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Food Wastes and By-products
Food Wastes and By‐products

Nutraceutical and Health Potential

Edited by

Rocio Campos‐Vega
Programa de Posgrado en Alimentos del Centro
de la República (PROPAC)
Research and Graduate Studies in Food Science
School of Chemistry
Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro
México

B. Dave Oomah
(Retired) Formerly with Summerland Research and Development Centre
Agriculture and Agri‐Food Canada
Summerland, BC, Canada

Haydé Azeneth Vergara‐Castañeda

Facultad de Medicina
Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro
Querétaro, México
This edition first published 2020
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 v

Contents

List of Contributors xv

1 Cereal/Grain By-products 1
Norma Julieta Salazar-López, Maribel Ovando-Martínez, and J. Abraham
Domínguez-Avila
1.1 ­Introduction 1
1.2 ­Global Production of Cereals and Crop Residues 2
1.3 ­Cereal Processing and Production of By-products 5
1.3.1 Cereals Morphology and Composition 5
1.3.2 Cereal Grains Processing 6
1.3.2.1 Milling 6
1.3.2.2 Dry Milling 6
1.3.2.3 Wet Milling 6
1.3.2.4 Pearling 7
1.3.2.5 Malting 8
1.3.2.6 Fermentation 8
1.3.2.7 Others 9
1.4 ­Cereal Grains By-products 9
1.5 ­Nutraceutical from Cereal/Grain By-products 11
1.5.1 Classification of Nutraceutical Ingredients in Cereal By-products 12
1.5.1.1 Polyphenols 12
1.5.1.2 Carotenoids 16
1.5.1.3 Dietary Fiber 16
1.5.1.4 Prebiotics 17
1.5.1.5 Lipids and Fatty Acids 17
1.5.1.6 Proteins 18
1.5.1.7 Starch 18
1.6 ­Health Potential of Cereal/Grain By-products 18
1.6.1 Non-Communicable Diseases 18
vi Contents

1.6.1.1 Dyslipidemia and Cardiovascular Effect 18

1.6.1.2 Diabetes 22
1.6.1.3 Anticancer Effect 23
1.7 ­Current and Future Perspectives 25
1.8 ­Concluding Remarks 26
References 26

2 Enrichment and Utilization of Thin Stillage By‑products 35

Timothy J. Tse and Martin J. T. Reaney
2.1 ­Introduction 35
2.2 ­Endemic Bacteria in Wheat‐Based Thin Stillage 37
2.3 Protein and Organic Solute Concentration in Thin Stillage 39
2.4 ­Bacteriocins 43
2.5 ­Separation and Purification of Bacteriocins 46
2.6 ­Conclusion 47
References 48

3 Pulse By-products 59
Iván Luzardo-Ocampo, M. Liceth Cuellar-Nuñez, B. Dave Oomah, and
Guadalupe Loarca-Piña
3.1 ­Introduction 59
3.2 ­Beans By-products 62
3.3 ­Pea (Pisum sativum) By-products 68
3.4 ­Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) and Lentil (Lens culinaris) By-products 71
3.5 ­Lupin (Lupinus) By-products 72
3.6 ­Other Pulse By-products 74
3.6.1 Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan L.) 74
3.6.2 Broad Beans (Vicia faba) 75
3.7 ­Concluding Remarks 78
References 86

4 Aquafaba, from Food Waste to a Value-Added Product 93

Rana Mustafa and Martin J. T. Reaney
4.1 ­Introduction 93
4.2 ­Plant-based Dairy and Eggs Replacement 94
4.3 ­History of Use and Etymology 95
4.4 ­Composition of Chickpea and Aquafaba 96
4.5 ­Anti-nutritional Compounds 98
4.5.1 Protein Anti-nutritional Compounds 100
4.5.2 Nonprotein Anti-nutritional Compounds 100
4.6 ­Functional Properties 101
 Contents vii

4.6.1 Water Holding Capacity and Oil Holding Capacity 102

4.6.2 Emulsion Stabilizer 103
4.6.3 Foaming Properties 104
4.6.4 Gelling and Thickening Properties 107
4.7 ­Factors Affecting Functional Properties 108
4.7.1 Effect of Cultivars and Genotypes 108
4.7.2 Effect of Processing Methods 110
4.8 ­Environmental Impact 112
4.9 ­Value-added Products for the Food and Pharmaceutical Industries 113
4.10 ­Current and Future Perspectives 115
4.11 ­Conclusion 116
References 116

5 Brazilian (North and Northeast) Fruit By-Products 127

Larissa Morais Ribeiro DA Silva, Paulo Henrique Machado de Sousa, Luiz
Bruno de Sousa Sabino, Giovana Matias do Prado, Lucicleia Barros
Vasconcelos Torres, Geraldo Arraes Maia, Raimundo Wilane de Figueiredo,
and Nágila Maria Pontes Silva Ricardo
5.1 ­Introduction 127
5.2 ­Coproducts’ Origin 131
5.3 ­Types of Waste Processing 131
5.4 ­Bioactive Compounds 132
5.4.1 Vitamin C 133
5.4.2 Phenolic Compounds 134
5.4.3 Antioxidant Activity in Fruit Coproducts 136
5.4.4 Phytosterols in Fruit Coproducts 141
5.5 ­Brazilian Fruit By-products from the North and Northeast as a Source
of Colorants 141
5.6 ­Brazilian North and Northeast Fruit By-products as Source
of Polysaccharides 144
5.7 ­Brazilian North and Northeast Fruit By-products as Source
of Fibers 145
5.8 ­Conclusions 149
References 149

6 Health Benefits of Mango By-products 159

Abraham Wall-Medrano, Francisco J. Olivas-Aguirre, Jesus F. Ayala-Zavala,
J. Abraham Domínguez-Avila, Gustavo A. Gonzalez-Aguilar, Luz A. Herrera-
Cazares, and Marcela Gaytan-Martinez
6.1 ­Introduction 159
6.2 ­Mango Agro wastes and Industrial By-products 161
viii Contents

6.2.1 Impacts of Generating Mango Wastes and By-products 162

6.2.1.1 Economic Impact 163
6.2.1.2 Environmental Impact 163
6.2.2 Research and Development (R&D) 164
6.3 ­Nutritional and Functional Value of Mango Wastes
and By-products 165
6.3.1 Nutritional and Functional Value of Mango Wastes
and By-products 165
6.3.1.1 Macro/Micronutrients 165
6.3.1.2 Dietary Fiber 166
6.3.1.3 Phenolic Compounds 168
6.3.2 Metabolic Fate of Phytochemicals from Mango By-products 170
6.4 ­Potential Health Benefits of Mango Wastes and By-products 171
6.4.1 Infectious Diseases 171
6.4.1.1 Antibiotic Effect: Planktonic Cells 172
6.4.1.2 Antibiotic Effect: Biofilms 174
6.4.1.3 Prebiotic Effects 176
6.4.2 Noncommunicable Chronic Diseases (NCCDs) 176
6.4.2.1 Obesity 177
6.4.2.2 Diabetes Mellitus 177
6.4.2.3 Cardiovascular Diseases (CVDs) 179
6.4.2.4 Cancer 180
6.4.2.5 Inflammatory Diseases 181
6.4.2.6 Neurological Diseases 182
Acknowledgements 182
References 183

