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Directions in
International
Terrorism
Theories, Trends and
Trajectories
Edited by
Hussein Solomon
Directions in International Terrorism
 Hussein Solomon
Editor

Directions
in International
Terrorism
Theories, Trends and Trajectories
Editor
Hussein Solomon
Department of Political Studies and Governance
University of the Free State
Bloemfontein, South Africa

ISBN 978-981-16-3379-9 ISBN 978-981-16-3380-5 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3380-5

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 Foreword

Professor Hussein Solomon’s invitation to write the present foreward was

an honour, first in view of the author’s experience, qualities and reputa-
tion as an academic researcher in the field of conflict and conflict resolu-
tion, international relations and religious fundamentalism, and secondly
because the subject matter—international terrorism in Africa, the Middle
East and Europe—reaffirms the need to look at terrorism and its drivers
from beyond one single region. I have also received his invitation as a
sincere testimony to the profound mutual respect, esteem and friendship
that unite us.
This is indeed a very timely book. Twenty years after the dramatic
events of 9/11, a plethora of books and academic studies have been
published in an attempt to understand what is terrorism and what leads
an individual to commit such an act or to join, support and sympa-
thize with terrorist groups. However, these books fell short in linking
research to policy. Researchers, practitioners, specialists and policy-makers
have long complained about the lack of a comprehensive publication to
assist them in devising measures, policies, frameworks and strategies on
terrorism. This book does indeed that, as it combines theory and policy
recommendations and its quantitative and qualitative in scope.
What also makes this book unique is that it combines different scholars
from different faith traditions, races, countries and cultures champi-
oning diverse theoretical traditions, as it attempts to approach the subject
holistically, bridging the various dichotomies existing in the area.

v
vi FOREWORD

More specifically, the book examines original and unconventional

aspects of international terrorism in Africa, the Middle East and Europe,
as it explores issues that are not really explored in the present literature
such as the issue of female jihadist, the environmental message of terror
groups and their social media strategy, in addition to the changing role
of peacekeeping operations and existing gaps of states capacity to counter
the technological advancements of terrorists in the twenty-first century.
Setting aside the challenging question of defining terrorism, which the
UN is still grappling with for over 40 years now, and the argument of
“one Man’s Terrorist is another Man’s Freedom Fighter”, and respecting
the struggle waged by peoples in accordance with the principles of inter-
national law for their liberation or self-determination, including armed
struggle against colonialism, occupation, aggression and domination by
foreign forces which shall not be considered as terrorism, it is critical to
read the chapters from the perspective of the individual author’s expe-
rience and background, as this helps to understand the arguments from
their angle. The result is a remarkably detailed and readable exposition
examining terrorism from ideological aspects to cultural identity, gover-
nance, terrorist finance, migration, counter-insurgency warfare, in addi-
tion to the dilemma of terrorist propaganda and individual freedoms such
as the freedom of expression.
Above all, the diversity of the chapters in the book reflects, unequiv-
ocally, the complexity of the challenges faced by both researchers and
policy-makers, in understanding terrorism and political violence, as we
ponder on the future development of such threats.
We are deeply indebted to Professor Solomon for this valuable research
which will contribute to the dissemination of knowledge about Interna-
tional Terrorism. This publication will undoubtedly serve as a reference
to researchers, practitioners, policy-makers and the general public and will
contribute to reinvigorating terrorism research and studies.

Idriss Mounir Lallali

Deputy-Director
African Centre for the Study and Research
on Terrorism (ACSRT)
Mohammadia, Algeria
 Contents

1 Introduction 1
Hussein Solomon
2 Beyond Disciplinary Dogma: An Ontological Security
Approach to Terrorism and Its Study 11
Bianca Naudé
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 The Nature of Terrorism: Ontological Questions
and Definitional Dilemmas 13
2.3 Theorising Terrorism: Epistemological Debates
and Theoretical Shortcomings 15
2.4 The Illusion of Control and Certainty: Ontological
Security Theory 18
2.5 Concluding Remarks: Future Directions
for Terrorism Research 23
References 28
3 Exploring the Confluence Between Terrorism
and Identity in Africa 33
Hussein Solomon and Jude Cocodia
3.1 Introduction 33
3.2 Critical Theory, Critical Terrorism Studies,
and Traditional Terrorism Studies 34

vii
viii CONTENTS

3.3 State Repression, State Induced Poverty,

and the Growth of Domestic Terrorism 36
3.4 Building Domestic Terrorism Through Fuelled
Rivalries and Misrepresented Local Narratives 40
3.5 The Centuries Old Jihad Factor 42
3.6 CTS and the Case of Somalia’s Al Shabaab 43
3.7 The Nigerian State and the Facilitation of Domestic
Terrorism 45
3.8 Senegal, in the Eye of West Africa’s Terrorism Storm 48
3.9 Concluding Insights 49
4 Updating Africa: Tweeting Terrorism 57
Alta Grobbelaar
4.1 Introduction 57
4.2 Varying Forms of Media 58
4.3 The African Audience 59
4.4 Terrorists Using the Media 61
4.5 Internet and Media Warfare 63
4.6 Al Shabaab’s Media Usage 65
4.7 The Influence of Terrorists’ Media Usage 70
4.8 Conclusion 73
5 The Environmental Message of Radical Islamic
and Terrorist Groups 81
Moshe Terdiman
5.1 Introduction 81
5.2 Blaming the West for the Current Environmental
Crisis 83
5.3 Launching Environmental Policies and Campaigns 84
5.4 Using the Environment as a Major Source of Income 87
5.5 The Use of Climate Change Effects
and Environmental Scarcity for Recruitment
Purposes 88
5.6 Using the Environment as a Weapon 89
5.7 Launching Attacks Against Energy Infrastructures 91
5.8 Summary 92
References 93
 CONTENTS ix

