean–field methods dedicated to studying inelastic and
damageable heterogeneous media are included.
The book closes with an appendix, which explains the general method-
ology for integrating the reinforcement orientation into mean–field ho-
mogenization schemes (specifically, the Mori–Tanaka approach).
Chatzigeorgiou, Meraghni, and Charalambakis

May 2021
Acknowledgments
We want to express our sincere gratitude to Professor Etienne Patoor for

extensive discussions during the last 15 years and Professor André Eber-
hardt for assistance, encouragement, and for providing us an image for
the cover of the book.
We also thank Professor Dimitris Lagoudas for our fruitful discussions
about micromechanics and Professor François Murat for our long discus-
sions about the periodic homogenization. Additionally, we highly appre-
ciate the scientific exchanges and ideas we had over the years with our
national and international partners Professor Yves Chemisky (University
of Bordeaux), Professor André Chrysochoos (University of Montpellier),
Professor Fransisco (Paco) Chinesta (ENSAM Paris), Assistant Professor
Joseph Fitoussi (ENSAM Paris), Dr. Gilles Robert (Domo Chemicals), Dr.
Renan Léon (Valeo), Assistant Professor Theocharis Baxevanis (University
of Houston), Assistant Professor Darren Hartl (Texas A&M University),
Associate Professor Gary Don Seidel (VirginiaTech), Professor Paul Stein-
mann (FAU Erlangen–Nürnberg), Assistant Professor Ali Javili (Bilkent
University), Professor Björn Kiefer (TU Bergakademie Freiberg), Profes-
sor Marek–Jerzy Pindera (University of Virginia) and Professor Andreas
Menzel (TU Dortmund).
It is of course important for us to warmly thank all the members of the
SMART team of LEM3 laboratory for their support. Special thanks belong
to our colleagues, Assistant Professors Adil Benaarbia, Francis Praud and
Boris Piotrowski, as well as our Postdoc Qiang Chen and our Ph.D. student
Soheil Satouri, for their valuable comments and remarks.
Chatzigeorgiou, Meraghni, and Charalambakis

May 2021
xvii
Contents
About the authors xi

Foreword xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
I
Tensors and continuum mechanics concepts
1. Tensors
1.1 Tensors in Cartesian coordinates 3
1.2 Cartesian systems and tensor rotation 5
1.3 Tensor calculus 7
1.4 Examples in tensor operations 8
1.5 Voigt notation: general aspects 13
1.6 Operations using the Voigt notation 16
1.7 Tensor rotation in Voigt notation 19
1.8 Examples in Voigt notation operations 24
References 27
2. Continuum mechanics
2.1 Strain 29
2.2 Stress 32
2.3 Elasticity 34
2.3.1. General aspects 34
2.3.2. Special symmetries 36
2.4 Reduction to 2–D problems 46
2.4.1. Plane strain 47
2.4.2. Plane stress 49
2.5 Examples 50
References 53
II
Micromechanics for composite media
3. General concepts of micromechanics
v
vi Contents
3.1 Heterogeneous media 57

3.2 Homogenization 59
3.3 Homogenization principles 62
3.3.1. Average theorems 63
3.3.2. Hill–Mandel principle 66
3.3.3. Concentration tensors 69
3.4 Bounds in the overall response 71
3.4.1. Voigt and Reuss bounds 72
3.4.2. Hashin–Shtrikman bounds 73
3.5 Examples 74
References 82
4. Voigt and Reuss bounds

4.1 Theory 83
4.1.1. Voigt upper bound 84
4.1.2. Reuss lower bound 84
4.2 Simple methods for fiber composites 86
4.3 Composite beams 90
4.3.1. Essential elements of beam bending theory 90
4.3.2. Beam made of two materials 92
4.4 Examples 96
References 99
5. Eshelby solution–based mean–field methods

5.1 Inclusion problems 101
5.1.1. Eshelby’s inclusion problem 102
5.1.2. Inhomogeneity problem 105
5.2 Eshelby–based homogenization approaches 109
5.2.1. Eshelby dilute 111
5.2.2. Mori–Tanaka 112
5.2.3. Self–consistent 114
5.3 Examples 116
References 126
6. Periodic homogenization
6.1 Preliminaries 127
6.2 Theoretical background 128
6.3 Computation of the overall elasticity tensor 130
6.4 Particular case: multilayered composite 132
6.5 Examples 135
References 143
Contents vii
7. Classical laminate theory

7.1 Introduction 148
7.2 Stress–strain relation for an orthotropic material 149
7.2.1. From tensor to contracted (Voigt) notation 149
7.2.2. Hooke’s law for orthotropic material in Voigt notation 152
7.3 Hooke’s law for an orthotropic lamina under the assumption of plane stress 156
7.4 Stress–strain relations for a lamina of arbitrary orientation: off–axis loading 158
7.4.1. Stress and strain in global axes (x − y) 159
7.4.2. Off–axis stress–strain relations 160
7.4.3. Off–axis strain–stress relations 162
7.4.4. Engineering constants and induced coefficients of shear–axial strain mutual
influence in an angle lamina 163
7.4.5. Example 168
7.5 Macromechanical response of a laminate composite thin plate 170
7.5.1. Laminate code and convention 171
7.5.2. Laminated thin plates and Kirchhoff–Love hypothesis 173
7.5.3. Kinematics of thin laminated plates and strain–displacement relation 174
7.5.4. Stress variation in a laminate 177
7.5.5. Force and moment resultants related to midplane strains and curvatures 178
7.5.6. Physical meaning of some coupling components of the laminates stiffness
matrices 183
7.5.7. Workflow and summary 187
7.5.8. Example 189
References 195
III
Special topics in homogenization
8. Composite sphere/cylinder assemblage
8.1 Composite sphere assemblage 199
8.2 Composite cylinder assemblage 208
8.3 Eshelby’s energy principle 221
8.4 Universal relations for fiber composites 226
8.5 Examples 229
References 235
9. Green’s tensor
9.1.1. Fourier transform 237
9.1.2. Betti’s reciprocal theorem 238
9.2 Definition and properties 239
9.3 Applications of Green’s tensor 244
viii Contents
9.3.1. Infinite homogeneous body with varying eigenstresses 244

9.3.2. Eshelby’s inclusion problem 246
9.4 Examples 247
References 248
10. Hashin–Shtrikman bounds

10.1.1. Positive and negative definite matrices 251
10.1.2. Calculus of variations 255
10.2 Hashin–Shtrikman variational principle 256
10.3 Bounds in a bi–phase composite 262
10.4 Examples 267
References 269
11. Mathematical homogenization theory

11.2 Variational formulation 273
11.2.1. Functional spaces 273
11.2.2. Homogeneous body 275
11.2.3. Heterogeneous body with a surface of discontinuity 277
11.2.4. Approximating functions 278
11.2.5. Finite element method 279
11.3 Convergence of the heterogeneous problem 280
11.3.1. Weak convergence 282
11.3.2. Mathematical homogenization 283
11.4 Asymptotic expansion approach 286
11.5 Examples 288
References 296
12. Nonlinear composites

12.1 Introduction 299
12.2 Inelastic mechanisms in periodic homogenization 300
12.3 Inelastic mechanisms in mean–field theories 302
12.3.1. Inhomogeneity problem with two eigenstrains 303
12.3.2. Mori–Tanaka/TFA method for composites with inelastic strains 307
12.4 Examples 308
References 322
A. Fiber orientation in composites

A.1 Introduction 325
A.2 Reinforcement orientation in a plane 325
A.3 Reinforcement orientation in 3–D space 327
Contents ix
A.4 Examples 330

References 337
Index 339
For additional information on the topics covered in the book, visit the
companion site: https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals/
book-companion/9780128231432
C H A P T E R
1
Tensors
O U T L I N E
1.1 Tensors in Cartesian coordinates 3

References 27
1.1 Tensors in Cartesian coordinates
A tensor is defined as a geometric object that describes linear relations

between scalars, vectors, or other tensors, and thus it can be seen as a mul-
tilinear map. In mathematics and physics a tensor is a very general object,
intrinsically defined from a vector space that is independent of coordinate
systems. In depth analysis about tensors, tensor operations, and differen-
tial geometry for continuum mechanics applications has been presented
elsewhere [1,2]. In this chapter, we focus on those key aspects that help the
reader to follow the discussion throughout the book.
Bold letters are used to denote tensors to distinguish them from scalars.
This chapter frequently adopts the index notation. When the tensors ap-
pear in their indicial notation, they have normal form (no bold font). A
Multiscale Modeling Approaches for Composites

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-823143-2.00010-2 3 Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
4 1. Tensors
tensor A of order n is expressed as
Ai1 i2 i3 ...in .
In 3–D space, the indices i1 , i2 , etc. take the values 1, 2, or 3. The most
common tensors are:
• A tensor of order 0, which denotes a scalar (no bold letter is used in this
case).
• A tensor of order 1, which represents a 3 ˆ 1 vector.
• A tensor of order 2, which is represented by a 3 ˆ 3 matrix.1
In the index notation, the Einstein summation convention for repeated
indices is used. For example:
• The product ai bi of two vectors a and b implies
ai bi “ a1 b1 ` a2 b2 ` a3 b3 .
• The product Aij Bj k of two second–order tensors A and B implies
Aij Bj k “ Ai1 B1k ` Ai2 B2k ` Ai3 B3k .
• The product Aij kl Bkl of a fourth–order tensor A and a second–order ten-

sor B implies
Aij kl Bkl “ Aij 11 B11 ` Aij 22 B22 ` Aij 33 B33 ` Aij 12 B12 ` Aij 21 B21
` Aij 13 B13 ` Aij 31 B31 ` Aij 23 B23 ` Aij 32 B32 .
The repeated indices are “dummy” in the sense that we can change the
letter used for them with another letter. Thus ai bi and aj bj represent the
same summation.
The symbol I denotes the second–order identity tensor with compo-
nents given by the Kronecker delta δij :
"
1 , i “ j,
Iij “ δij , δij “ δj i “ (1.1)
0 , i ‰ j.
Clearly, δii “ δ11 ` δ22 ` δ33 “ 3.