7 Citrus Waste Recovery for Sustainable Nutrition and Health 193

Adriana Maite Fernández-Fernández, Eduardo Dellacassa, Alejandra
Medrano-Fernandez, and María Dolores Del Castillo
7.1 ­Introduction 193
7.2 ­Citrus By-products: Natural Sources
of Health-Promoting Food Ingredients 194
7.2.1 Polyphenols 196
7.2.2 Antioxidant dietary fiber 198
7.3 ­Health-Promoting Effects 200
7.4 ­Food Applications 208
7.5 ­Safety 210
7.6 ­Conclusions 210
Acknowledgments 210
References 211
 Contents ix

8 Vegetable By-products 223

L. Gabriela Espinosa-Alonso, Maribel Valdez-Morales, Xochitl Aparicio-
Fernandez, Sergio Medina-Godoy, and Fidel Guevara-Lara
8.1 ­Introduction 223
8.2 ­Global and/or by Region Vegetable Food Production and Postharvest
Waste 226
8.2.1 Tomato 227
8.2.2 Chili 229
8.2.3 Broccoli and Cauliflower 229
8.2.4 Zucchini 230
8.2.5 Cucumber 230
8.3 ­Global and/or Regional Vegetable Industrialization and By-Product
Generation 231
8.3.1 Tomato 231
8.3.2 Chili 232
8.3.3 Broccoli and Cauliflower 235
8.4 ­Nutraceutical Composition 236
8.4.1 Tomato 236
8.4.2 Chili 237
8.4.3 Broccoli and Cauliflower 238
8.4.4 Zucchini 239
8.4.5 Cucumber 241
8.5 ­Proven Nutraceutical In Vitro and In Vivo Bioactivity 242
8.5.1 Tomato 242
8.5.2 Chili 243
8.5.3 Broccoli and Cauliflower 245
8.5.4 Zucchini 245
8.5.4.1 Fruit 245
8.5.4.2 Peel 246
8.5.4.3 Leaves and Stems 247
8.5.5 Cucumber 247
8.5.5.1 Fruit 248
8.5.5.2 Seeds 249
8.5.5.3 Peel 250
8.5.5.4 Leaves and Stems 250
8.6 ­Methods and Strategies Used by the Food Sector and Other
Industries 251
8.7 ­Commercialization or Transformation in
Value-Added Products 253
8.7.1 Tomato 253
8.7.2 Seed Chili 254
x Contents

8.7.3 Broccoli and Cauliflower 255

8.7.4 Zucchini 256
Acknowledgments 256
References 256

9 Flaxseed By-products 267

B. Dave Oomah
9.1 ­Introduction 267
9.2 ­Flaxseed Protein 269
9.2.1 Extraction 269
9.2.2 Composition 272
9.2.3 Amino Acid Profile 273
9.2.4 Product Application 275
9.3 ­Advanced Processing 276
9.4 ­Mucilage 277
9.5 ­Current Trends and Perspectives 278
Acknowledgments 283
References 283

10 Seed Hull Utilization 291

E.E. Martinez-Soberanes, R. Mustafa, Martin J.T. Reaney, and W.J. Zhang
10.1 ­Introduction 291
10.2 ­Seed Hull Production 292
10.3 ­Seed Hull Composition 294
10.3.1 Dietary Fiber (DF) 295
10.3.2 Phytochemicals 297
10.3.3 Protein and Other Minor Components 303
10.4 ­Dehulling Technology 304
10.4.1 Seed Dehulling 304
10.4.2 Dehulling Technology 305
10.5 ­Recovery of Compounds from Seed Hull 308
10.5.1 Traditional Solvent Extraction 309
10.5.2 Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction 310
10.5.3 Microwave-Assisted Extraction 312
10.5.4 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 313
10.5.5 Membrane Separation 314
10.5.6 Seed Hull in Value-Added Food Products 316
10.6 ­Prospects and Challenges 316
References 317
 Contents xi

11 Health Benefits of Spent Coffee Grounds 327

Norma Julieta Salazar-López, Carlos Vladimir López-Rodríguez,
Diego Antonio Hernández-Montoya, and Rocio Campos-Vega
11.1 ­Introduction 327
11.2 ­Coffea Arabica L. Generalities 328
11.3 ­Coffee Processing and By-products 329
11.3.1 Coffee Husks 330
11.3.2 Coffee Pulp 330
11.3.3 Coffee Silverskin 331
11.3.4 Spent Coffee Grounds 331
11.4 ­Physicochemical Characteristics in SCG 331
11.5 ­Nutritional Properties of SCG 333
11.5.1 Carbohydrates 334
11.5.2 Proteins 336
11.5.3 Lipids 336
11.5.4 Minerals 337
11.5.5 Feed Quality 337
11.6 ­Nutraceuticals in SCG 338
11.6.1 Dietary Fiber 339
11.6.2 Resistant Starch 339
11.6.3 Antioxidant Compounds 340
11.6.4 Antioxidant Dietary Fiber 341
11.7 ­Health Benefits of Spent Coffee Grounds 341
11.7.1 Weight Management and Obesity 342
11.7.2 Cardiovascular Diseases 344
11.7.3 Gastrointestinal Diseases 345
11.7.4 Cancer 346
References 348

12 Health Benefits of Silverskin 353

Amaia Iriondo-DeHond, Teresa Herrera, and María Dolores Del Castillo
12.1 ­Introduction 353
12.2 ­Improvement of Gastrointestinal Health 358
12.3 ­Prevention of Metabolic Disorders 359
12.3.1 Obesity and Dyslipemia 360
12.3.2 Diabetes 362
12.4 ­Improvement of Skin Health 363
12.5 ­Conclusions 366
Acknowledgements 366
References 367
xii Contents