6 Terror, Rebellion and Insurgency: Its Impact

on Conservation in Africa 97
Kurt Steiner
6.1 Introduction 97
6.2 Background to the Conflict Ivory Narrative 99
6.2.1 Links to Terrorism in East Africa 101
6.2.2 Links in West Africa 102
6.2.3 This Study 103
6.3 The Exploitation of Nature in Supporting Terrorism 104
6.3.1 Allied Democratic Forces/National Army
for the Liberation of Uganda 104
6.3.2 Forces Démocratiques De Libération Du
Rwanda 106
6.3.3 Mai Mai 107
6.3.4 Lord’s Resistance Army 108
6.3.5 Janjaweed 109
6.3.6 Anti-Balaka and Seleka 110
6.4 Discussion 111
6.4.1 Ivory Forms a Small, but not Insignificant
Part, of Terror Funding in Elephant Range
States 112
6.4.2 Protected Areas Provide Unique Benefits
to Armed Groups Unrelated to Wildlife
Trafficking 113
6.4.3 Conservation Law Enforcement Agencies
Often Lack the Mandate, Resources,
and Capabilities to Effectively Control
the Environmental Crimes of Armed Groups 113
6.5 Conclusion 114
7 Burning the Broth: Why African Counter-Terrorist
Operations Frequently Fail 121
Eeben Barlow
7.1 Introduction 121
7.2 Defining the Indefinable 122
7.3 Causes and Consequences 124
7.4 Knowing and Understanding the Terrain… 126
7.5 Not Knowing the Enemy… 127
7.6 Underestimating the Threat 129
x CONTENTS

7.7 Identifying the Ingredients 130

7.8 Know and Understand the Ingredients of Fourth
Generation Warfare 136
7.9 Why Have Anti-Government Forces and Terrorist
Movements Been Successful? 138
7.10 Burning the Broth: Building Structures on Shaky
Foundations 140
7.11 Adding More Unpalatable Ingredients:
Irrelevant Training, Poor Advice, Little
assistance—and Questionable Means and Ways 142
7.12 Conclusion 145
8 Peacekeeping in Africa While Preventing
and Countering Violent Extremism 149
Anneli Botha
8.1 Introduction 149
8.2 Defining Peacekeeping and Other Important
Concepts 151
8.3 United Nations Peacekeeping Missions in Africa 153
8.4 Troop Contributions 161
8.5 African Union Missions 170
8.6 AMISOM 171
8.7 Peacekeeping in the Broader Counterterrorism
and the Prevention and Combating of Violent
Extremism Debate 172
8.8 Future of Peacekeeping Operations in Africa 177
8.9 Enhancing the Success of Future Peacekeeping
Missions in Africa 179
8.10 Conclusion 181
9 Social Attitudes Fuelling Islamist Terrorism 187
Arno Tausch
9.1 Introduction 187
9.2 The Landscape We Are Facing 188
9.3 Methods and Data for Our Multivariate Analysis
of Terror Support 192
9.4 >160.000 Victims from Islamist Terrorism in Four
Decades 194
9.5 The Shari’a State 197
 CONTENTS xi

9.6 What Drives People into Terrorism? The Empirical

Cross-National Results 202
9.7 Prospects and Conclusions 212
Literature 216
10 Iran, the Bomb and the Spectre of (Nuclear) Terror 219
Eben Coetzee
10.1 Introduction 219
10.2 An Iranian Bomb: History and Primary Drivers 220
10.3 Terrorism and Proxy Wars 222
10.4 State Transfer of Nuclear Weapons 225
10.5 The Spectre of Nuclear Terror 229
10.6 Implications for the Non-Proliferation Regime 234
10.7 Conclusion 235
11 The Abraham Accords: From Extremist Politics
to Diplomacy 243
Glen Segell
11.1 Introduction 243
11.2 Definitions 245
11.3 The New Order Against Terror 247
11.4 A States Place and Status Under the Sun 250
11.5 Wither and Dither the Palestinian Question 253
11.6 Waging Diplomacy 256
11.7 The Small Print of the Abraham Accords 259
11.8 Conclusion 260
12 A Comparison of European Female Jihadists 267
Tom Smith and Olivia Caskey
12.1 Introduction 267
12.2 Background 270
12.3 Italy 271
12.4 France 272
12.5 United Kingdom 274
12.6 Sweden 276
12.7 Conclusions 278
13 Islamist Terrorism, Political Islam and Migration
in Western Europe 289
Arno Tausch
13.1 Introduction 289
xii CONTENTS

