Newly Updated, Improved & Expanded — 10th Edition

E xplained

By Richie V e n g e i
Excruciatingly Detailed

P L A IN E N G LIS H
Explanations of E V E R Y TH IN G Essential for

EVERY Pilot
 Newly Updated, Improved & Expanded — 10th Edition

f V iR Y T H IN G
E xplained .
FO R T H E V%

PROFESSIONAL
PILOT
By Richie U n g e l
|Excruciatingly Detailed

P L A IN E N G LIS H
Explanations of E V E R Y TH IN G Essential for

H EVERY Pilot ■
 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED
FOR T H E

PROFESSIONAL PILOT
Richie Lengel

N ew ly Updated, Im proved, and Expanded — 10th Edition — Copyright © 2014

All rights reserved. No pari of ihis publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any other information storage and retrieval system,
without the written permission of the publisher.

The Information provided in this book has been painstakingly researched, and all efforts have been made to
e/Tsu/e accuracy and currency, Aviation-Press assumes no responsibility for any Injuries suffered or for
damages or tosses incurred during the use of or as a result of following this information. It is important fo study
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Where trade names are used, no discrimination is intended and no endorsement is implied.

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Catalog Num ber: 2003106332

ISD N : 0-9742613-0-0

We are a lw a ys happy to h e a r from y o u ,

F o r q u e s tio n s o r c o m m e n ts c o n c e rn in g this book,
p i e a s e w rite to the p u b lis h e r:

Av Iat Ion-Press
A ttn : Richie Lengcl
1223 Riverside Drive
Charlotte, North Carolina 28214

You may aiso email the author directly:

LENG EL414£yahPO .coin

O r v is it o u r w eb s ite :
w w w .A v ia tio n -P rc s s .c o m

(Print Code — Data Reproductions #5)

II E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D lor the Prof es sienal Pilot

Com m ents— Applause— Opinions:

"I formally declare this ‘T h e M o t h e r o f A ll R e fe r e n c e B o o k s '. If you can't Find it here, you probably don't
need to know itf"
— Dan Mulder, Southwest

''This book will turn virtually anv pilot jnlo an aviation o u ru f It truly does cover every real world avialion
topic in excruciating detail and — more importantly — it does it in a uniquely easy to read, fun, and easy
I t : understand manner using PLAIN ENGLISH It act July makes ? fun to look up □ subject because you
don't have to wade through mountains of legal gibberish to get to the bottom line."
— Vinnio Criscuola, US Airways

'■ .11Keep searching for a subject that is noi completely covered Lai.v_e_up!
— Joe Parks, NelJets

"The most valuable book in rgy Ijfrrgrv I wish It had been available years ago. It would have saved me
countless hours of research/study lime and hundreds of dollars wasted on other books.”
— Andre Missfeldt, AirTran

"Richie has an extremely readable style. Words highlighted with boldfunderlined text make ¡1possible to
retrieve all the relevant facts from a page in just a few se co n ds, rather than having to sift through
numerous muddled paragraphs of boring print. This groundbreaking style is a great time saver I also love
the embedded humor."
— Mark Wainscott, DHL

"At last, an extremely detailed analysis of aviation covering all the bases from proas to jets. If you’re a
Private pilot or an Airline pilot you M J S T have this beok. Richie seems to know exactly what you're
looking for... then immediately hands it to you on a silver platter. \ feel like IVe suddenly become an
aviation scholar (as long as my copy of 'T H E B O O K ' Is close at hand)”
— Rob Fergus, Flight Options

"An unbelievable amount of information crammed Into one book. I think it could more accurately be called
The World Encyclopedia of Aviation in Plain English'.'1
— Gus Alvarez, Embry Riddle

"Where was this book when I needed it? It would have saved me countless hours of study lime in
preparation for my first type rating. An enorm ous collection of Information and pearls of wisdom that I
will have lo admit, pretty much covers E V E R Y TH IN G for just about every pilot."
— Chris Royals, Shuttle America

"There are other books that profess to explain. but in fact only cut & paste (he regulation and maybe
make a comment or two about It, This book actually re-writes aviation using real words thai even an
uneducated slob like myself can understand.”
— Name and airline withheld by request

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D lor the Professional Pilot III

 HELLO!

Lets get acquainted.

iv E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D lor the Professions I Pilot

D E D IC A TIO N
This book is dedicated toall the pilots of the world — from the student lo the professional airline captain —
who must struggle with that truckload of rules, regulations, and aerodynamic realities every day in the battle
to stay legal... but most importantly... ALIVE.
I must also (or she would kill me) pay tribute to my wonderful, beautiful, and very sexy wife. Darlene, who
has supported me throughout all of my careers. Without her, life would be extremely boring.

A bout the A uthor

Richie Lengel is an Airline Transport Pilot with type ratings in the DC-3. Falcon 20 (DA20), and Citation
(CE-500). He has been involved with aviation for over 50 years, and has accumulated well over 11,000
hours of piston and jet lime in all forms of passenger and freight operations.
Born and raised in Bridgeport, Connecticut he first look to the air in the 1950's long before he was legal to
drive a car. His dad, a private pilot since the end of World War llr introduced his son to flying at a very
young age with a variety of aircraft starting with an Ercoupe, several 0140a, a C-172. and finally a Mooney.
The lack of aviation employment opportunities during ihe mid '60s somehow led to a very successful music
career as the lead guitarist for an assortment of high profile Rock-'n'-Roll, Rhythm-&-Bluesr and Jazz-Funk
recording acts, while renting or borrowing airplanes for transportation to performances around ihe country
whenever possible.
In the m id '80s, Richie segued info A fu ll time a v ia tio n career S ta rtin g as a line pilot, then C o m p a n y
instructor/check airman, then Chief Pilot and/or Director of Operations of various on demand Part 135
operations In the Southeast,
Richie has designed and supervised all aspects of training, training manuals, operations manuals, etc., and
served as FAA approved check airman for several different types of aircraft.
A sizable portion of his time was accumulated flying freight in DC-3s, but he also has extensive experience
in C-402s, BE-ias, King Airs, Turbo Commanders, Citations, and the Falcon 20.
He now lives on Ihe Calawba River in Charlotte, North Carolina and continues to write, fly airplanes,
train pilots, water ski, mountain bike, and occasionally hit the stage to jam with a local band just for fun.

Darlene and Richie — chillin' out by the river on Riverside Drive

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot V

 Freight Dog I hope you guys
Testing Area brought plenty
of quarters. ,

vi E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D lor the Professions I Pilot

ACK N O W LED G EM EN TS
Special, special thanks for the
The Black Sheep Squadron unrelenting support, research
This book would not have been possible without the questions, ihe assistance, technical advice,
dumb looks, and the contributions of the people listed below. The preefreading skills, attention to detail
memories of the frustrations endured — trying to keep these people and all manner of other help from the
from killing me — while attempting to turn these plebs into real world people listed below.
super-pilots will be with me forever. Of course, a select few were Any goobers found in this book
already super-pilots when they came to me (fhey know who they are!). should be blamed squarely on the
following individuals:

Wally Chernoch Sam Wright Eric Wainscott

Chris Corbin Mike Daigneault Doug Johnson
Kevin Dixon Jonathon Ford Ivann Mills
Bernie Dudas Dane Harris Jim Swenson
Larry Pollard Becky Loranger George Andrews
Tim Smith Allan McClellan Greg Kitchen
Ronnie Garvin Pete McKnght Jim Wojcik
David Caudle Ernie Miller Tracy Chaney
Dave Dillinger Tom Fabrizo Caleb Landry
Dean Elmore Jeff Greene Jason Hackney
Nick Fadero Lanny Guyton Robert Bullock
Jerry Johnson Michael Kasales Mike Brown
John Conley Trip Kelieber Shane Steineckert
Glenn Garris Sam Lewis
Kevin Herman Jeff McKenna
Dan Troxler J.J. McNutt
Jay Blumenthal Rye Thompson
Mike Copeland Jeff Quigley
Carl Dean Oleh Luciw
Glenn Englehart Vince Powern
Bob Howerton Jason Aired
Erik Sparks David Jones
Chris Bartlett Ryan Larson
Chuck Goins Steve McCoy
Jeff Ottaviano Miguel Eslremera
Dennis Schwandl Ron Middleton
Dan Boeving Bill Oqley
Stephen Hammond Russ Platt
Troy Moore Chris Royals
Steve Ward Paul Skinner
Ted Frigo Jeremy Biederman
Brandon Jewett Eric Crews
Jeff Mitchell Kary Gould
Richard Scogin Jackie Harvey
John Wayne Thomas Chris Jones
Bert Thornton Trevor McCarthy
Tim Wyatt Kevin Moore
Rick Cloniger Larry Ziegler
Chris Garlow Chris Dorsey
b .j Johnson Bruce Mashburn
Bill Laret James Hammons
Brian McNeill ... etc., etc., etc.

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot V.I1

 You start with a bag full of LUCK and an empty bag of EXPERIENCE.
The trick is to FILL the bag of EXPERIENCE before
the bag of LUCK becomes EMPTY.
Here's over 50 years of experience to get you started

IT
Lenge! WorldAirwa
DDOBDQQUDDQQCI “ 0 □ B D 00 &BDQQ p j

_ o _ *

V --------- 7
*WARNING*
♦ Fiying airplanes may be hazardous to your health;
* When the unexpected occurs, take the appropriate action immediately;
If at all possible, strive to be extremely fortunate!
l \

■ »HELP W ANTED*
* W herever possible, all references to source material such as the regulation^}, the AIM
paragraph(s), Advisory Circulars}, etc., etc., are listed after each subject title.
I’ve come to realize that the task of keeping up with AIM paragraph numbers, and all other
sources of information, is similar to trying to hit a mole with a lawn dart!
If you happen to run across any discrepancies to these numbers, or the regulations
themselves, please notify me via email fL E N G E L 4 1 4 @ v a h o o .c o n r t for the benefit of your
fellow pilots and future editions. I need all the help I can get!
Contributions from readers are an incredibly important resource and may result In changes 1
additions to future editions in my continuing quest for 100% accuracy and currency,
Thank you so much!
V I
vili E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professions I Pilot
 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED
for the

Professional Pilot
Introduction
Learning the indicate physics of flight is just a very small bump in the road Lo becoming a pilot.
Early or, in pursuit of my flying career, I was slruck by the massive amounts of legal rhetoric I was expected to
assimilate, and the often seemingly impossible job of locating, deciphering and interpreting the legalese.
The FAA has a unigue way of saying one thing and meaning something totally different. Why do they do that?
Personally I think 90% of this garbage is a "make-work" conspiracy to ensure job security.
Why can't they just write this crap In ENGLISH?
Sometimes I wish I could take them out back and slap 'em around a little to bring them back to reality. More
complicated words do not necessarily mean fewer accidents, but they certainly ensure more violations if you're
not perfectly In tune with the current sel of commandments and the most current Interpretations,

These rules often intertwine inio an astounding labyrinth of contradictions virtually impossible to grasp. Highly
paid lawyers, with very large boat payments, argue over the meaning of these words every day. It's been said
the FARs are written by lawyers for the express purpose of promoting violations and lawsuits!

Also... one must remember, (he literal interpretation of a particular regulation very often depends on which FAA
you're talking lo at thal particular moment and ... whal kind of mood that FAA happens lo be In thal day,
(e.g., "Careless and reckless" can mean jusl about anything if you piss oft the wrong person.)

I’ve worked with a multitude of FAA personnel throughout the years. For the most part, they are all fair and
outstanding people working hand at a difficult job. However... there is an amazing diversity of opinions on
many issues, and each Inspector can be extremely adamant about his or her particular perspective. When
opinions do not agree, the precedence of case law history takes over. Hopefully the extensive research
conducted for this book will bring together some of these points of view.

Many, many years later, when l finally felt that l had somewhai sorted out this mind-boggling maze of
information, I found thal it was way Loo much for my little peanut-sized brain Lo remember at any one Lime. Plus
the rules kept changing!

So... I set myself to the task of organizing and cataloging the material so as to have it at my fingertips whenever
I needed it, and updating it as the FARs changed, That collection of somewhat secret information has evolved
into this book.

This is an attempt to cut through the legal jargon and get ALL the information in one d a ce , up-front and
accessible to the mainstream general aviation or professional piloL. It has necessilated a re-write of many of the
regs in PLAIN ENGLISH sc that a mere mortal (someone lacking a law degree) might understand.

‘W ARNING* — You will find occasional sarcasm tongue-in-cheek irreverent opinions lo.usy_LO.Re_5
politically incorrect humor, what some might consider sexist humor, cheesy clipart and artfully bleeped
expletives that are included bolh for comic relief and as a teaching lool. Some will question the
"professionalism" of this tactic. Well... you just can't please all the people all the time. This book was not
intended, for children or ihe emotionally immature. You'll find much worse on nelwork TV, Do not read any
further If you're an overly sensitive boy scout, girl scout, choir boy, or self-righteous PC Police [person:-].
This is NOT your normal aviation book. You h a w been warned!____________________________________________

It bad grammar and creative punctuation annoy you, get ready for a real ireat.

This book is written for PILOTS... N O T lawyers!

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot ix

 RNAV; RNP..................................................... ..........33
Preflighl action; flight plan.............................. ......... 34
Chapter 1 Preferred routes..............................................
Seat belts & shoulder harness......................
..........34
......... 34
A irs p a c e a n d A irp o rt Do y o u need an A L T E R N A T E ? ...........
O p e r a t i o n s .....................................................1 A lte rn a te airport w e a t h e r ..................... ........35
Fuel supply...................................................... ....36, 37
Graphic oversew of airspace............. ....................... 2
Void time; IFR takeoff limitations; taxiing..... ..........33
Class A & B Airspace......................... ....................... 3
T a k e o ff briefin g & T O L D c a r d ............ ........ 39
Class C & airport beacons.................. ....................... 4
Class D ................................................. ....................... 5 Wake turbulence............................................. ..........46
Class E ................................................. ....................... 6 Climb gradient................................................. ......... 41
VFR in Class E .................................... ....................... 6 Pilotage........................................................... ..........41
Surface based Class E ....................... ....................... 6 Dead reckoning................................. . ......... 41
Class G ................................................. ....................... 7 RCG; R T R ;G C G ............................................ ........ 42
Class G control towers....................... ....................... 7 D ep artu re P ro c e d u re s ( D P ) ..................
Transition area..................................... ..................................a VFR-Qn-Top; V FR -Q ver-The-Top................ ........ 44
T R S A .................................................... ..................................a Minimum fuel advisory................................... ..........44
Airport Advisory Area........................... ....................... a VFR flight following........................................ ......... 44
Void lime.............................................. ....................... s Non-radar position reporting.......................... ..........45
VFR In all Classes & Special V F R .................9 Additional reports; pilot's discretion.............. ......... 45
Prohibited; Restricted; MOAs; Warning areas; V O R ................................................................. ......... 46
Alert areas, etc....................... 10 Class I A Class II navigation.......................... ..........46
Class F airspace............................................... ....... 10 Federal {Victor} airways...... ......................... ........ 47
Aerobatic flight.................................................. ........11 Colored airways.............................................. ..........47
Normal; Commuter; Utility & Jet routes........................................................ ..........47
Acrobatic category Aircraft.. ........11 Crossing restrictions...................................... ......... 47
Standard Terminal Arrival / S T A R i.............. ........ 48
ADIZ; DEWIZ: mountainous areas................. ........12
Intercept procedures........................................ ....... 13 Timed approaches......................................... ..........46
Flap setting in Class G airspace..................... ...... 14 Cruise clearance............................................. ......... 49
Land And Hold Short Operations (LAHSO).... ........14 Cruise climb.................................................... ......... 49
Radar service terminated............................... ......... 49
Tu rn s at airports w ith o u t an
NACO (NOS) approach plate revision date.. ..........49
operating control t o w e r ... □ -A T I5 ............................................................. ......... 49
Traffic pattern en try .................................. 16, 17 Approach B riefin g ............................ ........50
Tra ffic pattern altitude & glide slope 1fl, 19 TOLD card — approach side........................ ......... 51
R unw ay m a rk in g s ............................... 20, 21 Cleared for approach..................................... ..........52
Airport signs, markings.................................... ........22 A D F /G P S ........................................................ ..........52
Runway weight bearing capacity.................... ....... 22 Minimum Vectoring Altitude — MVA............. ..........52
Holding position markings: ILS critical area ... ........23 RADAR ............................................................. ..........53
R unw ay lights ............................................... 24, 25 P ro ce d u re t u r n .......................................... ........54
Airport elevation & reference point................. ........26 DME a r c ................................................................. 54
Low altilude alert.............................................. ....... 26 Approach categories................................................... 55
Braking action / runw ay friction reports.. 26 Full scale deflection.................................................... 55
Exiling the runway after landing..................... ........26 Pilot controlled runway lights..................................... 55
Formation flight................................................. ........27 Final A pproach F ix ..................................... 56
GlideSlepe Intercept Altitude (G S IA )........56

Final Approach Point............. .............................. .....................57