13 Cocoa By‐products 373

Karen Haydeé Nieto Figueroa, Nancy Viridiana Mendoza García,
and Rocio Campos-Vega
13.1 ­Introduction 373
13.2 ­Cocoa Bean Shell 376
13.2.1 Chemical Composition 376
13.2.2 Nutraceutical Composition 377
13.2.2.1 Dietary Fiber 377
13.2.2.2 Phenolic Compounds 378
13.2.2.3 Methylxanthines 379
13.2.2.4 Other Compounds 380
13.2.3 Applications 381
13.2.3.1 Feedstuff 381
13.2.3.2 Agriculture 382
13.2.3.3 Biofuels 382
13.2.3.4 Adsorbent 382
13.2.3.5 Dye 383
13.2.3.6 Food Products 383
13.2.3.7 Cocoa Shell Tea 383
13.2.3.8 Cocoa Hulls Polyphenols as a Functional Ingredient for
Bakery Applications 383
13.2.3.9 Bio‐Recyclable Paper Packaging 384
13.2.3.10 Cocoa Shell Extracts 384
13.3 ­Cocoa Pod Husk 386
13.3.1 Chemical Composition 387
13.3.2 Drying Methods 387
13.3.3 Nutraceutical Composition 388
13.3.3.1 Dietary Fiber 388
13.3.3.2 Antioxidants 390
13.3.3.3 Theobromine 391
13.3.3.4 Other Compounds 392
13.3.4 Applications 393
13.3.4.1 Animal Feed 393
13.3.4.2 Soap Making 394
13.3.4.3 Activated Carbon 394
13.3.4.4 Fertilizer and Soil Organic Matter 394
13.3.4.5 Paper Making 395
13.3.4.6 Biofuels and Chemical Industry 395
13.3.4.7 Gums 396
13.3.4.8 Source of Enzymes 396
13.4 ­Cocoa Mucilage/Pulp/Sweating 396
 Contents xiii

13.4.1 Chemical Composition 397

13.4.2 Nutraceutical Composition 398
13.4.2.1 Dietary Fiber 398
13.4.2.2 Phenolic Content 398
13.4.3 Applications 399
13.4.3.1 Cocoa Juice 399
13.4.3.2 Cocoa Alcoholic Products 399
13.4.3.3 Pectin 400
13.4.3.4 Marmalade 400
13.4.3.5 Cocoa Jelly 401
13.4.3.6 Other Products 401
13.5 ­Technological Properties of Cocoa By‐products 402
13.5.1 Water (WHC)‐ and Oil (OHC)‐Holding and Swelling
Capacities (SWC) 402
13.6 ­Concluding Remarks 402
References 403

14 Emerging and Potential Bio-Applications of

Agro-Industrial By-products Through Implementation
of Nanobiotechnology 413
Hayde Azeneth Vergara-Castañeda, Gabriel Luna-Bárcenas,
and Héctor Pool
14.1 ­Introduction 413
14.2 ­Green Synthesis of Metallic Nanoparticles Mediated by
Agro-Industrial Wastes 414
14.2.1 Gold Nanoparticles 417
14.2.2 Silver Nanoparticles 419
14.2.3 Quantum Dots 422
14.3 ­Agro-Industrial Wastes as Platforms for Biofunctional Nanocomposite
Production 425
14.4 ­Nano-Drug Delivery Systems for Encapsulation, Protection,
and Controlled Release of Bioactive Agents Extracted from
Agro-Industrial Wastes 431
14.5 ­Concluding Remarks 435
References 436

Index 445

List of Contributors
J. Abraham Domínguez-Avila
Cátedras CONACyT‐Centro de
Investigación en Alimentación y
Desarrollo, A.C., Sonora, México
Xochitl Aparicio-Fernandez
Centro Universitario de los Lagos,
Universidad de Guadalajara, Lagos de
Moreno, Jalisco, México
Jesus F. Ayala-Zavala
Departmento de Tecnologia de
Alimentos de Origen Vegetal, Centro
de Investigacion en Alimentacion
y Desarrollo, A.C., Hermosillo, Sonora,
México
Rocio Campos-Vega
Programa de Posgrado en Alimentos del
Centro de la República (PROPAC),
Research and Graduate Studies in
Food Science, School of Chemistry,
Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro
(UAQ), Querétaro, México
María Dolores del Castillo
Department of Bioactivity and Food
Analysis, Instituto de Investigación
en Ciencias de la Alimentación
(CIAL) (CSIC-UAM), Campus de la
xv
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid,
Madrid, Spain
Eduardo Dellacassa
Departamento de Química Orgánica,
Facultad de Química, Universidad de
la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
Paulo Henrique Machado De Sousa
Institute of Culture and Art,
Federal University of Ceará,
Fortaleza, Brazil
Adriana Maite Fernández-Fernández
Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología
de Alimentos, Facultad de Química,
Universidad de la República,
Montevideo, Uruguay
Department of Bioactivity and Food
Analysis, Instituto de Investigación
en Ciencias de la Alimentación
(CIAL) (CSIC‐UAM), Campus de la
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid,
Madrid, Spain
Raimundo Wilane De Figueiredo
Department of Food Engineering,
Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza,
Ceará, Brazil
xvi List of Contributors
L. Gabriela Espinosa-Alonso
Departamento de Biotecnología
Agrícola, Alimentos Funcionales
Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Centro
Interdisciplinario de Investigación
para el Desarrollo Integral Regional
Unidad Sinaloa, Guasave, Sinaloa,
México
Marcela Gaytan-Martinez
Posgrado en Ciencia y Tecnología de
los Alimentos, Facultad de Química,
Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro,
Santiago de Querétaro, México
Gustavo A. Gonzalez-Aguilar
Departmento de Tecnologia de
Alimentos de Origen Vegetal, Centro
de Investigacion en Alimentacion y
Desarrollo, A.C., Hermosillo, Sonora,
México
Fidel Guevara-Lara
Departamento de Química, Centro
de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad
Autónoma de Aguascalientes,
Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes,
México
Diego Antonio Hernández-Montoya
Programa de Posgrado en Alimentos
del Centro de la República (PROPAC)
Research and Graduate Studies in
Food Science, School of Chemistry
Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro
(UAQ), Querétaro, México
Teresa Herrera
Department of Bioactivity and Food
Analysis, Instituto de Investigación
en Ciencias de la Alimentación
(CIAL) (CSIC‐UAM), Campus de la
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid,
Madrid, Spain
Luz A. Herrera-Cazares
Posgrado en Ciencia y Tecnología de
los Alimentos, Facultad de Química,
Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro,
Santiago de Querétaro, México
Amaia Iriondo-DeHond
Department of Bioactivity and Food
Analysis, Instituto de Investigación
en Ciencias de la Alimentación
(CIAL) (CSIC‐UAM), Campus de la
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid,
Madrid, Spain
M. Liceth Cuellar-Nuñez
Programa de Posgrado en Alimentos
del Centro de la República (PROPAC)
Research and Graduate Studies in
Food Science, School of Chemistry
Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro,
Querétaro, México
Guadalupe Loarca-Piña
Programa de Posgrado en Alimentos
del Centro de la República (PROPAC)
Research and Graduate Studies in
Food Science, School of Chemistry
Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro,
Querétaro, México
Carlos Vladimir López-Rodríguez
Programa de Posgrado en Alimentos
del Centro de la República (PROPAC)
Research and Graduate Studies in
Food Science, School of Chemistry
Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro
(UAQ), Querétaro, México