The third–order Cartesian permutation tensor is defined as
$
& 1 if pi, j, kq is p1, 2, 3q, p2, 3, 1q, or p3, 1, 2q,
ij k “ ´1 if pi, j, kq is p1, 3, 2q, p2, 1, 3q, or p3, 2, 1q, (1.2)
0 if i “ j, j “ k, or k “ i,
%
1 For symmetric second–order tensors, we can utilize the Voigt notation and write them as
6 ˆ 1 vectors; see later in this chapter.
and has the property ij k pqk “ δip δj q ´ δiq δjp .

The symmetric fourth–order identity tensor I is defined as
1
Iij kl “ rδik δj l ` δil δj k s. (1.3)
2
From its structure it is clear that I exhibits the minor symmetries Iij kl “
Ij ikl “ Iij lk and the major symmetry Iij kl “ Iklij .
Using the index notation leads very often to large expressions. To re-
duce the size of the expressions, the following symbols are frequently
adopted (especially, in the micromechanics part of this book):
1. A tensor A of order n, a tensor B of order n, and a scalar c produce the
nth–order tensors
C “ A ` B with Ci1 i2 ...in “ Ai1 i2 ...in ` Bi1 i2 ...in ,

C “ cA with Ci1 i2 ...in “ cAi1 i2 ...in .
2. A tensor A of order n ` 1 and a tensor B of order m ` 1 produce the

pn ` mqth–order tensor
C “ A · B with Ci1 i2 ...in`m “ Ai1 i2 ...in q Bqin`1 in`2 ...in`m .
This operation is called the single contraction product.

3. A tensor A of order n ` 2 and a tensor B of order m ` 2 produce the
pn ` mqth–order tensor
C “ A: B with Ci1 i2 ...in`m “ Ai1 i2 ...in pq Bpqin`1 in`2 ...in`m .
This operation is called the double contraction product.

4. A tensor A of order n and a tensor B of order m produce the pn ` mqth–
order tensor
C “ A b B with Ci1 i2 ...in`m “ Ai1 i2 ...in Bin`1 in`2 ...in`m .
This operation is called the dyadic product.

5. A tensor A of order n and a tensor B of order 1 produce the nth–order
tensors
C “ A ˆ B with A ˆ B “ rA b Bs: ,
C “ B ˆ A with B ˆ A “ : rB b As.
These two operations are called the cross products.
1.2 Cartesian systems and tensor rotation
A Cartesian coordinate system is described by three basis vectors e1 , e2 ,

and e3 . Each one of these vectors has unit length. A Cartesian system is
6 1. Tensors
FIGURE 1.1 Transformation of a Cartesian coordinate system through a rotation.
orthogonal, which means that
ei · ej “ δij . (1.4)
Let us consider two Cartesian coordinate systems with basis vectors (e1 , e2 ,
e3 ) and (e11 , e12 , e13 ) having the same point of origin (Fig. 1.1). The relation
between them can be expressed with the help of a second–order tensor R
as
e11 “ R11 e1 ` R21 e2 ` R31 e3 ,

e12 “ R12 e1 ` R22 e2 ` R32 e3 ,
e13 “ R13 e1 ` R23 e2 ` R33 e3 .
This tensor R is called a rotator and has the following properties:
Rij Rik “ Rj i Rki “ δj k and detR “ 1, (1.5)
where det denotes the determinant of R,
detR “ R13 R21 R31 ´ R13 R22 R31 ´ R11 R23 R31
` R12 R23 R31 ´ R12 R21 R33 ` R11 R22 R33 .
Due to property (1.5) of the rotators, the vectors ei can be expressed in

terms of e1i as
e1 “ R11 e11 ` R12 e12 ` R13 e13 ,

e2 “ R21 e11 ` R22 e12 ` R23 e13 ,
e3 “ R31 e11 ` R32 e12 ` R33 e13 .
The components of R are the cosines of the angles between the vectors of
the two bases,
´ ¯
Rij “ cos ei , e1j “ ei · e1j .
For the elementary basis vectors

» fi » fi » fi
1 0 0
e1 “ – 0 fl , e2 “ – 1 fl , e3 “ – 0 fl ,
0 0 1
we obtain that the ith column of the tensor R represents the basis vector
e1i .
The rotator tensor represents a transformation from one coordinate sys-
tem to another through rotation. The introduction of R allows us to pro-
vide a proper definition for the tensors:
BOX 1 .1 Tenso r
A tensor A of order n is a quantity that can be transformed, with the help
of a rotator R, from one coordinate system with basis ei to another coordinate
system with basis e1i according to the formulas
A1i1 i2 ...in “ Rj1 i1 Rj2 i2 ...Rjn in Aj1 j2 ...jn , Ai1 i2 ...in “ Ri1 j1 Ri2 j2 ...Rin jn A1j1 j2 ...jn .
(1.6)
1.3 Tensor calculus
Considering Cartesian coordinates and the position vector x, differen-

tial geometry provides the following definitions for an nth–order tensor A
[3,4]:
1. The gradient of A is a tensor of order n ` 1 defined as
BAi1 i2 ...in
.
Bxin`1
2. The divergence of A is a tensor of order n ´ 1 defined as

BAi1 i2 ...in´1 in
.
Bxin
3. The curl of A is a tensor of order n defined as
BAi1 i2 ...in´1 j
´ j kin .
Bxk
8 1. Tensors
Moreover, for a tensor A of order n ą 0 and a tensor B of order m ą 0, the

derivative of A with respect to B is the tensor of order n ` m defined as
BAi1 i2 ...in
.
BBin`1 in`2 ...in`m
Clearly, the typical chain rule for derivatives holds also in the case of ten-
sors. For example, for two tensors A and B of order 2, the gradient of their
product Aij Bj k is written as
B BAij BBj k
pAij Bj k q “ Bj k ` Aij .
Bxm Bxm Bxm
1.4 Examples in tensor operations
Example 1
Prove the following tensorial identities:
1. For a second–order tensor A, Aij δj k “ Aij δkj “ Aik .
2. For a second–order tensor A, Aij δij “ Aii .
3. If A is symmetric second–order tensor (Aij “ Aj i ), then Akl Iklij “
Iij kl Akl “ Aij .
4. If the fourth–order tensor Aij kl exhibits the minor symmetries Aij kl “
Aj ikl “ Aij lk , then Aij mn Imnkl “ Iij mn Amnkl “ Aij kl .
Bai
5. For an arbitrary vector a, “ δij .
Baj
BAij
6. If A is a symmetric second–order tensor (Aij “ Aj i ), then “ Iij kl .
BAkl
Solution:
1. For the first identity, we have
Aij δj k “ Ai1 δ1k ` Ai2 δ2k ` Ai3 δ3k ,

Aij δkj “ Ai1 δk1 ` Ai2 δk2 ` Ai3 δk3 .
There are three cases:

• k “ 1. Then
Aij δj k “ Ai1 δ11 ` Ai2 δ21 ` Ai3 δ31 “ Ai1 “ Aik ,

Aij δkj “ Ai1 δ11 ` Ai2 δ12 ` Ai3 δ13 “ Ai1 “ Aik .
• k “ 2. Then

• k “ 3. Then

Clearly, this result can be extended for nth–order tensors. We can easily
show that at any index ik of an nth–order tensor, multiplication with the
Kronecker delta yields
Ai1 i2 ...ik´1 j ik`1 ...in´1 in δik j “ Ai1 i2 ...ik´1 j ik`1 ...in´1 in δj ik

“ Ai1 i2 ...ik´1 ik ik`1 ...in´1 in .
2. Using the symmetry of δij and the previous identity, we obtain
Aij δij “ Aij δj i “ Aii .
3. Using the symmetry of A yields
1 1
Akl Iklij “ Akl rδki δlj ` δkj δli s “ rAij ` Aj i s “ Aij .
2 2
Since Iij kl “ Iklij , it becomes evident that the second relation
Iij kl Akl “ Aij
also holds.
4. Using the extension of the first identity to fourth–order tensors yields
1 1
Aij mn Imnkl “ Aij mn rδmk δnl ` δml δnk s “ rAij ml δmk ` Aij mk δml s
2 2
1
“ rAij kl ` Aij lk s “ Aij kl
2
and
1 1
Iij mn Amnkl “ Amnkl rδim δj n ` δin δj m s “ rAinkl δj n ` Aj nkl δin s
2 2
1
“ rAij kl ` Aj ikl s “ Aij kl .
2
Note that I itself also possesses the minor symmetries, and thus the
same identity holds for it too.
Bai
5. The partial derivative takes the value 1 when i “ j and is zero when
Baj
i ‰ j . This is similar to the definition of Kronecker delta.
10 1. Tensors
BAij
6. The partial derivative for an arbitrary tensor A is equal to 1 when
BAkl
i “ k and j “ l and zero otherwise. So,
BAij
“ δik δj l .
BAkl
The latter result though does not account for symmetries. To include
the symmetry of A, we can write
BAij 1 B 1 B
“ pAij ` Aj i q ` pAij ` Aj i q
BAkl 4 BAkl 4 BAlk
1
“ rδik δj l ` δj k δil s “ Iij kl .
2
The tensor I is symmetric and thus represents the partial derivative of
symmetric second–order tensor with itself.
Example 2: Hill notation