Chapter 2 Final Approach Segment.....
ILS critical area..................... u im ililil r - r - i -i -
..57
..57
C A T l, II. Ill ILS minimums.... .,57
Flight Rules & Approach Precision approach.............. ..58
P rocedures.................................. 29 Nonprecision approach......... ..56
Precision-like approach....... ..58
Is the A IR P L A N E L e g a lT .................................. 30 ILS.......................................... ■■■■■■■ ■ ,.59
Is the P IL O T L e g a l?...........................................31 Marker beacon...................... ..59
Equipment Suffixes: flight plan information ........... 32 Localizer anienna.................. ... „59
x E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D lor the Prefersienal Pilot
Glideslope antenna...................................... ........... 59
Traffic pattern altitude & glideslope..... ........... 60
Localizer approach....................................... ........... 61
Localizer backcourse approach.................. ........... 61
ASR approach.............................................. ........... 61
PAR approach.............................................. ........... 61
DME arc procedures...................... ............. ............61
L N A V t V N A V ap proaches................................6 2
C ontact a p p ro a c h .................................
Option a p p ro a c h ....................................
Low a p p ro a c h ............... .........................
N D B ................................................................. ........... 63
Nonprecision— NDBiVOR
approach & holding ........64, 65
Holding Pattern S p e e d s......................
L D A .............................................................. ........... 66
S D F .............................................................. ........... 56
Straight-in approach..................................... ........... 67
Circling approach..................................................... 67
Terminal arrival area— GPS approaches.... ..... 68.69
Landing under IF R ...................................... ........... 70
Missed approach...................................................... 70
Standard rate turns ...................................... ........... 71
No-gyro approach .................................................... 71
Missed approach prior to M AP .................... ........... 71
R V R .............................................................
Braking A c tio n ........................................
Exiting the runway after landing.................. ............ 72
Approach lig h tin g .................................
V A S I ............................................................. ............ 75
PAP I ................................................ ............ ............ 75
Visual ap pro ach......... ...........................
Low altitude alert...................................................... 76
Visual D escent Point (V D P } ........................ 77
Planned Descent Point (PD P) ..................... ............ 77
Vertical Descent Angle (V D A ) ..................... .............77
Charted Visual Flight Procedure (CVFP).... ............ 77
Transponder Landing System {T L S ) .......... ............ 78
ILS PRM approaches.................................. ............ 79
Simultaneous converging instrument approaches... 80
Side-step maneuver.................................... ............ 80
Canceling IF R ............................................. .............31
Exiting the runway after landing................. ............ 81
Communications failure.................. ............ .............82
Communications with control towers in Class G ..... 83
Instrum ents & eq uipm en t.................
Safety belts.................................................. .............84
C lo c k ..........................................................
Aircraft lights............................................... .............85
Interference with crewmembers................. .............86
Dropping objects......................................... .............36
Right-of-way rules....................................... ............ 86
Overhead approach maneuver.................. .............87
Same runway separation............................ ............ 88
E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot
Chapter 3
N a v ig a t io n & R a d i o s ............. . » 89
C o m p a s s stu ff................................................
V O R .....................................................................
VOR check.......................................................... ........91
V O T ..................................................................... ....... 91
Class I & Class II navigation,............................ ....... 92
D M E .....................................................................
Portable electronic devices................................ ....... 93
G P S .................................................................... 94, 95
Wide Area Augmentation Svstem iWAAS'l..... ........96
Local ¿rea Augmentation System iL A A S )..... ........96
Ground Based Augmentation Svstem (GBASi ........96
A N T E N N A S ...................................................... 97-99
Transponder codes............................................ .....100
Frequencies........................................................ .....100
N D B ..................................................................... ...1 0 1
U N IC O M .............................................................. ..... 102
Automated UNICOM .......................................... ..... 102
EFAS i Flight Watch í FSS — frequencies...... ..... 102
ADS-B — Automated Dependent Surveillance-
Broadcast........................... ..... 103
H ig h F re q u e n c y {H F ) R a d io ................. . ,...1 0 4
Telecommunication terms— Datalinks............ ..... 105
Chapter 4
Speed, A ltitude & Je t
O p eratio ns............................... 107
S p ee d lim it s ......... ......................................108-110
Holding pattern speeds............................................. 109
Aircraft approach categories....................................110
Circling radii........................... ..................................110
Speed limits— cross-reference.................................110
Crossing restrictions.................................................111
How to meet a crossing restriction.......................... 111
Hydroplane speed.....................................................111
V -s p e e d s ................................................... 112, 113
Airspeed errors, types & colors............................... 114
Speed of sound & M a c h ................... ...........1 1 5
Flight regimes............................................................ 116
Troposphere; Tropopause; Stratosphere................116
Temp lapse rate......................................................... 116
ISA — international Standard Atmosphere............ 117
Kollsman window...... .............. .........118
Altitude types {Pressure. Density, Indicated, etc.) .116
Altimeter setting......................................................... 119
Altitude temperature correction chart......................119
Pressure/lemperature & altimetry..................120, 121
xi
Density a ltitu d e ............ ................ ...... 122-125
Decompression sickness after scuba diving........ 123
LOW & HIGH altimeter setting restrictions............126
T ra n s p o n d e r— a ltitud e re p o rtin g —
M ode C ...............127
IFR altitudes— minimum altitudes for IFR................128
filideglope Intercept Altitude iG S IA t ......................128
Min/max & mandatory altitudes............................... 128
Minimum Safe Altitudes............................................ 129
M'nimum Sectoring Altitude iMVA) . ........................ 129
Minimum Safe/Seclor Altitude (M S A )..................... 129
Changing altitudes.....................................................129
Pilot’s discretion......................................................... 129
Traffic pattern altitude— Class B, C, or D ................130
GlideSlope in Class B, C, or D airspace..................130
Traffic pattern altitude @ uncontrolled airports.... 131
C ru is in g a ltitu d e s .............................................. 132
Reduced Vertical Separation Minimums fRVSM l . 133
Altimeter setting and the flight levels....................... 134
Mountain flying— the “venturi effect’ ........................ 134
Altimeter pitot/slatic check........................................ 135
Radar altimeter.......................................................... 135
A ltitu d e c ro s s -re f e re n c e .......................1 3 6-1 38
Oxygen altitudes........................................................139
A ltim e try aro un d the w o rld
(Q N H , Q N E , G F E J ........ 140, 141
Convert inches of mercury to millibars....................141
Rapid decompression................................................142
Altitude chambers......................................................142
Pressurized aircraft basic components...................142
O x y g e n s y s te m s ................................................ 143
J e t & tu rb in e o p e ra tio n s— 1 0 1 .................... 144
Jet fuel pounds vs. avgas gallons........................... 145
J e t I tu rb in e e n gin e — 1 0 1 ...................146, 147
Jet engine starting.....................................................148
Jet / turbine engine terminology.............................. 149
Electrical terminology............................................... 150
Fuel terminology.....................
Hydraulic terminology............................................... 151
Air conditioning terminology.....................................151
Flight conirol terminology......................................... 151
Avionics terminology................................................. 152
T C A S ..... ............. ..................,................................. 152
P re s s u riz a tio n .................................................... 153
J e t ta k e o ff.....................
Balanced field length...... ..........................................155
Critical field length.....................................................155
Slopway...... ..................
Clearway.....................................................................155
First segment definition variations........................... 155
Screen height............................................................. 155
Critical engine.........................
Takeoff distance.....................
A c c e le ra te -S T O P d is ta n c e ......................... 156
A c c e le ra te -G O d is ta n c e ..............................156
Takeoff run.................... ........................................ „ 157
Xii E V E R Y T H IN G EX P LAIN !
Takeoff path............................................................ „158
Net takeoff flight path....... ......... 158
Additional miscellaneous terms...............................158
Drifldown.................................... 159
Obstacle-clearance criteria..................... 159
Transport category turbine LANDING criteria....... 159
T O L D C a r d ................................................ 160, 161
Windmill start / airstart............................... 162
Altitude alerting system— turbojets..........................162
Fire detection and protection................................... 162
Winglets ............ 162
Windshield heat........................................................ 163
Tires.................. 163
Swept wing.................................................................163
Dutch roll................... 163
Yaw damper...............................................................163
R A T — T A T — S A T — O A T ............................. 164
Noise standards............................. 165
Chapter 5
Pilot Certificates, Log Books,
M edical, Drugs & A lcohol .. 167
Pilot certificate — category / class / type.... ............ 168
Aircraft — category / class..........................................168
Flight review (B F R )............................................... 169
Basic “C U R R E N C Y " requirements........................... 169
P IC in s tru m e n t c u r r e n c y (6 m o n t h ) .........170
Safety pilot.................................................... 171
Recent flight experience PIC (3 bounces).... 172, 173
A ir p la n e F lig h t M a n u a l i L im ita tio n s I
M a rk in g s a n d P la c a r d s ,.,.,, 1 7 4
D o c u m e n ts on b o a rd a ir c ra f t ma mmmmm iitii■ ■ ■■■1 75
Certificates required in pilot's possession................175
151 L o g b o o k s I lo g g in g tim e mmmmmmi i i a i ■ i mmma 1 7 6 , 177
Logging SIC— Navajo, King Air, Citation.......178, 179
Change of address....................................................... 180
Replacement of airman certificates................. 180
Falsification of logbooks or records.......................... 181
L o s t o r s to le n lo g b o o k ......................................181
S IC q u a lif ic a t io n s ................................ 182
154
S tu d e n t p ilo t ......................................................... 183
Sport Pilot, Recreational pilot..................................... 184
Private pilot......... .......................................................... 185
155
Instrument rating; instrument currency.................... 186
Commercial pilot...........................................................187
A ir lin e T r a n s p o r t P ilo t ..........................1 8 3 , 189
155 Flight instructor.................................................. 190, 191
156 Flight exam iner................... 192
Status of an examiner............... 192
C r o s s -c o u n t r y t i m e ....... ...................................... 193
T e m p o r a r y c e r t i f i c a t e ...... ................................ 193
for the Profes B ie n a l Pilot
Type rating................................................... ............194
Complex endorsement................................ ............194
High performance endorsement................ ............194
H igh a ltitu d e e n d o rs e m e n t............... ...........195
Ta iJw h e e l e n d o rs e m e n t.................... ...........195
PIC Proficiency Check for a type rating.... ........... 196
M E D IC A L €r'GrtifiG3i1i:G »a,■■■■■■■■■■■■■«■■■«■■1 @7
Operations requiring a medical certificate.. ............197
Operations MOT requiring a medical certificate.... 197
Prohibitions on operations during
medical deficiency........ ............193
D uratio n of a m e d ic a l c e rtif ic a te .. ...........199
Vision requirements.................................... ............199
S O D A ........................................................... ...........200
Lasik eye surgery........................................ ............200
Contact tenses............................................ ............200
Eye (required vision)................................... ............200
Ear, Nose, Throat, and Equilibrium........... ............201
Mental........................................................... ............201
Neurologic.................................................... ............201
Cardiovascular............................................. ............201
Diabetes mellitus— general medical condition...... 201
Kidney stones.............................................. ............201
Hypertension.................................. ............. ............201
Special issuance— discretionary issuance. ............201
D rugs or a lc o h o l............................ .202, 203
Motor vehicle action.................................... ............202
S p e e d in g t ic k e ts ,.................................
Over-The-Counter medications.................. ........... 204
C h a p t e r 6
W e a th e r & N O T A M S .................. 2 0 5
Windshear, microbursl........................ ....... ............206
Thunderstorm avoidance / penetration..... ............207
Extreme turbulence..................................... ............207
I C E .............................................................. .2 0 8 , 209
Carburetor icing........................................... ............210
Frost............................................................. ............211
Rime ice....................................................... ............211
Clear ice....................................................... ........... 211
Freezing rain......................................... ...... ............211
Ice pellets..................................................... ........... 211
Trace, light, moderate, severe Icing........... ............211
G ro u n d Icin g c o n d itio n « .................... ...........212
(F P D ) de-ice/anti-rce fluids ...............
H o ld o ve r t i m e s ..................................... ...........212
B ra k in g a c tio n .......................................
Contaminated runways............................... ............213
"Iced-over” sparkplug electrodes............... ............213
J e t s t r e a m ................ ..............................
Clear Air Turbulence................................... ............215
Wind chill factors......................................... ............216
E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot
A W O S vs. A S O S .............................................. 217
M E T A R vs . T A F ...................................................216
Ceiling.........................................................................218
Virga........................ 218
Limited Aviation Weather Reporting Station (LAW RS)
.................................................................................... 218
METAR identifiers..................................................... 218
M E T A R f T A F e x p la n a tio n s ..............................219
Wind direction — true north vs. magnetic..... ........ 228
M E T A R ,T A F & flight plan W A L L E T S IZ E D
C H E A T -S H E E T S ................... 221
Color codes................... 221
EFAS / Flight Watch 1 FSS — Frequencies............223
Standard briefing............................................. 223
Abbreviated briefing.................................................. 223
Outlook briefing........................................................223
Inflight briefing...........................................................223
Turbulence reporting criteria.......... ......... 223
AIR M ET (W A )............................................................224
SIGM ET (W S )............................................................ 224
Convective SIGM ET (W S T)...................................... 224
Severe weather forecast alerts (A W W ).................. 224
Center Weather Advisories (CW A),............... 224
Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIB S )..... 224
Pilot Automatic Telephone Answering Service
(P A T W A S )........................224
Transcribed WEather Broadcast (T W E B ).............. 224
Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service
(HI W A S )........................... 224
Pilot REPortS (PIR EP){U A){UUA )...........................225
Radar weather reports (S D )........................... 225
Aviation area forecast (FA)........... 225
Winds and temperatures aloft forecast (F D ).......... 225
Convective outlook (A C ).... ................ 225
Stability chart.............................................................225
Radar summary chart.... ...........................................225
Severe weather outlook chart...................................225
N O T A M s ..................................................... 22 6, 227
Fog..............................................................................228
L o c k h e e d M artin A F S S ....................... 229
Chapter 7_________
An O ve rvie w of Com m ercial
O perations......... ....................... 231
Definitions — C o m m e rc ia l...................... 232
Com m on/Noncom m on or P riva te ............... 232
C o m m u te r............................................... 233
O n -D e m a n d .......... ............................................. 233
D O m e S tiC ««M M »,M I.M »t«»..< > »M ».«M M »M 4 l»f 2 3 4
F la g ....................................................................... 234
Supplem ental.................................................... 234
xili
Scheduled................................. ........................ 235
Domestic, Flag, Supplemental, Part 121.... .......... 235
Part 125......................................................... .......... 235
Wet Lease vs Dry Lease........................................ 236
Part 135 or Part 121 does not apply to....... .......... 236
Business names........................................... .......... 237
Common carriage........................................ . ..........237
Noncommon carriage............................................. 237
Aircraft requirements..................................... .......... 237
Operational control ............................................ 237
Cerliflcale-Holdlnq Qistrlcl Qffice i C H D O ) ............ 237
Direct air carrier....................................................... 237
Part 91 vs. Part 121 vs. Part 136................ ... 238, 239
PIC qualifications ................................. ......... 240
SIC q ualificatio ns................... ..............
SIC required ........................................... ......... 241
Training, testing & checking— a quick synopsis.... 242
Passengers during cargo only operations.. .......... 243
Load manifest ( W & B ) ..........................
Load manifest, W&B; recordkeeping.......... .......... 244
Justifiable aircraft equipment....................... .......... 244
Maximum payload capacity........................ .......... 244
Standard average passenger weights....... .......... 244
Cargo floor lim its..................................
Weight t Balance & Center of Gravity........ .......... 245
Pilot recordkeeping— W&B— load manifest .......... 246
C O M A T......................................................... .......... 246
Effects of forward / aft C G .......................... .......... 247
Reporting mechanical irregularities............ .......... 247
Airworthiness check..................................... .......... 247
Cargo compartment classification.............. .......... 248
Sterile c o c k p it..................... .................
Manipulation of controls............................... .......... 249
Admission to flight deck............................... .......... 249
PIC/SIC designation required..................... .......... 249
Fuel s u p p ly ............................................. 250, 251
Destination & alternate
airport w e a th e r.......... 252, 253
Do you need an a lte rn a te ? ................
Alternate airport w eath er m ínim um s .... 255
People Express Exemplion (3585)............. ,., 256, 257
T a k e o ff m inim um s.................. ............. 258, 259
A pproach w eath er required ............. ......... 260
Descent below DH or M DA......................... .......... 260
Approach weather NO T required for Pari 91........ 260
Landing under IFR....................................... .......... 261
R V R ............................................................... .......... 261
Approach lighting......................................... ...........262
High m inim um s c a p ta in ........... ......... ......... 2 6 3
Special Exemption 5549.............................. .......... 263
Arrival at airports w ith
no w eather reporting. ..........264
Departing airports w ith
no w eather reporting. ......... 265
Flight T im e & D u ty .............................. . 266-275
xiv E V E R Y T H IN G EX P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot
Flight locating procedures........................................ 276
Regular airport................. ...................................... 276
Provisional airports...................................................276
Runway lighting.................. 276
International flights betw een
M exico or Canada and the U .S .... 277
Small & large Aircraft................................................278
Type rating required..................................................278
A cc e le ra te -S TO P D is ta n c e ........................ 27S
A ccelera te-G O D is ta n c e ........................... 278
Landing lim itations— 6 0 % , 7 0 % , 8 0 % .......279
Effective runw ay le n g th ................................279
Subpart F — large and turbine-powered
multiengine airplanes.... ...........280
Autopilot — minimum altitudes for use...................281
Alcoholic beverages..................................................282
Stowage of food, beverage...................................... 282
Exit sealing.................................................................282
Smoking prohibitions.................................................283
Subpart K of Part 91............................284, 285
Effect of Subpart K on Part 1 3 5 ............... 286
Chapter 8
More C om m ercial S tu ff...... 287
Operations S p e c ific a tio n s ......................... 288
O p e ra tio n s M anual ( G O M ) ................. 289, 290
Management personnel qualifications.................... 291
R am p c h e c k ..................................... 292
C h e c k lis t s ............................................................ 293
Charts..... ........................... 293
Performance data............................. 293
Passenger occupancy of pilot seat............ 293
Briefing of passengers before takeoff..................... 293
Proving runs.... ......... .„,294
Cockpit Voice Recorder fC VR i .................... 294
Flight Data Recorder (F D R ).............. 294
ground Proximity Warning Systems iG P W Si ...... 294
Initial, Transition & Upgrade GROUND training.... 295
Recurrent training..................................................... 295
Group I & Group II airplanes.................................... 296
Training TY P E DEFINITIONS {Initial. Transition,
Upgrade, Differences, Recurrent, etc.)....296
G ra c e m o n th .................... 296
EM ERGENCY training..............................................297
Fire extinguishers............... 297
H A Z M A T.......................................................... 298. 299
Company flight instructors................... 360
Authonzed instructor means...................... 300
Check airman............. 301
C H E C K R ID E S ............................................ 302-307
Initial Qperatlng Experience ( IO E) ...........................308
Flight attendants....................................................... 308
Weapons.......,........... ....................... .................. .... 308
Aircraft tests & inspections........ ............... ............. 309
100 h o u r in s p e c tio n ........ .........................
Progressive inspection program..............................309
Continuous Airworthiness Inspection Program...... 309
Approved Aircraft Inspection Erogram i'AAJP)....... 309
A n n u a l in s p e ctio n i i i i i ■ ■ » d i i i > a - » ¡ i B .ii»«.a ■;■>.■ ■ ■!« 309
VOR check.................................................................309
Service difficulty reports................................... 310,311
Time in service.......................................................... 311
Mechanical interruption summary report.................312
Approved Aircraft inspection Program lA A IP j....... 312
Operation after maintenance.................................... 312
Maintenance required (owner, operator}.................312
Operable condition.................................................... 312
Mechanical irregularity..............................................312
Instruments & equipment required.......................... 313
Safety belts.................................................................313
Radio & nav equipment— extended overwater..... 314
Emergency equipment— extended overwater........ 314
Performance requirements— over water.................314
Extended overwater weather..............
Airborne weather radar.............................................315
T C A S .......................................................................... 315
F la s h lig h t...........................
Aircraft airworthiness........ .........................
Reporting mechanical irregularities......................... 316
Flight crewmembers at stations...............................316
Seal bells & shoulder harness.................................316
A irp la n e Flig ht M anual ( A F M ) ......................317
Pilot O p e ra tin g H a n d b o o k f P O H }............... 317
L im ita tio n s t M a rk in gs I P la c a r d s ............ .3 1 7
Minimum Equipment List ¡M EL) ......................318-321
Configuration Deviation List (C D L )......................... 320
Inoperative means.................
Ferry permit (special flight permit).................322, 323
Pilot re co rd s h a rin g (P R IA )........................... 324
Access investigation check (airport badge)............325
Closing & locking of flightcrew door........................ 325
Aircraft dispatcher..................................................... 326
Dispatch release / flight release...............................326
Age 60 and Part 121.................................................327
Chapter 9
Em ergencies & L e g a l..........3 2 9
Compliance with A TC clearances........................... 330
Deviating from a rule due to an emergency...........330
Confirm it!..... ......... .330
Do not mumble.......................................................... 330
E M E R G E N C Y — allow ed to
IM M E D IA TE L Y d e via te ....33 0
E M E R G E N C Y ......................................................331
Responsibility and authority of the P IC ......... ........331
E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for th e P ro fe ss io n a l P ilot
Engine fa ilu re ........................ ............3 3 2 , 333
Critical engine.................................................. 333
309 Accelerate-STOP ! Accelerate-GO.......................... 333
Area of decision.......... ..............................................333
Single-engine service ceiling....................................333
Single-engine absolute ceiling................................. 333
Driftdown.....................................................................333
V m c ........................................................................... 334
Left engine is critical because................................. 335
H o w to C R A S H an a irp la n e eq u ipp ed
w ith a p e rfe c tly good s pa re en gine .. 336
Common multiengine accident scenarios............... 336
Emergency equipment.............................................. 337
Fire extinguisher........................................................337
First aid kits................................................. 337
Megaphone.................................................. 337
M in im um fuel a d v is o r y ............................. ....3 3 7
Immediately............. 337
Emergency............. 337
Emergency frequencies........ ......... 337
315 Priority......................................................................... 337
Mayday.............. 337
Pan. pan. pan ......... ................ 337
Emergency Locator Transmitter iE L T l....................338
315
E LT changes in the works.... ...................................339
....316
N A S A re po rts ........................ 340
Aviation safety reporting program........................... 340
Careless or reckless operation................................ 340
Enforcement action......................................... 342, 343
A c c id e n t or in c id e n t........................ 344
Major or minor damage............................................ 344
Notification of accidents........ ......... 345
Notification of incidents & overdue aircraft............. 345
N T S B ph o n e n u m b e rs ......................................345
,320 Preservation of Wreckage; reports.......................... 345
Aeronautical Information Manual—
only an advisory?......... 346
C o p ie s of A T C T o w e r/ C e n te r—
audio/radar t ra c k ta p e s ....3 4 6
FAA "Hot Line"........................................................... 346
AO PA "Hot Line” ........................................................346
Chapter 10
M iscellaneous, Definitions,
A erodynam ics & T r i v i a .......293
Piper — Num bers & Nam es ......................... 348
Beechcraft — Num bers & N am es.............. 349
Hypoxia...................................................... 350
Hyperventilation......................................................... 350
Carbon Monoxide......................................................350
Ear block........ ........ 350
XV
Air ambulance flights — “Life Guard” ......................350
A e ro d y n a m ic s i I I i f l # ■ ■ ■ < ■ • ■ 4 •* ■ * k « ■ ■ ■ « « ■ ■ ■ « ■■ k ■ < I 351-353
Forces acting on an aircraft in flight.................... 351
Angle of attack..... ................................ ............... .. 351
Angle of incidence.....................................................351
Camber...................................................................... 351
Chord or chord line................................................... 351
Relative wind............................................................. 351
Wing planform............................................................ 351
Aspect ratio................................................................ 351
Lift-Drag ratio — U D ................................................. 351
Gravity........ ........................................................ . 352
Center of Gravity.......................................................352
Bernoulli..................................................................... 352
Center of lift............................................................. 352
Center of pressure........ .................... 352
Drag............................................................................ 352
Induced drag.............................................................. 352
Effect of air density on lift and drag..................... 352
Effect of altitude, temperature& humidity................352
Parasite drag............................................................. 353
Form drag.............. 353
Skin friction drag........................................................353
Interference drag .................... 353
Angle of attack and lift.............................................. 353
Critical angle of attack.............................................. 353
Load factor............. 353
Flaps/Slots/Slats &
B o u n d a ry la y e r c o n tr o l...... 354, 355
Plain flap.................................................................... 355
Split flap......................................................................355
Slotted flap................................................................. 355
Fowler flap.............. 355
Aerodynamic twlsiing caused by flap... ................355
Fixed slot.... .................. 355
Automatic slot....,.,,................ 355
Boundary layer control................... ........... 355
Laminar flow.............................................................. 356
Boundary layer................................................ 356
Reynolds number......................................................356
A d v e rs e v s . P ro ve rse Y a w ............................357
Dutch roll.....................................................................357
Yaw damper............................................................... 357
Trim tabs.................. 357
S e rv ic e c e ilin g ........................................... 356
All engine service ceiling..........................................358
Single-engine service ceiling................................... 358
Certified ceiling...... ................................................... 358
Maximum certified ceiling.........................................358
Maximum certified altitude........................................358
Absolute ceiling ...................... 358
Single-engine absolute ceiling.............. 358
Driftdown......................... 358
Fastest and highest flying airplane.......................... 358
Contrails..................................................................... 358
Pilot In C o m m a n d ..............................................359
Pilot In C o m m a n d s e a tin g p o s itio n ........ 359
xvi E V E R Y T H IN G EX P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot
A c tiv e pilots in th e U n ite d S ta te s ............359
English..... ................................................... 359
W ilco.......................................................................... 359
Tango......................................................................... 359
Flight check................................................................ 359
M anifold p re s s u re and the
c o n s ta n t sp e e d p ro p e lle r......360
Supercharged 1turbocharged engines....... .......... 361
H o r s e p o w e r............................................... 362
Wattage vs. Kilowatts vs. Horsepower................... 362
Power and weight..................................................... 362
Brake horsepower..................................................... 363
Shaft horsepower...................................................... 363
Time in service.......................................................... 363
P M A ............................................................................363
FA A 337 F o r m -
M ajor R epair and A lte ra tio n ... 363
T B O ...........................................................................364
S T C ...........................................................................364
T S O ...........................................................................364
Preventive maintenance.......................................... 365
O il— m in eral vs. ash le ss d is p e rs a n t........ 366
O il— v is c o s ity ...................................... 366
Piston engine smoke........ ....... 366
Backfiring................................................................... 366
C le a r w a y ................................................... 367
S to p w a y ............................................... 367
Flight visibility..................... 367
Visibility and the Earth's horizon..............................367
Radar reflectors ...................................................... 367
Botice of Eroposed Buie Making fNPRMi ..............368
Shadows.................................................................... 368
Mountains................................................................... 368
Empire Slate building............... 368
Charts..... ................................... 369
Sectional charts— runways longer than 8,069'...... 369
Night— four definitions....................... 370
Aircraft lights 371
Hydroplaning...................... 372
Test to detect contamination of jet fuel................... 373
S p ecific G ra v ity 373
Control towers............................................................373
Aircraft [weight] classes—
(heavy, large, small)..............373
Crosswinds...... ..........................................................373
S im u la to rs — fo u r le ve ls I«»i*i.CSiiiiiai■mmm ififiii 374
Gold seal flight instructor certificate........................ 375
Chapter 11 INDEX 413
Reference, Rules of Th u m b ,
C o n ve rs io n s ..............................377
IC A O a irp o rt id e n tifie r c o u n try profile ....3 7 8
Aircraft country registration number codes............378
Airport identifier logic.................................................379
A few interesting identifiers...................................... 379
Z U L U t im e ........................................................... .3 8 0
Pilot-slafic system malfunclions...............................381
Effects of forward / aft C G ........................................ 381
Fuel ■&fluid colors...................................................... 381
Draining fuel sumps..................................................381
Crosswinds,,......... ......... 381
Cutouts [placards)..................................................... 382
°C to F (p la c a rd )................................................ 362
R e c ip ro c a ls (p la c a rd ) .............................3 8 2
T A K E O F F m n e m o n ic ........................................ 362
F lig h t plan [w a lle t-s iz e d )............. .„ .3 8 2
Measurements (1/64-1/32-3/64-1/16, etc,)............382
Spin recovery— P A R E ...............................................382
S H U T D O W N m n e m o n ic ................................... 362
Quickie conversions..................................................383
FOUNDS to fiA L L Q H a ........................................... 383
POUNDS of Jet A to LITE R S ...................................383
CELSIUS to F A H R E N H E IT..................................... 383
Liquid measures (ounce, cup, pint, quart, e tc .).... 333
Radio call.................................................................... 383
Acre............................................................................ 383
Reciprocals— 22 Rule...............................................383
F u e l w e ig h t ........................................................3 6 4
C o n v e rs io n «, C o m p a ris o n s ,
F o rm u la s & W e ig h ts ...........385
F o rm u la « &. R ule s of T h u m b ............ 3 8 6-3 69
Conversion T ables............................................ 390-394

Chapter 12
Le n g e fs Radio M a n u a l.........395
Keywords to Avoid.......... "......................... 397
Clearance — Large Airports............................. 398-400
Taxi / Takeoff / Departure..... .................................. 401
Enroute.. ..... .............. ......~ ~ r_..402-404
Approaching your Destination.......................... 405-406
Approach & Landing.......................................... 407-409
IFR Arrival at Small Uncontrolled Airport................408
VFR Arrival at Large, Class B or C Airport.............409
Emergencies..... ........................ ............... „„..410-411
Miscellaneous.......................................................... 412

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D lor the Professional Pilot XV Ü

 A d v ic e a n d C o m m e n t :
Learn from the mistakes of others,., you'd have to be incredibly
lucky to live long enough to make all of them yourself.

I've made countless mistakes in my career and I've been amazingly

lucky io hove survived all of them without ever bending an airplane.

OK so I've been very fortunate-,. so fari;o}, But normally luck is just

not consistent enough for aviation. It’s time to reveal a few of the
secrets I learned from all Ihose blunders.

Mow let's have some funf

xviii E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D lor the Professions I Pilot

 Chapter 1

Airspace &
Alrighly boys and girls...
lei's yet started. Airport Operations
The Foundation
A ir s p a c e G r a p h ic O v e r v ie w 2
Class A & B Airspace........... .3
Class C & Airporl Beacons ... ...A
Class D ................................... ....5
Class E ................................... ....6
VFR in Class E ..................... ...6
Surface Based Class E ....... ...,6
Class G .................................. ....7
Class G Control Towers...... ,...7
Transition Area......................
T R S A ..................................... .. .. a
Airport Advisory Area...........
Void Tim e.............................. ...s
V F R In all C la s s e s & S p e c ia l V F R ............................................................................. 9
Prohibited; Restricted; MOAs; Warning Areas; Alert Areas, elc........................................ 10
Class F Airspace.......................................................................................................................... 10
Aerobatic Flight............................................................................................................................ 11
Normal: Commuter; Utility £ Acrobatic Category Aircraft...................................................11
ADIZ, DEW IZ: Mountainous A re a s.......................................................................................... 12
Intercept Procedures................................................................................................................... 13
Flap Setting in Class G Airspace..............................................................................................14
Land And Hold Short Operations (L A H S Q )............................................................................14
T u r n s at A ir p o r t s W ith o u t an O p e r a tin g C o n tro l T o w e r . . . . . .................. 15
T r a f f ic P a tte rn E n t r y .................................. 1 $ , 17
T r a f f ic P a tte rn A ltitu d e & G lid e S l o p e .............................................................I S , 19
R u n w a y M a r k in g s ..................................................... 2 0 , 21
Airport Signs, Markings.............................................................................................................. 22
Runway Weight Bearing Capacity........................................................................................... 22
Holding Position Markings; ILS Critical A re a ......................................................................... 23
R u n w a y L ig h t s ............................................................................................................... 2 4 , 25
Airport Elevation & Reference Point........................................................................................26
j-ow Altitude Alert........................................................................................................................ 2flj
B ra k in g A c t io n f R u n w a y F r ic t io n R e p o r t s ..................................... 26
Exiting the Runway After Landing............................................................................................ 26

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

Chap 1 — Airspace & Airport

&*
Class E
FL 600

Class A
No V F R
D M E required, at and a b o v e F L 24 D |91.205(&J|
A u c s s -J L -
j Class A :
l WA In Hswnii j One-thifd oí nil
Arrentails believe
m UFOs. [YIKES!|

18,000 M SL {F L 1BQ) — A ltim eter 2 9 .9 2

Class E
Class E

^ ........ 14-500 MSL

C lass E

f Ceiling of Class B
3 S M r3

| / can be anywhere
10.000 MSL — Transaonder Mode C ÍB1.Z151 from 7,000 to 12,& 00^
Speed Umlit — 250 Knots balow 10’o ' » M S L ' MSL y

Speed Limit
Class E
200 kts below
©é) © 0

2.500 A C L
within 4 NM Class E
of an airport Class B
in Clan* C or
D airspace.
■¡docsnot: applyto
C!Ǥ Bl
4.000 A G L
Speed Limit
UnlimlLed
t
a( & above 1C ,000'.
**A
Z50 M AS 4 *
Class C below 10.000';
200 KIAE
Iju I'jw □ Hoot.
1,200 A G L
C la ss E

Class G

f i l m E can go down to .■^mmmmmmmJfik mm-wmm mm-m-mm mmw mm m+

■
| Class £ to Ihe surface ‘
TOO1A G L [o accommodal Class B — Individually ]¡! must have weather
instrument approaches tailored. 250 Ida below reporting -ind radio
10.000 [200 kts below the commim¡cations with
Class D with radar , floor or ir VFR corridor}. i ground.
it called e TR S A , '••■HITWITJWVTWMHtV- '* Mwvwvwcd*
...........'.K m « « ; : :
■ Class G — When
Class C — Radar. Individually
Class G — Uncoiitrollnd. tailored but usually 5 MM. Coro J 1,200' B LU E bn
j Surface to 14.500 MSL. from surface to 4,000' AGL. 10 ; sectionals,
! Shaded on enroute charts Su
NM Shelf from 1,200 In 4.000
■. {mostly western US}- A G L. Outer Anea 20 NM radius. .
■— .♦.**.****.». »*. — *-f ’ 1

EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED for the Professional Pilot

 Chaa 1 — A irspace & Airport

CLASS A A irsp a ce : (7 i.i, i i . a i , 7 1.33, 7 1.75, 7 1.133, 91.135, 91. 155, a im 3-2-1.3-2-2)
1. M airspace from 1fcflflfl feel up to and including E L ,6,0.0 within the 43 contiguous Slates (Including the
District of Columbia) and most of Alaska plus (he airspace within 12 NM offshore.
There is no Class A airspace over Hawaii and the Victor airways have no upper limit In Hawaii.
2. All aircraft M U S T be I F R unless otherwise authorized. No V F R (unless lor purposes of lost communications).
3. No minimum flight visibility or distance from clouds is specified.
4. Altimeter setting for all aircraft — 29,92 (in US controlled airspace).

C LASS B A i r s p a c e : [71.4 1.9 1.117. s i .12 0 .9 1.127, si. 12s. 91 .iso. 9 1.13 1. gi. 155. 91.215. a im 3 -2-1.3-2-3)
1. Surface to 7.000 feel or up to 12.500 feet surrounding the nation 5 busiest airports.
2. Individually tailored upside-down wedding cakes — contain all instrument approaches.
3. Clearance into Class B required. (91 131, Letter of irlerproietion tram Otfca of Chief Counsel deled Jan 10. 2010)
4. V F R operations — 3 miles - Clear of Clouds and at least a 1,000 ft ceiling (or Special VFR),
5. IFR operations — An operable VQB or TACAN receiver is required, (ef.iii)
6. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC. a LARGE TURBINE-PO W ERED airplane operating to or from a
primary airport in Class 6 airspace f/IUST operate A T or ABOVE the FLO ORS of lhe Class B airspace
while within the lateral limits of that area even when operating on a visual approach.
7. A LARGE (mom than 12,500 ibs) $r TURBINE-PO W ERED airplane shall, unless otherwise required by
distance from cloud criteria, enter the TRAFFIC PATTERN at an altitude of at least 1,500 feet AGL and
maintain 1,500 AGL until further descent is required for a safe landing. [Noise abatement]
8. A large or turbine-powered airplane approaching to land on a runway served by an 1LS shall fly at or
above the GLIDE SLO P E between the outer marker and the middle marker.
9. Any airplane approaching to land on a runway served by a VASI Shall maintain at or above the glide
slope (aka glide path) until a lower altitude is necessary for a safe landinq,
10. Mode C veil — All aircraft operating wilhin 30 NM of a Class B airport, from the surface to 10,000 feet
must have Mode C (unless line aircraft was originally oerfiiied Without an aleClrical system and still does not havs one).
11 SPEED LIMIT — 250 KIA5 below 10.000 feet (200 KIAS below the floor or in VFR corridor).
a 250 KIAS M UST N O T BE EXC EED ED even if you are (old to 'MAINTAIN B E S T FORW ARD
SP EE D S
b. " Maintain best (or maximum) forward speed'1 — means — 'maximum or best forward
*LE G A L* speed.' A TC does not have the authority to lift the 250 below 10,000 fl speed
restriction [91.117(a)], Y_&u_c_a.nn_aLb_c_cJ_c_a.njdAQJ7LQ_l.ale^_rj?jg.tiJj.li_Q.n and you cannot accept
such a clearance.
c. If a controller assigns you 300 kts or greater inbound (10,000 fl or above), and he later
descends you to 3,000 ft, it is UN DERSTOOD that you must slow to 259 KIAS B E F O R E
descending belaw 10,000 .............. ...........................................................
"At or above Ihe glida sip-pa" does i OpSpec C077 requires commercial
Normal bracketing maneuvers'1 i operators 10 remain within Class B. C . or
noi prohibit normal fracketinB
maneuvers above or balow Lhe
are maneuvwt which remain within
ihe limits oi the tiiatiar and lower | D airspace — or within Class E airspace
glide slops 'or the purpose a(
glide slope signals. [ when within 35 miles of the destination t
remaining on the glide «tope. *----J

Do you have to hear the w ords “ Cleared Into Class b" w hen VFR?
1. The short answer is yes. You must hear lhe magic word "cleared" at least somcmhcre in the instructions given to
you by (tie approach controller. Radar identification and instructions to maintain a specific altitude and heading that
will put you in their airspace can no longer be considered an implicit, implied, or understood clearance into Class B
(although it happens all the time). A Lettor of Interpretation addressed (o my friend Bridgetle Doremiro from (he
Office of Chief Counsel dated January 10, 2010 serves to rescind previous policy.
So... if you can get a word in edgewise, olwav.s ask for confirmation, just to get it on lhe tape.
Thai being said... if you've been radar Identified by the approach control having jurisdiction (o,g.: Charlotte
A pproach: ‘flight following' tram "center" will ™ t clear you anywhere); the terms "cleared as requested" or even
"procood as requested" or a clearance to a specific point ¡nsbdo the Class B will also suffice. Example: "Citation 5CM
radar contact, cleared direct Charlotte, climb and maintain four thousand, expect 36R.”
4 9 1 .131 [Operations in Class B airspace] (a)(1} - "The operator m ust receive an ATC clearance tram the ATC
facility having Jurisdiction for that area before operating an aircraft In that area ' It doos N O T sav - "The oporaior
m ust specifically hear Ihe magic w ords Cls-arsd into CJtass B '..." If the frequency Is totally saturated and you re
truly paranoid about the magic words, then igrn around and run away, Now will get their attentionLo)

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 3

[ Chap 1 — Airspace & Airport

CLASS C A irsp a ce : (?1_51, 91.117 , 91.126. 91.127, 91.129, 91.130, 91.215, aim3- 1 -4, 3-2-1 , 3-2-4. 4-1 -19)
1. Surface to 4 OOQ A G L above an airport with:
2. Operating Control Tow er. When departing a
3. Radar Approach Control satellite airport within
4. VFR operations: Visibility — 3 SM; Clouds — 500 below. jj}0 0 above. Class C or £ airspace,
2.000 horizontally; Coiling — at least 1.000 ft (or Special VFR). you must establish radio
5. Individually tailored but usually consist of: contact 'as soon as
a. L m radius CORE (aka inner circle, or inner ring) that extends practical" after departing.
from the surface to 4.000 AGL (rounded off to (fie nearest 100 ft).
b. 10 NM radius shelf (aka outer circle, or outer ring) that extends from 1,200 ft to 4,000 AGL
(roundod off totho nearest 100 ft).
c. Outer Area — 20 NM radius — extends from the lower limits of radar/radio coverage up to the
ceiling of the approach conird’s airspace.
6. Two-way communication must be established before entry:
a. ir controller responds with "(callsign) standby" —
Radio communication has been established and the aircraft can enter (lie Class C.
b. If workload prevents immediate Class C services, the controller will inform the pilot to remain
outside Class C until conditions permit.
c. If the controller responds to the initial call W ITH O U T using the aircraft CALLSIGN — Radio
communications have N O T been established and the aircraft may N O T enter the Class C.
7. A LARGE ( 12,6m ibs or more) or TURBINE-PO W ERED airplane shall, unless otherwise required by
distance from cloud criteria, enter the TR A FFIC PATTER N at an altitude of at leasH .500 feet AGL and
maintain 1.500 AGL until further descent is required for a safe landing [Noise abatement)
6. A large or turbine-powered airplane approaching Ic land on a runway served by an |LS shall fly aI_QL
above the GLIDE SLOPE between the outer marker and the middle marker.
9 Any airplane approaching to land on a runway served by a VASJ shall maintain at or above the glide
slope (aka glide path) until a lower altitude is necessary for a safe landing.
10. SPEED LIMIT — Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no aircraft may operate at or below
2j.5_Q_Q_A.G_L within 4 NM of Ihe primary airport of a Class C at an indicated airspeed of more than ZOO
K jAS. “ ...maintain best forward speed1’ is N O T an authorization to exceed the 200jtts in Class C
or D. Any speed deviation above 200 hts must be SPECIFICALLY assigned by A TC (e.g.,
“ ...maintain 220 k ts ’L

"Marmai bracketing maneuvers"
ars mansuvars which remain within
(ho lim iti of (he hlghor and lower
alide alane signal e .
"At or above the glide slope1' dues rial
prohibit normal bracketing maneuvers
jLrotxo fir. Ltolovy iho glldo slope Tor the
purpose ef remaining an the glide slope.
* OpSfret C077 requites ¿dmiwertial
\ o p e ra to rs to re m a in w ith in C lass B. C. qr
* D a rt pica — or wilhin Class E tnrspiico
P whenwilhin 35 miles of(hedestination.
♦pp ■ » ■ • ■ • ■ • ■ H 4 M M U . l t . U i r

Rotating beacons rotate clockwise

; Radio Call:
,*!■-<i ot approximately 13 R P ll
Which means you see 24^30 alternating J* Who you are
green and While e W h a n you are
What do you want

A IR P O R T B E A C O N S (aim 2-1-9. 2- m o , faa h-boss-isi

White & G reen tor green alone*) Lighted Land Airport Itaol Hashes 24 lo 30 per minute)
T w o White flashes and One Green Military a¡mart f2 nu«k whire Baches between1hearean Hashatl
Green, Yello w , end White Lighted Heliport Urnal riauties 30io45 per mfriute)
White & Y e llo w (or yellowalone*} Lighted Water Airport
Note: Operation of the airpotl beacon in a Class B, C, D, or E. airspace during daylight hours often indicates a
ceiling less than 1.000 feet and/or visibility less (han 3 statute miJea fIMC conditions for controlled airspace).
'Green alone of yellow alone is Used only in connecting with ii white-and-oreen or wtiite-and-vellpw beaten display, respectively.