Gabriel Luna-Bárcenas
Centro de Investigación y Estudios
Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico
Nacional (CINVESTAV‐IPN),
Querétaro, México
Iván Luzardo-Ocampo
Programa de Posgrado en
Alimentos del Centro de la
República (PROPAC)
Research and Graduate Studies in
Food Science, School of Chemistry
Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro,
Querétaro, México
Geraldo Arraes Maia
Department of Food Engineering,
Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza,
Ceará, Brazil
E.E. Martinez-Soberanes
Department of Plant Sciences,
University of Saskatchewan,
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan,
Canada
Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of
Saskatchewan, Saskatoon,
Canada
Sergio Medina-Godoy
Departamento de Biotecnología
Agrícola, Alimentos Funcionales,
Instituto Politécnico Nacional,
Guasave, Sinaloa, México
Alejandra Medrano-Fernandez
Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología
de Alimentos, Facultad de Química,
Universidad de la República,
Montevideo, Uruguay
List of Contributors xvii
Nancy Viridiana Mendoza García
School of Chemistry, Universidad
Autónoma de Querétaro, Santiago de
Querétaro, Qro, México
Rana Mustafa
Department of Plant Sciences,
University of Saskatchewan,
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
Prairie Tide Diversified Inc.,
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
Karen Haydeé Nieto Figueroa
Programa de Posgrado en Alimentos
del Centro de la República
(PROPAC), Research and Graduate
Studies in Food Science, School of
Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma
de Querétaro, Santiago de Querétaro,
Qro, México
Francisco J. Olivas-Aguirre
Departmento de Ciencias de la Salud,
Universidad de Sonora (campus Cajeme),
Ciudad Obregon, Sonora, México
B. Dave Oomah
(Retired) Formerly with Summerland
Research and Development Centre,
Agriculture and Agri‐Food Canada,
Summerland, BC, Canada
Maribel Ovando-Martínez
Departamento de Investigaciones
Científicas y Tecnológicas, Universidad
de Sonora, Sonora, México
Héctor Pool
División de Investigación y Posgrado,
Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad
Autónoma de Querétaro, Querétaro,
México
xviii List of Contributors
Giovana Matias Do Prado
Department of Food Engineering,
Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza,
Ceará, Brazil
Martin J. T. Reaney
Department of Plant Sciences,
University of Saskatchewan,
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
Prairie Tide Diversified Inc.,
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada,
Guangdong Saskatchewan Oilseed
Joint Laboratory, Department of
Food Science and Engineering,
Jinan University, Guangzhou,
Guangdong, China
Nágila Maria Pontes Silva Ricardo
Department of Organic and Inorganic
Chemistry, Fortaleza, Brazil
Luiz Bruno De Sousa Sabino
Department of Chemical Engineering,
Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza,
Brazil
Norma Julieta Salazar-López
Programa de Ingeniería en Horticultura,
Universidad Estatal de Sonora (UES),
Hermosillo, Sonora, México
Larissa Morais Ribeiro DA Silva
Department of Food Engineering,
Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza,
Ceará, Brazil
Lucicleia Barros Vasconcelos Torres
Department of Food Engineering,
Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza,
Ceará, Brazil
Timothy J. Tse
Department of Plant Sciences,
University of Saskatchewan,
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
Maribel Valdez-Morales
Departamento de Biotecnología
Agrícola, CONACyT‐Instituto
Politécnico Nacional, Guasave, Sinaloa,
México
Haydé Azeneth Vergara-Castañeda
Department of Biomedical Sciences,
Faculty of Medicine, Universidad
Autónoma de Querétaro, Querétaro,
México
Abraham Wall-Medrano
Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas,
Universidad Autonoma de Ciudad
Juarez, Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua,
México
W.J. Zhang
Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of
Saskatchewan, Saskatoon,
Saskatchewan, Canada
 1

Cereal/Grain By-products
Norma Julieta Salazar-López1, Maribel Ovando-Martínez2, and
J. Abraham Domínguez-Avila3
1
Programa de Ingeniería en Horticultura, Universidad Estatal de Sonora (UES), Hermosillo, Sonora, México
2
Departamento de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas, Universidad de Sonora, Sonora, México
3
Cátedras CONACyT-Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo A.C., Sonora, México

1.1 ­Introduction

By‐products are generated during harvesting and processing of different cere-

als worldwide as wheat, rice, maize, barley, oat, millet, sorghum, and other
cereal grains, cereal crop residues, and cereal brans as food waste. The cereal
crop residues are used for ethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass,
animal feed, or burned in the soil with emissions that negatively impact the
environment [1].
The milling of cereals is one of the main processing methods, and its objective
is to obtain flour (endosperm) as the main product and generate as by‐products
the bran, germ, protein, hull, broken grain, fiber, husk, and others; most of these
cereal brans contain the pericarp, testa, aleurone and subaleurone layers, and part
of the starchy endosperm. Depending on the cereal grain, the bran is around
3–30% of the kernel weight on dry basis [2]. During the eighties, the effluent from
wheat starch–gluten production was high in biological oxygen demand (BOD). So,
the wheat industry was concerned with pretreatments to control the wastewater
effluent [3]. In this regard, wheat flour solubles (WFS) obtained by ultrafiltration
and spray drying of an industrial gluten–wheat starch plant effluent performed
well in yellow layer cake (50% whole egg substitution), cookies (up to
25%­substitution cookie formulation), and wieners (6% level) [3]. Nowadays,

Food Wastes and By-products: Nutraceutical and Health Potential, First Edition.
Edited by Rocio Campos-Vega, B. Dave Oomah, and Haydé Azeneth Vergara-Castañeda.
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
2 1 Cereal/Grain By-products

the cereal food industry is interested in the recovery of starch, protein, lipids,
­dietary fiber, and bioactive compounds from these by‐products. Such recovery
­targets to produce nutraceutical ingredients for the production of functional
foods. In order to achieve this aim, it is important to understand the biological
properties and human health‐related benefits of the extracted bioactive
­compounds from the cereal grains waste and by‐products.