The fourth–order tensors A and B, expressed in terms of the scalars Ab ,
As ,B b , and B s in the form
hyd
Aij kl “ 3Ab Iij kl ` 2As Idev
ij kl ,
hyd
Bij kl “ 3B b Iij kl ` 2B s Idev
ij kl ,
where
hyd 1 hyd
Iij kl “ δij δkl , Idev
ij kl “ Iij kl ´ Iij kl ,
3
are called isotropic tensors. Prove the following identities:
hyd
1. Aij mn Bmnkl “ Bij mn Amnkl “ 9Ab B b Iij kl ` 4As B s Idev
ij kl .
2. If Aij mn Bmnkl “ Bij mn Amnkl “ Iij kl , then
1 hyd 1 dev
Bij kl “ I ` I .
3Ab ij kl 2As ij kl
Remark:
Due to these interesting identities, a special notation for isotropic
fourth–order tensors is proposed in [5]. According to this notation, an
isotropic tensor A can be represented in the form A “ p3Ab , 2As q. This
allows computations of scalar type when dealing with isotropic tensor al-
gebra.
Solution:
Before passing to the main proofs, we need the following identities:
hyd hyd hyd
Iij mn Imnkl “ Iij kl ,
hyd hyd
Iij mn Idev dev
mnkl “ Iij mn Imnkl “ 0ij kl ,
Idev dev dev

ij mn Imnkl “ Iij kl ,
where 0ij kl is the fourth–order null tensor with all zero terms. For the first
expression,
hyd hyd 1 1 1
Iij mn Imnkl “ δij δmn δmn δkl “ δij δkl δmm
3 3 9
1 3 hyd
“ δij δkl rδ11 ` δ22 ` δ33 s “ δij δkl “ Iij kl .
9 9
For the second and third expressions, note that I hyd exhibits the minor
hyd hyd hyd
symmetries Iij kl “ Ij ikl “ Iij lk , and thus the fourth identity of Example 1
holds. So
hyd hyd hyd hyd hyd
Iij mn Idev
mnkl “ Iij mn rImnkl ´ Imnkl s “ Iij kl ´ Iij kl “ 0ij kl ,
hyd hyd hyd hyd hyd
Idev
ij mn Imnkl “ rIij mn ´ Iij mn sImnkl “ Iij kl ´ Iij kl “ 0ij kl ,
hyd hyd
Idev dev
ij mn Imnkl “ rIij mn ´ Iij mn srImnkl ´ Imnkl s
hyd hyd hyd
“ Iij kl ´ Iij kl ´ Iij kl ` Iij kl “ Idev
ij kl .
With these expressions we can now pass to the main proofs.

1. For the first identity,
hyd hyd
Aij mn Bmnkl “ r3Ab Iij mn ` 2As Idev s dev
ij mn sr3B Imnkl ` 2B Imnkl s
b
hyd hyd
“ 9Ab B b Iij mn Imnkl ` 4As B s Idev dev
ij mn Imnkl
hyd hyd
` 6Ab B s Iij mn Idev s b dev
mnkl ` 6A B Iij mn Imnkl
hyd
“ 9Ab B b Iij kl ` 4As B s Idev
ij kl .
By similar computations we also get the identity

hyd
Bij mn Amnkl “ 9Ab B b Iij kl ` 4As B s Idev
ij kl .
2. For the second identity, using the first yields

hyd hyd
9Ab B b Iij kl ` 4As B s Idev dev
ij kl “ Iij kl ` Iij kl .
12 1. Tensors
From the last expression it becomes evident that
9Ab B b “ 1 and 4As B s “ 1,
or
1 1
3B b “ and 2B s “ .
3Ab 2As
Example 3
A symmetric second–order tensor aij “ aj i can be split into deviatoric
and volumetric/hydrostatic parts, which are also symmetric:
hyd hyd 1
aij “ aj i “ akk δij ,
3
hyd
aijdev “ ajdev
i “ aij ´ aij .
For two symmetric second–order tensors a and b, prove the following

identities:
hyd
dev
1. aij bij “ 0.
dev
2. aij bij “ aijdev bij
dev
.
hyd hyd hyd hyd
3. Iij kl akl “ akl Iklij “ aij and Idev
ij kl akl “ akl Iklij “ aij , where Iij kl and
dev dev
Idev
ij kl are defined in Example 2.
Ba ndv aijdev b
dev dev
4. “ ndv , where a ndv “ akl akl .
Baij a
Solution:
1. For the first identity,
„ j
hyd dev 1 1 1 1
aij bij “ akk δij bij ´ bmm δij “ akk bii ´ akk bmm δii
3 3 3 9
1 1
“ akk bmm ´ akk bmm “ 0.
3 3
2. Using the first identity, we easily prove the second:
” ı
hyd
aijdev bij
dev
“ aij ´ aij dev
bij dev
“ aij bij .
3. We have
hyd 1 1 hyd
Iij kl akl “ δij δkl akl “ akk δij “ aij ,
3
” 3ı
hyd hyd
Idev dev
ij kl akl “ Iij kl ´ Iij kl akl “ aij ´ aij “ aij .
hyd hyd
Since Iij kl “ Iklij and Idev
ij kl “ Iklij , we also get the relations
dev
hyd hyd
akl Iklij “ aij , akl Idev dev
klij “ aij .
4. We split the proof of the fourth identity into two parts:
Ba ndv 1 B ´ dev dev ¯ 1 dev

dev
“ akl akl “ ndv Iklmn akl
Bamn 2a ndv Bamn
dev a
dev dev
akl 1 1 1 dev dev amn
“ rδ km δ ln ` δ kn δ lm s “ ra mn ` a nm s “ ,
a ndv 2 a ndv 2 a ndv
where we used the sixth identity of Example 1, and
dev
Bamn 1 Bakk 1
“ Imnij ´ δmn “ Imnij ´ δmn Ikkij
Baij 3 Baij 3
1 1
“ rδmi δnj ` δmj δni s ´ δmn rδki δkj ` δkj δki s
2 6
1 1
“ rδmi δnj ` δmj δni s ´ δmn δij “ Idev
mnij .
2 3
Since aijdev is symmetric, the second identity of identities 3 holds, that is,
dev dev
akl Iklij “ aijdev .
Thus
Ba ndv Ba ndv Bamn

dev a dev dev aijdev
“ dev “ mn I “ .
Baij Bamn Baij a ndv mnij a ndv
1.5 Voigt notation: general aspects
Until now, the notion of tensors has been presented. Numerical compu-
tations using tensorial or indicial notation can be quite cumbersome, espe-
cially when dealing with operations related to fourth–order tensors. In the
present chapter, we discuss the well–known Voigt notation, which allows
us to transform tensorial operations to matrix operations. The reader is re-
quired to have some basic knowledge about vector and matrix operations.
The Voigt notation is a practical way to represent second– and fourth–
order symmetric tensors in vector and matrix form, respectively. The Voigt
representation substitutes two indices i, j with one index I according to
14 1. Tensors
the rule2
"
i, i “ j,
I“
1 ` ri ` j s, i ‰ j.
Let us write the Voigt representation in detail:
first second resultant

tensorial tensorial Voigt
index index index
i j I
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
1 2 4
2 1 4
1 3 5
3 1 5
2 3 6
3 2 6
With this interchange rule we have the following:

• A symmetric second–order tensor a is characterized by the property
aij “ aj i . It is usually represented as the 3 ˆ 3 matrix
» fi
a11 a12 a13
a “ – a12 a22 a23 fl .
a13 a23 a33
Since a has only six independent components, we can also express it as

a 6 ˆ 1 vector. There are two types of vectors considered in the Voigt
notation, the “s” type and the “e” type,
» fi » fi » fi » fi
σ11 σ1 ε11 ε1
—σ22 ffi —σ2 ffi — ε22 ffi — ε2 ffi
— ffi — ffi — ffi — ffi
—σ33 ffi —σ3 ffi — ε33 ffi — ε3 ffi
σ “— ffi “ — ffi and r ε “ —2ε12 ffi “ —2ε4 ffi ,
— ffi — ffi
—σ12 ffi —σ4 ffi
— ffi — ffi — ffi — ffi
–σ13 fl –σ5 fl –2ε13 fl –2ε5 fl
σ23 σ6 2ε23 2ε6
respectively. The factor 2 appearing on the “e” type is very useful when
performing various tensor operations, as it will become clear further.
2 In the classical continuum mechanics studies the indices i “ 2, j “ 3 or i “ 3, j “ 2 corre-
spond to I “ 4, and the indices i “ 1, j “ 2 or i “ 2, j “ 1 correspond to I “ 6. Here we adopt
a slight modification in the Voigt convention.
• A fourth–order tensor that has minor symmetries (i.e., Aij kl “ Aj ikl “

Aij lk ) represents a linear relation between symmetric second–order ten-
sors; it has only 36 independent components and can be represented as a
6 ˆ 6 matrix. The two Voigt representations of second–order tensors ne-
cessitate the identification of four Voigt representations of fourth–order
tensors. The standard 6 ˆ 6 matrix form is
» fi
A1111 A1122 A1133 A1112 A1113 A1123
—A2211 A2222 A2233 A2212 A2213 A2223 ffi
— ffi
—A3311 A3322 A3333 A3312 A3313 A3323 ffi
A“—
—A1211
ffi,
— A1222 A1233 A1212 A1213 A1223 ffi
ffi
–A1311 A1322 A1333 A1312 A1313 A1323 fl
A2311 A2322 A2333 A2312 A2313 A2323
written for simplicity as
» fi
A11 A12 A13 A14 A15 A16
—A21 A22 A23 A24 A25 A26 ffi
— ffi
—A31 A32 A33 A34 A35 A36 ffi
A“—
—A41
ffi,
— A42 A43 A44 A45 A46 ffi
ffi
–A51 A52 A53 A54 A55 A56 fl
A61 A62 A63 A64 A65 A66
where the four indices i, j, k, l are substituted with two indices I, J fol-
lowing the notation:
first second resultant first second resultant

tensorial tensorial Voigt tensorial tensorial Voigt
index index index index index index
i j I k l J
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3
1 2 4 1 2 4
2 1 4 2 1 4
1 3 5 1 3 5
3 1 5 3 1 5
2 3 6 2 3 6
3 2 6 3 2 6
16 1. Tensors
The three additional matrix forms that can be identified are [6]
» fi
A11 A12 A13 A14 A15 A16
— A21 A22 A23 A24 A25 A26 ffi
— ffi
— A31 A32 A33 A34 A35 A36 ffi
A“—
r — ffi,
—2A41 2A42 2A43 2A44 2A45 2A46 ffi
ffi
–2A51 2A52 2A53 2A54 2A55 2A56 fl
2A61 2A62 2A63 2A64 2A65 2A66
» fi
A11 A12 A13 2A14 2A15 2A16
—A21
— A22 A23 2A24 2A25 2A26 ffi
ffi
—A31 A32 A33 2A34 2A35 2A36 ffi
A“—
q ffi,
—A41
— A42 A43 2A44 2A45 2A46 ffi
ffi
–A51 A52 A53 2A54 2A55 2A56 fl
A61 A62 A63 2A64 2A65 2A66
» fi
A11 A12 A13 2A14 2A15 2A16
— A21
— A22 A23 2A24 2A25 2A26 ffi
ffi
p “ — A31
— A32 A33 2A34 2A35 2A36 ffi
A —2A41
ffi.
— 2A42 2A43 4A44 4A45 4A46 ffi
ffi
–2A51 2A52 2A53 4A54 4A55 4A56 fl
2A61 2A62 2A63 4A64 4A65 4A66
1.6 Operations using the Voigt notation
Using the representations described above for second– and fourth–