4 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot

 Chap *í — Airspace & Airport

C L A S S D Airspace — Non-Federal Control Towers:

(71.61.91.117. 91.129. 31.165. 103.17. 103.23. AIM 3-1-3, 3-1-J. 3-2-1.3-2-5. 3-5-6.
1. Surface to 2.5Q0 A G L surrounding an airport with an
operating Control Tower (but usually HO RADAR i.
2. Individually tailored, but normally a circular area with a
radius of 4 HM around the primary airport and any
extensions necessary to include instrument approach
and departure paths.
3. VFR operations: Visibility — 3 SM : Clouds — 500
below. 1.000 above. 2.000 horizontally. Ceiling — at
least 1.000 ft (or Specie! VFR).
4. Two-way communication must be established before
entry.
♦ If the controller responds with "(callsign)
standby" — Radio communication has been
established and the aircraft can enter the
Class D, unless the controller has informed the
pilot to remain clear of Class D.
5 A LARGE or TURBINE-PO W ERED airplane shall,
unless otherwise required by dislance from cloud
criteria, enter the TRAFFIC PATTER N at an altitude of at least 1.5QQ feet A G L and maintain 1,500 AGL
until further descent is required for a safe landing
6 . A large or turbine-powered airplane approaching to land on a runway served by an ILS shall fly at or
above the GLIDE SLO P E between the outer marker and the middle marker.
7. Any airplane approaching to land on a runway served by a VAS] shall maintain at o r above the glide
alone (aka glide path} until a lower altitude is necessary fur a sate landing.
0. SPEED LIMIT — Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no aircraft may operate at or below
2.5QQ AGL within 4 HM of the primary airporl of a Class D at an indicated airspeed of more than
200 KIAS. ^...MAINTAIN, BEST FJJ.RWARP_3PEED’ is N O T an authQnza.t.ign to the 200 kts
in Class C or D. Any speed deviation above 200 kts must be SPECIFICALLY assigned by A TC (e.g.,
“ ...maintain 220 k ts ’L
9. By definition. Class D airspace must have W E A TH ER REPORTING. After the tower closes for the
evening, the airspace will revert to either Class E (controlled), dr Class G (uncontrolled) usually
depending on the availability of a certified W E A TH ER observer or automated system (AW OS, ASOS).
Again by definition, Class E airspace cannot exist without weather reporting. Therefore, when the
TO W ER CLO SES for the evening:
a. If continuous W E A TH ER REPORTING is maintained, the Class D airspace will normally revert
to Class E (controlled).
b. If W E A TH ER REPORTING is MOT available after the tower closes, (he Class D airspace will
revert to Class G (uncontrolled),
c. The Airport Facilities Directory (A/FD) shows which type of airspace will exist after the
tower ceases operations.
, m ■ v « ■■ r iliit iit llf r liiiM im
Some Class D towers have a Often the controllers who work Class D airports are
“ repeater" scope that allows them to : not FA A employees. These “VFR towers1*can
monitor someone else's radar screen, ■ handle IFR traffic but are referred to as "N F C T " on
hbut mostly they iust look out the window. * sectional charts (¡ion £ederal £onlrol lower).
e rj.
‘W tW lSW SWrtVWlVtWt1 *■rtYWVlWlWrtV *yrt'.‘.W M .*.1
...........................................................................................................•
: “At or above the glide slope" does not prohibit normal
i bracketing maneuvers above or below Ihe glide slope for ihe j
: purpose of remaining on the glide slope,
i “ Normal bracketing maneuvers" are maneuvers which remain :
1 within the limits of the higher and lower glide slope signals. ;

■ QpSpec C077 requires com m ercial operators to remain w ithin Class Br C . or Q ;

I airspace — or within Clans E airspace when within 35 milan o f ilia d estin atio n . <

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 5

Chap 1 — A irspace & A irport]

C LA S S E A irspace:
(71.71, 91.127, 91.155, 135.205. AIM 3-1-4. 3-2-1. 3-2-5. 3-2-6. 4-1-18. 4-3-26, 4-4-12. 5-5-0, FAA-H-8083-16. FAA-H-8083-25)
1. C O N TR O LLE D airspace that is not Class A. B : C, or D within the 48 contiguous States and Alaska.
2. Generally the upward limit is 18.000 feet NOTE: Class E airspace begins again above FL 600
3. Types of Class E:
a. A SURFACE AR EA designated for an AIRPORT designed lo contain all instrument
approaches. The primary requirements for a Class E airport are approved weather reporting
(FSS or ASOS/AWOS) and a means of communications with A TC all the way to the ground.
b. EXTENSIONS to a SU R FACE A R E A of Class B. C. or D airspace to contain instrument
approaches.
c. TRANSITION AR EAS beflinnlniLat either 700 or 1,200 ft A G L . used lo/from the en route
environment.
d. EN R O U TE AR EAS that provide controlled airspace for IFR but are NO T Federal airways
e Federal AIRWAYS from 1 200 A G L upward to but not including 18.000 MSL
f. Unless designated at lower altitude— GJass E begins ai 14.500 MSL up to, hut not including,
18.000 MSL ............................................................... ..............................................................
mOpSpec C077 requires com m ercial operators to rem ain w ith in Class B, C. or O
I airspace — or within Class E airspace when within 35 miles of the destination,

VFR [Q 1 CLASS E — IffW Airspace:

(91.155, 91.157, AIM 3-1-4. 3-2-6. 5-4-23. FM-H-&9B3-15. FAA-H-80B3-25. OpSpec CQ77)
1 Less than 10.000 feet MSL — 3 SM visibility — Cloud separation: 500 below. 1,000 above, 2.000
horizontally.
2. At or above 1Q.000 feet MSL — 5 SM visibility — Cloud separation: 1.000 below. 1.000 above, 1 mile
hcnzontally.
3. No person may operate an aircraft beneath the ceiling under VFR withm the limits of controlled
airspace designated to the surface for an airport when the ceiling Is less than 1,000 feet (axteprSpecial
VFR'— 91.157),
4. N O TE #1: Do N O T cancel In the air while on approach to an airport with a Class E surface area
un/ess the weather meets the basic VFR weather and cloud separation requirements of 91.155
(see 1. above) unless you have received a "Special VFR" clearance {91.157).
5. N O TE #2; A “ Special VFR" clearance is treated almost the same aa an IFR clearance as far as
separation Is concerned. It Is not likely to save you or the guv behind you any time. So. If the
weather is below 3 mitesvisibility and/or the ceiling is b.elpwJJOO ft or there's a chance that cloud
separation could be a problem, just wait till you're on the ground to cancel. You never know who
might be lurking in the weeds just waiting for a chance to make your life miserable.
6 . N O TE #3: To conduct a VISUAL APPROACH in Class 8 . C, D. or E airspace under Fart 91 you need
only maintain “clear of clouds1’ (AIM 5-4-23). Part 13S (turbojets) and Part 121 are resirioted by
OpSpec C077 and must maintain Ihe cloud separation required by 91.155 (see 1. above).

S U R F A C E -B A S E D C L A S S E: (AO 90-66 A, FAA-H-BQB3 -3 , FAA-H-B0 B3- 15, FAA-H-B0 B3 -25)

1. Brings Glass E, controlled airspace, to the surface in order (0 raise the weather mlnimuitlS and
restrict VFR traffic during poor weather. Especially important for ILS approaches.
2. Must have approved weather reporting and communications with A TC to the surface.
3. The airport manager must also request and receive Class E approval from the FA A.
4. Most airports with weather reporting and communications with A T C never request Class E status
because it would make VFR traffic illegal when the visibility drops below 3 SM and/or ceiling below
1,000 feet. Not good for business, especially if there's a flight school on the field.
5. When weather reporting Is unavailable. Class E reverts to Class G wilh a Class E Iransitioh area.
6 . Represented by dashed lines on sectionals and enroute charts.'*— — * —
7, Surface-based Class E was formerly known as a control zone. <£las& E
B “RECOMMENDED traffic pattern SPEED LIMIT is 2.Q.QJMa. i \
4 I
t
\
\

6 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 Chap 1 — A irsp ace & Airport

C L A S S G A irsp a ce : (71 9. 0 1 .13. 91 126. 91.156. 91.17?. 91.195, 135,205, AM 3-1-3. 3-2-1. 3-2-6. 3-3-1 Lhnj 3-3-3,
5-5-B. P/C Glossary, FAA-H-0033-15, FAA-H-0383-25. F AA-H -0261-1. OpSpec A 014 4 € 0 6 4 .

1. U N CO N TR O LLED airspace not designated as Class A. 6 . C. D. or E. Surface to 14,500' M5L (when

shaded on enroute charts!. All airspace above 14.50Q' MSL is controlled (G.-ass E then Class Al.
It is perfect y legal to fly in UNCONTROLLED airspace without a-i IFR flight plan or clearance. In
fact, no clearance is required {or even possible) to operate IFR in Class G airspace. Therefore, when
receiving an IFR clearance on the ground at an uncontrolled airport, the clearance will usually
include the phrase ;;upon $nterinfl controlled airspace- . 11 {91 .-173). You are, in fact, operating n
Class G without a clearance until you get above the 700-foot transition altitude EVER Y TIME you take
off with a void timer Your IFR clearance does not actually begin until you enter the Class E airspace.
3. 91 173 slates Only that " no person mav operate an aircraft in CONTROLLED airspace' under IFR
UNLESS that person has filed an IFR flight plan, and received the appropriate A TC clearance." It savs
nothing about operating in UNCONTROLLED airspace. SO the regulation does not apply
4. In U N CO N TR O LLED airspace, no flight plan or A TC clearance is required (or possible to get). You
can still operate under Instrument flight Buies without a flight plan or any clearance from ATC. You
must be instrument current and the aircraft must be approved for IFR flight, You must cruise al an
appropriate IFR altitude (91.179), adhere le minimum altitudes for JEB flight (91 177), and comply
with the other IFR requirements of 91 subpart B that apply to IFR such as fuel reserves and VOR
checks, however the altimeter. Mode C . and static system checks of 91.411 need N O T be current
5. You do N O T have lo maintain cloud Separation {in Class G) because the flight is being conducted Under
Instrument Flight Rules, which do NO T reourre cloud separation.
6 . There are many places in the continental U S . (and certainly In Alaska) where an entire flight might be
conducted in uncontrolled airspace. Happens all the lime, especially in the western stales and Alaska,
with the full knowledge and cooperation of the local FAA. Many times ihere is no radar or radio
coverage and often no telephone or even cell phone service. There is the risk that someone else is
doing exactly the same thing, not talking to anyone, and doing the same approach to the same airport at
the same lime. But it ain't much different than being on an IFR flight plan, breaking out al a Class G
airport, and finding someone right in front of you scud running in the pattern. Not exactly perfectly safe,
but it is all perfectly legal (it's a big sky and you're in a little airplane, right! :o). If is also standard practice
for Salt Lake and Denver centers to manage traffic that transitions from uncontrolled airspace, lo
controlled airspace, then back to uncontrolled. It's understood that no IFR separation can be provided
in the uncontrolled areas even though, at times, the aircraft may be visible on radar.
7. Does this mean I can launch from a small Class G airport (lei's say, in a flat area of the Midwest,
wilh a 700-foot transition area) into a 100 ft overcast In % mile visibility with the intent of picking up
mv IFR clearance once t punch through a thin layer and still be /etjaf?
The answer is a resounding NO: (See httjjirrwww.ntsb.gov/ali/O r Ordocsi'jyiatioiii'SSJ-S.FDFl
a. The overlying C O N TR O LLED {Class E ) airspace requires basic VFR cloud separation of 1000
feet ABOVE the clouds (91.155), Impossible to do beneath a 709-fool transition area.
b. You could also be busted for "CARELESS and RECKLESS operation" [91.13(a)], The judge
could decide (and has) that only a homicidal maniac would take off inlo uncontrolled airspace
without a clearance, in the clouds, without knowing who else was flying around out there.
c. Remember, there's always the chance lhai some self appointed "Air Cop" is lurking in ihe
weeds just waiting to turn in what they perceive as a lunatic breaking (he law.
8. Part 135 or 121 operators are N O T allowed to operate ''IFR'' in Class G terminal (airport) airspace
UNLESS the airj,ott_has_WEATHER REPORTING

C |a ss G C c n t r o l T o w e rs
1. '‘Temporary1' control towers (per NOTAM) are sometimes established at Class G airports to handle increased
traffic duo to a major public event. The towor wouldJlcontrol” the flow of traffic but the weather requirements of
Class G "control"the airports use bv VFR traffic. Meaning — during the daytime, you only need " l-rn ilc & clear of
clouds” to operate VFR in the "tower-controlled’ Class G airspace as long as you stay within ''uncontrolled”
airspace (normally below 790' or 1200' A G L:
2. 91.126(d) — Unless otherwise authorized by ATC. no person may operate an aircraft to. from, through, or on an
airport having an operational control tower untess two-way radio eommunicalions are maintained baiween that
aircraft and the control tower. Communications must be established prior to 4 NW from the airport, up to and
including 2,500 foot AGL However, if the aircraft radio fails in flight, the Pilot In Command may operate that aircraft
and land if weather conditions are at or above basic VFR minimums. visual contact with the tower is maintained, and
a clearance to land is received. If the aircraft radio fails while in flight under IFR, the pilot must comply with 91.185.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 7

Chap 1 ■
— A irspace & A irp ort)
T R A N S IT IO N A R EA — T h e C L A S S G & C L A S S E Boundary:
(71.71 r AIM 3-2-1,3-2-6,3-3-1 Him 3-3-3, FAA-H-8M 3-15, FAA-H-3M3-25, FAA-H-8261-1)
1l. Class E — CO N TR O LLED — airspace areas beginning at either 700 or 1,200 feel AGL used lo
transition lo/from the terminal or en route environment.
2 . Normally associated with an instrument approach lo an airport.
3. Designated to contain IFR operations in controlled airspace during terminal operations and while
transitioning between the terminal and en route environments.
4. 700 feet or more above the Surface in conjunction with an instrument approach {"magenta").
5. 1,200 feet or more above (he surface for the purpose of transitioning to or from the terminal or
en route environment ("blue").
6 . Except for some sections of the western U.S. where Class G airspace extends from the surface to
14,500 feel (shaded areas on enroute charts), all airspace above 1,200 feet AGL i$ controlled airspace.
7. Normal y a transition area s Vie ("magenta"} area between 700 feet AGL and 1.200 feel A G L (500
feel thick) surrounding an airport with an instrument approach that brings Class E . controlled airspace,
to within 700 feet of the s urface. This area is designed to protect approaching IFR traffic by raising
(he visibility minimums for any VFR traffic in the neighborhood.
a. liEE in Class_G - 1 SM visibility & cle.ajLof.ciouds CL200_AGL orjess in the daytime)
b VFR in Class E — 3 SM visibility & 1.000-ft cellino
6 , Many airports with weather reporting and communications with A TC never request Class E status
because it would stop VFR traffic when the visibility goes below 3 SM or ceiling below 1,000 feet. This
would be very bad for business especially at small airports with Flight schools. The Class G airspace
below 700 feet AGL allows a VFR pilot to practice takeoffs and landings with only one-mile visibility
as long as the pilot does not climb higher than 700 feet AGL. Of course this does raise a slight concern
for an instrument pilot conducting an instrument approach lo that airport (but it's a big sky, ain't it?).

T e r m in a l R a d a r S e r v ic e irca s TR S A : (AIM 3-5-6, 4-1-IB, PIC Glossary, FAA-H-SCHS3-25)

1. Radar is available to assist the tower outside its Class D airspace. Mode C not required.
2. T R S A radar and the tower function independently, but as a rule of thumb treat it like a Class C airport.
3. Rad ¡participation in the TR S A is voluntary but strongly recommended. If you're a total idiot and
would rather not receive TR S A service, just say Hnegative TR S A service" when departing.
4. If you're IFR your experience will be Identical to a C la s s C arrival or departure.
5. Can be thought of as Class D airspace surrounded by_radar coverage.
6 . Not busy enough to be a Class C, but too busy to be just a Class D. No equivalent in the ICAO world.
A I R P O R T A D V I S O R Y A R E A / I n f o r m a t i o n S e r v i c e s : (a im 3- 5-1 4- 1-0, r/c Glossary ac sjo- o m )

1. Within 10 miles of an airport whore a conirol tower is not operating but where a ,F Sg is located.
2. FS5 provides advisory service (0 arriving and departing aircraft.
3. Participation is not mandatory but is strongly recommended.
4. Usually surface-based Class E with an active FSS.
5. "Recommended" traffic pattern speed limit is 2QQ kts.

V O ID T IM E ( C le a r a n c e V o id T i m e s ) : (9 1.173, aim 5-2-E, faa - h -bgbs- 15, FAA-H-B2e 1 -1 , ops pec c o m )

1. Pilot may receive a clearance when operating from an airport without a control tower, which contains a
provision for the clearance to be “VOID IF N O T AIRBORNE B Y,F a specific time.
2. A pilot who ¡toes not dflEarLarioi to the void time must advise A TC aa soon I I possible
3. Failure to contact A T C within 30 minutes after clearance void time will result in the aircraft being
considered overdue and search A rescue procedures will be initiated.
4. Other IFR traffic is suspended until the aircraft has contacted A TC or until 30 minutes after the void lime.
5. CLEA R AN C E is automatically C A N C ELLED if TA K E O FF is N O T MADE PRIOR TO the
CLEA R AN C E VOID TIME
6 . Pilots who depart at of AFTER their void time are NO T afforded IFR separation and may be in
VIOLATION of 91,173, which requires that pilots receive an A T C clearance before operating IFR in
conimlied airspace. Being five minutes late is like being a thousand feet off your assigned altitude. If
for some reason you cannoi make the lime, call FS5 or A TC and get another release.
NEVER launch A F TE R the VOID TIME
7. Unless the airport has W EATH ER REPORTING Fart 135 operators cannot depart with a void
time because most Part 135 operators are not allowed to operate IFR in Class G — uncontrolled—
airspace unless the airport has W EATH ER REPORTING (lower reported, FSS, ASOS or AW OS-3).

a EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 Chap 1 — Airspace & Airport |
91,155 B a sic V F R w e a th e r m in im u m s.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this section ami 5 1 L 3 5 I nc^_cr^o_n_ma^cj3orate an aircraft
under VFR when Ihe flight visibility is less, or at a distance from clouds that is less, than that
prescribed for the corresponding altitude and class of airspace in the following table:
Flight
A irspace Distance from Clouds
Visibility
C lass A N/A N/A
C lass B 3 sm Clear of Clouds
C lass C 3 sm 500' below, 1,000‘ above. 2,000' horizontal
C lass D 3 sm 500' below. 1,000' above. 2,000' horizontal
C lass E:
Less than 10,000 MSL 3 sm 500' below. 1,000' above. 2,000' horizontal
At or above 1Û.000 MSL 5 sm 1 ,000' below, 1.000' above, l am horizontal
C lass G:
1,2QPr or less above the surface (regardless of MSL altitude)
For Aircraft other than helicopters:
Day, except as provided in 91.155(b) 1 sm Clear of clouds
Night, except as provided in 91,155(b) 3 sm 500' below, 1,000' above. 2,000' horizontal
For H e lic o p t e r s .
Day, except as provided in 91.155(b) 1/2 sm Clear of clouds
Night, except as provided in 91.155(b) 1 sm Clear of clouds
More than 1.2QQ above the surface but le s ^lh a n JiLO M MSL
Day 1 sm 500' below. 1,000' above, 2,000' horizontal
Night 3 sm 500' below. 1,000" above. 2,000' horizontal
More than 1.200 above the surface and
5 sm 1 ,000' below, 1 .000' above, 1 sm horizonial
a! or aboveJULPPP MSL_______________________
(b) Class G Airspace. Notwithstanding the provisions Of paragraph fa} of this SOCliOh, the following
operations may be conducted in Class G airspace below 1.200 feet above the surface:
{1) Helicopter. A helicopter may be operated clear of clouds in an airport traffic pattern within 1/2 mile
of the runway or helipad of intended landing if the r i ght visibility is not less than 1/2 statute mile.
¡2} Airplane, powered parachute, or weight-shift-control aircraft. If the visibility is less than 3 statute miles
but not less than 1 statute mile during night hours and you are operating in an airport traffic pattern
within M2 mile ol the runway, you may operate an airplane, powered parachute, or weight-shift-control
aircraft clear of clouds.
(c) Except as provided in § 91,157. no person may operate an aircraft beneath the ceiling under VFR within
the lateral boundaries of controlled airspace designated to the surface for an airport when the ceiling
is less than 1 .QDQ feel.
(d) Except as provided in § 91.157 of this part, po person may taKe off or land an aircraft, or enter Ihe traffic
pattern of an airport, under VFR . within the lateral boundaries of the surface areas of Class B . Class C.
Class Q. or Class £ airspace designated for an airport -
( 1 ) Unless ground visibility at that airport is at [east 3 statute miles: or
{2) If around visibility is not reported at that airport, unless flight visibility during landing or takeoff, or
while operating in the traffic pattern is at least 3 statute miles.
(*> For the purpose of this section, an aircraft operating at the base altitude of a Class E airspace area is
considered to be within Ihe directly below that ares.* 1

S P E C IA L V FR Sum m ary [1.1, &t . 157, 91.205(d). Pari 91 ApponcI ih D. AIM i-1 -4, 5-4-24. 5-5-3. FAA-H-0Qfl3-15|
1. Available only upon request at Class D. E, most Class C and some Class E airports. A T C clearance
must be obtained (see Part 91 Appendix D, section 3 — Special VFR prohibited).
2. A "reported” visibility ol at least 1 SM (except for helicopters} and the aircraft must remain clear of clouds.
3. SVFR at NIGHT also requires pilot be INSTRUM ENT RATED and aircraft INSTRUM ENT EQUIPPED
4. If ground visibility is not resorted. I SM flight visibility may be used. For the purposes of Special
VFR (Only), flight visibility includes the visibility from the Cockpit Of an aircraft In takeoff position,
operating under Part 91 r at a satellite airport that d.O£^rloJ_h.ay^^_,Uh£.r_r_^_o_r_ij.nja capabilities.
EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 9
 Chap I — A irspace & Airport
P R O H IB ITE D A R E A S : (73 .1 ihru 73,5. 73.611hru 73.65. 91.133. AIM 3-1-1. 3-4-3. 3-4-3. FAA-H-S093-15. SQB3-25)
1. Flight of aircraft Is prohibited. y R-Kailfitfad W Warning
2. No person may operate an aircraft within a prohibited area i R-352 i
's-rssss/, P-Prtthil)iHi<l A-Alvi 1
unless authorization has been granted.
3. Established for security or other reasons associated with the national welfare.

R E S T R IC T E D A R E A S : (73.1 ihru 73 .19 , 91 .133. AIM 3 - 1- 1 . 3 -4 - 1, 3 -4 -3 . 3-5 -3 , FAA-H-0003- 15 , 3033- 25}

1 . Flight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited, is subject to restrictions,
2. No person may operate an aircraft within a restricted area unless advance permission has been
fltanted
3. Hazards to aircraft may include: artillery firing, aerial gunnery, or guided missiles.
4. If the restricted area is not active and has been released to the Controlling agency (FAA), A TC will
allow an aircraft to operate in the restricted airspace without issuing specific clearance tor it to do so.
5 . if the restricted area la active and has not been released, a t c will issue a clearance, which win
ensure the aircraft avoids the restricted airspace.

M IL IT A R Y O P E R A TIO N S A R E A S (M O A s): (1.1 , aim 3-4-5, f m -h -scih - is , s o s m s )

1, Established for the purpose of separating certain non-hazardous military activities from IFR traffic.
2. When a MOA is tl°J nonparticipating L E R Jx a ffi^ a MOA If IFR ¿eo^ralion
can be provided by ATC. Otherwise. A TC will reroute nonparlicipating IFR traffic.
3, Pilots operating VFR should exercise extreme caution while flying within a MOA.
4. Prior to entering an active MOA. pilots should contact the controlling agency for traffic advisories.

W A R N IN G A R E A S : ( 1.1 , AIM 3- 4- 4 , FAA-H-3 CB3- 15. 80S3-25 j

1, Defined dimensions extending from 3 NM outward from the coast of the J.S .
2. Purpose is to warn pilots of activity that may be hazardous to non participating aircraft.

A L E R T A R E A S : ( 1 .1, AIM 3 - 4-6 . FAA-H-BQB3- 15, 8 C83- 25)

1 These areas may contain a high volume of pilot training or an unusual typo of aerial activity
2. Participating aircraft as well as pilots transitioning the area shall be equally responsible for collision
avoidance.

C O N T R O L L E D FIR IN G A R EA S : (1.1, AIM 3-4-7, FAA-H-6Q03-15, 30S3-Z6)

1. Activities are suspended immediately when sp otter a ircraft r.a.d.ar. or ground lookout positions indicate an
aircraft may be approaching the area.
2. No nood to chart CFA's. since they do not cause a nonpanticipating aircraft to change its flight path.

M IL IT A R Y T R A IN IN G R O U T E S — M T R : (AIM 3-5-2. PIC Glossary. FAA-H-8M3-15, 0053-25)

1. VFR Military Training Routes — VR:
ll. Generally down below 1.S00 foot AGL bu1 may have some portions above 1.500 AGL.
b. Visibility shall be 5 miles or more and should not be conducted below a ceiling of less than 3.000 feet AGL.
c. May involve speeds in excess of 250 knots below 10,000 feet MSL.
d. All MTRs are charted on Sectionals. Low Altitude En Route charts depict all MTRs that accommodate
operations above 1.500 feet AGL.
2. IFR Military Training Routes (Ri
a. Above 1.500 AGL and mostly below 10.000 feet MSL.
b. Conducted in accordance with IFR regardless of weather
c. May involve speeds in excess of 250 knots below 10,000 feet MSL.
d. Low Altitude En Route charts depict all MTRs that accommodate operations above 1,500 AGL.
3. Route Identification:
a. MTRs with no segment above 1.500 feet AGL shall be identified by FOUR num ber characters: c.fi..
VR1207. IR12Q6.
b. MTRs that include one or more segments above 1,500 feet AGL shall be identified by THREE number
Characters; e.g... VR207, IR206. (If the assigned numbEr starts wilh a zero. the ZEro is dropped from charts.)
4. Nor participating aircraft arc NOT prohibited from flying within an MTR. hiwevfl r extreme vigila hCd ShOutd be
exercised.
; .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
■ Class F Airspace — Spa dal us# airspace mat rnay tus classified as either Class F ADVISORY ot Class F RESTRICTED. Aitspucu
J of defined dimensions within which activities must be confined because of (heir nature, or wilhin which limitations are imposed upon
* mrcraft operations (hnt fire gsl a jarJ oMhuw activities, or both, This Airspace, an adopted by ICAO, does not have a U S. equivalent

10 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

 Chap 1 — Airspace & Airport |
A E R O B A T IC F L IG H T : <91.1 19 91.303. 91.307. AIM 3-4-5. S-1-7. A C 91-4SC, A C -9 1 -61. A C 91-72. P/C Glossary)
An Intentional maneuver involving
an abrupt change in an
aircraft's altitude, an
abnormal attitude, or abnormal
acceleration, not necessary for
normal flinht
Steep turns, stalls, and unusual attitudes that are incidental to, and necessary for
training flights are not considered aerobatic in the sense that they are part of "normal"
training and do not involve an "abrupt" change in attitude, "Spins, loops, or rolls" would be
considered outside the definition of normal training and would be considered aerobatic. A
steep climbout after takeoff wilh a sharp turn at very low altitude Or even a high-speed, low pass
down a runway may be considered aerobatic by certain (anal) inspectors In the sense that these
maneuvers are “not necessary for normal flight.’'
3. Mo person may operate an aircraft in aerobatic flight: C o n v e n ie n c e B a g
a. Over any c_o_n_ae_stod_area. For Vom it and
t>. Over an oji.eivair_ass.ernblY. Urine Disposal.
c. In C lass B. C. D. or E airspace designated for an a ir p o r t.
d. Within 4 NM of the centerline of any Federal airway.
e. Below 1.500 feet above cbe surface, or
f. When flIght visibility Is less than 3 miles or
g. If the aircraft is not certified for aerobatic flight, or
h. W ithout parachutes for all occupants (unless all occupants a re required crew m em bers) — if
any Intentional m aneuver w ill exceed 60° of bank or 30” nose up or d o w n — e xce p t (his does
n o t apply during FLIGHT T E S T S for pilot certiFicationfrating or during TRAINING fur spins and
other maneuvers required by regulations foj a n y certificate or rating w hen supervised by an
authorized flight instructor. (91.3070. & d.)
i. Without parachutes for ALL occupants -tf the AIRCRAFT is CERTIFIED fpr flight only if
ALL occupants wear parachutes (certain aerobatic aircraft).