13.2 Background 291

13.3 Methodology and Data 296
13.4 The Cycle of Islamist Terrorism in Western Europe 299
13.5 Migration Potential from the Arab World
to Western Europe and Islamist Attitudes Among
the Migrants—Data from the Arab Barometer 302
13.6 Towards a Multivariate Analysis 307
13.7 Conclusions and Prospects 315
Appendix: Islamist Terrorism, Political Islam
and Migration in Western Europe 326
References 334
14 Conclusion 335
Hussein Solomon

Index 343
 Notes on Contributors

Major-General Eeben Barlow has served as a major general in several

African armies and partaken in numerous highly successful counter-
insurgency campaigns across Africa. He is the author of three books on
Africa and its conflicts, frequently lectures at defence colleges and univer-
sities, and is frequently invited to address seminars related to conflict in
Africa.
Dr. Anneli Botha is a senior lecturer at the Department of Political
Studies and Governance at the University of the Free State in South
Africa. She also serves as an independent consultant on radicalization,
deradicalization, reintegration and terrorism in Africa and worked on
a number of projects with the Finn Church Aid (FCA) and different
UN agencies. During the period 2003 till 2016 she worked as a senior
researcher on terrorism at the Institute for Security Studies (ISS) in
Pretoria, South Africa. Anneli has travelled extensively throughout Africa
where she conducted research on terrorism and delivered specialized
training on various aspects of the threat of terrorism, extremism, radi-
calization and counterterrorism to law enforcement and criminal justice
officials. Prior to her position at the ISS, she served in the South African
Police Service (SAPS) for 10 years. She was a founding member of the
Religious Extremism and Terrorism Desk at Crime Intelligence Head
Office and also served in the Rapid Reaction Unit and the Special Task
Force on Urban Terror in the West Cape. At the end of her police career

xiii
xiv NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

she provided strategic support to the Head of South Africa’s Crime Intelli-
gence Unit. Anneli holds a Magister Artium degree from Rand Afrikaans
University in Political Studies (’98) and Philosophiae Doctor from the
Department of Political Studies and Governance at the University of the
Free State (’14).
Olivia Caskey is an ESRC funded doctoral candidate at the University
of Portsmouth researching the phenomena of female jihadism and media
representations of so-called ‘jihadi brides’.
Dr. Jude Cocodia is an Assistant Professor with the Niger Delta Univer-
sity, Nigeria, where he is the Head of the Department of Political Science.
He is a recipient of the International Peace Research Association Founda-
tion Award and an Associate Fellow of the Higher Education Academy,
United Kingdom.
Dr. Eben Coetzee is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Political
Studies and Governance at the University of the Free State. He has written
several articles on nuclear weapons and nuclear deterrence, International
Relations theory (mainly Waltzian structural realism), democratic peace
theory and the idea of theory in International Relations. He has also
delivered various international and national papers dealing with nuclear
weapons, the effect(s) of emerging technology on nuclear deterrence,
nuclear terrorism and nuclear deterrence in general. His research inter-
ests include nuclear proliferation, nuclear deterrence and structural realist
theory. He obtained his Ph.D. in 2017, focusing on the continued rele-
vance of structural realist Kenneth Waltz to understanding and explaining
international politics.
Dr. Alta Grobbelaar is a lecturer in the Department of Political Studies
and Governance at the University of the Free State. She obtained her
B.A. and M.A. degrees cum laude at the University of the Free State in
South Africa and specializes in research on terrorism in Africa, the media
and political discourse. She currently lectures at the University of the
Free State in Political Theory and Ideology, African Politics and Gover-
nance. She has presented several papers on terrorism in Africa and the
relationship between the media and terrorism in Africa at South African
and international conferences.
Dr. Bianca Naudé is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Political
Studies and Governance at the University of the Free State, South Africa.
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xv

She holds a Ph.D. in Politics from the University of Cape Town, South
Africa. Her research interests include International Relations Theory,
psychoanalysis in International Relations, the philosophy of science, and
research methodologies.
Dr. Glen Segell (D.Phil., FRGS) is a Research Fellow at the Depart-
ment of Political Studies and Governance, University of the Free State,
South Africa. He also has positions at the University of Haifa, Israel
and the University of Cambridge, United Kingdom. He was born in
South Africa and educated to a B.A. and M.A. at the Hebrew University
Jerusalem and to a D.Phil. at the University of Oxford. He specializes in
intelligence studies, civil–military relations and strategic communications
where he also consults as an expert for NATO. He has held teaching and
research positions in the United Kingdom, Israel and South Africa. He
holds the rank of Brigadier-General (Reserves). He was involved in active
intelligence and offense operations in Iraq, Kuwait, Sudan and Libya. He
has published a substantial number of peer-reviewed articles and books.
ORCID: 0000-0002-4186-2761.
Dr. Tom Smith is a Principal Lecturer in International Relations for the
University of Portsmouth and the Assistant Academic Director of the
Royal Air Force College Cranwell. His Ph.D. looked at jihadism in Thai-
land and the Philippines. His research has been published in both the
leading terrorism journals Terrorism and Political Violence and Studies
inConflict and Terrorism. In 2020 he was the lead editor of the 2 volumes
of Exporting Global Jihad (IB Tauris). He has a law degree and a master’s
degree in Global Politics from the London School of Economics. Tom
worked for the UN in Sri Lanka during the civil war then lived and worked
in the Philippines for 2 years where he taught at De La Salle University in
Manila. His research now focuses on terrorism and human rights abuses
in the Philippines.
Professor Hussein Solomon lectures in the Department of Political
Studies and Governance at the University of the Free State, South Africa.
He is also a Visiting Professor at the Osaka School of International Public
Policy, Japan; a Visiting Professor in the Department of History and Polit-
ical Studies at Nelson Mandela University; a Senior Research Associate of
the Jerusalem-based think tank Research on Islam and Muslims in Africa
(RIMA); and a Research Fellow at the Security Institute for Governance
and Leadership in Africa at Stellenbosch University. He is also a Member
xvi NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