order tensors, we can simplify various tensorial operations.
Considering the two types of second–order tensors, we can write the
scalar tensorial product
W “ σij ε ij
with the help of matrix operations as
W “ σ T ·r εT · σ ,
ε, or W “ r
where the symbol p · q in the Voigt notation denotes the classical matrix
multiplication, and the superscript T is the usual transpose operator. With
regard to fourth–order tensors, we easily show that the tensorial products
0
r
σij “ Lij kl εkl , εij “ Mij kl σkl , εij “ Tij kl εkl , σijr “ Hij kl σkl0 (1.7)
can be written using matrix multiplication as
σ “ L ·r
ε, x·σ, r
ε“M
r ε0 ,
εr “ Tr ·r q · σ 0.
σr “ H (1.8)
In certain occasions, tensorial products appear in which the second–order

tensor is the first and the fourth–order tensor is the second, that is,
0
r
σkl “ εij Pij kl , εkl “ σij Qij kl , εkl “ εij Fij kl , σklr “ σij0 Gij kl .
Using matrix multiplication, we write these expressions as
εT · P , r
σT “ r ε T “ σ T · Q,
p rr ε 0 sT · F
εr sT “ rr q, rσ r sT “ rσ 0 sT · G.
r
Motivated by relations (1.8), we can name the different forms of a fourth–

order tensor A as follows:
• the form A as “s–e” type,
• the form A
p as “e–s” type,
• the form A
r as “e–e” type, and
• the form A
q as “s–s” type.
Additionally to the above expressions, we can write the dyadic products
Aij kl “ σij εkl , Bij kl “ εij σkl , Cij kl “ εij εkl , Dij kl “ σij σkl
using matrix multiplications as
A εT , B
q “ σ ·r ε·σT , C
r “r εT , D “ σ · σ T .
ε ·r
p “r
An obvious property is that the four matrix representations for the fourth–
order tensors respect the usual matrix summation and multiplication by a
scalar c:
# # #
Cij kl “ Aij kl ` Bij kl ùñ C “ A ` B,
# #
Bij kl “ cAij kl ùñ B “ cA,
#
where t‚u is any of the four types.
Multiplication identities of fourth–order tensors

For fourth–order tensors that respect minor symmetries, the double
contraction product of Aij kl and Bij kl provides the tensor Cij kl for which
we have
Cij kl “ Aij mn Bmnkl .
In matrix notation this is written as
C “ A · B.
r
18 1. Tensors
Using this relation, we can also show that
A·Br “Aq · B “ C, r ·B
A p · B “ C,
r “A r
q ·B
A q “ A·B p “ C,
q r ·B
A p ·B
p “A q “ C.
p
The above multiplications are expressed in symbolic (type) form as
“s–e” · “e–e” or “s–s” · “s–e” Ñ “s–e”,

“e–e” · “e–e” or “e–s” · “s–e” Ñ “e–e”,
“s–s” · “s–s” or “s–e” · “e–s” Ñ “s–s”,
“e–e” · “e–s” or “e–s” · “s–s” Ñ “e–s”.
Transpose identities of fourth–order tensors

For fourth–order tensors that respect minor symmetries, the transpose
of B is defined as the tensor A with
Aij kl “ BijT kl “ Bklij .
We can easily show that, in the Voigt notation,
B T “ A, p T “ A,
B p r T “ A,
B q q T “ A.
B r
The latter operations are expressed in symbolic (type) form as
“s–e”T Ñ “s–e”, “e–s”T Ñ “e–s”, “e–e”T Ñ “s–s”, “s–s”T Ñ “e–e”.
Inversion identities of fourth–order tensors

For fourth–order tensors that respect minor symmetries, the inverse of
1
Lij kl is the tensor Mij kl “ L´
ij kl , for which
1
Lij mn Mmnkl “ Iij kl “ rδik δj l ` δil δj k s.
2
In matrix notation, this expression can be written as
» fi
1 0 0 0 0 0
—0 1 0 0 0 0ffi
— ffi
—0 0 1 0 0 0ffi
L·M “ I “ —
Ă — ffi.
—0 0 0 0.5 0 0ffiffi
–0 0 0 0 0.5 0 fl
0 0 0 0 0 0.5
The above relation can be written in the following ways:
L·M
x“I p ·M “ I
q, L r ·M
r, L Ă“I q ·M
r, L |“I
q,
» fi
1 0 0 0 0 0
—0 1 0 0 0 0ffi
— ffi
I q “ —0
r “I 0 1 0 0 0ffi
—
ffi.
—0 0 0 1 0 0ffi
— ffi
–0 0 0 0 1 0fl
0 0 0 0 0 1
Thus, in the Voigt notation, we have the following properties:
L´1 “ M,
x p ´1 “ M,
L r ´1 “ M,
L Ă q ´1 “ M.
L |
The latter operations are expressed in symbolic (type) form as
“s–e”´1 Ñ “e–s”, “e–s”´1 Ñ “s–e”,

“e–e”´1 Ñ “e–e”, “s–s”´1 Ñ “s–s”.
A summary of the various properties and the connection between indicial

and Voigt notations is presented in Table 1.1.
1.7 Tensor rotation in Voigt notation
General case
As already discussed in the chapter, a second–order tensor A in the
global coordinate system with basis ei can be rotated to obtain the tensor
A1 in a local coordinate system with basis e1i through the relation
A1ij “ Rmi Rnj Amn . (1.9)
A usual rotator tensor R is a second–order orthogonal tensor (Rij Rik “

Rj i Rki “ Ij k ) which can be written as a 3 ˆ 3 matrix
» fi
R11 R12 R13
R “ –R21 R22 R23 fl .
R31 R32 R33
If a rotation ϑ is performed around the axis i with i “1, 2, or 3, then the

rotator tensor is written as [1]
» fi » fi
1 0 0 cos ϑ 0 sin ϑ
R 1 “ –0 cos ϑ ´ sin ϑ fl , R 2 “ – 0 1 0 fl,
0 sin ϑ cos ϑ ´ sin ϑ 0 cos ϑ
» fi
cos ϑ ´ sin ϑ 0
R 3 “ – sin ϑ cos ϑ 0fl ,
0 0 1
20 1. Tensors
TABLE 1.1 Tensor operations in indicial, tensorial, and Voigt notations.

The symbol # above a fourth–order tensor denotes any of the four Voigt types.
Indicial Tensorial Voigt
W “ σij εij “ εij σij W “ σ : ε “ ε: σ W “ σ T ·r εT · σ
ε“r
σij “ Lij kl εkl σ “ L: ε σ “ L ·r
ε
εij “ Mij kl σkl ε “M:σ x·σ
ε“M
r
r “T
εij 0
ij kl εkl εr “ T : ε0 r ε0
εr “ Tr ·r
0
σijr “ Hij kl σkl σr “ H :σ0 q ·σ0
σr “ H
σij “ εij Lij kl σ “ ε: L εT · L
σT “ r
εij “ σij Mij kl ε “σ:M εT “ σ T · M
r x
σijr “ σij0 Tij kl σr “ σ0:T rσ r sT “ rσ 0 sT · Tr
r “ ε0 H
εij ij ij kl εr “ ε0 : H rr ε 0 sT · H
εr sT “ rr q
Lij kl “ σij σkl L“σ bσ L “ σ ·σT

Mij kl “ εij εkl M “εbε M
x“r εT
ε ·r
Tij kl “ εij σkl T “εbσ ε·σT
Tr “ r
Hij kl “ σij εkl H “σ bε H εT
q “ σ ·r
# # #
Cij kl “ Aij kl ` Bij kl C “A`B C “A`B
# #
Bij kl “ cAij kl B “ cA B “ cA
Lij kl “ Aij mn Bmnkl L “ A: B L “ A·Br “Aq ·B
Mij kl “ Aij mn Bmnkl M “ A: B M

x“A r ·Bp “Ap ·B
q
Tij kl “ Aij mn Bmnkl T “ A: B r ·B
Tr “ A r “Ap ·B
Hij kl “ Aij mn Bmnkl H “ A: B Hq “Aq ·B

q “ A·Bp
LTij kl “ Aij kl LT “ A LT “ A
MijT “A
ij kl MT “ A xT “ A
M p
kl
T
Tij kl “ Aij kl TT “A Tr T “ A
q
HijT kl “ Aij kl HT “ A qT “A
H r
L´ 1
ij kl “ Aij kl L ´1 “ A L´1 “ A
p
´1 x ´1 “ A
Mij kl “ Aij kl M ´1 “ A M
´1
Tij kl “ Aij kl T ´1 “ A Tr ´1 “ A
r
Hij´kl1 “ Aij kl H ´1 “ A q ´1 “ A
H q
respectively. When A is expressed also as a 3 ˆ 3 matrix, (1.9) can be rewrit-

ten in matrix form as
A1 “ R T · A · R .
Although this matrix representation is convenient, extending it to fourth–

order tensors is impossible as long as R appears in the 3 ˆ 3 form.
For a symmetric second–order tensor A, a rotation yields another sym-