PA R AC H UTES
If a pilot ¡5 performing aerohatice by
Himself, he Is noL required to wear a
par-achule. But ¡1 he brings semsone
niso along Ihel ¡3 not a required
cnewmertibgï, than everyone. intliJdinq
the pilot must have ana on.
Exception — corfEnn high-performance
aerobatic aircrelt are certified requiring
1the pilot la wear a parachute all the lima

1 ^
f )
l i i i i i i i i i j i i u i r t ■■■I
''Tex" Johnslon rolled a Buying 7 0 7 1wice
9 V H Seatil-e in 1955 essentially proving LhaL
v r'unl.y any airplane can be rolled (vie.v ¡1
on YouTuba). I wondar if everyone was
Wearing their parachLlleslio)?
"Provided no additional aerobatic flight
maneuvers are performed, spin training to
i i m i n r i l l !
meet ihe requirements of a CFI certificate
or associated with upset recovery training
are not considered aerobatic maneuvers,
and the requirements of 91.303 do nol For packing a rigging
apply." (Legal Interp Sep 58, 2012) requlrernents See 91.307

§ 2 3 .3 A irp la n e C a te g o rie s !
N O R M A L Category aircraft — 9 seats or less (excluding pilot seats). 12.500 Lbs or less, A single-pilot
turbojet (e.g. CE-SQ1, CE-5S1) will also be certified In the normal category. Normal non-aerobatic operations
including stalls steep turns, angle of bank nol more than +3.3Gs to -1.52Gs.
C O M M U T E R Category — 19 seats or less (excluding pilot seats). 19,000 Lbs or less. Limited, to multiengine
airplanes. Stalls steep turns, angle of bank not more than 60°
U T I L I T Y Category — 9 seats or less (excluding pilot seats), 12,500 Lbs or less, intended for limited
aerobatics Spins if approved, angle of bank not more than +4.4Gs lo - 1 ,76Gs.
A C R O B A T IQ Category — 9 seats or less (excluding pilot seats). 12.500 Lbs or less, +6.QGs lo -3.00Gs.

EVERYTHING EX P LA IN ED for H ip Professional Pilot 11

[ch a p Airspace & Airport

ADIZ Boundaries and Mountainous Areas

Th-B Itivisiunaiac. Q£ El'f|hl Bfl5(rm1ecJ i^ns (fiEJEBZ) and
Special FlyhL Rulus Area ( DC SFRAl aru no-w permananl from
Iha to F L 1 BO around DCA. Anyone planning a V F R
night withm SO H H o< this ansa must complete the F A A 'i online
A D iZ training course lw w w .fa a sa le ty.j-gv'■ 131.1611— ihe
discussion of which is beyond (ha scope oF this bock.
[93,331 thru 93.345}
C heck vo u r H O TAM 5

LEGEND
] Mountucuus Ajt*
\ ADIZ

(WT DMVKIDKAUÌ

A i r D e fe n se Identification Z o n e s — A D I Z & D E W I Z :
{91.137 thru 91.141, 91.161.93.331 thru 93.345. AIM 3-5-3, 5-1-4 thro 5-1-0, 5-5-1 thru 5-6-6. PfC Glossary. Ad 91-63C. Part 99.
International Flight Inlormalior Manual}
1 . The area of airspace over land or water, extending upward from the surface, within which the ready
identification, the location, and the control of aircraft are required in the interest of national security.
a. Domestic Air Defense Identification Zone — an ADIZ within the United Stales along an
international boundary of the U.S.
b. Coastal Air Defense Identification Zone — An ADIZ Over the Coastal waters Of the U.S.
c. Distant Early Warning Identification Zone fDEWIZ) — An ADIZ over the coastal waters of the
Slate of Alaska.
d. ADIZ locations and operating and flight plan requirements are specified in Part 99.
2. An IFR or DVFR (Defense Visual Flight Rules) FLIGHT PLAN must be FILED for all operations that
enter an ADIZ. The very few exceptions can be found in the AIM 5-6-1 (d,, & e.) and Part 99.
3. An operating two-way radio is required for most operations. A radio is not required if the aircraft
does not have a two-way radio: and is operated in accordance with a filed DVFR flight plan: and the
aircraft departs within 5 minutes of the Estimated Departure Time contained in the flight plan (sss w .ij .
4. An operating transponder wilh Mode C is required for all operations.
5. For DVFR flights — The estimated time of ADIZ penetration must be filed with the aeronautical
facility at least 15 minutes prior to penetration except for flight in the Alaskan a d i z in which case report
prior to penetration.
6 . ADIZ Penetration Position Tolerances:
a. Over land — ± five minutes and within 10 NM from the centerline of intended track.
b. O ver water — ± five minutes and w ithin 20 NM from the centerline o f intended tra c k .

12 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilaf

IN T E R C E P T S IG N A L S I P R O C E D U R E S : (AIM 5-6-1 thru 5-6-6, Tdbla 5-6-1 B 5-6-2)
If you are intercepted by a U.S. Military or law enforcement aircraft, immediately:
1. Fellow the instructions given by the intercepting aircraft. See chart below.
2. Notify A T G . if possible.
3. Attempt to communicate with the intercepting aircraft and/or A TC on the emergency frequency 121.5
MHz (or 243.0 MHz), giving the identity and position of your aircraft and the nature of the flight.
4. If equipped with a Iransponder. squawk 7700 unless otherwise instructed bv A T C . If any instructions
received by radio from any sources conflict with those given by the intercepting aircraft by visual or radio
signals request clarification while continuing to comply with me instructions aivcn by the
Intercepting aircraft.

IN TE R C E P TIN G Aircraft IN TE R C E P TE D
Meaning Meaning
s ig n a l Aircraft RESPONSE
Rocks wines. After acknowledgment
You have Rocks winos and follows.
initiates a slow level turn, normally to the I understand
been (Also, at niaht. the pilot will
left, onto the desired heading. and will
intercepted also flash the navigational
(Also, at niqht the pilot will also flash the carnal*
Follow me. lights at Irregular intervals.)
navigational iiohts at irregular intervals, i
Performs an abrupt breakaway maneuver
I understand
consisting of a climbing 90 decree turn, You may
Rocks winns. and will
or more, without crossing the intercepted proceed.
aircraft's fliaht oath. cai&fiiy
Lowers landing near, follows
Circles airport, lowers landing gear and
the intercepting aircraft and
overfliej;_mnwaY in the direction of I understand
Land at this lands if the runway is
landing. and witl
airport. considered safe.
fAlso, at niaht the pilot will also put the co m d v
(Also, at night turn the
la n d in g iiohts on. J
landing tights on )
IN TE R C E P TE D Aircraft IN TE R C E P TIN G
Meaning Meaning
S IG N A L Aircraft RESPONSE
If the Intercepted aircraft is
requested to go to an
Raises landing gear while flying over
This airport is alternate airport, the
runway between 1.000’ and 2 .000V and Understood,
inadequate. intercepting aircraft rals.e.s_tts
continues to circle the airport. follow me.
landing near and uses the
intercept procedure
(listed above)
To releasG the intercepted
(At night, the pilot of the intercepted Understood,
aircraft, the intercepting aircraft
aircraft will also flash landing lights while you may
will perform Lhe breakaway
passing over the runwav.) proceed,
maneuver listed above.
The pilot switches en and e g all available Cannot Performs the breakawav
Understood.
liahts at regular intervals. comply maneuver listed above.
The pilot switches on and off all available Performs the breakawav
In distress. Understood.
lights at irregular intervals. maneuver listed above,

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 13

fchap 1 — Airspace & Airport

FLA P S E T T IN G S — Class G A irsp a ce : [si

91,12G(c) — Except when necessary Tor training or certification, the Pilot In Command of a civil turbojet-
powered aircraft MUST use, as a final flap setting, the minimum certificated landing flap setting set forth
in the approved performance information in the Airplane Flight Manual fat the applicable conditions.
However, each Pilot in Command has the final authority and responsibility for the safe operation of the
pilot’s airplane, and may use a different flap setting for that airplane if the pilot determines that It Is
necessary in the interest of safety.
— One of the most RIDICULOUS paragraphs the FA A has ever written—
- 0 0 N Q T L E T the FAA FLY YO UR A IR P LA N E I -

The FAA reportedly came up with this “rule' in an

Airetall clear«] lo land using
itin full Inngth n( the runway
effort to reduce the noise made by older low- \
bypass turbo|ets during approach.
Less flaps means less drag and therefore a lower
power setting necessary on final. Consequently
— less noise — but more speed.
Unfortunately, this attempt by the FAA to be nice
to the neighborhood whiners increases the risk
i i that some studious |et pilot will actually know
about this rule — land a little hot without full flaps
— and run off (he end of a runway.
Jets run off the ends of runways all the time even
with full flaps selected!
It is the most common jet accident scenario.
When flying a tu rb o je t..
EVERY landrng should be considered a short field
landing "...¡n the interest of safety."

Aircraft cleared to tand

nndlvMjWirt
La n d A n d H o ld S h o rt O p e ra tio n s — L A H S O ; (AIM 4-3-11 & AFVD)

1. LAHSO operations include landing and holding short of an

■ L . Intersecting runw ay, an Intersecting taxiway, or some other
designated point on a runway other than an intersecting runway A

STOP
* " “' or laxiway.
2, The Pilot In Command has the final authority to accept or
decline a LAHSO clearance. The PIC must determine lhat the
aircraft can safely land and slop within the Available Landing
Distance (ALD). The pilot should also take into consideration
the possibility and RAM -ifications of a BRAKE M ALFUNCTION
or a lousy "floater" of a landing when accepting this clearance.
Available Landing distance (A LD 1data is published in the "special notices” section of the A/FD and
on approach charts. Controllers will also provide this data upon request.
A LAHSO clearance does not preclude a rejected landing. If a rejected landing becomes necessary,
(he pilot, nol the controller, is responsible for separation from other aircraft or vehicles, The pilot
should also cromotty notify the controller — (his call is crilical to alert the other pilot as well.
5. Controllers musl have a fllJLim U a fifc of all LAHSO '’hold short" clearances.
6 A pilot should only receive a LAHSO clearance when there is a minimum CEILING of 1.000 feet. 3 SM
VISIBILITY, a DRY runway and no TAILW IND. Pilots should also consider reduced visibility when
landing into the sun.
V isual aids can include v e llp w h o ld - s h o r t m a r k in g s , re d a nd w h ite s ig n a g e , or In -p a v e m e n t
lighting. Not all airports have installed all or any of these visual aids.
The FAA requires each air carrier who wants to participate in LAHSO have a training program in
place for all their pilots before any of the operator’s aircraft can participate in the program.
As a result of haggling between the FAA. (he Air Line Pilots Association and Air Transport Association
over the safety issue. y^i^f_QW_a>rj;_orts continue to conduct_Land_And_H.o_ld_5_hort operations.

14 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 Chap 1 — A irspace & Airport
TU R N S — LA N D IN G at AllRPC»RTS in C L A S S G or E A IR S P A C E —
A IR P O R T S W IT H O U T an O P E R A T I N G C O N TR O L TO W ER :
[91.126(h). 91.127(a), AIM 4-3-1 thru 4-3-5, P/C Glossa ry. AC 90-66AJ
1. Even pi IoLe>On an instrument approach — once they have visual contact with the airport — MUST
follow the regulatory and/or local rules concerning left or right turns in the traffic pattern at airports
WITHOUT an operating control tower.
2. Aircraft approaching to land at an airport in Class G or E airspace must make A L L T U R N S to
the LEFT unlessvisual m arkings or lights (or the Airport F acility Directory)
indicate RIGHT tu rn s.
3 “S T R A IG H T -IN ” approaches ARE permitted and ARE legal — as Iona as they do N O T
interfere with other aircraft operating in the appropriate left or right traffic pattern..
4. Generally speaking — an approach is considered to be **S T R A l G H T - I N ” if Ihe aircraft is

aligned within 30 degrees of ihe runw ay centerline atteam

5 miles out
5. However, according to FAA and N TSB decisions, size and speed of the aircraft matters:
a. A 747 might he in violation if it made a non-standard turn as far as 6 miles out.
b. While a J-3 Cub would still be considered to be in its cross-country phase at that distance,
6. Aircraft remain Ino in the traffic pattern should not commence a turn to the crosswind leg until
beyond the departure end of the runway and within 300 feet below traffic pattern altitude, with the
pilot ensuring that the turn to downwind leg will be made at the traffic pattern altitude.
7 Again, you m u s t make A L L T U R N S to the LEFT unless visual m arkings or
lights (or the Airport £acilily directory) indicate RIGHT tilfflS — Even if A TC sets you up
for non-standard traffic at a non-towered airport, the controller does not have (he authority to permit you
lo deviate from the FARs.
8. You W O U LD he permitted to make a non-standard approach from the "wrong side" of the airport for
bona fide s a fety reasons such as — a Level-5 thunderstorm immediately off to ‘that" side or the
airport — or maybe confirmed reports of some dude on "that" side of the field practicing with his brand
new shoulder-launched heat-seeking missile system.

I Each pilot of a helicopter must avoid;

l the flow of fined-wing aircraft, ;
4M w m w u M w m i w t m y

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 15

[chap 1 — Airspace & Air porti
T R A F F IC P A T T E R N EN TR Y (AIM 4-1-i, 4-1-9.4-3-1 thru 4-3-5. 91 126 4 91.127. AC 90-66A)
Every Private pilot is aw are of the Standard “45° at m id-point of dow nw in d" traffic pattern
entry, but how do you enter the pattern when approaching from the “O T H ER S ID E ?”
1, The FAA recommends Ihe standard traffic pattern for all non-towered airports, but the recommended
pattern does not have the force of a regulation. You can do any pattern you like as Iona as all
T U R N S are made in the PROPER D IR E C TIO N (91.126 4 91.127).
2. “S T R A IG H T -IN n approaches (aligned within 30°) ARE permitted and ARE legal — as long as
they do NO T interfere with other aircraft operating in the appropriate pattern,
3. When approaching from the "other side" — the PREFERRED METHOD is to “C R O S S O V E R 500
to 1000 ft A B O V E pattern altitude,’*go a few miles away from the airport, then do a
descending turn hack towards ihe airport and the standard 45° entry. The idea is to avoid descending
on top of aircraft established in. or entering, the pattern. Rather time consuming but safe. You should
alSO be aware that S O M E LAR G E or T U R B IN E POW ERED airplane drivers will be in the traffic
pattern at 1.500 feet A G L (as recommended by AC 90-66A — a flawed recommendation in my
opinion because many small and large aircraft operate at similar speeds — but apparently the .FAA feels
it's OK for a large aircraft to descend on top of a smaller aircraft during base to final).
4 “U PW IN D at P A T T E R N A L T IT U D E , turn C R O S SW IND at M ID FIELD "
entries are also acceptable but controversial. The upwind leg is PAR A LLEL T O the runway but NOT
D IR E C TLY OVER the run w a y. It is lo Ihe side of the runway opposite the downwind leg. Assuming
left traffic, the pilot should be able to look below the left w ing and see the runway lo observe traffic.
Enter the pattern on the Upwind leQ at Pattern altitude and turn croaswind somewhere near MID-
FIELD to avoid arrivals and departures. Yield lo aircraft on the downwind or about lo enter downwind
from the normal 45° entry. NOTE: This may not be ihe best plan if there's a lot of traffic, but it is legal.
5 Another variation is the “C R O S S O V E R M ID FIELD at P A T T E R N A L T IT U D E ”
Crossover the airport mid-field at pattern altitude from the upwind side, perpendicular to the landing
runway, and enter the downwind with a left turn (assuming left traffic). Again, yield to aircraft on the
downwind or about to enter downwind from the normal 4511entry. NOTE: Again ihis may not be the best
plan if there's a lot of traffic, but it is perfectly legal.
6. If the sun is out. your aircraft will be automatically equipped with the latest device called the “SHADOW
D E T E C T O R ." Look for your shadow on the ground, If you see TWO shadows - DO SO M ETH ING !
7. Of course. Jf you A R E approach in a from the downwind side of Ihe airport, a simple
“B A S E LEG T O F IN A L ” is "legal", but some would argue not quite as safe.
During a typical year there are about 20 midair collisions, ihe majority of which are near airports. This
works out lo be just a little more lhan 1% of all aviation accidents. A comforting thought is that only
approximately 55% involve fatalities and a whopping 60% off the aircraft landed safely] Of course
lhat also means lhal 40% of the aircraft PfOAfOTIand safely ........................,
M axim um
T h e jfl.'FD in c lu d e s S O M E : l
D O W N W IN D LE G : recommended
p a tte rn a ltitu d e s . ! S P EE D
.................................................................. ..................................*

O ZOO knots
4 - LU
HI
3 . -T .
hi ^ T T ' D IR E C TIO N O F LA N D IN G -
CO
< S
CD
• V RUNW AY
co
CO
“R E C OMMENDED*
ALTITUDES
1000' AGL ¿11 aircraft
AP P R O A C H
*
^ ____________ r-f

DEPARTURE
s
unless ath-arwIsB
as1atfli5hed. A C 90-66A ;V
"recommends" 1509 A G L The MOST DANGEROUS
for large & turbine aircraft.
f UPW IND LEG p la c e t a b e at p attern
It's your choice lo decidn a ltitu d e
this, is a ua'a practice.
: EVERYTHING
16 EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot

The 4 5 -d e g re e
entry c o u ld itself
be consid ere d a
violation o f
9 1 .1 2 8 . It is
c e rta in ly in the
"vicin ity" o f the
airport, bat
A L W A Y S in the
O P P O S IT E
D IR E C T IO N to
the e stablished
tra ffic pattern! ;oj
E V E R Y T H I N G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot
Chap 1 — A irspace & Airport
1. The FAR s do not say
A N Y T H IN G a b o u t a 4 5 °
tra ffic pattern entry.
2 The AIM does not require
a 4 5 ° entry.
3. 9 1 .1 2 6 says: "e a ch
p e rso n opera tin g an
a ircra ft on o r in the
v ic in ity o f an a irp o rt in a
C lass G a irs p a c e ...
m u s t . .. w h e n
a p p ro a c h in g to la n d at n
an a irport w ith o u t an i
opera tin g con tro l lo w e r...
m a k e a ll tu r n s to the le ft
u n le s s ih e airport ■* ■
d isp la ys appro ve d light **
signals o r visual
m a rk in g s In d ic a tin g that
tu r n s s h o u ld be m a d e to
(he r i g h t . . . T h i s w ould
»
also apply fo r a n a irport in
C la ss E a irsp a ce . See
91.127(a).
A
** ■. t
17
[chap 1 — Airspace & Aire orli
TRAFFIC PATIrERN ALTITUDE at AIRPORTS I
W ITH O U T an OPERATING COINTROL TOWER;
(91.126 Ihm 91.131.91.156, AIM 4-3-3, 4 -î-a . A C 90-65A, FAA H-BQB3-3, FAA-H-B0B3-15, FAA-H-B0B3-25)
1. At most airports and military air bases, traffic pattern altitudes for prope Her-driven aircraft generally
extend from 600 feet to as high as 1L5QQ feet A G L . Also, traffic pattern altitudes for military turbojet
aircraft sometimes extend up to 2,500 feet A G L . Therefore, pilots of en route aircraft should be
constantly on the alert for other aircraft in traffic patterns and avoid these areas whenever possible.
Traffic pattern altitudes should be maintained unless otherwise required by the applicable distance from
cloud criteria {NOTE: there Is different VFR distance from cloud criteria for Class G or Class E airspace).
2. 1,000 feet A G L Is the recommended pattern altitude unless established otherwise... [AIM 4-3-4 [tl)
3. There is a RECOMMENDA TIQN " (in AC 90-66A) that large and turbine powered airplanes Should
enter the traffic pattern at 1,500 A G L or 500 feel above the established pattern altitude. Apparently
someone at the F A A feels it's OK for a large aircraft to descend on top of a smaller aircraft {very
possibly moving at a similar speed] during base to final, WAKE TURBULENCE could also be a major
concern if a VER V large aircraft is flying around 500 feet above everyone else.
4. Traffic pattern altitudes are occasionally listed in the AinoortfFacilitv Directory, in which case the
published altitudes would be somewhat regulatory, In some cases these airports actually have different
altitudes for small and large or turbine-powered aircraft. In other cases there is only one altitude
published, and lhat would be the altitude for ALL aircraft {unless you accept the recommendation of
AC 9C-66A and fly your large and invincible turbine 500 feel qbove everybody else - until you turn
base to final — then descend on top of Ihe other aircraft lhat was in the pattern below you the whole
lime flying at just about the same speed’).
5. Other " unofficially published" sources of traffic pattern altitude are the " Flight Guide*' produced by
Airguide Publications for VFR pilots; and the two different " Airport Directories" produced by Jeppesen
and AOPA. These commercial publications list far more pattern altitudes than the A/FD, bul very often
disagree as to what these altitudes actually arel
6. The majority of Class G or E airports do not have “ officially published" {in the A/FD) pattern
altitudes. In which case you have your choice of the 1.QDQ A G L {for ALL alrcraftl as recommended
by the Al M — and/or 1,500 A G L for large and turbine powered as recommended by AC 90-66A — or
personally calling the airport manager and asking if he has “established" a "recommended" altitude for
"his" airport (an obviously imperfect system),
7. Large and turbojet aircraft are also governed by 91.515 which states those aircraft are required to
maintain at least 1,000 feel AGL during Ihe day and Ihe altitudes prescribed in 91.177 at night (IFR).
However this rule does not apply during takeoff or landing. There is another reference to minimum safe
altitudes in 9Í-119 that Slates "Except when necessary for takeoff or fending... ” A traffic pattern
would certainly be considered a necessary pari of landing.
8. Aircraft remaining in Ihe traffic pattern should not commence a turn to the cross wind lea until
beyond die departure end of the runway and within 3QQ feet below traffic pattern altitude, with the
pilot ensuring lhat the turn to downwind leg will be made at the traffic pattern altitude, (a im h g 4-3-3)

18 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot

 Chao 1 A irspace & A irport

TRAFFIC PATTERN MINIMUM ALTITUDES &

GLIDE SLOPE Operating to an
AIRPORT Q Class B, C A irspace: (91.12s, 91.127. 91.129. 91.139. 91.121}
1. A LA R G E (12.500 ibs or rrcre- o r
T U R B IN E-P O W ER ED airplane shall, unless otherwise
required by distance from cloud criteria, enter the T R A F F IC P A T T E R N at an altitude of at least
1,500 feet AG L and maintain 1,500 AGL until further descent is required for a safe landing
[Noise abatement]
2 . N O TE: Many Class B, C and D airports have non-standard traffic pattern altitudes listed In Ihe
filrport/Eacility Directory.
3. A large or turbine-powered airplane approaching to land on a runway served by an ILS shall Fly at
or above the G LID E S LO P E between the O U TE R marker and the MIDDLE marker.
4. A ny airplane approaching to land on a runway served by a VASI shall maintain at or above
Ihe G L I D E S LO P E (Ska glide path) until a lower altitude Is necessary for a safe landing.

“j^_or above ttiE glide sto p ^' does not

prohibit normal bracketing maneuvers above
or below the glide slope for the purpose of
remaining or the glide slope.

“ NoniMLbrntkBUfm m a n m vin
are maneuvers which remain wiJlin
the I¡mils aF the higher and lower
ulirty 1 1acre sitmals.

; You must remain at or above the glide slope b d J *m n ihe

OUTER mark g r and the MIDDLE m arker.
LARGE or TURBINE powered
• Once you pass the middle marker all bets are off. aircraft must maintain at least 1,500
I Remember — Runway behind you. attitude above you, feet AGL In the traffic pattern in
■ and air in the fuel tanks are totally worthless. Class B, C, or D airspace.

L O W A L T IT U D E A L E R T : (JO T11P.65 para 2-1*) \

Th re sh o ld Crossing Height
— The theoretical height above
the runway threshold at which the
aircraft's glideslope antenna would
be If the aircraft maintains the
trajectory established by the mean
ILS glideslope or MLS glldepat
V Somethin' like 1liis:
(Sea "Lew AltiLuda Alaft System' and "Safely AlafL' — P^C Glossary)
1. Controllers wi.l issue an alarf lo an ainciafl iF they (eel il is too low
(Intormslion received irem Mode Cj. 11is (ha oHot's prerogative u> determine
WhaL course of action to take... if any.
2. At larger airports, an automated Function tailed M SAW (Minimum Safe Altituda
learning} also calculates your d ««»n f rata— il It exceeds what Is considers
to bo a safe closure rate wilti the terrain — a very annoying alarm Sounds in
the tower and Iha TR A CO N . In addition, the letter; LA ¡Low Attitude) Hash in
your radar data tag. Normally the call from the controller would sound
"LsKJltitwiAAtert. EifljujtiLBsfL±23. chcch oltitudo immediately " If you
get one of these calls (e.g., while executing a screaming high-speed dive In
order to recapture the glides lope} an acceptable response might be...
"We're joed. Juatgettln' back to the glidaalope. thanks for the calll"

E V E R Y T H I N G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 19

Chap 1 — Airspace & Airport
P R E C IS IO N IN S T R U M E N T R U N W A Y M A R K IN G S : tt*
(AIM 2-1-4. 2-3-3, AC 150,'&340-1H, A C 150/5340-24) m o re ru n w a y

R U N W A Y ED G E L IG H T S : (AIM2-M & P/CGlossary [Airport hghlmgl)

White lights, except on instrument runways yellow replaces while on the
last 2,000 feet or half the runway length, whichever Is less, to form a caution
zone. Runway lights are uniformly spaced at intervals of approximately ¿00
feet nol more than 10 feel from the edge of Ihe full strength pavement.
^ Lights ^narking the end oMhenjnwav emit red lights toward the runway.

T O U C H D O W N Z O N E M A R K IN G S :
On longer runways there will be two sets of single markings
spaced at SOQ-foot Increments, Shorter runways may eliminate
one or more pairs of markings. Touchdown Zone — the first
3,000 feel of runway beginning at the threshold
TouchDown Zone Elevation ■the highest elevation in the C E N T E R L IN E M A R K IN G S ure
first 3,000 ft of the landing surface. vihitfi; l i e ft long. With 81} It gaps
Width is 36' for precision runways,
16" for nanprscisiQn runways, and
15" for visual runways.
T O U C H D O W N Z O N E M A R K IN G S :
On most runways there will be two sets of double markings
spaced at 500-fool increments.

NOTE: All runway markings arc WHITE with glass beads and/or
silica sand embedded in (he paint for added visibility end traction.

AIM IN G P O IN T M A R K IN G :
Aiming point for landing. Two rectangular broad white stripes starting
el 1.020 feet from Ihe landing threshold, They are 150 feet long and
normally 30 feet Wide. The FAA feels you should leave that 1,020 feet
behind you, just in case you might need it later for something else othor
than stopping the aircraft! Maybe you can throw a picnic there after you
lose the brakes and subsequently run off the other end!

I I

T O U C H D O W N Z O N E M A R K IN G S :
Identify Ihe louchdewn zone for lending end are coded to
provide distance information in 500 foot increments.
Groups of three, two, end one, rectangular bars arranged in
pairs about the centerline. Approximately 75 feet long.

R U N W A Y D E S IG N A TIO N M A R K IN G S :
The whole number nearest one-tenth the magnetic azimuth of the
centerline of Ihe runway, measured clockwise from magnetic north. 36
T H R E S H O L D M A R K IN G S: L
150 feet long starting at 20 feet from (he end of the runway.

TH R ES H O LD :
Threshold lights are fixed green lights left and right of the centerline.

20 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PicfnsEton.il Pilaf


W H IT E A R R O W ^
H E A D S are located
across the width of the
runway jusl prior to the
l hreahold bar,
WHITEARROWS^
are located along the
centerline in the area
between the
beginning of the
runway and the
displaced threshold.
J and landings from the
YELLO W paint means
taxi Only.
YELLO W Chevrons you can be used as a taxiwav only.
cannot even taxi on.
E X P L A IN E D far till? Professional Pilot
A irspace & Airport
T H R E S H O L D B A R is a
ten-foot wide white bar that
marts the beginning of Ihe
runway available for landing
when the threshold has been
relocated or displaced.
ReFBrencB:
AIM 2-2-2 thru 2-3-6
A C 150^5340-1
This portion IS available For
takeoffs in either direction
opposite direction. This
ponion is N Q T available for
landings in the direction of the
arrows.
A three-foot wide, Y E L L O W
D E M A R C A T IO N B A R
delineates a runway with a
displaced threshold from a
blast pad, stop way or taxi way
■ that precedes the runway.
YELLO W C H E V R O H S
are used to show
pavement areas aligned
This area marked in Y E L L O W with the runway that are
UN USABLE For landing
takeoff, and Sm I
\
21
Chap 1 — Airspace & Airport
A IR P O R T S IG N S : (aim2-3-1 thru2-3-13)
1 R unw ay Distance Rem aining — BLACK backflrpund with WHITE numerals
- Indicate distance (in thousands of feel) of landing runway remaining and
may be installed along one or both sides of the runway. The last sign, the (3j0M „ ar njnray reru^ning)
sign with Lhe numeral one, will be located al least 950 ft from the runway end.
2 L o c a tio n — BUA^KJaac.lMliaJUM with YE LLQ WJnscxijj.t Ion — Identifies either a taxiway or runway
on which an aircraft is located.
3. M a n d a to ry In s tru c tio n s — RED background with W HITE inscription — denotes hazardous area.
4. D irectio n — YELLO W background with BLACK inscription — identifies designation(S) Of
intersecting taxiway(s) leading out of intersection that pilot would expect to turn onto or hold short of.
Direction signs always have an arrow showing Ihe direction of the taxiing route to that destination.
When a sign gives two or more destinations that have a com m on taxi route, the designations are
separated by a dot (• ) and one arrow would be used. When the sign contains two or more
destinations that have differentjaxi routes an arrow will accompany and a
vertical black divider will divide each destination from the other.
5. D e stin a tio n — YELLO W background with BLACK Inscription — signs with arrow showing direction
of taxi route to that destination.
6. Inform ation — YELLO W background with B LA C K inscription — provide pilot information about
areas that can not be seen by the controller tower such as radio frequencies, noise abatement
procedures „ etc.