of the Academy of Science of South Africa (ASSAf). ORCID ID: http://

orcid.org/0000-0002-5980-9280.
Kurt Steiner is a dedicated conservation professional with over a
decade’s experience in conservation law enforcement in Africa. After a
career in the military, Kurt trained law enforcement staff in Protected
Areas across the continent, before being appointed as the first Head of
Law Enforcement for the African Parks Network, standardizing counter-
poaching practices in projects across eight countries. Kurt has an M.A.
in Intelligence and Security Studies, and now works as an independent
consultant providing guidance and support on law enforcement aspects
of conservation for numerous NGOs and national law enforcement and
nature conservation agencies.
Prof. Arno Tausch is currently Honorary Associate Professor of
Economics, Corvinus University, Budapest, Hungary (since Fall Semester
2010) and adjunct professor (Universitaetsdozent) of political science at
Innsbruck University, Department of Political Science, Innsbruck Univer-
sity, Austria (since 1988). He entered the Austrian Civil Service on
January 1, 1992, and retired from active service on February 29, 2016.
He served as an Austrian diplomat abroad and was attaché, and later
counselor for labor and migration at the Austrian Embassy in Warsaw,
1992–1999. Since 1978, he taught numerous regular courses in polit-
ical science, economics and sociology at universities in Austria, Hungary,
Switzerland and the United States. He authored or coauthored books and
articles for major international publishers and journals, among them 19
books in English, 2 books in French, 8 books in German, and around
100 articles in peer-reviewed journals and also numerous articles in the
media of several countries. His publications also include a number of
essays for leading economic and foreign policy global think tanks such
as the Institute for National Security Studies (INSS), Tel Aviv; the IZA
Institute of Labour Economics, Bonn; the Polish Institute for Interna-
tional Affairs PISM, Warsaw; and the Vienna Institute for International
Economic Comparisons (WIIW).
Dr. Moshe Terdiman is a Middle Eastern studies scholar who is an
expert on radical Islam, terrorism, Islam and terrorist groups in Africa;
environmental security, environmental issues in the Arab and Muslim
world; Islam and the environment, the Red Sea Basin. Currently, he is
the director of the Research on Islam and Muslims in Africa as well as the
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xvii

co-founder and director of the Institute for Environmental Security and

Well-Being Studies. He is also a research fellow in the Ezri Center for Iran
and Persian Gulf Studies as well as in the Forum for Regional Thinking.
 List of Figures

Fig. 7.1 The Pillars of State (This figure appears in my

book ‘Barlow E: Composite Warfare: The Conduct
of Successful Ground Force Operations in Africa, 30
Degrees South, 2016’ of which I own copyright) 125
Fig. 7.2 Responsibilities for Neutralising the Trinity of Gravity
(This figure appears in my book ‘Barlow E: Composite
Warfare: The Conduct of Successful Ground Force
Operations in Africa, 30 Degrees South, 2016’
of which I own copyright) 135
Fig. 8.1 Duration and fatalities by UN missions in Africa 160
Fig. 8.2 Emotion at the time of joining 175
Fig. 8.3 Catalyst for joining Al-Shabaab 177
Fig. 8.4 Police and military deployment 180

Graph 9.1 Global annual victims of Islamist terrorism 197

Graph 9.2 Factor loadings of secularism 209
Graph 9.3 Factor loadings of the opposition against
the Shari’a state 209
Graph 9.4 Factor loadings of upper-class liberalism 210
Graph 9.5 Factor loadings of the female distance to the Mosque 210
Graph 9.6 Factors contribution to the resilience against
the favourability of suicide bombing among global
Muslim communities 211
Graph 9.7 An Index of Liberal Islam, based on the Eigenvalues
and our four promax factors 212