metric second–order tensor A1 , and we can identify a Voigt fourth–order
rotator tensor with minor symmetries that links the two second–order ten-
sors through the relation
A1ij “ Qij mn Amn , Qij mn “ Rmi Rnj .
In the above expression, Qij mn denotes the rotation from global to local
coordinates and is written in matrix form as
»
R112 2
R21 2
R31 R11 R21 R11 R31 R21 R31
fi
— ffi
—
— R12 2 2
R22 2
R32 R12 R22 R12 R32 R22 R32
ffi
ffi
— ffi
— ffi
— R2 2 2
— ffi
— 13 R23 R33 R13 R23 R13 R33 R23 R33 ffi
ffi
— ffi
Q“— R12 R21 ` R11 R22 R12 R31 ` R11 R32 R22 R31 ` R21 R32 ffi.
— ffi
— R11 R12 R21 R22 R31 R32 ffi
—
— 2 2 2 ffi
ffi
— ffi
—
— R R R13 R21 ` R11 R23 R13 R31 ` R11 R33 R23 R31 ` R21 R33 ffi
— 11 13 R21 R23 R31 R33 ffi
2 2 2
ffi
— ffi
— ffi
R13 R22 ` R12 R23 R13 R32 ` R12 R33 R23 R32 ` R22 R33
– fl
R12 R13 R22 R23 R32 R33
2 2 2
Due to the orthogonality of R, we can easily verify that
Aij “ Qmnij A1mn .
Using the properties of the fourth–order tensors identified previously, we

can express a rotation of an “s” type second–order tensor in the Voigt no-
tation as
q ·σ ,
σ1 “ Q r T · σ 1.
σ “Q
Similarly, we can express a rotation of an “e” type second–order tensor in

the Voigt notation as
ε1 “ Q
r r ·r
ε, ε“Q
r ε1 .
q T ·r
With the help of Q and its various Voigt forms, four types of rotations for
fourth–order tensors appear:
• For a fourth–order tensor L of “s–e” type (σ “ L ·r
ε ), we have
q ·σ “ Q
σ1 “ Q q · L ·r
ε“Q q ·L·Q q T ·rε1 ,
r T ·σ1 “ Q
σ “Q ε1 “ Q
r T · L1 ·r r T · L1 · Q
r ·r
ε.
These expressions lead to the conclusion that
q T and L “ Q
q ·L·Q
L1 “ Q r T · L1 · Q.
r
22 1. Tensors
• For a fourth–order tensor M

x of “e–s” type (r x · σ ), we have
ε“M
ε1 “ Q
r r ·r
ε“Q r ·M
x·σ “ Q r ·M
x·Q r T · σ 1,
ε“Q
r ε1 “ Q
q T ·r x1 · σ 1 “ Q
q T ·M x1 · Q
q T ·M q ·σ.
x1 “ Q
M r ·M r T and M
x·Q x“Q x1 · Q.
q T ·M q
ε0 ), we have
ε r “ Tr ·r
• For a fourth–order tensor Tr of “e–e” type (r
1 1
εr “ Q
r εr “ Q
r ·r ε0 “ Q
r · Tr ·r ε0 ,
q T ·r
r · Tr · Q
1 1
εr “ Q
r q T ·r
εr “ Q ε0 “ Q
q T · Tr 1 ·r q T · Tr 1 · Q ε0 .
r ·r
Tr 1 “ Q q T · Tr 1 · Q.
q T and Tr “ Q
r · Tr · Q r
q · σ 0 ), we have
q of “s–s” type (σ r “ H
• For a fourth–order tensor H
1 1
q ·σr “ Q
σr “ Q q ·H
q ·σ0 “ Q
q ·H r T ·σ0 ,
q ·Q
r T · σ r1 “ Q
σr “ Q q 1 · σ 01 “ Q
r T ·H q 1 ·Q
r T ·H q · σ 0.
q1“Q
H q ·H r T and H
q ·Q q “Q q 1 · Q.
r T ·H q
A summary of proper tensor rotations using the Voigt notation is given in

Table 1.2.
TABLE 1.2 Rotation of second– and fourth–order tensors using

the Voigt notation. Q is the Voigt 6 ˆ 6 matrix rotator.
Tensor order From global to local From local to global
2 σ1 “ Q
q ·σ r T ·σ1
σ “Q
2 ε1 “ Q
r r ·r
ε ε“Q
r ε1
q T ·r
4 L1 “ Q qT
q ·L·Q r T · L1 · Q
L“Q r
4 x1 “ Q
M r ·M rT
x·Q M
x“Q x1 · Q
q T ·M q
4 Tr 1 “ Q qT
r · Tr · Q q T · Tr 1 · Q
Tr “ Q r
4 q1 “Q
H q ·H rT
q ·Q H
q “Q q 1 ·Q
r T ·H q
Reduction to 2–D
In plates and laminate structures the thickness is very small compared
to the other two dimensions. This allows us, under certain conditions, to
approximately represent all mechanical fields and equations using 2–D
type of tensors. Specifically, setting the axis 3 as the thickness direction,
the stress (“s” type) and strain (“e” type) tensors are expressed as
» fi » fi
σ11 ε11
σ “ –σ22 fl , ε “ – ε22 fl .
r
σ12 2ε12
A fourth–order tensor A of “s–e” type should also appear in the reduced

form
» fi
A1111 A1122 A1112
A “ –A2211 A2222 A2212 fl .
A1211 A1222 A1212
The other three types of A are produced in similar manner with the 3–D
case:
» fi
A1111 A1122 A1112
A
r “ – A2211 A2222 A2212 fl ,
2A1211 2A1222 2A1212
» fi
A1111 A1122 2A1112
A
q “ –A2211 A2222 2A2212 fl ,
A1211 A1222 2A1212
» fi
A1111 A1122 2A1112
A
p “ – A2211 A2222 2A2212 fl .
2A1211 2A1222 4A1212
All the operations described in Table 1.1 hold for the 2–D tensors. Rotating
these tensors in the plane of the structure requires a single angle and the
use of the corresponding rotator, which in the classical notation is written
as
» fi
cos ϑ ´ sin ϑ 0
R “ – sin ϑ cos ϑ 0fl .
0 0 1
24 1. Tensors
The R in the Voigt notation for 2–D problems is written as the 3ˆ3 matrix
cos2 ϑ sin2 ϑ
» fi
cos ϑ sin ϑ
— ffi
— ffi
— sin2 ϑ cos2 ϑ ´ cos ϑ sin ϑffi
Q“—
—
ffi.
ffi
— ffi
2 2
– cos ϑ ´ sin ϑ fl
´ cos ϑ sin ϑ cos ϑ sin ϑ
2
Considering this reduced rotation matrix, all the relations presented in Ta-
ble 1.2 hold for 2–D tensors.
1.8 Examples in Voigt notation operations
Example 1
Assume that A is a fourth–order tensor that connects two “e” type
1 “A
second–order tensors (εij 2 ˚
ij kl εkl ) and L and L are fourth–order ten-
sors that connect “s” and “e” type second–order tensors (σij1 “ Lij kl εkl
1 and
2 ˚ 2
σij “ Lij kl εkl ).
1. Identify the product
1
Bij kl “ L˚ij mn Amnpq L´
pqkl (1.10)
using the Voigt notation.

2. Let the tensors A, L, and L˚ in their classical matrix form be equal to
» fi
1.6656 ´0.0009 0.2148 0.0083 0.0106 0.0202
—
— ´0.0009 1.6656 0.2148 0.0083 0.0106 0.0202 ffi
ffi
— 0 0 1 0 0 0 ffi
A“— ffi,
—
— 0.0075 0.0075 0 0.4166 0 0 ffi
ffi
– 0.0066 0.0066 0 0 0.4166 0 fl
0.0098 0.0098 0 0 0 0.4166
» fi
344.08 329.46 285.62 0 0 0
—
— 329.46 344.08 285.62 0 0 0 ffi
ffi
— 285.62 285.62 42600.79 0 0 0 ffi
L“— ffi,
—
— 0 0 0 7.31 0 0 ffi
ffi
– 0 0 0 0 7.38 0 fl
0 0 0 0 0 7.38
» fi
204.205 197.881 197.881 0 0 0
—
— 197.881 204.205 197.881 0 0 0 ffi
ffi
˚
— 197.881 197.881 204.205 0 0 0 ffi
L “— ffi.
—
— 0 0 0 3.162 0 0 ffi
ffi
– 0 0 0 0 3.162 0 fl
0 0 0 0 0 3.162
Compute the components B1112 , B2322 , and B1313 .

Solution:
Taking into account the nature of the given fourth–order tensors, we
can write the product of (1.10) in the Voigt notation as
L˚ · A
r · L´ 1 .
According to the properties presented in Table 1.1, we have:

• L´1 renders to be of “e–s” type (M).
x
• The product A · M yields the “e–s” type C.
r x p
• The product L˚ · C
p yields the “s–s” type B.
q
As a conclusion, the Voigt notation transforms the tensorial relation (1.10)

into the matrix–type relation
q “ L˚ · A
B r · L´ 1 . (1.11)
Concerning the second question, initially, we have to transform the tensor

A into its “e–e” type form
» fi
1.6656 ´0.0009 0.2148 0.0083 0.0106 0.0202
—
— ´0.0009 1.6656 0.2148 0.0083 0.0106 0.0202 ffi
ffi
— 0 0 1 0 0 0 ffi
A
r “— ffi.
—
— 0.015 0.015 0 0.8332 0 0 ffi
ffi
– 0.0132 0.0132 0 0 0.8332 0 fl
0.0196 0.0196 0 0 0 0.8332
The Voigt notation product (1.11) yields

» fi
0.857 0.137 9.56E ´ 6 0.457 0.578 1.101
—
— 0.137 0.857 9.56E ´ 6 0.457 0.578 1.101 ffi
ffi
— 0.489 0.489 2.32E ´ 4 0.449 0.568 1.083 ffi
B “—
q ffi.
—
— 7.08E ´ 5 7.08E ´ 5 ´9.5E ´ 7 0.36 0 0 ffi
ffi
– 6.23E ´ 5 6.23E ´ 5 ´8.36E ´ 7 0 0.357 0 fl
9.25E ´ 5 9.25E ´ 5 ´1.24E ´ 6 0 0 0.357
26 1. Tensors
Thus the classical matrix form of B is

» fi
0.857 0.137 9.56E ´ 6 0.229 0.289 0.551
— 0.137 0.857 9.56E ´6 0.229 0.289 0.551 ffi
— ffi
— 0.489 0.489 2.32E ´ 4 0.225 0.284 0.542 ffi
B “— — 7.08E ´ 5 7.08E ´ 5 ´9.5E ´ 7
ffi.
— 0.18 0 0 ffi
ffi
– 6.23E ´ 5 6.23E ´ 5 ´8.36E ´ 7 0 0.179 0 fl
9.25E ´ 5 9.25E ´ 5 ´1.24E ´ 6 0 0 0.179
In the matrix form of B the required components correspond to the ele-

ments B14 , B52 , and B55 . So
B1112 “ 0.229, B2322 “ 9.25E ´ 5, B1313 “ 0.179.
Example 2
Consider two “s–e” type tensors L and L˚ and an “e–e” type tensor S.r
Using the “e–e” type of the symmetric identity tensor I and operations in
r
the Voigt notation, show that the fourth–order tensor
” ı´1
Tij kl “ Iij kl ` Sij mn L´ 1 ˚
mnpq rLpqkl ´ Lpqkl s (1.12)
is of “e–e” type.
Solution:
To solve this problem, we will use the properties presented in Table 1.1.
• Since L is of “s–e” type, its inverse Mmnpq “ L´ 1
mnpq , computed through
classical matrix inversion, is of “e–s” type (M).
x
• Since L and L are of “s–e” type, the difference Ldpqkl “ Lpqkl ´ L˚pqkl ,
˚
computed through classical matrix subtraction, is of “s–e” type too (Ld ).