1.2 ­Global Production of Cereals and Crop Residues

Annual global production (2008–2016) of cereals averaged about 3200 million

tons of grains including wheat, maize, sorghum, barley, rice, oat, rye, and millet
(Table 1.1) [4]. The global production of cereals increased 14.3% over the last nine
years. During that period, the maize crop showed the highest increase (29.8%) in
production compared to wheat, sorghum, barley, rice, oat, rye, and millet crops.
Crop residues of cereals are a source of nutrients. The Pareto figure depicts the
average cereal crop residues expressed as million‐tons of nutrients (2008–2016),
indicating that over 80% of nutrients contained in crop residues come from rice
(paddy), maize, and wheat crops (Figure 1.1).
According to Santos et al. [5], lignocellulosic biomass is the most abundant
renewable resource, which could be used to obtain biofuels and with the advan-
tage of not generating emissions of CO2 as fossil fuels. Regarding each million

Table 1.1 Global production of cereals (millions of tons).

Year Rice Maize Wheat Other cerealsa Total productionb

2008 880.4 995.3 793.5 306.0 2975.1

2009 882.3 984.2 799.3 281.3 2947.1
2010 898.3 1028.9 755.5 255.0 2937.7
2011 929.0 1078.9 815.1 258.9 3082.0
2012 942.2 1080.0 793.8 259.0 3074.9
2013 947.2 1234.0 832.9 279.6 3293.7
2014 950.7 1254.1 859.7 287.3 3351.9
2015 949.9 1235.4 867.2 286.4 3338.9
2016 952.1 1291.9 881.2 276.7 3401.8
a
Other cereals include sorghum, barley, oat, rye, and millet.
b
Total production includes wheat, maize, sorghum, barley, rice, oat, rye, and millet production.
Source: adapted from [4]. Reproduced with permission of The Food and Agriculture
Organization Corporate Statistical Database.
 1.2 ­Global Production of Cereals and Crop Residue 3

20
100
Crop residues (million tons of nutrients)

15 80

Cumulative frequency (%)

60
10

40

5
20

0 0
Rice, paddy

Wheat

Maize

Barley

Sorghum

Millet

Oats

Rye
Cereals

Figure 1.1 Crop residues of cereals expressed as millions of tons of nutrients

(2008–2016). Source: adapted from [4]. Reproduced with permission of The Food and
Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database.

tons of rice, maize, and wheat produced, about 114, 186, and 119 thousand tons of
biomass (dry matter), respectively, are burned (Table 1.2). In the analyzed period,
biomass burned from rice, maize, and wheat crops increased by 8.5%. However,
the maize crop generated higher quantity of burned dry matter compared to
wheat and rice crops.
On the other hand, statistical analysis showed that mainly four countries
produced the highest proportion of cereal crop residues (2008–2016)
(Figure 1.2). China and India are the two countries generating crop residues of
cereals production with 672.7 and 604.7 thousand tons of nutrients, respec-
tively, followed by Indonesia and United States of America with 472.9 and
455.9 thousand tons of nutrients, respectively. So, these statistics indicate that
the challenge would be the search for alternative use of the cereal biomass
from cereals crops (mainly maize, rice, and wheat). The aforementioned coun-
tries together with Vietnam, Russian Federation, Canada, Brazil, and others
should study the use of cereal crop residues as a source of biofuels, nutrients,
and phytochemicals, among others.
Table 1.2 Crop residues expressed as biomass burned (dry matter), in millions of tons.

Biomass burned (dry matter)

Year Total production cerealsa Rice Maize Wheat Total biomass burned

2008 2669.2 104.3 193.0 98.4 395.7

2009 2665.8 103.2 190.0 99.8 393.1
2010 2682.7 105.5 196.5 95.9 397.9
2011 2823.1 106.2 204.8 97.9 408.8
2012 2815.9 105.9 213.9 96.8 416.6
2013 3014.1 107.3 222.3 97.1 426.7
2014 3064.6 106.4 221.8 98.1 426.4
2015 3052.5 105.2 220.6 98.5 424.3
2016 3125.2 104.6 226.9 97.8 429.4
a
Total production of maize, rice, and wheat expressed as millions of tons; Biomass burned
(dry matter) expressed as millions of tons.
Source: adapted from [4]. Reproduced with permission of The Food and Agriculture
Organization Corporate Statistical Database.

Egypt
Poland
México
Turkey
Australia
Argentina
Nigeria
Cambodia
United Kingdom
Ukraine
Myanmar
Pakistan
France
Philippines
Thailand
Germany
Bangladesh
Brazil
Canada
Russian Federation
Vietnam
United States of America
Indonesia
India
China

0 200 400 600 800

Annual average of cereal crop residues (Thousand tons of nutrients)

Figure 1.2 Global production of crop residues, in 2008–2016. Source: adapted from [4].
Reproduced with permission of The Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate
Statistical Database.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Far enough to
touch
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
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you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Far enough to touch

Author: Stephen Bartholomew

Illustrator: George Schelling

Release date: December 4, 2023 [eBook #72312]

Language: English

Original publication: New York, NY: Ziff-Davis Publishing Company,

1962

Credits: Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FAR

ENOUGH TO TOUCH ***
 far enough to touch

By STEPHEN BARTHOLOMEW

Illustrated by SCHELLING

Rene Duport was the quiet member of the moonship's

crew. So quiet that it took several minutes before
anyone noticed that he jumped overboard—into space.

[Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from

Amazing Stories December 1962.
Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that
the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]
The ship had a crew of six, and Rene Duport was the youngest. The
pilot, who held the rank of lieutenant colonel in the U.S. Air Force
and Master Pilot in the United Nations Space Corps, was one of the
two Americans aboard. The co-pilot was Russian, the navigator a
Finn, the engineer an African, and the research observer was the
other American. Rene Duport was a Belgian, and he was the
radioman, and the youngest ever to go to the Moon.
It had been a routine flight since the ship had lifted from the lunar
surface. In a little less than six hours they were due to enter parking
orbit. Twelve hours later, with a minimum of luck, the ferry ship would
dive to its landing area near the Marianas, and the six crew
members would be once again on Ground. Rather, they would be
floating in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, but that was far more
solid than space. All the Earth was sacred Ground to them, including
the sea. Each of them anticipated the moment when they would
scoop salt water up in their hands and fling their oxygen masks into
the depths and raise their faces to the burning ocean sun, yet they
tried not to think of the moment, they kept it in the backs of their
minds, as if thinking of it consciously could bring bad luck.
All except Rene Duport, who was nineteen years old, and the
youngest ever to enter space. He had loved it out there, on the
Moon, and he loved being here in the ship. He wanted to go back out
again, and he was the only one of the six who was reluctant to return
to Ground. Perhaps if the spacemedics had known of this unnatural
—almost inhuman—state of Rene Duport's mind, they would never
have let him go out. Then again, perhaps he was one of a new breed
of men, born under new signs in the Zodiac, the signs of Gagarin
and Glenn, equipped with a kind of mind and soul never known
before. He was the only one of the six who did not want to go Home.
The American pilot turned to mutter something to his Russian co-
pilot, seated next to him at the front of the ship. The Russian nodded
and adjusted a dial. By formal agreement the crew spoke in French
between themselves. But the pilot's accent was bad, and Duport
would have preferred to talk to him in English. He could not help
smiling to himself whenever the American said something. Frowning,
Duport moved his headphone slightly and changed the frequency of
his receiver. The Azores tracking station had begun to fade with the
rotation of the Earth, but he had no trouble picking up Hawaii. He
wrote down the latest fix and passed the slip of paper forward to the
navigator. He switched on his transmitter to give Hawaii an
acknowledgement.
Forward, the American pilot heard Duport speaking to Hawaii. This is
the moonship Prospero acknowledging transmission.... The
American pilot did not like using French either. He would have
preferred speaking English or Russian. There was something poetic
about French. The phrase bateau du lune, moonship, always gave
him a quiver. It made him think of some kind of ghost ship, with a
moss-covered hull and gossamer sails, floating silently in a midnight
sky. There was something—fragile about the language, especially as
Duport spoke it in his smooth, pure accents.
The American glanced into a mirror that gave him a view of the cabin
behind him. Duport sat by himself at the extreme rear of the cabin,
the radio console hiding most of his body. The headphones and mike
covered most of his face, so that only his nose and eyes were
visible. His eyes were light blue and seemed to glisten, unnaturally
bright, as if the boy had been taking some kind of drug. He was only
nineteen years old. The pilot had had misgivings about Duport from
the beginning when the crew was first formed. It wasn't only his
youth, he didn't quite know what it was. There was something about
Duport, something deep in his personality that he did not trust. But
he did not know how to name it.
Still, Duport had functioned all right so far. And the Selection Board
should know its business. The crew had been chosen, as usual, by
competitive examination, and if there was any flaw in Duport's
character it would have turned up sometime during the six-month
training period. Probably Duport was as good as any of them. He
had been a child prodigy, he'd taken his Master's in physics at the
age of seventeen. He knew as much as any of them, and he had
made no mistakes so far.
Still, the American remembered the first time he had seen Duport. It
had been right after the Selection Board published the crew list. Out
of the two hundred who finished the training program, the Board had
given Duport highest rating. He was not only the youngest ever to
enter space, he was the only crew-member of the Prospero who had
never been in space before, except of course for the ballistic shoots
which were part of training. The American himself had been aboard
the Quixote on the first moonshot directed by the U.N. Space Corps.
Then they had built the Prospero, and he had piloted it on its
shakedown cruise in orbit. And the Board had chosen him to fly the
ship on its first trip to the Moon. Altogether, it was the fourth shot of
the U.N. Space Corps, and the second time he had been on the
Moon. He, the American, was the veteran, he had spent more hours
in space than any other human being alive.

And he remembered the first time he had seen Duport. The veteran
and the kid. He had met him in the briefing room at the launching site
at Christmas Island. The veteran had been studying a thrust table,
and the kid had come into the room, half an hour early for the first
briefing. The American did not hear him come in. He looked up from
his desk, and there he was, Duport, standing at attention in his blue
Corps uniform with the silver sunburst in his lapel, indicating active
commission.
"Christ!" the American had burst out, forgetting himself and speaking
in English. "Are you Duport? They told me you were young...." He
already knew each of the other crewmen.
"Yes sir," Duport answered in English. "I'm afraid I am rather young.
Corpsman Duport reports for briefing, sir. I just arrived on the island
an hour ago."
The American recovered himself. He leaned back in his chair to
study the boy. He was blond and had light blue eyes that glittered,
and he looked like a high school kid.
"Eh bien, parlons francais," the American said at last. "Sorry, Duport,
I didn't mean to offend you. It's just that it was a shock.... Why are
you smiling like that?"
"Nothing, sir." Duport's mouth straightened itself out.
"What do you mean rien? No, tell me, Duport. You should know by
now that the Corpsman's first law is that we tell each other what's on
our minds. If we're going to be sealed up together in a tin can for two
weeks...."
"I'm sorry sir, it was your accent. I found it amusing."
"Oh, that. You're not the first one. Eh bien. Have you been assigned
quarters yet, Duport?"
"No, sir."
"I'll see to it myself after the briefing. You'll find conditions are rather
primitive on the island, but you won't be here long. The ferryboat
leaves in six days."
"Yes, sir."
The American was fascinated by Duport's eyes, their unnatural,
bright glaze. The boy never seemed to blink. He yet stood at
attention, looking down at the older man with unshifting eyes.
"Stand at ease, Duport. As long as you're early, we might as well
start the briefing now." On an impulse, he went to the projection
screen and touched a switch which flashed on a photomap of the
lunar landing area. He pointed to a particular object which was
visible only because of the long shadow it cast.
"As you are well aware, Duport, the research station is here, near
the center of the Crater of Copernicus. The three trips so far by the
Quixote have been sufficient to set up the dome and to land enough
equipment to keep the colony independent for several months if
necessary. So far, there aren't any men there. That's our job, the
Prospero's. We're going to have five passengers with us, research
scientists, I haven't met them yet. All I know about them is that one is
American and one Russian. Our job is to get them into the station,
alive, and then bring back the ship. What they do up there afterward
is none of our business."
"Yes, sir," Duport answered, still at attention. "I have already been
told this."
"Yes, I haven't told you anything that you don't already know. And of
course you also know that the bottom of Copernicus Crater, like all
other flat areas on the Moon, is a kilometer deep with nearly
molecular dust, micrometorite residue. You know that before the first
landing by the Quixote, it was necessary to explode a hydrogen
bomb in order to fuse the surface of the dust into a thick crust of
glass, in order to get a stable landing stage." The American paused,
turned away from the photomap, and looked at Duport again.
"Yes sir."

"But something you don't know is that certain automatic instruments

left at the station by the Quixote have given an indication that this
landing crust was weakened by the last lift-off. The instruments may
be wrong, or they may be right. We're going to find out."
"I—see."
"Yes." The veteran leaned against the wall and looked at the boy's
eyes. "The Quixote is a heavy ship, and the Prospero is heavier.
We're going to have to set her down easy. Very easy. That crust is
hard, but thin. You know what will happen if the ship breaks through.
The rocket nozzles will clog with dust, and the ship will sink to the
cabin bubble. We'll be stuck on the Moon."
"Yes sir," was all that Duport said.
"Yes sir! The point is, Duport, that every member of the crew is going
to have to function as part of the machine, the radioman included.
The slightest error could be crucial on this one. You're going to have
to leave your nerves behind. Once we set her down, we should be all
right. But I hope to God your training program has really got you
ready for this."
"I know it has, sir." Duport stood there, silent, at attention, perhaps
waiting for something else. But the American did not know what else
to tell him. He was trying to figure Duport out. Even then he had a
feeling that there was something about the boy that was wrong.
Something he could not understand. He stared at his cold blue eyes.
At last Duport said, "Once the research station really gets going, the
results should be magnificent, sir."
The American moved away. "Yes, but don't be naive, Duport. Don't
believe what you read in the papers. The real reason for the station
—the reason for the U.N. Space Corps—is practical politics. If the
Corps didn't exist, the U.S. and Russia would go to the Moon
separately. And neither side would tell the other what they were
doing there. A joint effort is the only way to make sure that nobody
plants missiles up there. Science is secondary. We're like two
gunmen afraid to turn our backs on each other."
"Yes sir, of course you are right," Duport said. And as the American
moved toward the desk he glanced back at Duport and saw the boy
staring at the lunar photomap, his eyes coldly reflecting light. The
muscles of his jaw were working visibly, slowly tightening and then
relaxing again. It was as if he were trying to memorize every detail of
the map.