xix
xx LIST OF FIGURES

Image 13.1 The cycle of Islamist terrorism in Western

Europe—number of victims per year, 1979–2019
(Source Our own calculations, based on Data.fondapol,
Sciences Po, Paris) 300
Image 13.2 Periodogram (time series spectral analysis) of Islamist
terrorism in Western Europe based on the time series
of the number of victims per year, 1979–2019 (Source
Our own calculations, based on Data.fondapol,
Sciences Po, Paris 301
Image 13.3 Autocorrelation analysis of Islamist terrorism
in Western Europe based on the time series
of the number of victims per year, 1979–2019 (Source
Our own calculations, based on Data.fondapol,
Sciences Po, Paris) 302
Image 13.4 Cross-correlation analysis of GDP per capita growth
(annual %; World Bank Open Data) in the European
Union on Islamist terrorism in Western Europe based
on the time series of the number of victims per year,
1979–2019 (Source Our own calculations, based
on Data.fondapol, Sciences Po, Paris and World Bank
Open Data) 303
Image 13.5 Distance to Turkey and Iran (Source Our own
calculations, based on Arab Barometer Survey) 311
Image 13.6 Distance to Political Islam—interfering in elections
(Source Our own calculations, based on Arab
Barometer Survey 311
Image 13.7 Against theocracy (Source Our own calculations,
based on Arab Barometer Survey) 312
Image 13.8 Against religious discrimination (Source Our own
calculations, based on Arab Barometer Survey) 312
Image 13.9 Against gender discrimination (Source Our own
calculations, based on Arab Barometer Survey) 313
Image 13.10 Against the Islamist interpretation of Islam (Source
Our own calculations, based on Arab Barometer
Survey) 313
Image 13.11 Political Islam and terror support (Source Our own
calculations, based on Arab Barometer Survey) 315
Image 13.12 The clash of civilizations in Europe? (Source Our own
calculations, based on Arab Barometer Survey) 316
 List of Tables

Table 3.1 Political and civil rights rating across some Sahelian
countries 49
Table 8.1 UN troop contributing countries by ranking
as on March 31, 2019 and total fatalities 162
Table 9.1 The perpetrators of Islamist terrorism and their victims 194
Table 9.2 The countries where the victims of Islamist terrorism
lost their lives 195
Table 9.3 Nationalities of the victims of Islamist terrorism 196
Table 9.4 Types of targets of Islamist terrorism 196
Table 9.5 The country percentage original results, based
on the PEW data (percentages per total Muslim
population of the country or territory) (countries
on the trajectory to future EU-membership are
highlighted in grey colour) 198
Table 9.6 The sociological landscape of Islamism and its
supporters in the Muslim world according
to representative surveys by the PEW, latest available
year (2014)—percentages of total Muslim population
per country and globally population-weighted averages 204
Table 9.7 Explaining the rejection of suicide bombing—multiple
regression results from the PEW data—the World’s
Muslims 206
Table 9.8 Factor correlations 208
Table 13.1 The number of victims from Islamist terrorism
in the EU - 27 + United Kingdom, 1979–2019 299

xxi
xxii LIST OF TABLES

Table 13.2 The perpetrators of Islamist terrorist attacks in Western

Europe, 1979–2019 304
Table 13.3 Percent of the total Arab population willing
to emigrate to the West according to the Arab
Barometer Survey 305
Table 13.4 Trust in the Islamist movement of the respective
home country in percent of the total Arab population
and in percent of the Arab population willing
to emigrate to the West 306
Table 13.5 Support for Political Islam (five items according
to the Arab Barometer Survey) in percent of the total
Arab populations willing to emigrate to the West
and in percent of the total Arab population 308
Table 13.6 Parametric Index—Overcoming Political Islam 314
Table 13.7 Parametric Index—Overcoming Political Islam
for those persons in the Arab World willing to emigrate
to the West 314
Table 13.8 Eigenvalues of the promax factor analysis—Political
Islam 326
Table 13.9 Factor loadings—Political Islam 327
Table 13.10 Correlations of components of the promax factor
analysis—Political Islam 331
Table 13.11 Parametric Index—Overcoming “Political Islam” 332
Table 13.12 Planned migration destinations and prevalence
of “Political Islam” 333
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Hussein Solomon

The 9/11 terrorist atrocity served as a catalyst for studies in terrorism.

Indeed, 90% of all academic studies has been published after the attacks
on the Twin Towers and the Pentagon that fateful September day. To put
it differently, one new book on terrorism is produced every six hours.1
This raises the question of the purpose of yet another new book on the
subject. What does it intend to contribute?
In responding to the question posed, at the outset we need to state
that despite the prolific publications, we are no nearer to the end of
the scourge that is terrorism. The Global Terrorism Database (GTD)
has recorded over 170,000 terrorist incidents from 1970 to 2019.2 This
suggests that there is a need for academic insights that are more policy-
focused in order to ensure that these theoretical insights contribute to the
reduction of terrorism. This volume attempts to do this by incorporating
the insights of both academics and policy-makers. Whilst some authors in
this volume are academics, others are military officers who have served
on the frontlines in the fight against terror groups whilst other authors

H. Solomon (B)
Department of Political Studies and Governance, University of the Free State,
Bloemfontein, South Africa
e-mail: solomonh@ufs.ac.za