• The product M x · Ld yields the “e–e” type C.r
• The product S r ·Cr yields the “e–e” type D.
r
• The sum I ` D yields the “e–e” type E.
r r r
• The inverse Er ´1 yields the “e–e” type Tr .
As a conclusion, the Voigt notation transforms the tensorial relation (1.12)

into the matrix–type relation
” ı´1
Tr “ I r · L´1 · rL ´ L˚ s
r `S .
Example 3
In elastoplastic materials it is very common to introduce the notion of
“tangent modulus”, which is an algorithmic path–dependent fourth–order
References 27
tensor that defines a relation between the increments of total stress and
total strain. A typical formula for calculating the tangent modulus D of a
J2 elastoplastic material with linear isotropic hardening is the following:
1
Dij kl “ Lij mn mn Lklpq pq , a “ rs Lrstu tu ` H, (1.13)
a
where L is the fourth–order elasticity tensor, is the second–order plastic
flow direction tensor, and H is the hardening related scalar.
Using the Voigt notation, express (1.13) in matrix form.
Solution:
Both D and L are “s–e” type fourth–order tensors. Starting by the triple
product rs Lrstu tu , we should notice that the tensor should appear in
“e” type form for having a proper matrix multiplication. Indeed, with the
help of Table 1.1, we observe that:
• Using the “e” type form of ,r the tensor Zrs “ Lrstu tu is written as
Z “ L·r and is of “s” type.
• The double contraction between and Z can be expressed as r T · Z.
With regard to the tensorial product Lij mn mn Lklpq pq of (1.13), we can
substitute it with the dyadic product Zij Zkl . Since Z is of “s” type, the
operation Z·Z T gives an “s–e” type fourth–order tensor. Thus we conclude
that D can be computed from the relation
1 ” ı
rT ·Z ` H ,
D “ Z · ZT , a“ Z “ L · .
r
a
References
[1] W.M. Lai, D. Rubin, E. Krempl, Introduction to continuum mechanics, 4th ed., Elsevier,
Burlington, 2010.
[2] P.G. Ciarlet, An Introduction to Differential Geometry with Applications to Elasticity,
Journal of Elasticity 78-79 (1–3) (2005) 1–215.
[3] P. Steinmann, On boundary potential energies in deformational and configurational me-
chanics, Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids 56 (3) (2008) 772–800.
[4] P. Steinmann, Geometrical Foundations of Continuum Mechanics: An Application to
First– and Second–Order Elasticity and Elasto–Plasticity, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2015.
[5] R. Hill, Continuum micro–mechanics of elastoplastic polycrystals, Journal of the Me-
chanics and Physics of Solids 13 (1965) 89–101.
[6] G. Chatzigeorgiou, N. Charalambakis, Y. Chemisky, F. Meraghni, Thermomechanical Be-
havior of Dissipative Composite Materials, ISTE Press – Elsevier, London, 2018.
C H A P T E R
2
Continuum mechanics
O U T L I N E
2.1 Strain 29
2.2 Stress 32
2.3 Elasticity 34
2.3.1 General aspects 34
2.3.2 Special symmetries 36
2.4 Reduction to 2–D problems 46
2.4.1 Plane strain 47
2.4.2 Plane stress 49
2.5 Examples 50
References 53
2.1 Strain
To understand the notion of strains, let us consider a continuum body,

which initially (at time t0 ) occupies the space B0 . Under mechanical load-
ing, the body moves and deforms, and at time t, it occupies the space B.
The movement of any material point Q with respect to a fixed point O
(arbitrary origin of coordinates) can be described in two ways: with a) a
position vector X of the initial configuration and b) the position vector x
of the final configuration (Fig. 2.1). Whereas X is fixed for every material
point, x changes with time. Both vectors refer to Cartesian coordinate sys-
tems and are connected through the (generally, nonlinear) relations
xi :“ xi pX, tq (2.1)
Multiscale Modeling Approaches for Composites

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-823143-2.00011-4 29 Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
30 2. Continuum mechanics
FIGURE 2.1 Continuum body movement and deformation due to mechanical loading.
for i “ 1, 2, 3 when referring to 3–D spaces. The position change of the

point Q can be defined with the help of the displacement vector u, whose
spatial components are given by the expression
ui pX, tq “ xi pX, tq ´ Xi . (2.2)
Furthermore, let Q1 be a neighbor point of Q with infinitesimal distance

dX at time t0 . At time t, the mechanical loading causes Q1 to move to a dis-
tance dx from X. The change of the distance vector dX to dx is expressed
in a differential form by the indicial relation
„ j
Bxi Bui
dxi “ dXj “ δij ` dXj “ Fij dXj , (2.3)
BXj BXj
where the second–order tensor F is called the deformation gradient. Note

that under specific loading conditions, the movement and deformation of
the body are unique, which means that there is a one–to–one mapping
between X and x. The difference of the lengths of the vectors dX and dx
is given by
dxi dxi ´ dXi dXi “ rFij dXj s rFik dXk s ´ dXi dXi
“ dXj rFij Fik ´ δj k s dXk “ 2dXj Ej k dXk , (2.4)
where E is the second–order Green–Lagrange strain tensor. This tensor

has the following properties:
1. It is zero when rigid body motion occurs. A rigid body motion can be
either a translation (Fij “ δij ) or a rotation (Fij Fik “ δj k ). Both choices
of F yield Eij “ 0.
2.1 Strain 31
2. It can be determined exclusively by the displacement vector u. Indeed,

from Eqs. (2.2) and (2.3) we can obtain
1
Eij “ rFki Fkj ´ δij s
2 „„ j„ j j
1 Buk Buk
“ δki ` δkj ` ´ δij
2 BXi BXj
„ j
1 Bui Buj Buk Buk
“ ` ` . (2.5)
2 BXj BXi BXi BXj
In the framework of small deformations and small rotations, the quadratic
term
Buk Buk
BXi BXj
is very small compared to the first–order terms and can be ignored. In
addition, the position changes can be considered insignificant, allowing
us to avoid distinction between x and X. Thus we can utilize only one
position vector, for instance, x. With this in mind, the following definition
follows:
B OX 2 . 1 S t r a i n t e n s o r
The infinitesimal strain tensor ε is of second order, and its components are
defined by the relations
„ j
1 Bui Buj
εij “ ` . (2.6)
2 Bxj Bxi
For the rest of this book, the term “strain” will refer to the infinitesimal
strain tensor. From its definition it is clear that ε is symmetric. Thus, as
already discussed in the previous chapter, it can be represented as a 3 ˆ 3
matrix
» fi
ε11 ε12 ε13
ε “ – ε12 ε22 ε23 fl
ε13 ε23 ε33
or as a 6 ˆ 1 vector in the Voigt notation

» fi
ε11
— ε22 ffi
— ffi
— ε33 ffi
ε“— — ffi.
—2ε12 ffi
r ffi
–2ε13 fl
2ε23
Geometrically, the six components of the strain denote the following:

• ε11 is the change in length divided by the initial length of an infinitesi-
mal element originally in the x1 direction,
• 2ε12 is the change in angle between two infinitesimal elements originally
in the x1 and x2 directions,
in the x1 and x3 directions,
in the x2 and x3 directions.
Using definition (2.6) of the strain tensor, the following compatibility con-
ditions hold:
B 2 εij B 2 εkl B 2 εik B 2 εj l
` “ ` , i, j, k, l “ 1, 2, 3. (2.7)
Bxk Bxl Bxi Bxj Bxj Bxl Bxi Bxk
2.2 Stress
Consider the body of Fig. 2.2. A plane S having unit normal vector n
crosses the body and passes through an arbitrary internal point Q. This
plane separates the medium into two portions, denoted as I and II in
FIGURE 2.2 Continuum body under mechanical loading: a surface cut and the reaction
force passing through a point Q of the surface S.
2.2 Stress 33
Fig. 2.2. Considering the portion I, on the plane S, there exists a resultant
force F acting on a small area A containing Q. The traction vector t
acting from II to I at the point Q on the plane S is defined as the limit of
the ratio F {A as A becomes infinitesimally small,
F
t “ lim . (2.8)
AÑ0 A
The stress principle of Cauchy states the following [1]: The traction vec-
tor at any given place and time has a common value on all parts of material
having a common tangent plane at Q and lying on the same side of it. In
other words, if n is the unit outward normal (i.e., a vector of unit length
pointing outward, away from the material) to the tangent plane, then
t :“ tpx, t, nq,
where the scalar t denotes time.
B OX 2 . 2 S t r e s s t e n s o r
The dependence of the traction vector on the outward normal vector n can
be expressed in indicial notation with the help of a linear transformation σ as
ti “ σij nj . (2.9)
The second order tensor σ is called Cauchy’s stress tensor.
For the rest of the book, the term “stress” will refer to Cauchy’s stress
tensor.
For a continuum body, the conservation principles should hold. Specif-
ically, under the absence of body (or volume) moments, the conservation
of angular momentum leads to the conclusion that the stress is a symmet-
ric second–order tensor [1,2]. Thus it can be represented either as a 3 ˆ 3
matrix
» fi
σ11 σ12 σ13
σ “ – σ12 σ22 σ23 fl
σ13 σ23 σ33
or as a 6 ˆ 1 vector in the Voigt notation