And thinking back on that day, the American pilot wondered if he

were any closer to understanding Duport. Suddenly he thought he
was. For the first time he thought about the way the muscles of
Duport's jaw moved. He had never really considered that before. The
brightness of the boy's eyes had always distracted his attention. He
looked into the mirror again, at Duport seated by himself at the rear
of the cabin, bowed over his console and listening to his
headphones. The pilot could see only part of Duport's left lower jaw.
But yes, the muscles were working. Slowly they contracted until they
stood out like knots, then slowly relaxed again.
Nerves, that was the word. Now the pilot knew what name to give it.
Why hadn't he seen it before? Duport seemed cold, efficient, the pilot
thought, always he seemed to function like part of the machine, part
of the ship. But always the muscles of his jaw were working, and the
shine of his eyes kept you from looking at his mouth, kept you from
noticing the one sign that Duport had a nervous system. The pilot
saw that under Duport's cool, steady surface, the boy was wound to
nearly the snapping point, to the uttermost limit of his nervous
system's tensile strength. It was his nerves that gave Duport his
machinelike efficiency, his quick response time, his endurance. As
long as he kept them under control. It was his nerves, too, that made
his eyes glitter, like the eyes of a madman masquerading as sane.
Why hadn't the medics ever seen it? The pilot wondered what would
happen if Duport ever, for a moment, were to forget himself and lose
control of his nerves.
Well, the boy had lasted this far. During the tense moments of the
lunar touchdown he hadn't cracked. He had responded to orders as
if he were an electric relay. He had done his job. It had turned out
that the landing crust was not weakened after all, but none of them
had known that then. Duport had passed that test. Perhaps, the pilot
thought, he was wrong about Duport, perhaps he was really what he
seemed to be, cool and nerveless. At any rate, he would tell his
suspicions to the medics, back on Ground. Time enough, he thought,
time enough.

The research observer, the other American in the crew, had been
busy taking pictures for several hours. He straightened from his
camera sight, rubbed at his eyes, and stretched.
"When we hit that ocean," he said in English, "I'm going to break out
the raft, strip naked, and go for a swim, sharks or no...."
"Ta geule," someone said, "shut up."
The observer looked around, embarrassed at what he'd said. It was
as if they were all superstitious, as if talking about Ground, even
thinking about it, would bring bad luck. Each of them would have
denied this hotly. But for a moment the observer looked as if he
would have knocked on wood, had there been a piece of wood in the
ship. After a minute the observer pulled out some processed film
plates and began examining them through a lens.
Rene Duport had looked up from his radio console. There was
nothing for him to do at the moment. He thought that he would have
liked to be in the observer's place, or the navigator's, able to look
through one of the periscopes directly into deep space. He had loved
the Moon, he had loved to suit up and walk out onto the lunar dust
and look upward at the sky, at the stars that did not flicker, at the
Magellanic Clouds, close enough to touch. But even there, on the
surface of the Moon, he had always been standing on something. He
thought of the vacuum that was all around the ship, on every side,
just beyond the hull, just beyond the escape hatch behind his back.
He wondered what it would be like to look directly into space,
standing on nothing, to see not merely a dome of stars, but an entire
sphere of them, bright and unblinking. All his life he had wanted to
go into space, and all his life he had known that he would. Now he
did not want to go back, he wished that he could leave the Earth
forever.
The research observer leaned toward the African engineer and
began discussing one of the film plates with him. Rene Duport
listened to them, only half interested. He thought that the African and
the Russian were the only crewmen besides himself who could
speak French without sounding ridiculous.
He saw the pilot abruptly bend over the control panel and make an
adjustment. He said something to the Russian that Duport did not
catch, the Russian co-pilot nodded and began turning a knob slowly,
his eyes on a vernier dial. For several minutes the American and the
Russian worked steadily at the controls, frequently glancing at each
other. Once the Russian rose to open an access plate in the
overhead and inspect some wiring, then he strapped himself in again
and continued working his controls. The engineer left his seat and
pulled himself forward to begin talking to the pilot in low tone. After a
minute the engineer opened a technical manual and began reading
off a series of numbers.
The research observer was watching a dial on the cabin wall.
"She's heating up," he said.
Then Rene Duport noticed it. The cabin temperature had risen
during the last few minutes, already he was beginning to sweat
profusely.
"C'est trop," the Russian said. It's too much.
The pilot turned to look back at his crew. "Pile's overheating," he
said. "I'm going to blow the cabin pressure so we won't roast. Suit
up."

Everyone sealed their helmets and plugged into their air supplies. In
a few seconds they had each pressurized and tested their suits. The
pilot reached for a red lever, and then there was a quick hissing
sound that lasted only for a moment.
Rene Duport waited, wondering what was going to happen. Nothing
like this had ever happened to the Quixote. And the Prospero
followed the other ship's general design, so that it shouldn't be
happening to her either. Both ships used water as a reaction mass,
superheated by a nuclear pile, which was separated from the cabin
bubble and attached to it only by steel girders. Duport knew what
would happen if the overheating didn't stop. Either the pile would
blow like a bomb, or those girders would continue conducting heat
into the cabin until the cabin walls turned red hot and then melted.
Blowing the cabin pressure could only keep the crew from roasting
for a few minutes. Perhaps some damping rods had blown out;
whatever it was, Duport knew the pile was heating fast.
Over the intercom, Duport could hear the co-pilot muttering, "Trop
vite! Trop vite!" Too fast, too fast.
"She's going to blow," someone else said.
There was a silence that lasted several seconds. Everyone waited.
Then the pilot said, "No good. I'll have to eject."
But Duport did not hear that.
When the temperature was down to normal, the pilot reached for a
valve to begin pressurizing. But a safety device prevented the valve
from operating, and he looked around to see why. "Christ!" his voice
came over the intercom. "He jumped!"
The rest of the crew turned their heads to look toward the rear of the
cabin. The escape hatch behind Duport's seat was open, and Duport
was gone.