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021
H. Solomon (ed.), Directions in International Terrorism,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3380-5_1
2 H. SOLOMON

were diplomats and still others are actively in wildlife conservation efforts.
Still others have seamlessly criss-crossed the academic and policy-making
realms.
When examining the need for “yet another” book on terrorism, we
need to acknowledge the current gaps and weaknesses in the existing
literature. We take stock of past directions of terrorism research whilst
we examine new directions in future terrorism research as scholarship
attempts to keep up with an ever-morphing phenomenon. Two caveats
here is essential. Before our discussion on the extant scholarship can
begin, we need to be mindful of those producing this knowledge. Paul
Wilkinson3 reminds us that the notion of an unbiased scholarship is
impossible to achieve—that those producing scholarship on terrorism
are products of their social and economic milieu and political culture
and dominant perceptions of national interests in their countries of
origin. Recognizing this truism, we have sought to combine different
scholars from different faith traditions, different races, different countries,
different cultures championing different theoretical traditions. Whilst bias
is not entirely eliminated, it is at least minimized. Richard English in his
superb The Future Study of Terrorism 4 raises the point that much of the
research on terrorism is dominated by US scholars and perhaps, more
poignantly, much of the scholarship is not being produced by scholars
who are residing in the country or region they are writing about. For this
reason, this volume includes no US-based scholars in an effort to make
some small dent towards righting the balance and all our authors live in
or have lived for some time in the countries they are writing on.
There are books focusing solely on individual terrorist groups like Al
Qaeda,5 Islamic State,6 or the Taliban.7 Whilst such studies are quite
useful in providing in-depth insights into a particular terrorist group, such
studies cannot provide comparative insights nor general conclusions on
the modus operandi of terrorist groups, issues of radicalization and recruit-
ment nor other issues like terrorist financing more generally. This book
examines several terrorist groups thus allowing for more generalizable
conclusions on terrorism and the functioning of terrorist groups.
Other studies are more country specific or regional in scope such as
Peter Woodward’s erudite Crisis in the Horn of Africa.8 Again, whilst
such studies are useful in acquainting the reader with the depth of
the terror challenge posed, the interconnected world which we inhabit
provides one with the limitations of this approach. In a globalizing
world, insecurity anywhere threatens security everywhere. Consider the
 1 INTRODUCTION 3

case of Islamic State, which lost their de facto capital, Raqqa, on the 17
October 2017. This defeat saw them spread their tentacles into other
regions. As a result, whilst the 2020 Global Terrorism Index noted that
the security situation in the Middle East North Africa (MENA) region
has demonstrated the most improvement globally with terrorist deaths
having declined by 87% between 2016 and 2019, the Islamic State was
responsible for over three thousand attacks in almost 50 countries over
the same period.9 This truism highlights the weakness of geographically
confining one’s study. Kurt Steiner’s chapter in this volume highlights
how terrorist groups in Africa have globalized their funding sources
through environmental crime and selling this to avaricious global markets.
Arno Tausch’s chapter highlights the interconnectedness between regions
through the flow of migrants from the Middle East and Africa into
Europe and the implications this holds for terrorism. Olivia Caskey
and Tom Smith demonstrate how European females are recruited into
Middle Eastern terror groups. Moshe Terdiman, in this volume, also
points out how similar strategies are pursued by different terrorist
groups in different geographical settings. Groups as diverse as Lebanon’s
Hezbollah, Afghanistan’s Taliban, Mali’s Ansar Dine or Somalia’s Al
Shabaab have exploited the reality of climate change for their own opera-
tional requirements. They have also made use of environmental messaging
for recruitment purposes. To emphasize the point, examining different
terrorist groups in different geographical settings, more generalizable
conclusions are possible.
Still other books on terrorism approach their subject matter themati-
cally. Daniela Pisoiu and Sandra Hain10 approach the subject theoretically,
whilst Martin Bouchard focuses on the interface between social networks
and terrorism.11 Other authors choose to focus on approaching terrorism
legislatively as King, Walker and Gurule does in their excellent study.12
Judith Grohmann, meanwhile, prefers discussing terrorism through the
lens of counter-insurgency.13 Whilst all these studies provide useful snap-
shots of the phenomenon, what is needed are more holistic perspectives
that can capture the motion picture of terrorism from origins and forma-
tion to growth and execution of terror attacks. As the Global Terrorism
Index rightly points out, “In order to disrupt recruitment by terrorist
groups, nations to address both recruitment methods and motivation”.14
A narrow focus on issues of recruitment without underlying understand-
ings of the structural reasons promoting recruitment is bound to result
in failed counter-terrorism policies. For this reason, this volume has
4 H. SOLOMON

multiple foci. Bianca Naude delves into the theoretical challenges studying
the phenomenon whilst Alta Grobbelaar examines how terrorist groups
in Africa make use of social media with such devastating effect from
recruitment to spreading terror and fundraising. Eeben Barlow, mean-
while, focuses on the military dimension of counter-terrorism. This is
complemented by Anneli Botha’s exploration of the interface between
peacekeeping and Countering Violent Extremism (CVE). Arno Tausch,
meanwhile, focuses on how social attitudes are driving terrorism. In
approaching terrorism in this manner, one derives a more comprehensive
view of the phenomenon in all its manifestations.
In an attempt to approach the subject matter holistically, this book
aims to bridge the various dichotomies existing in the area. Consider
the theoretical divide between more Orthodox Terrorism Studies infused
with realism and those adopting Critical Terrorism Studies as well as
constructivist approaches to security. Whilst there are serious theoret-
ical differences between these schools of thought, the truth is that we
need insights from all of them as part of an attempt to understand
counter-terrorism comprehensively. This would entail better intelligence
gathering capabilities or more effective counter-insurgency fighting capa-
bilities (traditionally in the realm of Orthodox Terrorism Studies) as well
as an understanding of historical processes of structural violence and the
role of the state in producing terrorism (traditionally in the realm of Crit-
ical Terrorism Studies).15 Consequently, this volume includes chapters
written by those pursuing Orthodox Terrorism Studies (Eeben Barlow,
Anneli Botha and Eben Coetzee) as well as those operating within the
prism of Critical Terrorism Studies (Solomon and Cocodia) and those
approaching terrorism ontologically (Bianca Naude). Such a perspective
is also reinforced by the fact that there are several senior scholars in the
field—such as Paul Wilkinson and Alex Schmid who do not neatly fit into
this simplistic dichotomy. Their work crosses these artificial theoretical
divides.16
Despite the prodigious terrorism scholarship produced, events are
outpacing our attempts to keep pace with attempts to understand the
phenomenon. Consider here the impact of the Abrahamic Accords which
is nothing short than revolutionary. For most analysts, the Arab–Israeli
conflict was taken as a ubiquitous feature of the Middle East’s geo-
strategic landscape. The signatories to the Abrahamic Accords proved this
not to be the case. As Glen Segell eloquently argues in this volume—there
is an evolving new world order, stressing common interests (and threats)
 1 INTRODUCTION 5