» fi
σ11
—σ22 ffi
— ffi
—σ33 ffi
σ “——σ12 ffi .
ffi
— ffi
–σ13 fl
σ23
In addition, the conservation of linear momentum, ignoring inertia effects

and body forces, yields the equilibrium equations [1,2], which in indicial
notation are written as
Bσij
“ 0. (2.10)
Bxj
2.3 Elasticity
2.3.1 General aspects

Linear elasticity is the simplest case of material behavior for engineers.
It represents fully reversible material response, which is characterized by
linear relation between kinetics (stress) and kinematics (strain) variables.
The mechanical state of an elastic material is uniquely described by the
boundary conditions at which it is subjected, without prior knowledge of
the loading path: for a known state of strain (or stress), the material point
experiences a specific state of stress (or strain).
When dealing with large deformation processes, the elastic response
may present certain nonlinearity. For the scope of the current chapter, the
discussion is limited to small deformation and small rotation processes, in
which the elastic materials are always considered to exhibit elastic behav-
ior.
The elastic materials in the 3–D space are described from a constitutive
relation between the stress and strain second–order tensors. This relation
is defined with the help of a unique scalar potential W , denoting the elastic
energy. In fact, the stress is given as the derivative of the energy potential
with respect to strain following the expression
BW
σij “ . (2.11)
Bεij
An appropriate form of this potential considering small deformations can

be found as follows [3]: In a purely elastic material the elastic energy W
can be written in a Taylor series expanded form
1
W “ L0 ` L1ij εij ` εij Lij kl εkl ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ,
2
where L0 is a constant, L1ij is a second–order tensor, and Lij kl is a fourth–
order tensor. Owing to the assumption of small deformations, higher–
order terms on strain can be neglected. The constant L0 can be arbitrarily
selected equal to 0, whereas L1 can also be zero, as long as there are no
pre–stress conditions inside the material. Thus the only remaining term is
quadratic. This, combined with (2.11), leads to the following:
2.3 Elasticity 35
B OX 2 . 3 E l a s t i c i t y t e n s o r
In a linear elastic medium, the strain tensor ε and the stress tensor σ are
connected with the help of the fourth–order elasticity tensor L according to
the formula
σ “ L: ε or σij “ Lij kl εkl . (2.12)
The latter expression, which is a generalization of the Hooke law in the

3–D space, and the existence of a unique W provide valuable information
about the structure of the elasticity tensor:
• Due to the symmetry of the stress tensor (σij “ σj i ), L should present
minor symmetry in the first two indices, that is, Lij kl “ Lj ikl .
• Due to the symmetry of the strain tensor (εij “ εj i ), Eq. (2.12) can be
written as
1
σij “ rLij kl ` Lij lk s εkl .
2
Since there is no real experiment that allows the distinction of Lij kl and
Lij lk , a reasonable assumption is that the L tensor exhibits also minor
symmetry in the last two indices, that is, Lij kl “ Lij lk .
• The uniqueness of the elastic energy potential
1
W “ εij Lij kl εkl
2
clearly indicates major symmetry in L, allowing interchange between

the first and the last two indices, that is, Lij kl “ Lklij .
In conclusion, a real elastic material under small deformation processes is
described by a fourth–order elasticity tensor that exhibits minor and major
symmetries,
Lij kl “ Lj ikl “ Lij lk “ Lklij .
Due to the latter result, the elasticity tensor can have only 21 independent
material coefficients: the 81 components of a general fourth–order tensor
are reduced to 36 from the minor symmetries and to 21 when the major
symmetry is also accounted. The 21 independent coefficients, whose units
are similar to those of the stress field (i.e., force per area), can be further
reduced if special symmetries inside the material microstructure exist. We
examine such cases in the next subsection.
2.3.2 Special symmetries

As already discussed, the fourth–order elasticity tensor of real materials
possesses minor and major symmetries. This allows us to write such a
tensor in the Voigt form of a 6 ˆ 6 symmetric matrix
» fi
L11 L12 L13 L14 L15 L16
—
— L12 L22 L23 L24 L25 L26 ffi
ffi
— L13 L23 L33 L34 L35 L36 ffi
L“— ffi. (2.13)
—
— L14 L24 L34 L44 L45 L46 ffi
ffi
– L15 L25 L35 L45 L55 L56 fl
L16 L26 L36 L46 L56 L66
The form (2.13) is the most general case, representing a fully anisotropic
material with 21 independent material parameters. The materials appear-
ing in nature and utilized in the engineering applications very frequently
present symmetries that reduce the number of independent parameters
[1].
2.3.2.1 Monoclinic materials

Let us assume that the geometrical characteristics of a material mi-
crostructure cause the appearance of a plane of symmetry. Without loss
of generality, we can consider that such plane of symmetry has normal
axis parallel to the x3 direction. In such case, it becomes clear that the elas-
ticity tensor of a material point does not change under full rotation from
the x3 direction to the ´x3 direction. In other words, a change of the basis
» fi » fi
e1 e1
from – e2 fl to – e2 fl ,
e3 é3
q 3 of “s–s”
corresponding to the rotation tensor R 3 (or the rotator tensor Q
type in the Voigt notation) with components
» fi
1 0 0 0 0 0
» fi —0 1 0 0 0 0ffi
1 0 0 — ffi
q 3 “ —0
R 3 “ – 0 1 0 fl or Q
0 1 0 0 0ffi
—
ffi
—0 0 0 1 0 0ffi
0 0 ´1 —
–0
ffi
0 0 0 ´1 0fl
0 0 0 0 0 ´1
leaves the elasticity tensor unchanged, that is,