T H R E S H O L D M A R K IN G S ; (a im 2-m u .)
1, Runway Threshold Markings come in two configurations.
2, They either consist of EIGHT longitudinal STRIPES of uniform dimensions disposed symmetrically
about the runway centerline, as shown on the previous page (by far the most common^ or the number
of Gripes is related to the runway widlh as indicated in TB L 2-3-2 (i.e,, GO ft wide = 4 stripes:
75 ft wide = 6 stripes: 100 ft wide = 8 stripes: 150 ft wide = 12 stripes: 200 ft wide = 16 stripes
3, Consult the airport diagram or the ARD for more complete informaiion.

D lS P LA C E D T H R E S H O L D : (AIM i-a*h.v s 2.)

1. Located at a point on the runway other than the beginning of the runway.
2 Reduces the length of runway available for Handings.
3. The portion of runway behind a displaced threshold is available for takeoffs in either direction and
landings from the opposite direction.
4. A ten foot wide white threshold bar is located across the width of the runway at the displaced threshold.
5. White arrows are located along the centerline in the area between the beginning of the runway and
displaced threshold.
e. White arrow heads are located across the width of the runway just prior to the threshold bar.

R U N W A Y D E S IG N A TIO N M A R K IN G S :(ac 15015340-1J, AC 15Q/537D-2E)

1. The whole num ber nearest one-tenth the magnetic azimuth of the centerline of the runway,
measured clockwise from magnetic north
2, Parallel runways can be designated as "L " (left); "C " (center); ''Rlf (right); or “W'* (water).

R U N W A Y W E IG H T B E A R IN G C A P A C IT Y ; (WFD Lugond)
1. The Av'FD lists for each airport the appropriate category, code and weight capacity for each runway
immediately following the runway length and surface Information.
2. The legend in the front of each AJFD will explain the categories and assigned codes. Examples;
* a — Sinale-wheel type landing gear, fD C -3. C-47, F-15 etc,)
* D — Dual-wheel type landing gear. 1BE1900. B737, A319. P3, C9, etc.)
♦ 2S - Two Single wheels in tandem type landing gear. (C130)
♦ 2T — Two Triple wheels in tandem type landing gear. fC17L
# 2D — T w o Dual wheels type landing gear ( B707, B757. KG1351
* 2DfD1 - Tw o Dual wheels in tandem/Dual wheel body type landing gear i K C IQ )
3. Add 000 to the figure follow Ino S . D, 2S, 2T. etc., for gross w eight capacity (eg.. S60 - Single­
wheel type landing gear gross weight capacity 60,000 p ou n d s).

22 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 Chap 1 — A irspace & Airport

Holding Position Markings: ILS Critical Area

Y E S you m ay cross to
exit runway

Î
NO you m ay not cross
w ithout C L E A R A N C E
Holding Position
M arkings — Yellow

ILS Holding Position

M arkings — Y e llo w

ILS Critical Area

Holding Position Sign
ILS
[RED background with WHITE lettering)

AIR POR T SIGN SYSTEMS

TYPE O F SIGN AND ACTION Oft PURPOSE TYPE O F SION AND ACTION OP PUPPOSE
R U IV A A ? k H i f y A i M K W W f e G l « F r * *
TallndVHUIIWd) Hvtl pQVlIQP' Zui* Bcumijay
4-22 Httfl Ah*vi nfnintMVi1(Vi W
sÈfcwty F r t b r s w l m y n f r u m m y ip m a n d w l nnryis

HunWii>ifìmnw.ty Held P o d la n - IL I Crii K J I Anhi Bu-kind jry

26-8 hfeikJ h liw l til rrtip fcJrLb'ij iu pib vay Il B 11 h,«ri LuviâwYuf t-âu îljI ji*j
flu m ra y a p p r o n t i l i H o ld P o i l t t o r v Tiiifwof DirutCiun:
8-APCH I to ti short à i a - m n o n a p p r c w f i
üvli wt vbWClAHI AüwvyfirflKjll 1/■l*r»Mlr*lV
Runwdf i a l : .
ILS CnIilJ AiMri Huld PMfUOft
ILS HuU b lw til US I W M l i W'1«J dTH
✓ L Udir**^fçlion a4fWMhQft çf*irt Iai
kgmrmwMiy
HPtur*.
OijltPiind
b a n D lv p m d a m c wtara ifcraA en by Ie
mMbtPd 22 T D*I'>W VLifcupÂ
I n b o u n d U c tE in A t lo n

Utjulilvi VII diE'Vti'i \ M IL Dcfln« «M llw I« aiKfiHl

ttuAwdif LPcMlpdi Tjj^jy ÊiUiii.j Mjilpi
El fcVintthn ninwn-y cm nftilrh I h n l m In-r.nipr
t u » * * * * t np( Cpmnpf

Punn-iy Bi'iliirxc Remaining U irrclion j nn Array.

BLAC KS
PivWv% hdimi"i"iy iyrrwiy î (ocarten in CCnitncHm v
WHITE •n».OWi««i InowiMnh I)MltriMdifcüMfclrfiy

EVERYTHING EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 23

Chap 1 — Airspace & Airport
R U N W A Y E D G E L IG H T S : (AIM 2-1-4 & P / Ç Glossary [AirpurL l.phlinq], A C taOi^iG^. 121.G5C. 125.45, 135225)
1. White fights, except on instrument runways yellow replaces white on the last 2,000
f&çj or half the runway length, whichever is less, to form a caution zone.
2. Runway lights are uniformly spaced at intervals of approximately 200 feet not more than
10 feet from the edge of the full strength pavement. Lights meriting the end of the
runway emit red light toward the runway.
3 Runw ay liflhta are required for all Part 121,125, and 135 PASSENGER operations at
night.

C E N T E R L IN E L IG H T S ; (AIM2-1-S, AC 15W5340-4C)
1. Runway centerline lights are installed on some precision approach runways to facilitate landing under
adverse visibility conditions,
2. The lights are located along the runway centerline at 50-foot intervals. The line of lights is offset a
maximum of 2 feet 10 either the right or left aide of Ihe runway [centerline] m arking and Should be to
the opposite side of the centerline marking from the major taxiway turnoffs.
3. When viewed from the landing threshold, the runway centerline lights are white until the last 3,000 feet
of the runway. The white lights begin to alternate with red for the next 2.00Q feet, and for the last
1.000 feet of the runway, all centerline lights are red.

T O U C H D O W N Z O N E L IG H T S (T D Z L ): ia im 2- 1 -5 )
1. Installed on some precision approach runways to Indicate the touchdown zone when landing under
adverse visibility conditions.
2. They consist of two rows of transverse (lying across: crosswise) light bars arranged symmetrically
about the runway centerline
3. The system consists of steady-burning white lights which start 1QQ feet beyond the landing threshold
and extend to 3.000 feet beyond the landing threshold or to the midpoint of the runway, whichever is
less.

i The airport sketch contains the J J8 * \ HKLfl

HEIL fiwji I BL and
l information pertaining to runway lighting. R »yi 3 « m f 3ÔR

i©

TH E
* * <D!3 * * * 707
003*« ÒNM 1
***$>
from f A f
_L
FAf K MAP 6,6 NM
Knob I iß VO I 120 150 IBÛ
M n Sec ¿34 4 24\ 3 16 2 3S 2 12
j Pilot Controlled Lighting L H A K lO l It : jl > ’ h U U ì ( J U N A
U N IC O M
1 2 3 . 0 5 (CTAFJ 0 '
______________________________________ V * . ________________________________________________________________
M A LER
A Kiw L o w p lid o p p r « Ë h N A h*\oM 1 1 2Ö f w r . Ì s M tèlfcD A I'P M O M .H L \ m h to 1SUO ihnn
ADF R IO U IH T D " a fiyhi flumio? 5$ Q diiuti TW L N D ê «id liold.
*- - ♦
A dal " * " portrayed with approach lighting leder identifier indicates tequenced Flashing lighli [F) in-ualled w* i t h th e

a p p ro a c h lîg h im g iy jle m 0 . 9 ., N e g a tiv e sym b o lo g y, n g g) O io d ic o ! « P ilot C c n tro ììfld L ig h iin g jPCLJ

24 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilaf

Chap 1 — A irspace & Airport
 Chap 1 — A irspace & Airport
A IR P O R T E L E V A T IO N & R E F E R E N C E P O IN T : ;ac 150^ 00-13)
1. Airport ELEVATIO N — The highest point on an airport's usable runway expressed in feel (MSL).
2. Airport geographical R E F E R E N C E P O IN T — A specific spot on the airport used 10 determine the overall
latitude-longitude location of the airport. Reference points are typically near the middle of ihe airport, but
the airport crows and expands over the years, normally ihe reference point does not m ove, even
though the actual center may no longer be in exactly the same place.

LO W A L T IT U D E A L E R T ; (Sao "Low Alliludu Alert System" and 'Safety Alert" — PfC Glossary)
1. Controllers will issue an alert to an aircraft if they feel it is too low (infomnalion received from Mode C).
It is the pilot's prerogative to determine what course of action to lake... if any.
2. At larger airports, an automated function called MSAW {Minimum Safe Altitude Warning) also calculates
your descent rate — if it exceeds what is considered to be a safe closure rate with the terrain — a very
annoying alarm sounds in the tower and (he TRACON. In addition, the letters LA (Low Altitude) flash in
your radar data tag. Normally the call from the controller would sound like this:
'‘low altitude alert. Freight Dog 123. check altitude immediately.1’ Again it's your prerogative as lo (he
course of action. If you get one of these calls (e,g„ while executing a screaming high-speed dive in order 10
recapture the glideslope) the correct phraseology is... “We're good , thanks for the call!1’

B R A K IN G A C T IO N / R U N W A Y F R IC TIO N
R EP O R TS : (AIM4-3-B. 4- 3-9. R/CGlossary. AC ISD/KOP-SOC)
1. B R A K IN G A C T IO N reports are provided by A T C
to pilots using the terminology “ go o d .” “fair."
“ poor.’1and “nil." Either pilots or airport
management provides these reports lo ATC.
2. “ Braking action advisories are in effect" — a statement broadcast on ATIS when weather conditions
are conducive to reported poor, nil or deteriorating runway braking conditions.
1 R U N W A Y FR IC TIO N reports are provided to A TC by airport management at airports with friction
measuring devices. At these airports, reports for A T C advisories and NOTAMs will be given using
Greek letter MU {pronounced “m yew ") in values ranging from Q t q j 00. The lower the MU value, the
less effective braking performance becomes. A MU value of 40 gr less is the level when braking
performance starts to deteriorate and directional control begins to be less responsive.

E X IT IN G the R U N W A Y A F T E R LA M P IN G : (aim4.3.1a. 4-a-ia,4-3-tt)

1. Pilots are expected to exit the runway without delay al (he first available taxi wav or taxiwav as
instructed by A T C
2. Do N O T exit onto another runway unless authorised to do so by A TC .
3. Never Stop on the runway unannounced — there may be another aircraft on Short final.
4. If you would like to land long for some reason, politely ask the tower If It Is OK. Any deviation from the
normal traffic flow can jam up the works. Of course if you just happen to land long because you suck,
(here’s not much anyone can do about that... it's your runway. They're just gonna have to deal with it!
5. Do N O T change to ground frequency until you are instructed to do so by the tow er.
6. You are not technically ‘C L E A R O F T H E R U N W A Y 11 until A L L P A R TS of the aircraft are on the
O T H E R SIDE of the H O L D -S H O R T LINE
7. After clearing the runway, come to a coi.ml.ete_s.top on the ftih.e.r.s.id.e of the faahjbsJbUMlJUmg Do NQT
continue taxiing unless taxi clearance has been issued by A TC .
8. A clearance must be obtained prior to crossing anv runw ay. A TC will issue an explicit clearance for
all runway cro ssin gs. A TC will not use the word "cleared" In conjunction with taxi clearance.
Controllers cannot issue multiple runway crossing clearances al the same tim e, unless the
distance between two runway centerlines is less than 1.000 ft.

26 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

 Chap 1 — A irspace & Airport 1

O P E R A TIN G N EA R O T H E R A IR C R A F T — FO R M A TIO N F L IG H T ;
[91.111. EH. 153(a), AIM 5-1-3(F. 14.), P !C Glossary, A C 30-400, AC 91-45C]
(a) No person may operate an aircraft so close to another aircraft as to create a collision hazard.
(b) No person may operate an aircraft in formation flight except by arrangement with the Pilot In
Command of each airCrafl in the formation,
(c) No person may operate an aircraft, carrying PASSENGERS FO R HIRE, in formation flioht.

1. F o rm a tio n flight Is defined as two or more aircraft Intentionally flying together and within visual
i
range of each other which, by prior arrangement between each of the pilots Involved, operates as a
single aircraft with regard to navigation and Air Traffic Control procedures.
2. Separation between aircraft within the formation is the responsibility of the flight leader and the
pilots of the other aircraft in the flight.
3. A standard formation is one in which a proximity of no more than 1-miJe laterally or longitudinally
and within 100-feet vertically from the (light leader is maintained by each wingman.
Normally the flight leader handles all A TC communications and once the flight has “ ioined-uo.1’ all
aircraft except the flight leader will be asked to switch off their transponders.
5. Although not specifically addressed In (he P/C Glossary, a formation Flight involving two aircraft is
typically referred la a£ a "flight of two” by ATC.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 27

Chap 1 — Airspace & Airport

28 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 Chapter 2

Flight Rules & Approach Procedures

Crank Up to Shutdown
Is the A IR P L A N E L e g a l? ............................................................................................ 30
Is the P IL O T L e g a l? ......................................................................................................31
Equipment Suffixes; Flight Plan Infonmalion..................................................................... 32
RNAV; RNP.......................................................................................................................... 33
Preflighl Acton; Flight Plan; Preferred Routes; Seat Belts & Shoulder Harness..........34
Do Y o u N eed an A L T E R N A T E ? A lte rn a te A irp o rt W e a t h e r ....,.............. . 35
Fuel Supply....................................................................................................................35, 37
Void Time; IFR Takeoff Limitations: Taxiing..................................................................... 38
T a k e o ff B riefin g & T O L D C a r d ............. .................................................... ............ 39
Wake Turbulence................... ..................... „ „ ...... ........................ ................................ 40
Climb Gradient; Pilotage Sr Dead Reckoning..................................................................... 41
RCO; RTR: G C O ...................................................................................................................42
D ep artu re P ro c e d u re s (D P) .................................................................. 43
VFR'On-Top; VFR-Over-The-Top: Minimum Fuel Advisory; VFR Flight Following..... 44
IMon-Radar Position Reporting; Additional Reports, Pilot's Discretion........................... 45
VOR; Class I & Class II Navigation.................................................................................... 46
Federal {Victor) Airways: Colored Airways: Jet Routes 3 Crossing Restrictions..........47
Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR); Timed Approaches................................................... 43
Cruise Clearance: Cruise Climb; Radar Service Terminated......................................... 49
NACG (NOS) Approach Plate Revision Date; D -A T IS .................................................... 49
A p p ro a c h B rie fin g ........ ................................... .........................................................50
TO LD Card — Approach S id e ............................................................................................ 51
Cleared for Approach. ADF/GPS & Minimum Vectoring Altitude................................... 52
RADAR...................................................................................................................................53
P ro ce d u re T u rn ; D M E A r c ... ,........................................................................ 54
Approach Categories, Full Scale Deflection, Pilot Controlled Runway Lights............... 55
Final A p p ro a c h Fix , G lid e S lo p e (G S IA ), False G lld e S lo p e s ..................... 55
Final Approach Point, Final Approach Segment, ILS Critical Area. CA T I. II. Ill...........57
Precision, Nonprecision & Precision-Like Approaches..................................................... 55
ILS, Marker Beacon, Localizer & GlideSlope Antenna.................................................... 59
Traffic Pattern Altitude & GlideSlope................................................................................. 69
Localizer, Backcourse, ASR. PAR & DME Arc Procedures............................................ 61
R N A V I L N A V t V N A V / L P V t C o n ta c t, O p tio n £ L o w A p p ro a c h e s ..........62
N D E........................................................................................................................................63
N o n p re c is io n — ND B/VO R A p p ro a c h & H o ld in g ...................... 64 , 65
LDA, SDF. Straight-In. Circling Approaches.....................................................................66.67
Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) — GPS Approaches........................................................... 6B,69
Landing Under IFR, Missed Approach, Standard Rate Turns, N o-G yro.......................70,71
RVR, B ra k in g A c tio n , A p p ro a c h L ig h tin g .................................................... 7 2 -7 5
V isu a l A p p ro a c h , V D P , P D P r V D A , C V F P .................................................... 76 , 77
Transponder Landing System, ILS PRM Approaches.....................................................78,79
Simultaneous Converging Instrument Approaches, Side-Step Maneuver..................... 80
Canceling IFR, Exiting Ihe Runway after Landing...... .................. ..................... .........r,81
Communications Failure, Communications with Control Towers in Class G ........ 62, 83
In stru m e n ts & E q u ip m e n t, C lo c k , A irc ra ft L i g h t s 64, 65
Interference with Crewmembers, Dropping Objects. Right-Of-Way Rules..................... 86
Overhead Approach Maneuver........................................................................................... 87
Same Runway Separation...................................................................................................68
EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D lor the Professional Pilot 29
Chap Z — Flight Rules A Approach
LEGAL S TU FF:
The focus of this chapter is a typical instrument flight, crank up to shut down. However before we go
flying there are a few LEGAL issues that need to be addressed. See § 91.7 Civil Aircraft Airworthiness.
B a s ic PA P E R W O R K
(m u s t bo o n b o a rd )
(C h a p te r 5)
A d d itio n a l
PAPERW O R K
( c o m m e r c ia l o p s}
M A R K IN G S a n d
PLAC AR D S
EQUIPM ENT {M E L)
V O R E q u ip m e n t
C hock
A n n u a l In s p e c tio n
10 0 -H o u r
In s p e c tio n
O th e r In s p e c tio n s
Jn L ie u o f th e 1 00 -
H our or A nnual
E n g in e O v e rh a u l —
TBO
[Time Between
Overhaul)
T ra n s p o n d e r &
M od e C
A ltim e ter A Static
System
E L T Inspection
E L T Battery
Next AD Due based
on D A T E
Next AD Duo based
On TIME
OXYGEN
Portable Fire
Extinguisher
Flotation Device
Pyrotechnic. Device
30
Is the A IR P LA N E LE G A L?
1. Airworthiness Certificate (must be displayed). (91.203)
2. Registration — Must be renewed every 3 years. A temporary registration is not acceptable
for international travel. (47,40.91.203)
3. Radio Station License — NOT required within the U.S. IS reauirerd outside the Ll.S.
4. Operating Limitations — fiircraft flliqht Manual. (91.9(b), 23.1581)
5. B£eight & Balance data — Aircraft £light Manual, (91.103.135.185.23.1581)
6. NOTE #1 : The AFM must be current and available in ihe cockpit i3l.9i
7. NOTE U2\ An approved "Company Eight Manual" (CFMl may be substituted ter the AFM
8. Charts — Are they in the airplane? Are 1hey current? Is the GPS database current?
1. Load Manifest (W&Bj. Required ter every leg with cargo or passengers on board
(multiengine aircraft). See Chapter 7. (135.63.136.87 135.185,121.693,121.695.91.525)
2 flia p a tc fi Re leaser aka E Ilg lliK ttlfla a a Sec Chapter 8.
3, C hecklist (normal and emergency) Sco Chapter 8 (13E.U, 91.BM. 1 2 1 ,315. 121 549)
The airplane must be operated in compliance with the operating limitations as set forth in the
AFM and any markings or placards required by the AFM must be installed. (91.9)
All cauipment in the aircraft pi118*bc in oocrable condition unless allowed bvthe aircraft's
MEL (or CDL1 to be inoperative for the ponding fliqht. Soo Chapter 8
30 Davs for IFR Fliqht. Date. Error. Place and Siqnature (DEP5) in the aircraft loq or other
reliable record. See Chapter 3. (91.171. AIM 1-1-3 thru 1-1-8}
12 calendar m onths. An ANNUAL inspection is acceptable to use as a 100-hour irsoectian.
but a JjlO-hom ir.sDcdion cannot be used as an annual. See Chapter 8. r91.409ia)1
100 flight hours when carrying persons fo r hire or flight Instruction for hire. The 100-hour
limitation mav be exceeded bv not more than 19 hours while on route In reach a d ace where
the inspection cun be dona. It ¡5 acceptable to exceed tbs lOO-hour during a commercial
operation I F the aircraft is I N A D V E R T E N T L Y delayed fdLte to weather or traffic). However.
I N T E N T I O N A L L Y dispatching an aircraft or. a com m ercial 0 Deration knowing that the 100-
hour limitation w ill be exceeded is NOT legal. Commercial operations must be halted at the
109-hour point. See Chapter 8. [9l.40gfb>|
Annual or^OO-hour inspections do n o ta o d v to aircraft inspected in accordance with an
Approved Aircraft Inspection Program I'AAIPt. a Progressive Inspection Program, a Continuous
Airworthiness InsDoction Program (CAMP), or several other inspection nnoarams listed in
91.409. See Chapter 8. (91.409)
For Part 91 operations — Time Between Overhauls is a R E G O M M E N D E D time (for
recioroeatina engines). TBO recommendations also have a calendar limit in addition 10 the
flight hours limit. For Part 135 operations, engines normally must be overhauled at 1he
manufacturers recommended TBO (an extension is possible). For Turbine Engines TBO- (or
replacement of life-limited engine components) is a R E Q U IR E M E N T , not a recommendation,
whether it is odc rated under Part 91. 135 o r 121. See Chapter 1D [31.403iej. AC 21^t0]
Tested and re-certified within 24 calendar m onths <IFR or VFRt.
See Chapter 4. (91.215. 91.411. 91.413)
Tasted and re-certified within 24 calendar months (for IFR In controlled airspace).
See Chapter 4. (91.215, 91.411)
Inspected within 12 calendar months. See Chapter 9 .191.297(d)]
Must be replaced or recharocd when in use for more than 1 cumulative hour: or when 50% of
their useful Ills has expired See Chapter 9. |:)1 2C7fcfl
As published in AD. (Part 39 — Airworthiness Directives)
As published fn AD. (Part 39 — Airworthiness Directives)
Supply adequate for Ihe mission and the bottle(s) within dated limits. See Chapter 4.
As marked on unit. If a portable fire extinguisher Is Installed It must be operative.
(25.851, 91.213, 91.513, 121.309, 121.417, 135.155, AC 2G-42C)
As marked on unit for overhaul or inspection. |9i.205(b)(i2), AC 20-56A. AC 91-70] *i«<r srnoi-0
1wtilrq over water 1
As marked on the unit but no more 1han 42 months from dale of manufacture.: tx-ynnci pownr-oh«iiuinq
f91.205(Jj}(12). AC 91-56A. AC 91-701 \
EVERYTHING EX PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot
 Chap Z — Flight Rules & A pproach
See C hapter 5 for Additional Information
Is the P IL O T L E G A L ?
B a s ic 1. Radio cermit (FCC license} — FCC Form 605 — NOT roauirod for ooeraftons W IT H IN the
P A PER W O R K U.S. but IS rcguircd for operations OU7SfDE the U.S. (ICAO rules).
2. £ilot certificate — in your personal possession or readily accessible in (he aircraft — the
RPM oriainal onlv — a qddv will not do — and a PHOTO IDENTIFICATION such as driver's
(Chapter 5) license Government or State ID sand. U.S. Armed Forces ID. Passport A irp o rt Security
Badoc. or 'other form of identification that the Administrator finds acceptable." [>i.S]
3. Medical certificate — in your personal possession or readily accessible in the aircraft — the
original only a copy will not do, (61,3)
R A T IN G S 1. The pilot must be rated for the CATEGORY iAirclane. Glider. Rotorcraft. etc.!. CLASS (Sinqle
(Chapter 5) Engine. Mulliongine. Land, Sea, etc.} and TYPE (DC-3, B-737) if a type rating is required.
2. For flioht under instrument flioht rules the otlot must be Instrum ent rated.
3. A Com m ercial certificate is reouired to carry caraa or cassenaers fo r hire.
4. An AlrIJna Transport P ilot certificate i b required to fly PASSENGERS |tor hirel 1n a
T U R B O J E T an airplane having I P o r m ore passenger seats. QB a MULTIENGINE airplane
in a C O M M U T E R ope ration.
E N D O R S E M E N TS 1. Complex:
Required far PIC 2. High-performance;
3. High altitude;
(61.31, Chapter 5)
4. Tailwheel.
M E D IC A L 1. A current medical certificate aoollcablo to the oboratlon to bo conducted.
C o n s id e ra tio n s 2. A oerson shall not act as a required D ilot flioht crewmember w hile that person knows of anv
medical condition that would make the person unable to meet the reauirements for the
(Chapter 5)
medical certificate necessary for the nilot one ration: or iatakino anv m edication that results in
the person being unable to meet the requirements for the medical certificate necessary. [61.53,
«1.23(b)|
3. No person may attempt to operate an aircraft: (91.17}
a. Within 8 hours after cansumina an alcoholic beveraae.
b Wh ile u n der the in f luence of a Icob ol
c. While having .04% by weight or more alcohol in the blood.
d. While using anv drug that affects the pilot's faculties in any way contrary to safety.
B a s ic 1. FLIGHT REVIEW io r ecuivalent} within the previous 24 calendar m onths. <61.561 Examples
CURRENCY o f substitutions for the flight review requirements could be:
a. A 61.50 Pilot-In-Command Proficiency Check (for type rating currency): or
(Chapters 5 * 7 }
b. A Part 121. 135 or Subpart K of Part 91 Pilot Proficiency Check (or CompHrenoy ChBck); or
c. A checkride for any certificate or rating, or
d. Severai other substitutions are listed in 61.56.
2. LANDING CURRENCY — For the carrioac o f PASSENGERS - The P IC must have made
and L O G G E D 3 takeoffs and H a n d in g s in the previous 90 days in the same CATEGORY
iairnlane. olider. rotorcraft. etc.). CLASS fsinale enaine. muitienaine. land. sea. etc.} and
TYPE {DC-3, B-17. B-777) (if a typo rating is required) - those landings must be mado to a
fu ll stoo if in a tailwheel aircraft or at n ig ht (and as 'sole manipulator" of the controls}. f6l.57i
3. INSTRUMENT CURRENCY For anv particular IFR fliaht. the oilol must be able to count
b a c k w a rd s 6 m onths to be sure he or she has accomplished (and LOGGED) as "sole
manioulatoF of the controls at least 6 approaches and holding durina that time neriod.
NOTE #1: For commercial Itiahts. IFR curr&ncv is covered bv the Pitot In Command's
6-month instrument proficiency check. (61.57}
NOTE #2: For commercial fliahts. IFR Currency is covered for a Part 121 SIC bul is N O T
covered for a Part 13SS1C. A Part 135 SIC m ust m aintain his own IFR currency.
4. Pi lot-In-Command Proficiency Chock Operation of Aircraft Rcquirirp More Than One Pilot
Flight Crewmember (aircraft that reauires a tvtoo rating}. The Pilot-In-Commaed of an aircraft
tvDe certificated for more than one Dilot must have a nroficiencv check in that aircrafl every
12 calendar m onths (can be 24 months if (be pilot is typed in two different aircrafi). (61.58)
Com m ercial 1. The pilot must meet the current tra in in g and checking reauirements applicable to the Ivdc of
CURRENCY operation beinq conducted (i.e., 121. 135. Subpart K of Part 91, etc.). See Chapters 7 and 8.
2. NOTE # 1; The INSTRUMENT experience CURRENCY requirements of 61.57(c)
(Chapters 7 * 8 }
(i.e.. 6 m onths: 6 annroachcs: holdina'i. D O N O T A P P L Y lo a P ilot In Command who is
employed b y a Part 121 or Pari 135 air carrier w hile flying under Part 51, 121. or 135
fo r that air carrier. [6l.57teS(2S. 121.401. 121.441.135.301ia>l
3. NOTE #2: "GRACE MONTH” — A PIC for a Part 121 or Part 135 air carrier, who has a
current PIC check, and while flying under Part 91.121. or 135 fo r that air carrier, is lead I
(i.e. instrum ent current) for 7 m o n th s (under the "grace m on th" D ivisions of 121.401 and
135.301) even If he or she has not done a single instrument procedure {aside from the
checkride} during that 7-month period. See Chapters 5, 7 and 8.
EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 31
Chap 2 — Flight Rules ft Approach
Aircraft Equipm ent Suffixes (DomosticJ{AlM 5-1-&1 Domestic Flight Plan;
(Dumsiilii; flight plans and aircraft with RMA.V capability
_____ not requiring a Performance Based Navigation [PEN] routing.)_____
AIM 5-1-4 & 5-1-6
Internationnl Flight Plan:
RVSM Navigation Tra nspo nder
Suffix AIM 5-1-9
Status Capability Capability (Page 222)
IMo G N SS, No RNAV With Mode C IW
RVSM RNAV, No GNSS Wilh Mode C iz
GNSS With Mode C JÍL
No Transponder /X
No DME No Mode C iT ^Operators should only use the RNAv"^1
Wilh Mode C ID suffixes in this chart when they have
No Transponder ID RNAV capability, but do not require
DME No Mode C VB Performance-Based Navigation (PBN)
routing (e.g.; RNAV SIDs and STARS).
With Mode C SA
Operators lhat desire PEN routing
No Transponder m
No should file an ICAO format International
TACAN No Mode C IN Flight Plan Including the appropriate
RVSM
With Mode C IP PBN equipment information.
No Transponder nr l (Page 222, AIM 5-1-9) ,
RNAV, No GNSS No Mode C ic
With Mode C ii
No Transponder IV
GNSS No Mode C IS
With Mode C <5

32 EVERYTHING EX PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot

 Chap 2 — Flight Rules A A p p ro ach

A R e A N A V I G A T I O N ( R N A V J i t l . I . A I M I - Z - l , FAA-H-M83-15. FAA-H-0083-25. FAA-H-0261-1 ;■

1. A method of navigation that perm its ai rcratt ope ratio n on any desired flig h t oath
2. Present day RNAV includes IN!S. LQRAN. UQR/PME. ape CPS systems.
3. RNAV allows aircraft to fly p o in t-to -p o in t, without having to follow airways or zigzag in order to over-fly VORs.
The aircraft's flight management system computes position and route using a combination of VOR radials, DME,
andfor GPS.
4. RNAV that is based so le ly or. VOFbDME technology, without other augmentation, may NOT bo appropriate for
night f lu a j^ y f if i or B B L a iD d a ja h im fr
; Alaska A irlines. Qantas Southwest and many other airlines now use R N F extensively, j
Boeing and Airbus offer packages and it is row filtering down to corporate iets.