and has above all recognized the futility of terrorism as a means to an

end.
Whilst new areas deserve investigation, old questions remain unan-
swered. Marc Sageman writes, “Despite a decade of government funding
and thousands of newcomers to the field of terrorist research, we are no closer
to the answering the simple question of ‘What leads a person to political
violence?’…[A]fter all this funding and this flurry of publication, with each
new terrorist incident we realize that we are no closer to answering our orig-
inal question about what leads people to political violence”.17 Two chapters
are dedicated to answering this question. Smith and Caskey approach their
subject matter by applying a case study approach to understand processes
of radicalization and female involvement in jihadi terrorism across Europe.
Arno Tausch, meanwhile, examines the social attitudes fuelling Islamist
terrorism. Worryingly he points out that 17.38% of the global Muslim
population (330 million people) hold jihadist sympathies. In combining
the qualitative case study approach of Smith and Caskey with the quanti-
tative approach of Tausch we combine the depth provided by a narrower
in-depth focus with a wide angle approach which allows us to see the
proverbial forest and not just individual trees.
In other cases, old challenges remain but the form it takes are novel
and require innovative responses on the part of the state, the business
community and society in general. Anarchist writings from the nine-
teenth century stressed the psychological dimensions of violent acts in
an attempt to spread fear (literally terror) amongst the targeted popu-
lation. With the advent of social media, this “propaganda by deed”18
takes on ominous dimensions. As Alta Grobbelaar demonstrates in her
chapter, the livestreaming of the Westgate Shopping Mall attack in Kenya
by Al Shabaab not only resonates with this nineteenth century anarchist
creed but raises serious questions of how to close down such channels of
terrorist propaganda whilst maintaining liberal freedoms like the freedom
of expression. Whilst the challenge of counter-insurgency has remained
part of the counter-terrorism arsenal and scholarship, the impact of
COVID-19, Eeben Barlow notes in his chapter, provides new challenges
to those men and women on the frontlines of the war against terrorism. In
similar vein, Anneli Botha notes that peacekeeping has changed so funda-
mentally over the years with growing emphasis on counter-insurgency
operations against extremists that a new doctrine is called for.
6 H. SOLOMON

In other cases, still long-festering issues needs to be re-examined in

new light. Consider here the thorny issue of the Iran nuclear ques-
tion. Despite fears that a nuclear-armed Iran will transfer such nuclear
know-how to its regional proxies or that it might attack its foes in the
region, Eben Coetzee argues that Iranian foreign policy is motivated by
security-seeking and not what grand Shia revolutionary Islamist aims. The
Key to Iranian insecurity is Washington’s pursuit of regime-change in
the Middle East. Going against the grain, Coetzee argues that Iran will
behave prudently and rationally should it possess a nuclear weapon.
One of the weaknesses of recent scholarship on terrorism is how issues
of state terrorism have been de-emphasised and recent scholarship on
terrorism has focused on the violence perpetrated by non-state actors.
This omission did not happen by accident. Rather, governments have
funded much terrorism research and of course would not like to be the
subject of such scrutiny. As Bianca Naude also argues in this volume,
it is the state which get to define who is a terrorist and what types of
violence is defined as “terror”. This omission is rather surprising since the
phenomenon has its modern origins in the aftermath of the French Revo-
lution when Robespierre and his minions unleashed state terror against all
opponents to the Republic between June 1793 and July 1794.19 If the
birth of the French Republic gave us fraternity, liberty and equality it is
also true that it gave us the guillotine, fear and terror. Paul Wilkinson, in
his brilliant elucidation of state terror argues, “It is obvious that govern-
ments and regimes have frequently used the weapon of terror, and because
they generally command far greater firepower and manpower than non-
state groups, state terror has been responsible for far higher levels of death
and destruction than have been achieved by non-state groups. The notorious
Roman princeps Nero, for example, utilized terrorism to such extremes that
he engaged in a wholesale massacre of the nobility and willfully set fire to
the city”.20
The twentieth century began with the killing of one million Armenians
by Ottoman Turks as well as the terror unleashed by Imperial Japan on
its neighbours. Hitler’s Third Reich wrought terror on its own popula-
tion as well as neighbouring states. Auschwitz and Daschau will forever
remain monuments to this state terrorism. In his discussion on the atomic
bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Ariel Merari believes that they fit
into the definitions of terrorism. These were acts of violence, committed
on a large scale for political ends whose objective included the spreading
of mass fear amongst all Japanese citizens.21 Pol Pot’s Cambodia was
 1 INTRODUCTION 7