” ıT
q 3 ·L· Q
L1 “ Q q 3 “ L.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
lawbreakers will now present himself in person before us
and accept of us our homage and good will, we will,
assuming him to be young and of agreeable manners,
accept him as the affiant of our daughter and prepare him
by education and training for her hand; or, failing that, and
he being a man of mature years, we will publicly accept
him as councillor of state and chiefest of our advisers. To
this end, that he may have full confidence in our word, we
have ordered that the third day of the seventh moon be
observed as a holiday, that a public feast be prepared and
that our people assemble before us in our great court.
Should this wisest of fugitives appear and declare himself
we will there publicly reaffirm and do as is here written and
accept him into our life and confidence. I have said it.
“‘Yianko I.’
“The caliph showed this to his daughter and she sighed, for full
well she knew that the caliph’s plan would prove vain—for had not
Abou said that he would return no more? But the caliph proceeded,
thinking this would surely bring about Abou’s capture.
“In the meantime in the land of Yemen, of which Abou was the
rightful heir, many things had transpired. His father, Kar-Shem,
having died and the wretched pretender, Bab-el-Bar, having failed
after a revolution to attain to Kar-Shem’s seat, confessed to the
adherents of Kar-Shem the story of the Prince Hussein’s abduction
and sale into slavery to a rug-merchant in Baghdad. In consequence,
heralds and a royal party were at once sent forth to discover
Hussein. They came to Baghdad and found the widow of Yussuf,
who told them of the many slaves Yussuf had owned, among them a
child named Hussein to whom they had given the name of Abou.
“And so, upon Abou’s return from ‘The Whispering Window,’ there
were awaiting him at the house of Mirza the representatives of his
own kingdom, who, finding him young and handsome and talented,
and being convinced by close questioning that he was really
Hussein, he was apprised of his dignity and worth and honored as
the successor of Kar-Shem in the name of the people of Yemen.
“And now Hussein (once Abou), finding himself thus ennobled,
bethought him of the beautiful Yanee and her love for him and his
undying love for her. Also he felt a desire to outwit the caliph in one
more contest. To this end he ordered his present entourage to
address the caliph as an embassy fresh from Yemen, saying that
having long been in search of their prince they had now found him,
and to request of him the courtesy of his good-will and present
consideration for their lord. The caliph, who wished always to be at
peace with all people, and especially those of Yemen, who were
great and powerful, was most pleased at this and sent a company of
courtiers to Hussein, who now dwelt with his entourage at one of the
great caravanseries of the city, requesting that he come forthwith to
the palace that he might be suitably entertained. And now Abou,
visiting the caliph in his true figure, was received by him in great
state, and many and long were the public celebrations ordered in his
honor.
“Among these was the holiday proclaimed by Yianko in order to
entrap Abou. And Yianko, wishing to amuse and entertain his guest,
told him the full history of the great thief and of his bootless efforts
thus far to take him. He admitted to Hussein his profound admiration
for Abou’s skill and ended by saying that should any one know how
Abou might be taken he would be willing to give to that one a place
in his council, or, supposing he were young and noble, the hand of
his daughter. At this Hussein, enticed by the thought of so winning
Yanee, declared that he himself would attempt to solve the mystery
and now prepared to appear as a fierce robber, the while he ordered
one of his followers to impersonate himself as prince for that day.
“The great day of the feast having arrived and criers having gone
through the streets of the city announcing the feast and the offer of
the caliph to Abou, there was much rejoicing. Long tables were set in
the public square, and flags and banners were strung. The beautiful
Yanee was told of her father’s vow to Hussein, but she trusted in
Abou and his word and his skill and so feared naught. At last, the
multitude having gathered and the caliph and his courtiers and the
false Hussein having taken their places at the head of the feast, the
caliph raised his hand for silence. The treasurer taking his place
upon one of the steps leading to the royal board, reread the
proclamation and called upon Abou to appear and before all the
multitude receive the favor of the caliph or be forever banned. Abou,
or Hussein, who in the guise of a fierce mountain outlaw had mingled
with the crowd, now came forward and holding aloft the pardon of
the caliph announced that he was indeed the thief and could prove it.
Also, that as written he would exact of the caliph his daughter’s
hand. The caliph, astounded that one so uncouth and fierce-seeming
should be so wise as the thief had proved or should ask of him his
daughter’s hand, was puzzled and anxious for a pretext on which he
might be restrained. Yet with all the multitude before him and his
word given, he scarce knew how to proceed or what to say. Then it
was that Yanee, concealed behind a lattice, sent word to her father
that this fierce soul was not the one who had come to her but an
impostor. The caliph, now suspecting treachery and more mischief,
ordered this seeming false Abou seized and bound, whereupon the
fictitious Hussein, masquerading in Hussein’s clothes, came forward
and asked for the bandit’s release for the reason that he was not a
true bandit at all but the true prince, whom they had sought far and
wide.
“Then the true Hussein, tiring of the jest and laying aside his
bandit garb, took his place at the foot of the throne and proceeded to
relate to Yianko the story of his life. At this the caliph, remembering
his word and seeing in Abou, now that he was the Prince of Yemen,
an entirely satisfactory husband for Yanee, had her brought forward.
Yanee, astonished and confused at being thus confronted with her
lost love, now become a Prince, displayed so much trepidation and
coquetry that the caliph, interested and amused and puzzled, was
anxious to know the cause. Whereupon Hussein told how he had
seen her passing his robber father’s bazaar on her way to Ish-Pari
and that he had ever since bemoaned him that he was so low in the
scale of life as not to be able to aspire to her hand yet now rejoiced
that he might make his plea. The caliph, realizing how true a
romance was here, now asked his daughter what might be her will,
to which she coyly replied that she had never been able to forget
Abou. Hussein at once reiterated his undying passion, saying that if
Yanee would accept him for her husband and the caliph as his son
he would there and then accept her as his queen and that their
nuptials should be celebrated before his return to his kingdom.
Whereupon the caliph, not to be outdone in gallantry, declared that
he would gladly accept so wise a prince, not only as his son by
marriage but as his heir, and that at his death both he and Yanee
were jointly to rule over his kingdom and their own. There followed
scenes of great rejoicing among the people, and Hussein and Yanee
rode together before them.
“And now, O my hearers,” continued Gazzar most artfully, although
his tale was done, “ye have heard how it was with Abou the
unfortunate, who came through cleverness to nothing but good—a
beautiful love, honor and wealth and the rule of two realms—
whereas I, poor wanderer that I am—”
But the company, judging that he was about to plead for more
anna, and feeling, and rightly, that for so thin a tale he had been paid
enough and to spare, arose and as one man walked away. Soudi
and Parfi denounced him as a thief and a usurer; and Gazzar,
counting his small store of anna and looking betimes at the shop of
Al Hadjaz, from which still came the odors of food, and then in the
direction of the caravan where lay the camels among which he must
sleep, sighed. For he saw that for all his pains he had not more than
the half of a meal and a bed and that for the morrow there was
nothing.
“By Allah,” he sighed, “what avails it if one travel the world over to
gather many strange tales and keep them fresh and add to them as
if by myrrh and incense and the color of the rose and the dawn, if by
so doing one may not come by so much as a meal or a bed?
Bismillah! Were it not for my withered arm no more would I trouble to
tell a tale!” And tucking his tambour into his rags he turned his steps
wearily toward the mosque, where before eating it was, as the Koran
commanded, that he must pray.
THE END
Transcriber’s Notes
pg 106 Changed: He spoke of it to Cavanagh
to: He spoke of it to Cavanaugh
pg 107 Changed: could not be done so quicky
to: could not be done so quickly
pg 146 Changed: because she was desirious
to: because she was desirous
pg 233 Changed: as violent at it had ever been
to: as violent as it had ever been
pg 269 Changed: put in Mrs. Queeder explantorily
to: put in Mrs. Queeder explanatorily
pg 278 Changed: craned his neck as thought physically
to: craned his neck as though physically
pg 288 Changed: affairs whenever me met
to: affairs whenever we met
pg 330 Changed: Osterman to Greasdick and his find
to: Osterman to Greasadick and his find
pg 382 Changed: she turned abrutly to shopping
to: she turned abruptly to shopping
pg 386 Changed: least inpetuous pursuer
to: least impetuous pursuer
pg 390 Changed: sometimes whole segment spoiled
to: sometimes whole segments spoiled
pg 395 Changed: curious as to what was to fellow
to: curious as to what was to follow
pg 404 Changed: black as the wing of the uck
to: black as the wing of the duck
pg 411 Changed: place a cauldon of hot pitch
to: place a cauldron of hot pitch
pg 412 Changed: he drew his scimiter
to: he drew his scimitar
pg 418 Changed: thou wilt lower they veil
to: thou wilt lower thy veil
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHAINS ***
Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.
Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in
these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it
in the United States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of
this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept
and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and
may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the
terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of
the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as
creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research.
Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given
away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with
eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject
to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free

distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or
any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.
Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree
to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be
bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from
the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in
paragraph 1.E.8.
1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be

used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people
who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a
few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic
works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.
See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with
Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in
the United States and you are located in the United States, we do
not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing,
performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the
work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of
course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™
mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely
sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name
associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of
this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its
attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without
charge with others.
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the
United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms
of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying,
performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this
work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes
no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in
any country other than the United States.
1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™
work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or
with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is
accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived

from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a
notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright
holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the
United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must
comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted

with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted
with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of
this work.
1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a
part of this work or any other work associated with Project
Gutenberg™.
1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you
provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work
in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in
the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:
• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”
• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that
s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and
discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project
Gutenberg™ works.
• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.
• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.
1.F.
1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe
and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating
the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may
be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to,
incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a
copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer
codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except

for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph
1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner
of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party
distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this
agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and
expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO
REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF
WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE
FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY
DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE
TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL,
PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE
NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it,
you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity
that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a
replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in
paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the
Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the
Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any
volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability,
costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or
indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur:
(a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b)
alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project
Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
Section 2. Information about the Mission of

Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.
Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.
Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.
The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can
be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the
widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small
donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax
exempt status with the IRS.
The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and
keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in
locations where we have not received written confirmation of
compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of
compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.
While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no
prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in
such states who approach us with offers to donate.
International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.
Section 5. General Information About Project

Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed

editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.
Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.
This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how
to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.

Download ebook Multiscale Modeling Approaches For Composites Pdf full chapter pdf

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Download ebook Multiscale Modeling Approaches For Composites Pdf full chapter pdf

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Multiscale Modeling Approaches for

Composites - eBook PDF

MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

For information on all Elsevier publications

Publisher: Matthew Deans

G. Chatzigeorgiou is Research Scientist of CNRS (CR–HDR). He is

It is a particular pleasure to write the foreword of this extraordinary

Multiscale methods for composite materials have received growing at-

portant average theorems, the Hill–Mandel principle and the notion of

Chatzigeorgiou, Meraghni, and Charalambakis

We want to express our sincere gratitude to Professor Etienne Patoor for

Chatzigeorgiou, Meraghni, and Charalambakis

About the authors xi

3.1 Heterogeneous media 57

4. Voigt and Reuss bounds

5. Eshelby solution–based mean–field methods

7. Classical laminate theory

9.3.1. Infinite homogeneous body with varying eigenstresses 244

10. Hashin–Shtrikman bounds

11. Mathematical homogenization theory

12. Nonlinear composites

A. Fiber orientation in composites

A.4 Examples 330

1.1 Tensors in Cartesian coordinates 3

1.1 Tensors in Cartesian coordinates

A tensor is defined as a geometric object that describes linear relations

Multiscale Modeling Approaches for Composites

tensor A of order n is expressed as

• The product Aij Bj k of two second–order tensors A and B implies

Aij Bj k “ Ai1 B1k ` Ai2 B2k ` Ai3 B3k .

• The product Aij kl Bkl of a fourth–order tensor A and a second–order ten-

Clearly, δii “ δ11 ` δ22 ` δ33 “ 3.

and has the property ij k pqk “ δip δj q ´ δiq δjp .

C “ A ` B with Ci1 i2 ...in “ Ai1 i2 ...in ` Bi1 i2 ...in ,

2. A tensor A of order n ` 1 and a tensor B of order m ` 1 produce the

C “ A · B with Ci1 i2 ...in`m “ Ai1 i2 ...in q Bqin`1 in`2 ...in`m .

This operation is called the single contraction product.

C “ A: B with Ci1 i2 ...in`m “ Ai1 i2 ...in pq Bpqin`1 in`2 ...in`m .

This operation is called the double contraction product.

C “ A b B with Ci1 i2 ...in`m “ Ai1 i2 ...in Bin`1 in`2 ...in`m .

This operation is called the dyadic product.

These two operations are called the cross products.

1.2 Cartesian systems and tensor rotation

A Cartesian coordinate system is described by three basis vectors e1 , e2 ,

FIGURE 1.1 Transformation of a Cartesian coordinate system through a rotation.

orthogonal, which means that

e11 “ R11 e1 ` R21 e2 ` R31 e3 ,

This tensor R is called a rotator and has the following properties:

Rij Rik “ Rj i Rki “ δj k and detR “ 1, (1.5)

where det denotes the determinant of R,

Due to property (1.5) of the rotators, the vectors ei can be expressed in

e1 “ R11 e11 ` R12 e12 ` R13 e13 ,

For the elementary basis vectors

1.3 Tensor calculus

Considering Cartesian coordinates and the position vector x, differen-

2. The divergence of A is a tensor of order n ´ 1 defined as

Moreover, for a tensor A of order n ą 0 and a tensor B of order m ą 0, the

1.4 Examples in tensor operations

Aij δj k “ Ai1 δ1k ` Ai2 δ2k ` Ai3 δ3k ,

There are three cases:

Aij δj k “ Ai1 δ11 ` Ai2 δ21 ` Ai3 δ31 “ Ai1 “ Aik ,

Aij δj k “ Ai1 δ12 ` Ai2 δ22 ` Ai3 δ32 “ Ai2 “ Aik ,