"But why did he do it?" The research observer lounged against the
aft bulkhead, he had been watching a chess game between the
Russian and the Finn. The Prospero was in orbit, there was little to
do now but wait for the ferry ship to lift off from Christmas Island and
make rendezvous. After the pilot had ejected the nuclear fuel, the
ship had of course simply coasted into orbit. With no power left for
course correction, it was not a good orbit, but it was close enough for
the ferry to reach. There was nothing to do now but wait, and play
chess. The research observer shook his head. "It was stupid, there
was no reason. Why did he go out the hatch like that?"
The pilot was tired. He rubbed his face with both hands. He did not
want to have to think about it. He looked at the other American's
face.
"Nerves. He lost his nerve, that's all."
The research observer watched the Finn capture one of the
Russian's rooks with a knight.
"He jumped out of the ship." It was as if he were trying to convince
himself that it had really happened. "Why did he do it? I can't figure it
out."
The pilot covered his eyes. "Call it cowardice if you like. Or panic.
The kid chickened out."

Then they were in the ferry ship, waiting for the engineers to finish
inspecting the Prospero before casting off and going into a re-entry
spiral, towards the Pacific landing area. Meanwhile, the medic had
finished his preliminary physical of each of the crew. Most of the men
rested quietly, reading newspapers and waiting. The American pilot
had strapped himself to one of the crash couches and taken a short
nap. Then he got up to look through a periscope at the three
engineers working near the Prospero's power tank.
The ferry ship's radioman, a young Englishman, tapped him on the
shoulder. The pilot turned away from the eyepiece, and his face was
drawn and white.
"They've picked up his track," the radioman said.
"What?"
The radioman handed the pilot a piece of paper. "Just got the news.
His suit transmitter, the beacon's working. The station at Leningrad
picked up the signal, they're going to compute his orbit."
It was a few seconds before the American understood what he was
talking about.
"Duport, you mean? They're tracking him?" He hesitated. "But why?
Why are they computing his orbit?"
The Englishman grinned. "They're going to try to pick him up.
Rescue him, you know."
The American stared.
"Be a few hours before they have an exact plot," the radioman went
on. "The rough estimate is that they'll be ready to launch within forty-
six hours. They're going to send up the Wabash Cannonball. If his
beacon keeps operating, there's a fifty-fifty chance they'll catch him.
Just thought you'd want to know, sir. You may not have lost a
Corpsman after all." The Englishman turned to go back to his post,
and the American stared at his back as he moved away.
"Why?" he whispered. "Why?" The pilot did some rough calculations
in his head. He remembered the ship's approximate position and
velocity at the time that Duport had jumped. Duport's body would of
course have about the same orbital velocity as that of the ship,
though the impetus of his leap would have been enough to carry him
into some completely different direction. Somewhere out there
Duport was swinging around the Earth in a wide, elliptical orbit. For
some reason it had not occurred to the pilot that he might still be
alive. Since the moment that he had turned and seen the open hatch
he had been thinking of Duport as a casualty, already dead. But in
fact, the American realized, Duport was probably still alive. His suit
was equipped for just this kind of emergency; it had an oxygen
regenerating system that could supply him with air to breathe as long
as the photocells kept his battery charged. The catch was that no
one had ever lived in a suit before for more than twelve hours at a
stretch. Six hours was considered the normal safety limit. In theory
the suit would keep Duport alive until he died of thirst or starvation.
In theory.
But why were they going to try to rescue him? It made no sense. The
Wabash Cannonball was the smallest ship in the Space Corps' fleet.
It carried a crew of two, and was used for ferrying small cargoes into
orbit. If she left behind her reserve oxygen tanks and emergency
equipment, it should be possible to reduce her weight load
sufficiently to get her into an orbit as high as Duport was. Then there
was perhaps one chance in ten of getting him down alive. No doubt
the Corps Center had decided to send the Cannonball up because it
would involve the least possible fuel expenditure. But the operation
would still cost close to half a million dollars, to say nothing of the
risk to the ship and crew. Nothing of the kind had ever been done, or
attempted, before. Why had the Corps decided to gamble two lives
on a long chance of saving one?
Suddenly the American felt an intense, irrational hatred of Duport. If
his suit beacon was operating, it could only be because he had
turned it on. Why hadn't he left it off, rather than risk the lives of
others to save his own hide? He had jumped ship. They ought to
leave him there, the pilot thought.

The ferry ship broke atmosphere, her heat shield and fins glowing
red. She fell to an altitude of ten thousand feet before her velocity fell
to a little less than two thousand miles per hour. Then the collapsible
wing unfolded like the wing of a moth, it was half wing, half
parachute. The ship glided toward the sea.
It struck the water with an explosion of spray, dived under, bobbed to
the surface again, rolling like a porpoise. Someone opened a hatch
and climbed out onto the hull. Ten minutes later, the helicopter
appeared.
Back at Christmas Island, the American pilot was still asking why. He
asked it of Dr. Valdez, a grey-haired man, chief of the spacemedic
team.
"You're right," Dr. Valdez said. He was sitting in a chair on the
veranda of the infirmary, hands folded behind his head, looking out
to sea. "The Center did ask my advice on this matter. I told them
what I thought the odds were against a successful rescue operation.
I also told them that, for scientific reasons alone, I thought it was
worth attempting."
"But why?" The American looked down at him.
Dr. Valdez looked at the sea. "It is now just about twenty-four hours
since Duport jumped into space. His beacon is still operating, and
the orbital plot has been completed. The rescue ship will launch in
about thirty hours from now. Estimating six hours between lift-off and
rendezvous, this means that Duport will have been alone in space
for a total of about sixty hours. Two and a half days."
The American said nothing, waiting for him to go on.
"Think of him up there." Dr. Valdez closed his eyes. "Completely
alone. Total silence except for the sound of his own breathing. He
sees nothing but stars, intensely bright, above him, beneath his feet,
on all sides, the silver smear of the Milky Way, the Clouds of
Magellan, the nebulae. The Earth is a great, swollen balloon that
swings past his field of vision now and then, the Moon a smaller
bubble. Without a reference point there is no sense of depth, no
perspective. He can reach out and touch the stars. He swings in
space, beyond time and distance, completely alone."
"So what?" the pilot said at last.
Dr. Valdez straightened in his chair and leaned his elbows on his
knees.
"So there are some things we—I—would like to know. I'd like to know
what is happening to him, out there. What he has seen, perhaps
heard. The effects on his body, if any. Above all, the effect on his
mind. No human being has ever experienced anything like it before.
There's something else I'd like to know. We worked with him for
nearly a year. He finished with the highest rating in his class. We
never would have sent him out if we hadn't been sure about him. But