another egregious example of states committing mass murder on a grand

scale. 22 At the time of writing, a genocide is unfolding in Xinjiang in
China with more than a million Uighers in state concsentration camps.23
Chapters in this volume aim to rectify this omission demonstrating how
states like Iran are allied to terrorist proxies like Hezbollah and how states
have been the most important source of insecurity to it citizens as across
much of the Sahel was wracked by militant violence. Perhaps, on a more
positive note on state terrorism and beyond, is the chapter by Glen Segell
pointing out in the wake of the Abrahamic Accords, there is an emergent
consensus that terrorism is unacceptable as state policy. The Abrahamic
Accords, he reminds, has seen the Arab states and Israel agreeing to
work together in mutual security and to jointly fight terror, radicalism
and extremism.
Scholarship on terrorism also suffers from other blind spots. Consider,
for instance, the issue of mythical gender stereotypes. Smith and Caskey
have noted that scholarship has largely focused on the study of men in
jihadist activities. This is despite the fact that women account for as much
as 30% of members of terrorist groups worldwide. To compound matters,
they argue, policy-makers and within the parameters of law, popular
media stereotypes hold sway. These portray women jihadists as largely
passive “jihadi brides”. In reality, they lucidly argue, women’s roles in
terrorist organizations are quite diverse: serving as recruiters, financiers,
propaganda disseminators, doctors and even serving as tax collectors.
In a rather pessimistic article on terrorism research, Marc Sageman
opines, “The same worn-out questions are raised over and over again, and
we still have no compelling answers. It seems that terrorism research is in
a state of stagnation on the main issues ”.24 Whilst acknowledging the
shortcomings in terrorism studies, it is also true that the field is far from
moribund. Academics have been involved in critical introspection and
have sought to rectify shortcomings whilst bringing new trans-disciplinary
insights to old and new challenges. Seven years after Sageman penned his
gloomy predication, I believe that the same no longer holds; that the
study of terrorism has turned the corner, that the vibrancy of the field is
evinced by the refreshing new ideas emanating from scholars from a diver-
sity of academic traditions. It is in this hope that this volume is offered: to
assist with contributing to terrorism studies and reinvigorate scholarship
anew.
8 H. SOLOMON

Notes
1. Joshua D. Freilich, Ashmini K. Kerodal and Michelle Galietta (2015).
“Introducing the Special Issue on New Directions in Terrorism Research,”
International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, Vol.
39 No. 4, p. 277.
2. Institute for Economics and Peace (2020). Global Terrorism Index 2020.
Institute for Economics and Peace. Sydney, Australia, p. 2.
3. Paul Wilkinson (2010). “Terrorism,” in Myriam Dunn Cavelty and Victor
Mauer (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of Security Studies. Routledge.
London, p. 132.
4. Richard English (2016). “The Future Study of Terrorism,” European
Journal of International Society, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 147–148.
5. Christina Hellmich (2011). Al Qaeda: From Global Network to Local
Franchise. Zed Books. London.
6. Hussein Solomon (2016). Islamic State and the Coming Global
Confrontation, Palgrave Macmillan. Switzerland; William McCants
(2015). The ISIS Apolypse: The History, Strategy and Doomsday Vision of
the Islamic State. St. Martins Press. London.
7. James Fergusson (2010). Taliban: The True Story of the World’s Most
Feared Guerrilla Fighters. Corgi Books. London.
8. Peter Woodward (2013). Crisis in the Horn of Africa: Politics, Piracy and
the Threat of Terror. IB Tauris. London.
9. Institute for Economics and Peace (2020). Global Terrorism Index 2020.
Institute for Economics and Peace. Sydney, Australia, pp. 4–5.
10. Daniela Pisoiu and Sandra Hain (2018). Theories of Terrorism: An
Introduction. Routledge. London.
11. Martin Bouchard (2018). Social Networks, Terrorism and Counter-
Terrorism. Routledge. London.
12. C. King, C. Walker and J. Gurule (2018). The Palgrave Handbook of
Criminal and Terrorism Financing Law. Palgrave Macmillan. London.
13. Judith Grohmann (2018). Fighting the War on Terror: Global Counter-
Terrorist Units and their Actions. Pen and Sword. London.
14. Institute for Economics and Peace (2020). Global Terrorism Index 2020.
Institute for Economics and Peace. Sydney, Australia, p. 5.
15. Richard English (2016). “The Future Study of Terrorism,” European
Journal of International Security, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 135–138.
16. Ibid., p. 138.
17. Marc Sageman (2014). “The Stagnation in Terrorism Research,”
Terrorism and Political Violence Vol. 26 No. 4, pp, 565, 569.
18. Ariel Merari (2007). “Terrorism as a Strategy of Insurgency,” in Gerard
Chaliand and Arnaud Blin (eds.). The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity
to Al Qaeda. University of California Press. Berkeley, p. 33.
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