R equ ired N a viga tio n Perform ance ( R N F )

Perform* nee- B ased N a viga tio n ( P B N ) [IC A O ]:
(AIM 1-2-1 thru 1-2-3, 4-7-1.4-7-6, 4-7-7, 5-1-8, 5-1-9, 5-1-16, S-4-6. 5-4-18. 5-5-16, AC 20-13QA. AC M-96A. AC 90-100A. AC 30-101
FAA.-H-80B3-1-5, FAA-H-8Q83-25, FAA-H-8261-1)
1. R N F is RN AV with on-board navigation monitoring and alerting. R N F is also a statement of
Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) necessary for operation within a defined airspace.
2. A critical com ponent of RNP ¡5 the ability of the aircraft navigation system to m onitor Its achieved
navigation perform ance, and to identify for the pilot whether the operational requirement is, or is not
being met during an operation.
3. On-board performance monitorinja and ajertima capability allows a Lessenedj&liance on airJr.affic.
control intervention {via radar monitoring, ADS-B, communications, etc.).
4. RNP capability of the aircraft is a m ajor component in determining the separation criteria. It also
refers to the degree of precision with which the aircraft will be flown.
5. R N F Level Or Type is a value typically expressed as a distance in nautical ml lea from the ¡blended
centerline of a procedure, route, or path. RNP applications also account for potential errors at some
multiple of RNP level (e.g., twice Ihe RNP level). For aircraft equipment to qualify for a specific RN F
type. It must maintain navigational! accuracy at least 95 percent of the total flight tim e.
6. Aircraft meeting RNP criteria will have an appropriate entry including special conditions and limitations
in its Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM ), oi supplement. Aircraft Capability + Level of Service = Access.
7. All RN AV RNP 0,3 approaches in the U.S. require S A A A R (Special Aircraft and Aircrew Authorization
Required). For Fart 91 operations you may not fly RNP approaches without a Letter Of Authorization.
R N F 0,3 represents a distance of 0,3 NM either side of a specified flight path centerline. At the
present time, a 0,3 RNP level is the lowest level used in normal RNAV operations, Specific airlines,
using special procedures, are approved to use RNP levels lower than R N F Q.3. out those levels are
used only In accordance with their approved Operations Specifications iO p S p o csi,
6. Som e aircraft have R N F approval n their AFM without a G F S sensor. The lowest level of sensors
lhat the FAA will support for RNP service is DM EfDM E. However, necessary DME signal may not be
available at the airport of intended operations. For those locations having an RNAV chart published
wilh LN A W V N A V minimums, a procedure note may be provided such as " DME/DME RNP 0 3 NA lf
This means that RNP aircraft dependent on DM EfDM E to achieve R N F Q.3 are not authorized to
conduct this approach. Where DME facility availability is a factor, the note may read “ DME/DME R N F
0,3 Authorized; A B C and XVZ Required,11 This means that ABC and XYZ facilities have been
determined by flight Inspection to be required In Lhe navigation solution to assure RNP 0.3.
U.S. Standard RNP Level*
Prim ary Route W idth (NM)
RNP Level« Typical A p plication
Centerline to Boundary
RNP SAAAR Approach Segments
0.1 to 1-0 {Special Aircraft and Aircrew 0,1 to 1,0
Authorization Required)
Q.3 to 1.0 RNP Approach Segments 0.3 to 1,0
1 Terminal and En Route 1.0
2 En Roule 2,0

RNP L a v a la S u p p o rte d f o r In te r n a tio n a l O p e ra tio n s

RNF L eve l Typical A pplication
4 Oceanic/remote areas with 30 NM horizontal separation
IQ Ocean ic/remote areas with 50 MM lateral separation
EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 33
Chap 2 — Flight R ules & A p p ro a ch ] * Proper Preparation Prevents Piss Poor Performance. ;
P R E F L IG H T A C T IO N : (ai.ifli) "MMMMVtMMMMAMWMMWMMMMNMMAMWJB
Before beginning a flight, each Pilot In Command shall become familiar with all available information
concerning Ihe flight including — weather reports end forecasts, fuel requirements, alternatives available,
traffic delays — aircraft performance for expected airport elevation, runway slope, wind, temperature
and aircraft cross weight — runway lengths, takeoff & landing distance Information, and NOTA MS

A T C C L E A R A N C E and F L IG H T PLAN R EQ U IR E D : cbi-173.aim s-i-aihiu6-i-ai

No person may operate an aircraft In CONTROLLED airspace under IFR unless (hat person has—
{a} Filed an IFR flight plan; and
(b) Received an appropriate A TC clearance.

J L ia perfectly legal to fly in UNCONTROLLED fClasa G1 airspace without ah IFR flight plan or clearance.
•Therefore, when receiving an IFR clearance on the ground at an uncontrolled {Class G) airport, the
! clearance may include the phrase “ upon entering controlled airspace... "
•NOTE: See Page 7 for more details about flying under IFR in U N CO N TR O LLED [Class G[ airspace.

P R EFER R ED R O U T E S : {P/CGlossary. ATD}

1. Established between busier airports to increase efficiency and capacity.
2. Preferred routes are listed in the AlrcortJFacllltv Directory. BOO-992-7433
IF R .:V f r )
(TsiHfi___
<AC Type)____ fU/AfG
A pilot operating under Part 91 can file an IFR flight plan to an Knots
aIfPort that does not have an Instrument approach (or does not (Whsra am I?}
have an instrument approach that the aircraft can legally execute) Oupanurc T im e ___(bi-asap)
if the pilot includes in that flight plan an alternate airport, which thousand
meets the alternate airport weather requirements of 91.169(C). D -> . D-> & Lndg____
hours enroule
Remarks _________
F L IG H T CR EW M EM BER S at S T A T IO N S — hours fuel
( P IL O TS in th e ir S E A T S ) — S A F E T Y B E L T S — AltEEPate?
Name spelled_____
S E A T B E L T S — S H O U LD E R H A R N ES S : BWed iT|___ Phorw #______
(91.105, 91.511. 135.118. 111.311. 111.543) _____ on board
{a) During takeoff and landing, and while en route, each required flight (color)_______ & _________
crewmember shall—
(1} Be at the crewmember station unless the absence is necessary
to perform duties in connection with the operation of the aircraft or in connection wilh
phvsilo Iepical needs, and
(2) Keep the S A FE TY B E LT fastened while el the crewmember station.
(b) Each required flight crewmember shall, dunng takeoff and landing, keep his or her SHOULDER
HARNESS fastened while at his or her assigned duty station. This paragraph does not apply if —
(1) The seat is not equipped with a shoulder harness: or

fastened.
f
Physiological — functional ^ "P h y s io lo g ic a l n e e d s '? — usina the
processes in an organism or restroom, stretching your legs briefly.
any of its parts. (&>' J or "other" physiological requirements.

91.203(b) — No person may

operate a civil aircraft unless the
airw orthiness certificate required
o ra special fright authorization is
displayed at (be cabin or cockpit
entrance so 1hat it is legible to
aa ss c tigers o r c row . „__
____________________ G P
34 EVERYTHING
91.107 requires that you
brief your passengers to
fasten their seatb&lta before
taxi, takeoff and landing
EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilaf
For Fixed Wing Aircraft — Weather reports or forecasts, or a combination of them must indicate:

(1} 1 hour B E F O R E & 1 hour A F T E R Estimated Tim e of Arrival;

(2) C E IL IN G required Lo N O T need an alternate al least 2000 ft above airport elevation:
{3) V I S I B I L I T Y required lo N O T n E e d an alternate at least 3 I T l i l C S
For Helicopters — Weather reports or Forecasts, or a combination of them must indicate:
At the Estimated Tim e of Arrival and for 1 hour after the estimated time of arrival, the C E ILIN G will be at
least 1.000 feet above Ihe alrcort elevation £1 at least 400 feet above the lowest applicable approach
minima, whichever is higher and the V ISIBILITY will be at least 2 Statute m iles.
4 Q TE : Thera are three airports in the U.S. with insfrurnant NOTE: An ALTERNATE is ALW AYS required
approach procedures (fia( hava MPAs HIG H ER than 2,000 ft EXCEPT when: [9i.l69(b>]
ar>d require (AIM S-l-10) 1. An in stru m e n t a p p ro a ch s published and
* A-spen-Pilken County, C O (ASE)
available for the destination; AND
* Sou m LaKo Tahoe, CA f m . )
* Bishop. CA (Bin) 2. lh c w orst case forecast for 1 hour bclorc
I would be possible la legally File to ihEse airports {Part $1] end and after 1he ETA indicates at least a ¿000 ft
not ffla an altamalc. ovon though the weather might bo baJaw ceiling and 3 miles visibility.
IFR landing mirvmums far any inslrumenl approach. 3. NOTE: An alternate is always required
«w m m w m M m n m m w m m m m m w w w w W r when the destination airport has
Ths worst weather condition in any ni the reports or forecasts is
no published procedures.
controlling. Any " CHAN CE OF." '’occasional." "inlermitlant "
"LalltUi " or "n a iilM lif i" d weather falling below lhaae minimums
msanS — You WILL read an A L T E R N A T E . This must also bs
sensirifitail when desjflnatinfl an aitusEl as an ali&cnate A lte rna te A irp o rt C e n s id e ra tie iii
FAA Order 0900.1 Para 3-2049. FAA Legal Interpretation GPS users (without vVAAS) may flight plan to use GPS
based accroaches aL either 1heir destination or
Although 1hg Terminal Araa Forecast (TA F ) ¡3 pnerornhlu. il one alternate, hut nfil at both locations,
isn't available. Ihs Area Forecast (FA ) may be used. Also, Ini W AAS use is w ilh O U T baro-VNAV may High! plan lor Ihe
llights less than an hour, a current M ETAR may be used. use of LNAV approaches (without vertical guidance) a!
------------------------------- ----------------- -------------------- ------------- any airport, whether the destination, alternate, m bolh.
W AAS ussrs aqUippsd W ITH baro-VNAV may flight plan
You may use an airport without approachss as for LNAVA/NAV or RNP 0.3 DA approaches (using
your alternata be long ns the weather will permit vsrlicBl guidance) at both the destination ondlhs
descehl Irom MEA to landing under basic VFR. alLemate. |AIM 1-1-19, 1-1-lSq.. OpSpec C05S1
^WWWWVWWHUU«UNWWWlWWWMH«M
A L T E R N A T E A IR P O R T - maans an airport Ì
at which an aircraFL may land if a landing at the ■ Alternats requirements far Fart 135
¡nlendsd eirporl becomes inadvisable. {1th U .j nnd Part 121 tommercial operations
ary located Oh Page 254.
To Use an Airport as an A L T E R N A T E
A L T E R N A T E A IR P O R T IFR W E A T H E R M IN IM U M S (91.169)
Unless otherwise authorized by the Administrator, no person mav include an alternate airport in an IFR
flight plan unless appropriate weather reports or weather forecasts, or a combination of them, Indicate
that, at the Estimated Tim e of Arrival at the alternate airport, the celling and visibility at thai airport will be
at or above Ihe following wealher miriimums —

For FIXED W ING aircraft, the alternate minimums specified in lhat procedure, or if none are
specified, the following minimums:
♦ PRECISION approach — Calling 600 feet & visibility 2 statute miles
* NQNFRECISIQN approach — Ceiling 800 feet & visibility 2 statute miles.

For H ELIC O P TER S: Ceiling 200 feet above the minimum for (he approach to be flown, and visibility at
least 1 statute mile bul never less than the minimum visibility for the approach to be flown, and

For A L L AIR CR AFT — If NO INSTRUM ENT APPROACH procedure has been PUBLISHED for Ihe
alternate airport, the ceiling and visibility minima are those allowing descent from ihe M EA.
approach, and landing under basic V FR .

Also check A — “Alternate Minim um s not standard" (freni ai n o s approach book) or... ’'NA,: Not Authorized
¡zed :
andfor the “ EOR FILING AS AN A L T E R N A T E " box (bach of airport diagram chart— Jeppe sen).
WWW#
EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 35
Chap 2 — Flight R u l « & Approach
IFR F U E L S U P P L Y (D o m e stic): H1.131. 91,107.135223 121,639thru 121.647)
1. Fly to the destination— shoot an approach— go on to the (most distant) alternate and EXON
fly after that for 45 minutes at normal cruise.
2. Helicopters — Fly to the destination— shoot an a no roach— go on to the
alternate and fly after that for 30 minutes at normal cruise.

V FR F U E L S U P P L Y (D o m e stic):
I&1.151. 135.209 121.639IhfU121.-047)
1. DAY — To the destination + 30 minutes.
2. N IG H T — To the destination + 45 minutes.
3. Rolorcraft — To the destination + 20 minutes. TEX A C O

F L A G Operations — N O N T U R B IN E and
TU R B O P R O P : (121.041)
1. Fly to and land at the airport to which ¡1 is dispatched:
2. Thereafter fly to and land at the most distant alternate, and
3. Thereafter, fly for 30 minutes plus 15% of the total time required to fly Lo
Uie destination and most distant alternate o r 90 minutes at normal cruise whichever is less.
4. A L S O ... Mo person may dispatch a nonturbine er turbc-propeller airplane to an airport when an
alternate is not specified, unless it has enough fuel to fly to that airport and thereafter to fly for
TH R EE HOURS at normal cruising fuel consumption.

F L A G or S U P P L E M E N T A L ,J E T Operations
Outside the U .S .: <i2i.645)
1, Fly to and land at the airport to which if is released:
2. After that To fly for a period of 1Qa/n of the total time required to fly from the
airport of departure to. and land at, the airport to which if was released;
3, After that, to fly to and land at the most distant alternate airport specified in the flight release, if an
alternate is required: and
4. After that, to fly for 30 minutes at holding speed at 1,500 feet above the alternate airport (or
destination airport If no alternate is required) under standard temperature conditions.

F L A G or S U P P L E M E N T A L Operation w hen iæ E o o o .
NO A L T E R N A T E is S P E C IF IED ( J E T ) : [121.6434c)]
# When an alternate is not specified under 121.621 (a)(2) or 121.623(b), a jet aircraft must have enough
fuel, considering wind and other weather conditions expected, to fly to the destination airport and
thereafter tc fly for at least 2 hours at normal cruising fuel consumption.

• O bscrvati on 4*
It seems like the
majority of airplanes
that crash due to fuel
starvation do so within
two miles of the
destination runway! J
you can have too ________ f
m uch fuel on
board is w hen

36 E V E R Y T H I N G E H P LA IN E P fgr the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot

 Chap 2 — Flight Rules & Approach

It sure got REAL quiet!

I thought you said you
were gonna get some gas
back there in Roanoke?

N q&OOOO...
you said YOU wars
gonna get the tjasll

With ample runway available.. - il'S a virtual certainty an airplane will fly a little over gross.
However.. without enough gas onboard, it adU most definitely not reach its destination.
^ Someday — that forecast for a tailwind will turn into a headwind.
Someday — A.TC will assign a ridiculously low altitude T50 miles from your destination.
Someday — that forecast for great weather at your destination will lum sour when you get
there forcing a diversion to your alternate with even worse weather.
Som eday — during a late night approach In miserable weather, the plane In front of you will
crash and they'll close the airport leaving you with few options.
Someday — the gear will fall to lock down on approach... wouldn’t you love to have
abundant time to troubleshoot properly?
All of the above have been experienced by me personally during my tenure as a freight dog.
If you find yourself thinking about pas at any time during a flight yqu didn't buy
enough! AND... if you're even slightly worried about gas, you'll find yourself making
foolish... possibly even stupid decisions. D o n 't put yourself in that position!

E V E R Y T H I N G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 37

Chap 2 — Flight Rules & Approach
V O ID T IM E (C learance Void T im e s ):(«1 .173. a j m opspe;
1. Pilots may receive a clearance when operating From an airport without a control
lower, which contains a provision for the clearance to be “VOID IF NOT
AIRBORNE B Y ...1*a specific time
2 A pilot who does not depart prior to the void time musi advise A T C fis Soon
As Possible,
3 Fail are to contact A T C within 30 minutes after clearance void Lima will result
in the aircraft being considered overdue and search A rescue procedures will
be initiated.
4, C L E A R A N C E is If T A K E O F F is U flL n a d tfB IflttlB ^ C L E A R A N C E
VOIP TIM E .
5. Pilots who depart at or AFTER their void time are N O T afforded IFR separation and may [will] be In
V IO LA TIO N of 91.173. which requires that pilots receive an A T C clearance before operating IFR in
controlled airspace. Being five minutes late is like being a thousand feet off your assigned altitude. If
for some reason you cannot make the time, call FSS or A T C and get another release.
WE VER launch A FTE R the VOID TIME
6, Other IFR traffic is suspended until the aircraft has contacted A TC or until 30 minutes after the void time.
7. Unless the airport has W E A T H E R R E P O R T IN G — Part 135 operators cannot depart with a void
lim£ because most Part 13S operators are not allowed to operate IFR in Class G — uncontrolled
airspace unless the airport has W E A T H E R R E P O R TIN G (tower reported. FSS, ASOS or AWOS-3).

IFR T A K E O F F L IM IT A T IO N S :<1 *5.2« . 121 AM)

No person may takeoff an aircraft under IFR or over the top operation unless the latest weather reports
OR forecasts, or any combination or them, indicate that weather conditions £& the Estimated Time of
Arrival at the next airport of intended landing [or at the E TA at the alternate] will be at or above authorized
IFR landing minimums [or at or above required alternate minim urns]. (135,21s)

T A X IIN G : (A IM 4-3-1B 1hru4-3-20, 5- 2 - 4 , JO 71 10.5SU — Para B-S-4)

1 A clearance must be obtained prior to crossing any runw ay. A TC will Issue an explicit clearance for
all runway crossings. A TC will not use the word "cleared" In conjunction with taxi clearance.
Controllers cannot issue multiple runway crossing clearances at the same time unless the
distance between two runway centerlines is less than 1,000 ft.
NOTE: Of course it’s still good common sense to look both w avs before crossing any runway, and also not a
bad idea to mention to the controller that you are “ now crossing Runway XX ". |ust to make sure everyone is
sOfl looking at the same sheet of music.
2. A TC is required to obtain from the pilot a READBACK of ¿ E L runway H O LD S H O R T IN S TR U C TIO N S
3. Pilots should always read back the runway assignment and runway hold short Instructions when taxi
instructions are received from the controller. Controllers are required 10 request a readhack of runway
hold-short assignment when it Is not received from (he pilot.
4. Line Up And Wait (LUAW ) — an air traffic control (A TC ) procedure designed to position an aircraft
onto the runway for an imminent departure. The A TC instruction "LINE UP AND WAIT" is used to
instruct a pilot to taxi onto the departure runway and line up and wait, (aim H -4 )

38 E V E R Y T H I N G EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot

 Chap 2 — Flight Rules & Approach
T A K E O F F B R JE F IN G : (A C 120-71 a p p e n d i x 1 7 )
AC 12Q-71 — Standard Operating Procedures for Flight Deck Crewmembers:
The purpose of the pilot briefing is to enhance communications on the flight deck and
to prom ole effective teamwork. Each crewmember is expected te perforin as an
integral part of ihe team. The briefing should establish a mutual understanding of ihe
specific factors appropriate for Ihe flight. A pilot briefing should be given prior to
starting engines for the first flight of the day (and any subsequent flight, if applicable).
A TA K E O FF BRIEFING should be given prior to each takeoff.
The captain (typically) determines the length and detail of (he briefing. Factors to
consider Include;
♦ Experience level of the pilots.
* S p e c if MEL^isrOiCedures^a res^ujt^ofjnoijerailve components. ^

T A K E O F F B R IE FIN G (typical) \
Pilot FlvlnP| (PF) — ‘The Departure Procedure is— fly runway heading to 3000 then a left turn to 270° on
course, climb and maintain SOQQ, t’ll have you set takeoff power on my com m and- call out—
Power Set. Airspeed Alive. 60 knots Crosscheck. Rotate. Positive Rate. Gear Up and Flap Speed.
Monitor the gauges— any major malfunction (such as engine fire, engine failure, thrusi reverser deployment,
loss of directional control, or other catastrophic malfunction) below V 1— we 'll abort— any malfunctions
after V i. — we’ll continue. If we do lose an engine after V,, well return to land on the most convenient
runway.

N i n i M i d n m fPNFi — “Are we gonna get some food when we gel to Albuquerque?"

\ u m i d c w n (PF) — ‘ Affirmative. Takeoff briefing complete,"

V v
Other considerations could be:
J
* Runway conditions
* Terrain
♦ Abort procedures (e.g., drag chute, thrust
reverse rs)
♦ Anti-loe
# Takeoff alternate*8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

T O L D C a r d (Jake-Off & Landing Data)

(TA K E O FF side) Typically provides spaces for:
1. ATIS
2. Takeoff weight
3. Flap setting
4. Time to 100 knots
5. Power settings — TakeQff and Max Continuous
6. Runway required — Balanced Field Length
(BFL), aka Required Runway Length. Takeoff
Field Length, Accelerate-Stop/Go distance or
Critical Field Length
7. Speeds:
* — Takeoff decision speed
* V r - Rotation speed
* )tl — Takeoff safety speed & best
single engine climb gradient
* V fr — Flap Retraction speed
* V fs — Final Segment climb speed
* VENR— ENRoute climb speed
* R e tu rn V ref — E m ergency RETURN
for landing R EFerence speed
8. Clearance

E V E R Y T H I N G E X P L A IN E D ter the Protein5 tonal Pilot 39

Chap 2 — Flight Rules & A pproach
W A K E T U R B U L E N C E : (AIM 4-6-7, 7-3-1 Ihru 7-3-9, P.'C Glossary, AC 90-23, Order 7110.E5U. 3AFO 120C7)
1. Landing behind a large aircraft
* Stay at or above the large aircraft's final approach flight path — note its touchdown point — land beyond it.
2. Departing behind a targe aircraft:
* Rotate prior to the large aircraft s rotation point — continue climb above the large aircraft's climb path until
turning dear,
* This may not be an option when following a lightly loaded high-performance jet. Wait a little ionger or
request an immediate upwind turnout for wake avoidance.

W A K E T U R B U L E N C E T R A F F IC S E P A R A TIO N S : (91.3, aim 4-6-7,4-8-9, 7-3-9)

1, Two m inutes (or the appropriate 4 or 5 mites) — when departing behind a heavy jot (or B757) from the samo
threshold (may NOT be "waived" by the pilot of the departing aircraft). Add 1 minute departing behind A380yA388.
2. Three minutes — when departing from an intersection on the same runway behind a heavy jet (or B757) (may
NOT be "waived" by the pilot of the departing aircraft). Add 1 minute behind A38Q/A3&8,

W A K E T U R B U L E N C E EN D S / B EG IN S
\ The greatest vertex strength ;
■ occurs whan the f|nnDrilling aircrall ■ Rotation
! Is HEAVY CLEAN and SLOW. *
T a t ic h d o w n

üMiaoeûôga
W nkc Ends W a k e B o g in s

3. ENROUTE separation is applied to aircraft: operating directly behind a heavy j&l (or B-757j ^ ihp same altitude or
less than 1,000 feet below :
a. Heavy jet behind heavy lot — 4 m ile s . Heavy behind A388 f super) - S m ites.
b, Large or heavy behind B-757 - 4 m iles Large behind A388 (super) 5 mflos
c. Small behind B -757— 5 m ile s. Small behind A388 (super) - Sjyrtes.
d, Sfribll or largo aircraft behind heavy ie t 5 miles (6 miles in (ho terminal area)

D e p a rtu re & A r r iv a l S e p a ra tio n (at thresholdi

fMEM. SPF. MIA. CVG. SFO. ATL. PHLj
Follow er {NM]
Super Heavy B757 Large Small
L Super 2.5 S 7 7 a
E Heavy 2.5 4 5 5 6
A
0 B757 2.5 4 4 4 5
E Large 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 4
R Small 2,5 2,5 2.5 2.5 2.5

A ir c r a f t C la s s a s (PTC Glossary. JO 7110.6&T, N JO 7110.582. SAFO 12007)

SUPER — Airbus A38Ü-80Ü (Aia8)(MTOYY may be as much as 1.433.01)0 Ibs'nN JO 7110.502)
H E A V Y — Aircraft capable of takeoff weights ei 300.000 lbs or more whether or not they are operating at this weight
during a particular phase o f flight. NOTE: A B-757 usually weighs less than 255.000 pounds, but is (essentially)
connldared heavy for wake turbulence separation purposes.
LAR G E — Aircraft of more than 41 OOP lbs max certificated takeoff weight, up to but not including 300.000 pounds.
S M A L L — Aircraft of 41.000 lbs or la&s may certificated takeoff weight.
J
40 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot
 C hap Z — F lig h t R u le s & A p p ro a c h
C LIM B G R A D IE N T: (AIM 3-2-B, 5-J-1B. 5-4-31, FAA-H-SOS3-3. FAA-H-S0B3-15. FAA-H-flilB3-25. FAA-H-S361-1)
1. Climb Gradient - The ratio between distance traveled and altitude pained.
2. Standard climb gradient is feet par nauti^aLmile When no gradient is specified.
you are expected to climb at least 200 feet per nautical mile until required to level off.
3. Greater climb gradients are specified when required for obstacle clearance.
4. Converting climb gradient to feet per minute:
Ground speed X clim b g ra d ie n t ■f 60 = feet per minute
100 knots x 200 ft per NM + 60 333 feet per minute
200 knots x 200 ft per NM + 60 666 feet per minute
100 knots x 300 ft per NM + 60 500 feet per minute
200 knois X 300 ft per NM + 60 1000 feet per minute

Clim b Gradient in %
Rise O ver Run = %
440 ft per MM . _ ..
— “ - 7.2% Clim b Gradient
6076 -¡ft in a NM)

P IL O T A G E ; (1,1, FM-H-8M3-25. FAA-H-8261-1. AC 61-230)

Pilotage means navigation by visual reference to
landmarks. It is a method of navigation lhat can be used
on any course that has adequate checkpoints, but it is more
commonly used In conjunction with dead reckoning and VFR
radio navigation.

DEAD R E C K O N IN G : (WCGlossary. FAA-H-80S3-25)

Navigation of an airplane solely by means of computations based on airspeed, course, heading, wind
direction & speed, ground speed, and elapsed time. The word “dead'1in dead reckoning is actually derived
from "ded." or deduced (or deductive) reckoning.

T h e ultim ate exam ple of superior P IL O T A G E , flawless D E A D R E C K O N IN G ,

extrem e desperation, dumb luck, and Incredible stupidity ever recorded.
Th is dude brought ne w m eaning to the definition of BR AVE.
Only those who risk going too far will ever know how far they can go.

E V E R Y T H I N G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 41

[chap Z — Flight Rules & Approach
Remote Communications Outlet (R C O ) & Remote Transmitter/Recelver
(R T R ): IPKI Glossary, FAA-H-BCB3-15, FAA-H-B0B3-25. FAA-H-3261-1, AC 0Q-45G)
■f, An unmanned communicationsJacility remotely controlled by akr_tr_afffic personnel
2. RCQs serve FSSs.
3. RTRs serve terminal A TC facilities.
4. An RCO or RTR may be UHF or VHF and will extend the communication range of the air traffic facility.
5. There are several classes of RCOs and RTRs. The class is determined by the number of transmitters
or receivers. Classes A through G are used primarily for air/g round purposes. RCO and R TR class O
facilities are nonprotected outlets subject to undetected and prolonged oulages.
6. RCO (O's) and R TR [O's) were established for the express purpose of providing ground-to-ground
communications between air traffic control specialists and pilots located at a satellite airport for
delivering enroufe clearances. Issuing departure authorizations, and acknowledging instrument flight
rules cancellations or departu reflanding times.
7. As a secondary function they may be used for advisory purposes whenever the aircraft is below the
coverage of the primary air/ground frequency.

Ground Communication Outlet ( G C O ) i (P J C gicee^ . faa-h-szbi-11

1. An unstaffed, remotely controlled, ground to around communications facility.
2. Pilots at uncontrolled airports may contact A TC and pSS via VHF to a TELEPH O N E connection to
obtain an instrument clearance or close a VFR or IFR flight clan.
3. They may also gel an updated weather briefing prior to take-off.
4. FOUR (slow) Hkey clicks" on the VHF radio to contact the appropriate A TC facility; or...
5. £]£ (slow} ” key clicks" to contact the FSS (will ring phone).
6. The GCQ system is intended lo be used only on the ground
 Chap 2 — Fjm ht Rules & A pproach
Yo, yo( What the hell’s lhat dude
Are ya ready for on (he dirt bike doin' up here?
gear-up yet Captain?

D e p a r tu r e P rocedures:
[AIM 5-2-6, 6-2-8, 5-5-14, S1.175ff[. 91.605, 121.189, 135.181, 135.367, 135.379, 1 35.3B1. 135.3B3, OpSpec C077, A C 12)0-91 TER P Sj
1. ATC-cOded procedures established 10 simplify clearance delivery procedures.
2. Provide a transitional procedure from the terminal to the enroute structure. The PRIMARY reason is
to provide o b s ta c le c le a ra n c e w hen a '‘Diverse V e c to r Area” (DVA) departure .s nut possible due to
obstacles penetrating the 40:1 departure obstacle clearance plane, A SECO NDARY reason, at busier
airports is to Increase e ffic ie n c y and reduce communications and departure delays.
3. Standard Instrument Departure (SID)— Provide "obstacle" clearance and reduce PiC workload.
4. Obstacle Departure Procedures (P D F i— "Obstruction" clearance via the " least onerous route.''
5. You are not required lo accept a DP. If you do not possess a textual description or graphic depiction
of the DP you cannot accept one. Let A TC know about It in the remarks section of your flight plan.
6. Part S1 contains no specific rules lhat require a person to use Ihe DP or the DP climb gradient when in
VMC {or in IMC if A T C lets you). It you accept the DP, fhe DP climb gradient must be met. but this only
applies to al[-engine operations {for Part 91).
7. DPs ensure obstacle protection if you're at least 35 ft AG L crossing the end of the runway. Obstacle
clearance responsibility rests with the pilot when choosing lo climb In VMC in lieu of flying a DP.
8. Transport category Part 135 operations musl comply with 135.379 and 135.361 obstacle clearance
requirements. You must meet the climb gradient even Jf you lose an enolnet (I35.tei.i35.38i)
9. O p Spec C077d.&&. — Part 121 operations and Part135 turbojet operations — require compliance with
Departure Procedures established by the FAA. VMC climbs are allowed {OpSpec CG77e.}, but obstacle
clearance data would need to be provided and performance must meet 135 and/or 121 requirements
(which would require a detailed obstacle clearance analysis by your company). Just fly the damn DPI
10. An airport without a V i n the noies section will have standard commercial lakeoff minimurns |9i.i75(f)j
with no restrictions. Once you have reached al least 400 feet A G L on runway heading, you are tree to
turn directly towards your first enroule fix.
11. When an approach chart labels a runway V " N A " that runway cannot be used by commercial
*

operators for instrument departures.

12. If an airport has more than one DP, the takeoff minimurns for a runway apply lo all Departure
Procedures, except when a specific DP has ils own charted lakeoff minimurns.
13. If no climb gradient is specified, a standard minimum of 203 feet per NM applies <30:1 >:
.................................................... ......................... .................................................... ................................................................................................................ ............................................................... ■ i i v i i i ^

t CLIMB GRADIENT: Grounds peed x feet per NM (climb gradient iron-, d p ) then divide by 60, ;
- ¡standard Climb Gradient = *200'gal per NM ■ 140 ktS X 200 ft/NM - 4gg ft/min
■ '*!• ll+ l. l-.+ .l fit ■! *!■ •■+!• ■■+!■ »......... + cn ■

(400 ft/min @ 120 k f s (466 ft1min @ 140 kts: (533 fifmin @ 160 M s) (666 ft/min @ 200 kls ■
14. An airport that has been assigned an Instrument approach has been evaluated for a DP. If there are no
obstacles to obstruct a 200 feet per NM climb, no departure procedure is required or established, An
airport with no major obstructions meets what’s called " DIVER SE D E P A R TU R E ” criteria; meaning lhat
after reaching 400 feet A G L on runway heading, il's safe to climb in any direction at the leisurely pace
of 200 feet per NM. No DP will be published unless otherwise needed for air traffic purposes.
15. Procedures requiring a climb gradient in excess of 200 foot per NM shall also specify a ceiling and
visibility to be used as an alternative for aircraft incapable of achieving the aradient. The ceiling
value Shell be the 100-foot increment above the controlling obstacle or above the ellitude required
over a specified point from which a 40:1 gradient will clear the obstacle. Ceilings of 200 feet or less
shall not be specified. The visibility shell be at least one m ile.
16. If the DP has a specified climb gradient, compliance with the climb gradient Is m andatory.
17. If the DP requires a turn of more than 15*. and no turning fix or altitude is specified, the turn should
begin at 400 feet A G L .
18. A mandatory " E A R L Y T U R N " {begin turn at less than 400 feet A G L ) is required for certain runways
because of c lo s e d n o b s ta d e s. In such cases, the takeoff minimurns must be al least 300-1. and the
early turn to a heading or to Intercept a course Is specified "turn (eft {right) as soon as practicable.'1
N O TE: ‘‘Practical" or "feasible'' may exisl in some existing departure text instead of " practicable ”

E V E R Y T H I N G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 43

Chap Z — Flight Rules A Approach
V F R -O N -TO P — IFR C L E A R A N C E : [91.155. AIM 4-4-a. 4-4-11.5-3-2. 5-3-3. 5-5-13, 7-5-6. P^C Glossary)
1. A pilot on an IFR flight plan operating in VFR conditions, may request VFR-on-top in lieu of an assigned
altitude, permitting the pilot to select a VFR altitude of their choice [subject to any ATC rostrictiona).
Can be useful in order to fly below or between cloud layers lo
avoid turbulence or ice when an appropriate IFR allitude is not
available due to traffic or olher restrictions.
3 Must comply with IFR and VFR regulations.
4. Must report [request] any altitude changes,
5. Must meet cloud separation and visibility requirements of Ihe
airspace you're flying in,
The pilot is responsible for traffic avoidance {A TC is relieved of
H O P T M C A P Q LIM A
normal IFR separation regu¡remanís}.
7. Appropriate VFR altitude for direction of flight above 3,000 feet AGL & minimum IFR altitudes {MEA).
8. Does not imply cancellation of the IFR flight plan — must adhere lo A T C clearance.
9. If VFR conditions can no longer be maintained, you must tell A TC you want to resume flight at an IFR
altitude.

V F R -O V E R -T H E -TO P : (1.1,-01.503, 135.159, 135.211, FAA-H-8083-15. FAA-H-8083-25)

Not to be confused wilh VFR-O N-TOP. V FR -O V E R -TH E-TO P is simply an aircraft flying VFR above a solid
cloud layer when it is not being operated on an IFR flight plan.
*................................................. ...............................................................V
; “M IN IM U M F U E L A D V IS O R Y ”: (ytiMW-15)
I * After slating your toll sign, the term' Minimum Fuel" should be used. “ Falcon 4SA— Minimum Final.“
;♦ This is n o r an emergency but an advisory that an emergency is possible should any undue delay occur.
; * This term does not imply the need for traffic J'fcrj_ooiv,"
■* Reaily getting nervous? Tell them you need " PRIORITY" — or declare an “ EMERGENCY“ (means the same).
i 4 NEVER use this as a ploy to cut In front of other traffic when you really don't have a problem.

V FR “F L IG H T F O L L O W IN G ” aka “ RADAR F L IG H T F O L L O W IN G ”:
[F:c Glossary, 91.127(e), 91.129(e), 91.130(e), 91.131(a), Alkt 3-2-l(d). 4-1-21,5-1-8. 5-1-9, 5-6-11, 6-2-7, PC Glossary, FAA-H-B2G1-1]
1. The observation of the progress of radar identified aircraft, whose PRIMARY NAVIGATION la being
PROVIDED B Y the PILOT.
2. VFR “Flight Following all the w ay" is a great idea if you're going more than a hundred miles or so. If
Ihe clearance guy isn't too busy, he'll create a “strip" on you and you'll be handed off from controller to
controller almost like you're IFR. Until you get up in the Northeast — they go by a different set of rules
lhan the rest of Ihe counlry — in fa d it IS a different country — it's called “Y A N K E E LA N D " Get
used to the term “ squawk 1200 cleared from Center freouenev fl ain’t got time to mess with vour
ass)” just as you're filin ’ to enter somebody’s Class B airspace!! I love those guys, I bet they have a
great time watching you do “360’s1’ try ln g jo sort things out after they dum p you It Now you know
ihe reason WHY you spent all that time practicing steep turns when you were learning to fly!!
3. ATC provides flight following on a workload-permitting basis only.
4. There are no 100% "guarantees" with flight following. Technically it's your responsibility lo avoid
violating airspace You must keep an eye on the charts for Class B. C. D . and Special Use Airspace
areas. Although the controllers will normally hand you off or steer you around in a limely manner 99.9%
of Ihe time, they have no real responsibility to do so. The “ Air Traffic Control Handbook’*mandates
(hat the controllers keep track of all Special Use Airspace and not let either [FR traffic, or traffic on
VFR Advisories penetrate any “hot” areas. BUT, it’s still up lo you lo keep track of where you’re at!
5. A center controller has NO A U T H O R IT Y to clear you Into someone else's Class B airspace. You
must receive the Class B clearance from "the A T C facility having jurisdiction for that area ." [81.131(a)]
6. Be proactive. Query the controller. Don't forget to file a NASA report if there is a screw up. Generally
speaking, ATC will not file for a violation if another ATC may be partially at fault, An educational phone
call usually takes care of (he situation — UNLESS there is a loss of separation with another aircraft.
7. If you need to climb or descend. You certainly can TEfuL (hem you are climbing or descending, but it's a
little more politically correct (and a little nicer and safer) to ASK them if it's OK (there may be other
traffic out (here that you're not aware of):
=> 3SLW would like to descend to four thousand five hundred if It’s O K with v"alI.
=> 1KWI 38LW—VFR descent is approved— remain VFR at all times.
=> All righty— thanks.

44 E V E R Y T H I N G EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilaf

 Chap 2 — Flight Rules & Approach

NON RADAR — P O S ITIO N R E P O R T IN G : a im m j)

1. A “CO M PULSO R Y11reporting point is indicated on charts by a SOLID triangle:

2. An “ON R E Q U E S T11reporting point is indicated on charts by an OPEN triangle.

N O N -R A D A R — P O S ITIO N R EP O R T IT E M S ; <9i.m.aimfi-a-21
1. Identification.
2. Eosition.
3. Time.
4. ¿Itilude.
5. ly p e Of flight plan (not required whan IFR and faport is made dimclly to ATG),
6. E TA and name of nest reporting point.
7. ^am e only of the next succeeding reporting point.
8. Any pertinent remarks.

A D D IT IO N A L R EP O R TS — A T A L L TIM E S : (AIM5-3-3, 91.167)

1. When vacating a previously assigned altitude for a newly assigned
altitude.
2. When an altitude change is desired while on a YFR-on-top clearance.
3 Unable to d im bfd ascend at a rate of at least 500 feet per minute
4. A MISSED APPROACH
5. Change in true airspeed {during cruise) when it varies by or 10 knots
(whichever is greater) from that filed on the flight plan.
6. Time and altitude upon reaching a holding fix.
7. Leaving an assigned holding fix.
8. Any M ALFUNCTIONS of navigational approach, or communication equipment occurring during flight
floss of V Q R . A D F . IL£. etc,, or impairment of a g ro u n d com muni cations) {B1,187)
9. Any other Information relating to the safety of flight.
10- Weather conditions that have not been forecast.

A D D IT IO N A L R EP O R TS w hen N O T IN RADAR C O N T A C T : (a i m 5 3 - 3 )
1. When leaving the final accroach fix inbound on final approach for a non-precision or precision
approach.
2. A corrected estimate of time if the previous estimate is in error in excess of 3 m inutes.

“ p i l o t s d i s c r e t i o n 71 — The controller has offered you the option of starting the

descent (or climb) whenever you wish and at any rate of descent (or climb) you want. You have
the freedom to temporarily level o ffa l any intermediate altitude, but once you have vacated
an altitude, you cannot no back up (or do*n). If you decide to stay at the previously
assigned altitude for a while before starting the descent, you should initiate an additional
call to report leaving the previously assigned altitude. Example: " Falcon 123 is
descending now to 230.” The controller will appreciate this as a courtesy call. It is possible
for a controller to forget that he has given you a lower altitude at pilot's discretion, and may
have inadvertently allowed traffic to cross through your altitude "block” in the lime between your
acceptance of Ihe clearance and the beginning of your descent [AIM *4-10, 5-3-3 5 P(C Obuary].
To paraphrase AIM 5-3-3(a)(1}: The pilot should report without a specific request “when
vacating any previously assigned altitude for a newly assigned altitude."

R A T E o f C L IM B o r D E S C E N T — If they do W O T sa v the words “P IL O T 'S D IS C R E TIO N ,11 you are

expected to Climb or descend “ at an optimum rate consistent with ihe operating characteristics of the
aircraft to 1.000 feet above or below the assigned altitude, and then ATTEM PT to descend or climb at a
rate of between 500 and 1,500 FFM until the assigned altitude is reached.” [AIM 4-4-10 & PJC G lo s s a ry ]

E V E R Y T H I N G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 45

Chap Z — Flight Rules A Approach
V O R (V ery High Frequency O m nidirectional Range); <AiMi-i-3 «imi-i-i)
1, VORs operate in the VHF frequency band between 1Q8.0 and 117.95 — except the odd tenths &
hundreds- within the 08.10 thru 111.95 band that are reserved for IL5 and localizer frequencies.
ILS/locallzer frequencies will always have an odd number to the right of the decimal point (e g.,
108.10. m i s . m , z . 108.35. m s . m s s . m i . ioa.75. m a , m a s , m i . etc.), (aim ^ 1. 1- 4;
2. Almost all VORs will also be VORTACs. A VORTAG also gives distance information for DM Es.
U S A B LE D IS T A N C E O F V O R S IG N A L S ; A N G U L A R D E V IA T IO N : (FAApH^M 3-1B)
Terminal VOR 1,000 to 12,000 AGL 25 NM ; + Full scale deflection = 10°
1,000 to 16,000 AGL 40 NM
: + Flair-scale deflection - 5°
Low-Altitude
' D IS T A N C E O F F -C O U R S E :
High- Altitude 1,000 to 14,500 AGL 40 NM | ♦ Off course is approximately 200 feel
14.500 to 18,000 AGL 100 NM " per dot per mile.
; + 1 dot 30 miles out * 1 NM off course
13.000 to 45,000 AGL 130 NM
V * 1 dot 60 miles out = 2 NM off course
> 45,000 to 60.000 AGL 100 NM
r ******
C L A S S I N A V IG A T IO N : (o Ps paci A005, BQ3Z BÙ34; AlM 1-1-0, A C 9C-45A. À C 00-36, A C 01-7OA, A C 12C-28D)
1, Class t navigation is any en route flight operation or portion of an operation that is conducted entirely
within the designated Operational Service Volumes (or ICAO equivalents) of ICAO standard airway
navigation facilities (V Q R . VOR/DME. H D B ). Class I navigation also Includes en route flight
operations over routes designated with an “ M EA G AP11(gap in nav signal coverage), En route flight
operations conducted within these areas are defined as "Class I navigation" operations Irrespective of
the navigation means used. Class I navigation includes operations within these areas using pilotage
or any other means of navigation which does not rely on the use of VQR. VOR/DME, or NDB.
2. In plain English — Class I navigation must be conducted entirely within the Operational Service Volume
of "standard” — VOR or NDB — navaids. You must be within (he QSV of at least one VQR or NDB at
ell limes, even though you need noi be using (hat particular naveid for navigation ai lhai time. And you
do not need to be proceeding directly to any of these navaids.
3. Qperational Service yolume — is that volume of airspace surrounding a NAVAID. which is available for
operational use and within which a signal of usable strength exists, Operational Service Volume
includes — Standard Service Volume, Expanded Service Volume, or any published instrument flight
procedure (victor or jet airway, DP, STAR S and lAPs).
4. If you're outside the Operational Service Volume of a VOR or NDB. and you’re off an airway, you are
e jn d ijctm ^ and operations regardless of
what navigational equipment is on board and regardless of how good a signal you happen to be
receiving from the VOR or NDB,

C LA S S II N A V IG A T IO N : (OpSpHca AQ02, B032, BD34, BOSS, B054; A C 9 (M 5 A , A C 30-96, A C 91-70, A C 12&-2SDJ

1. Class II navigation is any en route flight operation or portion of an en route operation (irrespective of
the means of navigation) which takes place outside ¡beyond) the designated Operational Service
Volume (or ICAO equivalents) of ICAO standard airway navigation facilities IVOR, VOR/DME, NDB).
However, Class II navigation does not Include en route flight operations over routes designated with an
"MEA GAP" (gap in nav signal coverage),
2. For example, an aircraft equipped with only VOR conducts Class II navigation when the flight
operates in an area (off an airway) outside the operationaLso.r_v_Lc.e_v_oJumes of federal VORs/DMEs
3. Class II navigation Involves operations conducted in areas where the signals from ICAO standard
navaids have not been shown to meet signal sirength, course quality, and/or frequency protection
standards. Therefore, A TC cannot predicate aircraft separation on the use of these facilities alone and
must apply larger separation criteria. When operating outside the operational service volume of ICAO
standard navaids, signals from these stations cannot be relied upon as the sole means of conducting
long-range operations to the degree of accuracy required. Therefore, when operaling outside the
designated operational service volumes of ICAO standard navaids, operators must use Long-Range
Navigation Systems iLR N Si i G F S . Loran C . Omega. INS ' OR “special navigational techniques"
' Dead Reckoning, pilotage, flight navigator, celestial) or both. These systems and/or techniques are
necessary to navigate to the degree of accuracy required for the control of air traffic and to avoid
obsiacles,
4. The definition of Class II navigation is not dependent upon the equipm ent installed in the aircraft.
All airspace outside Ihe operational service volume of ICAO standard navaids is a three-dimensional
volume of airspace within which any type of enroute navigation is categorized as Class II navigation.
40 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the P r e f e r ion.nl Pilot
 Chap Z — Flight Rules & A pproach
F E D E R A L {V IC T O R ) A IR W A Y S: (M .T S , 71.75. AIM 2-2-2. 3-2-6. 5-3-4. FAA-H-SQB3-15. FAA-H-SQS3-2S)
1. Extend upward from 1.200 feet A G L up lo. but rot including. 1B.QQQ feet MSI—
2. East/West airways have an even number (e.g. V74).
3. North/South airways have an odd number (V73).
4. Each Federal {Victor) airway is 8 miles wide and includes the airspace within parallel boundary lines
4 miles each side of the centerline. At all times you are expected to fly on the centerline.

When approaching a course change at a VOR. pilots

may “lead the turn'1{begin turning prior to reaching the
VOR) to the extent necessary to adhere as closely as
possible to the airway centerline. (AIM 5-3-5,91.181]

COLORED { Federal) AIRWAYS (L/MF aka A D F ):471.73,71.75aim

1. Predicated Solely on L/MF navigation aids [Low/Medium Frequency (ADF) (kiloHertz)] and are depicted
In brown on aeronautical charts and are identified by color name and number (e.g., Amber One).
2. Green and Red airways are plotted east & w est.
3. Amber and Blue airways are plotted north 8 south.
4. Except for G13 in North Carolina, the colored airway system exists only in the slate of Alaska.
5. Colored airways are (he same width as VOR (victor) airways. 4 NM each side of the centerline

■ T-routes [below F L 180> and Q-routes [FL18Q and above) *

■ are defined solely by GPS iRNAV) waypoints, (a i m 5-3-4i j

J E T R O U TES: (71.13, 71.15, AIM 5-1-8, 5 -3 A 5-3-6, S-1 -4, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-0083-16, FAA-h-0261-1}
1. Extend from FL 180 to FL 450. inclusive, and are designated lo indicate frequently used routings.
2. Jet routes in the U S. are predicated solely on VOR or VO R TAC navigation facilities, except in Alaska
where some are based on L/MF [Low.'Medium £reguency fA D F i (kiloHertz)] navigation aids,
3. All jet routes are identified by the letter "J" and followed by the airway number; e.g., “JlO S ,”
4. Specific charts have been designed for flight at FL "ISO and above, Enroute high altitude charts
delineate the iet route system, which consists of routes established from FL 180 up to and including FL
450 The VOR airways established bolmm FL 1BQ found on low altitude charts must not be used at
FL 130 and above.
5. High altitude jet routes are an Independent matrix of airways, and pilots must have the appropriate
enroute high altitude charts before transitioning to the flight levels.
6. Jet routes have no specified width. However, it is generally accepted that alignment should be planned
using the same protected airspace specified for VOR airways; i,e,. 4 miles each side of the centerline.
7. With respect lo position reporting, reporting points are designated for jet route systems. Flights using jet
routes will report over these points unless olherwise advised by ATC.

C R O S S IN G R E S T R IC T IO N S :
[AIM 4-4-10(0V 5-2-8. 5-4-1,5-4-16, FAA-H-8083-25, FAA-H-82C1-1]
1. The guiding principle is that the ATC clearance has
precedence over the previous ATC clearance.
2. When ihc route or altitude is amended, the controller will
restate the applicable ALTITUDE RESTRICTION
3. If altitude to maintain is chanced or restated, whether prior
to departure or while airborne, and previously Issued attitude
restrictions are omitted, those attitude restrictions, are
canceled including DP and STAR attitude restrictions.

T o Meet a C R O S S IN G R E S T R IC T IO N
I 1. Miles Lo descend to meet crossing restriction (3° descent) + Altitude to lose {m thousands) x 3 + 10%.
\2. 3d rate of descent M2 the around speed and add a zero.
I 3. Rate of descent + Altitude to lose + time to fix = rate of descent fFPM).
I 4. To simplify for most jets + Determine minutes from the fix, plan on descending at 2.000 FFM .
\ Example; It will lake 5 minute» to lose 10.000 ft at 2,000 F F M . See Chapter 4,

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

C hap 2 — Flight Rules & A p p ro a c h
S ta n d a rd T e r m in a l A R riv a J (S T A R ), F lig h t M a n a g e m e n t S y s te m P ro c e d u re s

( F M S P ) f o r A r r i v a l s : (AIM 5-1-8, 5-4-1, 9-1-4, PC Glossary. FAA-H-B033-15. FAA-H-B0B3-25, FAA-H-B261-1)

1. A STA R is art A T C coded IFR arrival route established for application to arriving IFR aircraft destined
for certain airports. FM SFs tor arrivals serve the same purpose but are onlj^used by aircraft
equipped wllh FM S. The purpose of both is lo simplify clearance delivery procedures and facilitate
transition between en route and instrument approach procedures.
2. STARs/FMSPs may have mandatory speeds and/or crossing altitudes published. Other STARS
may have planning information depicted to inform pilots what clearances or restrictions lo "expect."
"E X P E C T" aifitudes/speeds are NO T CONSIDERED STAR 'FMSP CROSSING R ESTRICTIO NS until
V E R B A L LyjS S U E D by ATC.
3. The "E X P E C T" aifitudes/speeds are published so that pilots may have the information for planning
purposes. These alhtudes/speeds should WOT be used in the event of lost communications unless
A T C has specifically advised the pilot to expect these altitudes/speeds as part of a further clearance.
4. Piloto navigating on a STAR/FMSP Shall MAINTAIN LA S T ASSIGNED A LTITU D E UNTIL receiving
AU TH O R IZA TIO N to descend so as to comply with all published/issued restrictions. This authorization
will contain the phraseology ^ DESCEND V IA ."
5. A "D ESCEND VIA" clearance authorizes pilots to vertically and laterally navigate, in accordance
with the depicted procedure, to meet published restrictions. Vertical navigation is at pilot's
discretion however, adherence to published altitude crossing restrictions and speeds is
M ANDATORY unless otherwise cleared. {Minimum En Route Altitudes (MEAs] are not considered
restrictions, however, pilots are expected to remain above MEAs),

T IM E D A P P R O A C H E S from a H O L D IN G F IX : ( a im &-u , b -4- i o , f a a h bo &s- i s )

TIMED APPROACHES may be LOM
conducted when the following LMM
conditions are met:
1. A c_ojitrjoJj.o_w_er is inojjyralLpn
at the airport where the
approaches are concluded,
2. Direct com m unications are
maintained between the pilot RepurE Ituvln^
previous nlmude tor
and the center or approach itttft assiyiivd jl[ilude
controller until the pilot is
instructed to contact the tower
3. If more than one missed
approach procedure is
available, none require a
course reversal.
4. If onlvone missed approach
procedure is available, the
following conditions are met:
(a) Course reversal is not
required and,
(b) Reported ceiling and
visibility are equal to or
greater than the highest
prescribed circling
minimum! for the i a p .
5, When cleared for the approach, pilots shall N O T execute a procedure turn, (91.175}
b. Although the controller will not specifically state that "timed approaches are In progress" ihe
assigning of a time to depart the final approach fix inbound (nonprecision approach) or the outer
marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound (precision approach) is indicative that timed
approach procedures are being utilized, or In lieu of holding, the controller may use radar vectors to the
Final Approach Course lo establish a mileage interval between aircraft that will ensure the appropriate time
sequence between the final approach fix/outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker and the airport.
c. Each pilot in an approach sequence will he given advance notice as to the time they should leave the
holding point on approach lo the airport. When a time to leave the holding point has been received, the
pilot should adjust the flight path to leave the fix as closely as possible to the designated time

4S E V E R Y T H IN G EX PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilaf

 C hap Z — F lig h t R u le s & A p p ro a c h
"C R U IS E " C L E A R A N C E : (a i m «1-4-3d.3. P^C OloeeBiy. FAA-H-flQSa-15, FAA-H-0QS3-25. F A A -H -i 241-1)
1. Used in an A TC clearance to authorize a pilot to conduct flight at any altitude from the minimum IFR
aimutffl up to and including the aWflldfl a tttllla d In the s p r a n g ?
2. The pilot may level off at any Intermediate altitude within this block of airspace.
3 Climb/descent within the block is to be made at the discretion of the cilot-
4. However, once the pilot starts descent and verbally reports leaving an altitude in the block, he may
not return to that altitude without additional A TC clearance
5. Further, it Is approval for the pilot to proceed to and make any approach he or she desires at the
destination airport.

C R U IS E C L I M B : IP/C Glossary. FAA-H-3033-3, FAA-H-Sd 63-15}

A climb technique employed by aircraft, usually at a constant power setting, resulting in an increase of
altitude as the aircraft weight decreases.

“R A D A R S E R V IC E T E R M I N A T E D ” : iPJC Glossary, AIM 5-3-2, 5-5-3, FAA-H-8083-15, FAA-H-B261-1}

1. Means you are no longer receiving radar service from Air Traffic Control.
2. The majority of the time this expression is used by the controller after you’ve cancelled your IFR or your
flight following is being terminated.
3. This is often used as a legalistic phrase to fill a gap between the current controller's radar and another
controller's radar,
4. You are usually in radar contact with the new controller even though the previous controller made the
statement ‘ radar service is terminated."
5. When the new controller says "radar contact,’ you are again officially receiving radar service.

N123GO — I have to go on my
break now — so “radar
service J& terminated,''
squawk 1200, cleared from
center frequency.

Oh yeah, by the way, the New

York Class B airspace begins
at 12 o'clock and one mile.
Have a nice day]

“A e r o N a v ” (a k a N A C O a k a N O S ) A p p ro a c h P la te R E V IS IO N D A T E :
1. The revision date of AeroNav {formerly known as NOS: NACQ) approach plates is found in the lower
left corner of each approach. It's a five digit number, following the amendment number.
2. EXAMPLE; 06155 — The first 2 digits are Ihe last two digits of the year of the revision (2006), the
last 3 digits are the day of the year that is. the 15911day of 2006 — aka — June 3. 2006.
3. New Formal— The above format is slowly being changed to something a little more logical. As each
approach is updated it will look like this example — Arndt 7 V
CHARLOTTE, NORTH CAROLINA a lot moro fun to do it this ]
j Ain't it
way than to just say:
Amdi 15A 06159 Amendment 15A June 8, 20067 \
********.................... ...
At press time AeroNav had just announced They were discontinuing dirsel salss of printed charts, a'though Lhey
should s1il be available through authorized than sales agents Make sure you have llial backup iPad standing by1

D -A T IS :
1. When the letter Q precedes ATlS on a Jeppesen chart, the A TlS is transmitted digitally as well as by
voice.
2. For cockpits So equipped, the digital ATlS Signal can be received and displayed In tBxt form.

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 49

[c h a p Z — F H ffh t R u le s & A p p ro a c h

APPROACH BRIEFING — A TIS -A TS :

“A T IS ” — Anp.thje.r_Acrpnwi toJ^gnsider
a. "WIMP is A H AR M M M S
b. A LTIM ETER SE TTIN G is
ATIS. Heading. Altitude. Radios,
c. Glides lope out of service:
d. Approach lights out of service; Markers, M. ni mum a, Missed. Speed.
e. Locator Outer Marker out of service;
F. Snack machine at the FBG out of Fritos."
When |he altimeter setting on
“A” = A pproach — which an FFR approach is based is
a. D A TE and chart IMUMBER — "This chart is dated July not available, the approach is
5"120XX revision #31-1." N O T authorized. (AIM 54 5)
b. NAME and LOCATIOIM oF approach — "ILS 18R at CLT, — G *
Charlotte Douglas."
c. Navaid FREQ UEN CY — ‘‘Localizer frequency is 111.3. I’m putting it in both boxes now and
identifying." (also a good time to tune and identify any other frequencies that may be applicable
such as the Locator Outer Marker, elc.)
N O TE: ALWAYS se ! BOTH approach capable navigation radios to Ihe localizer frequency.
NEVER trust vour life to iust one approach radio. If you only have two approach capable
nav radios, NEVER set one of them to the missed approach frequency before the approach
(therefore trusting your life to only one nav radio for the approach).
Remember, EVER Y missed approach begins EX A C TLY the same w ay —
CLIMB like a mofo, Sort out the details later,
d FINAL AFFR Q A C H CO URSE - "The final approach course is 133° and I'm putting It in both
HSIs (or OBSs) now."
e. GLIDE SLOPE IN TER C EP T A LTITU D E — "glide Slope Intercept Altitude will be 4600 feet at
'TOMME' which is the CLT VOR 14.3 DME fitt and I'm putting CLT 115.0 in ihe DME now.”
f. Decision Heioht O1Minimum Descent Altitude and Missed Approach Point — "Decision
Height will bo 943 feet on the Glide Slope and that will be our missed approach point."
g. TO UCH D O W N ZONE ELEVATIO N fTD Z E i — "The touchdown zone elevation is 743 feet. Do
N O T descend below this altitude at any time!”
h. MISSED APPROACH PROCEDURE - Missed approach is a climb to 3600 feel via the CLT
13611radial, basically straight ahead. I'll give you the rest of the holding instructions when and if
we need them."
I. RUNW AY LEN G TH — "The runway is 10.000 feel long and 150 feet wide."
“T ” = T d r a i n — Minimum Sector Altitude and the highest obstacle. Any interesting TO W ER S
or M OUNTAINS in the area that you may want (o avoid during the approach or the missed approach?
4 “ S ” = S p e e d s & S p e c i a l — "Approach speed (V ap) will be 126 and VREF will be T 18. Inilia
go-around speed is 132 (VAC;), I'll give you that speed again and flap refract speed (V rR) should we have
lo go missed."
* — APproach target speed— + configuration and wind
* V„EF — REF ere nee speed for final approach
* V tc — Missed Approach Climb speeds For flap configuration with the critical engine inop (2.1%
climb gradient)
* V F, — Flap Retraction speed — minimum speed required for flap refraction (afler missed
approach)
S p e c i a l — Anylhing that merits special attention Like maybe Ihe 3 inches of Ice hanging off the
wings that could call For an increase in ihe approach speed or maybe that enormous thunderstorm
right off the opposite end of the runway, either of which could warrant special
attention to making this particular approach work.
Noise abatement procedures might be another issue
especially on some visual approaches.
5, “A n y Q U E S T IO N S ?”
Typical answer... "Yup, where we gonna eat?”

50 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot

 [c h a p 2 — F H g h t R u le s & A p p ro a c h

TOLD Card
(Take-Off & Landing Data)
(Typical for Approach)

Lenge/ E xecu tive Airlines

APPROACH FALCON 2 0
A T IS :

W EIG H T
V ref
FLAPS
V ap
IB1FLAP 25* FLAP P TO .
'' ac
0
W M.C.
■
^FR R
N O TES:

LANDING
D ISTAN CE:

LANDING FIELD
LEN G TH :

LANDING aide (approach side) of a TO LD card provides spaces for:

1. ATIS
2. Landing weight
3. Flap setting
4. Power sellings — lahefiff and Max £ontinucus {for missed approach)
5. Landing distance— from 50 feet AGL to a full stop
6. L aridi ng El eld L eng th — la nding d istance mulUpli ed by 1.£7
7. Speeds:
♦ V REF — REFerence speed for final approach
♦ — Approach target speed— V ^ r + configuration (llaps/slats setting) and wind factor.
Typically — add (to V r^f) A the headwind component + all the oust factor (to a max of 2DJkts)
♦ V flC — Missed Approach Climb speeds for flap configuration with the critical engine inop (2.1%
climb gradient. ¿1 ft u p per l o o p ft f o r w a r d ]
♦ V FR — Flap Retraction speed — minimum speed required for flap retraction (after missed
approach)

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for th « Professional Pilot 51

Chap 2 — Flight R ules & Approach
C L E A R E D F O R A P P R O A C H ; p i .175, AIM 5-J-&. 5-4-7. PVC Glossary. FAA-H-B261-1)
#■ THE most Frequently Ashed Question — Al what point may you start a descent From
last assigned altitude?
* Answer — When cleared for the approach and established on a segment of a
published route or insirumerit approach procedure.
AIM 5-4-7b. — When operating on an unpublished route or while being radar vectored,
(he pilot, when an approach CLEA R AN C E is received, shall, in addition to complying
with the minimum altitudes ter IFR operations (14 CFR Section 91 177). maintain (he last assigned
altitude unless a different altitude is assigned by A TC , or until the aircraft is established on a
segment of a p_uMs.bMLoau.te or IAP After the aircraft is so established, published altitudes apply
to descent within each succeeding rente or approach segment unless a different altitude is assigned by
ATC. Notwithstanding this pilot responsibility, for aircraft operating on unpublished routes or while being
radar vectored, A TC will, except when conducting a radar approach. Issue an IFR approach clearance
only after the aircraft is established on a segment of a published route or IAP, or assign an altitude to
maintain until the aircraft is established on a segment of a published route or instrument approach
procedure. For Ihis purpose, the Procedure Tu rn of a published IAP shall not be considered a
segment of iii.g IAP until 'in: aircraft reaches initial fix o- naviqat on facility upon which the
procedure turn is predicated.
* At times A TC mav not specify a particular approach procedure in the clearance but will state
"CLEA R ED A P P R O A C H .11 Such clearance indicates that (he pilot may execute ANY one of the
authorized lAPs for thai airport. This clearance does nol constituie approval for the pilot lo execute a
contact approach or a visual approach.
+ Except when being radar vectored to the final approach course, when cleaned for a specifically
prescribed IAP: i.e., “cleared ILS runway one nrner approach ir when "cleared approach" i.e..
execution of any procedure prescribed for the airport, pilots shall execute the entire procedure
commencing at an IAF or an associated feeder route as desenbed on the IAP Chart unless an
appropriate new or revised A TC clearance is received, or the IFR night plan is canceled.
* NOTE: See also ‘ Instrument Approach Procedure" and "Instrument Approach Procedure N C A Q T
in the pyc Glossary.
0 NDR (Nori-dirfrciionol
Radio beacon)
A D F / G F S : (AIM 1-1-2, 1-1-S, 1*1-1 a, AIM Table 1-1-6, FAA-H-BQB3-15, more in Chapter 3)
1. An IFR-certified GPS {with a current database) may be used as a substitute for DME an d A D F in all
operations except NDB approaches that do nol have a GPS overlay.
(FAA-h-EOS 3-15 Chapter 7)
2. Frequency band 190 to 535hHz identified by two- or three-letter
Morse code identifier.
3. Some NDBs can also broadcast voice transmissions; most often
transcribed weather.
4. When co-located wilh the outer marker of an ILS. it's called an
“outer compass locater" or LOM .
5. Subject to disturbances from lightning, precipitation static and [at
night] distant radio stations.
6. Noisy identification usually occurs when the ADF needle is erratic
Voice or eriO-neodJSJ^JijtitiOjajtjoti may be heard when a
steady false bearing is being displayed.
7. Since ADF receivers do not have a "flag*1to warn when erroneous bearing Information is being
displayed, the pilot should continuously monitor the NDB's Identification.
fi, “A D F ” mode — The pointer Is activated and tries to point to the station,
S. “A N T ” mode — Provides clearest audio for listening to the ball cam e. Pointer does not point to the
station but {for most brands) usually parks itself al the 9QlpoaJtipn. This mode also doubles as Ihe
“T E S T " mode if your ADF does not have a “TE S T" button.
10. “ BFO " mode — Stands for “ Beat Frequency Oscillator." Used to generate an audio tone so as to
identify beacons identified by using "interrupted-carrier keying." Seldom found in the United Stales.

M IN IM U M V E C T O R IN G A L T IT U D E ( M V A ) : (a i m 5 - 1- 5 , 5 -s -ie ,s - 5 - i i , p/ccitjssarn, f m - h - s o s i - i 5)
The lowest M S I altitude at which an IFR aircrafi will be vectored by a radar controller except for radar
approaches {PAR}. Only the controller knows what the MVA is for your area. This altitude meets IFR
obstacle clearance criteria f 1.000 fset obstacle clearance over flat terrain — 2.000 feet obstacle clearance
over mountainous terrain — can be lowered lo 1500 feel in some eastern mountainous areas).

52 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe ti to nal Pilaf

 C hap Z — F lig h t R u le s & A p p ro a c h

RADAR

OMNIDIRECTIONAL
SECONDARY (transponder beacons’
(stationary)

PRIMARY (skin paint & weather )1

R A D A R : (AIM 4-1-1 5, 4 - 5 -1 thru 4-5-5. r y e G lossary, FAA-H-8083-1 5. FAA-H-8083-2S, FAA-H-8261-1)

1. PRIMARY Radar
a. A minute portion of a radio pulse dans milted from a radar site is reflected by an object and
received back al that site, A transponder is not involved.
b. A lame parabolic-shaped dish antenna spins at a rale of 10 times a minute {for approach
radar] or 6 limes a minute (for long-range radar). The anienna emits powerful microwave
pulses and then listens for echoes.
c. This type of radar works best with large all metaJ aircraft but not so well with small composite
aircraft. It can also detect weather to some extent,
2 SECO N D AR Y Radar aka "A TC Radar Beacon System" or “A T C R B S " {pronounced “at-crabs"):
The ftbkct to be delected nxu.sJ^^Jit.tpdjAfj.lh a tnafl5J.QP.dEt (aka “tU ttO n ” )-
b. Microwave pulses transmitted from a radar site are received by the transponder and used
to trigger a distinctive transm ission from the transponder. The reply transmission, rather
than Ihe reflected signal, Is then received back al the transmilter/receiver site.
c. In response le ihe lype of interrogation,, the transponder sends back il’a beacon code (Mode A)
or it's altitude information (Mode C).
d. Secondary radar uses a horizontal bar-shaped “directional antenna11 that normally seats on
top of the large primary radar dish and spins along with It,
e. A third stationary antenna called an " O M N ID IR E C TIO N A L antenna11sends out its own (P2)
signal equally in all directions which helps to make sense of all that spinning and pulsing.
F. When you “S Q U A W K ID E N T ." your target “ blooms" on the approach radar screen or
becomes a “flashing ID" on center radar, Controllers use this to help locate or verify your
target.
3. Whether aircraft are vectored to Ihe appropriate final approach course or provide their own
navigation on published routes lo il, radar service is automatically TE R M IN A T E D when the landing is
completed or when instructed to ‘'change to advisory frequency” at uncontrolled airports,
whichever occurs first. (Aim 5-4-3)

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 53

Chap 2 — R ig h t Rules & A p proach
P R O C E D U R E T U R N : [91.175<|), 97.3.121 .m i , 135.225, aim 5-a-e. 5-4-e. 5-4-9.5-5-4. pc Glossary. faa- h-sqss- isj
1. Controllers do NO T particularly care how you do (he course reversal — The only exceptions are when
(he IAP shows a teardrop pattern or a holding pattern in lift» of a procedure
lorn — In ihese cases you MUST do It as published using the one-minute time
limitation or DME distance as specified funless you are specifically being radar / 345* ^
vectored to intercept (he inbound course at (he prescribed altitude). Procedure Turn
2 Normally mgst be completed within 10 NM of the fix It is started from.
In lieu oí
3, A procedure turn barbed arrow indicates the direction of side of the outbound
Procedure Turn
course on which the procedure turn is made. Headings are provided for course
reversal using the 45" procedure turn. However, the point at which the turn may
be com m enced, and (he type and rate of turn is left to the discretion of (he
pilot. Some of the options are the ¿51 procedure lurn, the racetrack pattern, Ihe
teardrop procedure turn, or the 80a/260° course reversal. (faa - h -scb3-15)
4, When a descent is involved while tracking outbound or inbound, you are reminded to “maintain the
last assigned altitude until ‘E S T A B L IS H E D 1 (I.e.. on the centerline more or lessl on a segment of a
published " R O U TE ” (aim £ 5 4)
a. ON C O U R S E — Used to indicate an aircraft is E S T A B L IS H E D on the R O U TE C E N T E R L IN E
b. Q N -CQ URSE INDICATION — An indication on an instrument, which provides a visual means of
determining that the aircraft is located on the CEN TER LIN E of a given navigational track.
(FIC Glossary)
5, Speed limit — 200 knots. (Alm 3.4.90.3.)

When there is a ' HOLDING PATTER N in lieu of a PRO CEDURE TU R N " for a course reversal, the maneuver
is completed when the aircraft is established on the Inbound course after executing the appropriate entry,
If cleared for the approach prior to returning to the holding fix. AND the aircraft is at the prescribed
altitude, additional circuits of the holding pattern are not necessary or expected by ATC. (AIM 5-4-9a.4.j

P R O C ED U R E T U R N IN B O U N D : lS1.175(j). 97.3. AIM 5-4-9. PtC Glossary]

Course reversal has been completed and the aircraft Is established inbound fon the C EN TER LIN E more
or less) of the intermediato or final approach course NOTE: Begin any required descent only when
established on the inbound course centerline.

P R O C ED U R E T U R N N O T R EQ U IR ED : [EH ,175(j), 97.3, AIM 5- 1- 5 , PtC G lossary]

1. When being radar vectored, that is — “This will be ‘V E C TO R S ' for th e _______________approach
2. If “ No F T " or '‘Final" on the Instrument Approach Procedure.
3. In the case Of □ radar vector to a final approach course or fix, a timed approach from a holding fix, or
an approach for which the procedure specifies “ No F T .11 no pilot may make a procedure turn unless
cleared to do so by A T C . (9l,l75(j)]

♦ ........................................................................................................................... s
IN S T R U M E N T A P P R O A C H or HOLD
You must AL WA VS be able to answer these two questions:
Never let an 1. W H E R E am L going?
airplane take you 1I
2. W H A T — E X A C T L Y — am I going to do w hen I get there?
someplace your a. E X A C TLY what heading am I going lo lurn to? i
brain didn't get to
b. EXACTLY what altitude am I coino to maintain?
. five minutes earlier. c. E X A C TLY w:ial power setting tr speed am I ooinu to need or \
‘MM i m u m i m i 111 i HH
what item of drag {gear or flaps) am I going to need.

DME A rc P ro cedures: (a i m 1- 1- 7 . 1 -1 - 1 9 , f a a - h -soss - 15 , f a a - h - boss ^ s , f a a -h - e 2 6 i -i .a c 9 0 -94, t e r p S)

If a feeder route to an initial Approach £ix is part of the Instrument Approach Procedure, it is considered the
M ANDATO RY starting point for the approach. In other words — you cannot just pick up the DME Arc
anywhere you like and then fly the rest of the approach. You must start the DME Arc at a PUBLISHED
Initial Approach Fix.

54 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilaf

 Chap 2 — Flight Rules & Approach

Aircraft A P P R O A C H C A T E G O R IE S : [&?.3, aim 5-4-7 FAA-H-SUS3-15, PrfC Glossary)

1. Sneeds are b a s e d on V 6r-r. if specified, or if Vcr« Is not specified, 1,3 tim e s V tn at max landino weight.
2. If maneuvering at a higher airspeed, veu SHOULD use the category for the airspeed you are using.
The higher turning radii of the higher speed may lake you beyond the obstruction clearance area provided
dunng a circling approach — or even during a straight-in approach if a missed approach becomes
necessary— the missed approach obstacle clearance area Is predicated on the aircraft's speed.
A p p ro a c h
A B C D E
C a te g o ry
Speed
[knofsj 0-90 3 1 -12 0 121-140 1 4 1-1 65 A b v 165

CPI — F U L L -S C A L E D E F L E C T IO N : (FAA-H-B0B3-15, FAA-H-B2B1-1)

There Is no regulation that requires a missed approach if a pilot gels a
full-scale deflection on an ILS, LOG, or VOR approach — It's a good and
safe operating procedure — but not a regulation. A full-scale deflection
on certification flight test (eheekride) would fail that maneuver (you would be
outside of the PTS standards), but you cannot be held in violation of an FAR
for getting a little too far off course during normal operations fif you lose
the localizer - so back over there and find it - or set the hell out of
there!). Full-scale deflection occurs at approximately 2.5° from the
centerline of a localizer course, which is aboul 4 times more sensilive lhan
when tuned to a VOR where full-scale deflection is 10° to 12° from
centerline
By the way.., the PTS standard for an MDB approach is i l O 1 “.

From FA A Order 8900.1 1,

.. An AWQ5 cannot bo usod as an authorized weather source for Part 121 j
and Part 135 iFR operations If the visibility is reported missing...'
Q p Sdcc G077 (Part 121 operations or Part 135 tu rb oje t operations! \
requires '‘REPORTED" celling A visibility for IFR or VFR operations, ■!
%■■■ ■ ■■ v i r

P IL O T C O N T R O L L E D R U N W A Y L IG H T S — Pilot C ontrolled Lighting (P C L ):

(AIM 2-1-B. 5-1-3, FAA-H-8063-15, B0B3-25. 8261-1. AC 15Û/534Û-27A)

Key the microphone on the appropriate frequency: Lights should stay on for
* 3 Clicks {within 5 seconds) — Lowest intensity
15 minutes
* 5 Clicks (within 5 seconds) - Medium intensity
* 7 Clicks {within 5 seconds) — Highest intensity
Suggested use is lo always Initially key Ihe mike 7 times: this assures that aM controlled
lights are turned on to the maximum available Intensity. II desired, adjustment can then be
made, where the capability is provided, to a lowerjutenslty — or Ihe REIL (Runway £nd
Identifier Lights) or SFL (Sequenced Flashing Lights aka the rabbil) turned off — by keying S
and/or 3 times.
U N IC O M
123-05 (CTAFJ 0

“E S T A B L IS H E D " “on Course” or " on the A p p ro ach *

ESTA BLISH ED — To be stable or Qxej on a route, route segment, altitude, heading, etc. (PfC GioEEHiy)
-4 Another generally accepted definición is published by the International Civil Aviation Organization
( ICAO)fDociiment 8168): ‘'E STA BLISH ED is considered as being within half full scale deflection for
the ILS and V O R . or wilhin +f-S degrees of the required bearing for the N D B .M
In other words — more or less on the centerline.

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 55

Chap 2 — Flight Rules & Approach

F in a l A p p ro a c h F ix (F A F) & G ü d e S lone In te rce p t A ltitu d e (G S iA ):

(P/C Glossary. AIM 1-1-9. 5-4-5, 135.225. 121.651)
*
ILSor LOG APPROACH
1 The
. the fine! Ifiwi UowAJl
.ilOjü^kljrher.PAf
approach (IFR) to an airport Is
executed and which identifies the fhKJvdurvTiim FAF inon p i « t w n a pp ro « hm;
2400'-: ms
beginning of the final approach GlpdhrStops HisartÀppwii^
segment Clkfcl iiopp ----.---C53JX I» V i - Mm ad Appro*: h Tir« k
------TÒT íí
After passing the final approach &We Sope ¡tolfirtept A hi lude
- Airport Profile
fly on final approach, aircraft are
expected lo continue Inbound on the final approach course and complete j tilul# SjUtíMi/ÍSltri*Griffi Iflfhwapl
,fJ *l*irb'P# ond '■-■:■! ■□&p-r®®cfi Ma
the approach or effect the missed approach procedure published for n . A jl Figi «viiikwlly ywnleil H H r m h
lhai airport. <ajm m -3) ■ Hucfdur*1!
It is designated by the “Maltese Cross'' symbol for none reds ion
approaches and the lightning bolt1’ symbol f“t?nd of the feather" on Japps) for precision
approaches.
QtidoSlopo Intercept A ltitude ffifilA) — The minimum (and maximum) altitude that you are authorized
to interceot the q ideslope/path or: j prec son appiuduh (unless an alternate lower atiLude s depicted,
and A TC clears you to that altitude for the glidesiope intercept). The intersection of the published
intercept altitude with the glideslope/path. The altitude and location of the ''lightning bolt" symbol
(“end of the feather" on Jepps) is the highest altitude at which the glide slope can be used for
primary guidance (the G/S is only flight checked to be intercepted from below at GSIA), Any descents
lo Fixes outside the GSIA should be flown using the “dive & drive" non-precision method.
NOTE; GSIA would also be Ihe point fF A F i al which pilot’s operating 135/121 would determine if the
approach could be continued if newly reported weather goes below min Imu ms (135.225, 121.551)
Final Approach Segment (on an ILS) shall begin at ihe point where the glidesiope is Intercepted, and
descend to the authorized decision height (DH). Where possible, this point shall be coincidental with a
designated FAF. At locations where it is not possible for the point of glidesiope intercept to coincide
with a designated FAF. the point of glidesiope interception shall be located PRIOR to the FAF. Where a
designated FAF cannot be provided, specific aulhorization by ihe approving authority is required.
When the approach chart shows an alternative lower glidesiope intercept altitude, and A TC directs a
lower altitude, the resultant lower intercept position becomes the FA F.
9&% of the time you'll be vectored to inlercepl Ihe localizer and glidesiope so as to intercept the
glidesiope “from below" at the GSIA position.
Tracking the glidesiope from an altitude higher than the published glidesiope inlercepl altitude and
Iracking it down to GSIA will USUALLY result in being al or above the minimum published altitudes on
Ihe approach. However, you should never completely trust glidesJone information when you're above
G SIA . Always crosscheck against the various fixes to determine your progress, use these fixes as
your primary information. Tracking the glidesiope from an altitude higher than the published
£|ide£lope Intercept filtitude can/may/could result In the tracking of a " FALSE GLIDES LO P E.“ Stea-
down fixes (the non-precision “dive & drive" method) or A TC vectors are necessary for proper
glidesiope altitude interception. Certain approaches at certain airports (e.g. ILS 27 @1 AH) have
5500 M ANDATORY step-down altitudes that a re essential for traffic separation (i.e.. altitude at fix is
underscored and overscored 5500 )-
9. The GS is only flight-checked to a fixed distance, generally in the range of about 10 miles (sometimes
only 5 miles). GS intercept beyond this point may be affected by false glidesiope signals. If the pilot
chooses to track the G5 prior to the G SIA. they remain responsible for complying with published
altitudes for any preceding st end own fixes encountered during the subsequent descent.
More A bout F A L S E G L ID E S L O P E S :
1 The glidesiope transmitter creates a mirror image 'side lobe" that produces a false glidesiope at about
twice the angle of incidence above the real glidesiope; that Is:
a. 3 degrees - REAL glidesiope.
b. 6 degrees = FALS E glidesiope
2 By always approaching the real glidesiope from below at Glidesiope Intercept Altitude, you ensure
that you should never encounter the false glidesiope.
3. If you were to inadvertently follow a false glidesiope, it should be quickly recognized because of the
aircraft's high rale of descent {typically 1500 fpm for a 6° false glidesiope).
Rule of Thumb — The approximate rata o f descant far a 3" glide- slope car can be T
calculated by m ultiplying the aircraft & gro un d 5pood ;ir k ro ls ; by 5.
LJ
56 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot
 C hap 2 — F lig h t R u le s & A p p ro a c h

F in a l A p p ro a c h P o in t (F A R ):<121.esi. 135,225 aim5-4-5,p/cawaary.faa-h-sm3- i 5.ma-25,saei-ij

1. The point, applicable only to a nano reels ion approach with no depicted FAF (such as an on-airport
liS E ), where Ihe aircraft is “ E STA B LISH ED " inbound "flU ” Ihe finaLap^roach “C O U R S E " fr.om.tbe
procedure turn and where the final approach descent may be commenced.
2. “ ESTABLISH ED ON C O U R S E ." means on the CEM TERLINE (more or less) of the inbound course.
See — ‘ ON CO UR SE” and "ON CO U R S E INDICATION" in the Pilot Controller Glossary.
3. The FAP serves as Ihe FAF and identifies the beginning of the final approach segment

F i n a l A p p r o a c h S e g m e n t ( F A S ) : (121.651.135.225. AIM 1-1-15. 1-1-20.4-1-9. 5-4-5. 5-4-5. P/C Glossary)

1. ILS — The Final Approach Segment begins at the GlldeSlope Intercept Point. When A T C directs a
lower than published GSIA, the f a s begins at the actual point of glldesiope intercept.
2. NONFRECISION Approach — FAS begins at (he “ Maltese cross.“ When no depicted E&E {e.g., on-
airporl VOR or NDJ3), the FAS begins inbound on final descent.
3. TEARDROP procedure with no depicted FAF — FAS begins 10 miles from the on-airport navaid.

ILS C R IT IC A L A R E A : {135.311, AIM 1-1-9k., 2-3-5, 2-3-3, 2-3-9, FIG 2-3-16, FAA-H-0083-26, FAA-H-0261-1 ;■
1. When weather conditions are below 300 ft celling and/or visibility below 2 miles

2.
visibility — -Taxiing aircraft {or vehicles) are not authorized past the Localizer ■Glide
Slope / ILS Critical Area signs when an aircraft is between the ILS final approach fix
and the airport {due to possible signal distortion).
Holding position m arkings for ILS critical areas consist of two yellow solid linos spaced
ILS
two feet apart connected b y pairs of solid lines spaced ten feet apart extending
across the width of the taxiwav A sign with an inscription in white on a
background is Installed adjacent to these hold position markings. (AIM 2-3-5b., FiG2-3-lej
3. The pilot should stop so no pan of the aircraft extends beyond the holding position marking.
4. A pilot should not cross the marking without A TC clearance.
5. Regardless of the weather, if you intend to fly a coupled approach, tell the tower about it so they can
keep traffic out of the ILS Critical Area. Don't take the chance of spilling coffee on the bossf

C A T E G O R Y I. II. and III ILS M IN IM U M S : (aim i -1.su>

The lowest authorized ILS minimumS, with all required ground and airborne systems components operative, are:
{a) C a te a o rv I: DH 200 feet and RVR 2.400 feet (with TZ and CL lighting, RVR 1.800 feetl.
(b) C a te g o ry II: DM 100 feet and RVR 1.200 feet,
{e} C a te g o ry Ilia : No D H or DH below 100 feet and RVR not less than 700 feet.
(d) C a te g o ry l l l b; No DH or DH below 50 feet and RVR less than 70Q feet but not less than 150 feel.
(e) C a te g o ry lllc : No DH and no RVR limilatiOrt.
A large or turbine-powered
airplane approaching to land on
a runway served by an ILS shall
A Category II approach ÌO a DH fly at or above the GLIDE
A Pilot In Command may be approved .below 1&D leaf requires
for Catego ry LI operalions after that IoudiQowr^ ione L'fjhbri'j. runway SLOPE between Ihe outer
pilot has logged at least 100 hours as centerline lights, and RVR marker and the middle marker^
PIC in the type of airplane be is
operating under Fart 121 (lai.euj
" Al or above Lhe glide slope" daHS
Timing for any non-precision not prohibit normal bracketing
approach Is based on maneuvers above or below 1ha
aromidsceed noL airspeed glide slope far IhB purposH of
T h re s h o ld C ro ss in g H e ig h t remaining on Ihe glide slope.
— The theoretical height above
Ihe runway threshold at which the FAF o MAP 5,d NM ''M.qnnj).brackelirifl maneuver*"
aircraft’s glideslope antenna would Knots 60 90 170 150 ISO are maneuvers which remain wilhih
be if the aircraft maintains Ihe 1hB limits or lha higher and lower
MinSoc 5:2d 3 36 2,42 2:10 l dfl nlide slope signals. '.
trajectory established by the mean
ILS glideslope or MLS glidepath.
___________ ___________9 ?
E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 57
[chap 2 — FllBht Rules A Approach

PRECISION A P P R O A C H : (1.1. AIM 4-5-4, 5-4-5, 5-4-11. PiC Glossary. 135.225, OpSpec CG52)
1. A standard instrument approach procedure in which an
electronic glide sloce/ulide path is provided, such as
ILS and PAR [Precision Approach Radar).
2. Descent mlnimurns are normally expressed as
Decision Height (DH) — the height at which a
decision must be made Lo either continue the
approach or execute a missed approach.
3. An L DA with a alidesloDB coiM be considered a
precision approach because an electronic glide slope
is provided, but Opspec C052 refers to an LDA w/GS
as a nonprecision L'FRECI5ION-LIW Eri approach. For
air carrier operations at least, an LDA w/GS will have
lo remain a nonprecision approach.
4. A T L S approach (Transponder Landing System) is a
precision approach that requires Special aircrew
training (see Page 7a, AIM 1-1-21 & AC 12Q-29A).
5. Minimum» for approach am predicated on VISIBLITY
N O T CEILIN G. Although the ceiling must he
"considered" for Part 135 (135 225},

NONPRECISION A P P R O A C H: (Pj'C Glossary, OpSpsc C052)

1. A standard instrument approach procedure In which H O glide slope is provided; e.g.; V O R ; TACAN,
NCB, LOG, ASR, LDA, or SDF approaches.
2. Descent niinimums are normally expressed as Minimum Descent Altitude ■M D A1— The lowest
altitude to which descent is authorized on final approach or during circle-to-land maneuvering
when_noj3.lide_slQj3.e is provided.
3. Minimums for approach are predicated on VISIBILITY N O T CEILING. Although the ceiling must be
"considered" for Part 135 (135.225)[FAA opinion) but not for Part 121

“PRECISION-LIKE” a p p r o a c h - LDA RWY 6

BOANOKr RfGDNAL/WOODRUM FIRD (R O A )

A ouroach w ith Vertical G uidance (A P V ):

|FAA Order 5005 1. OpSpoc CQ52: AIM 1-1-0. 1-1-20. 5-4-50.7.11».
LDA/GLIDE SLOPE
FAA-H-80S3-15, FAA-H-8251-1]
1 An approach procedure that provide* vertical guidance (glide slope} but is not a* accurate as a true
precision approach. In air carrier OpSpecs, these approaches are listed under “approaches other
than ILS and MLS ’ - aka "N Q N FR E C IS IQ N ” (Opspec COW}
2. Primary examples are the LDA w/glide slope (or SDF w/glide slope).
3. Although an LDA w/glide slope certainly fits the definition of a precision approach, tt Is considered
nonpreci&ion, at least for air carriers. FAA poticy is that even though a glide slope is available, the
accuracy is not the same as an ILS, MLS, GLS, or TLS.
4. Approach with !£ertical Guidance ('A P V i — An Instrument approach based on a navigation system lhat
is not required to meet the precision approach standards of ICAO Annex 10 but provides course and
glldepaih deviation information. For example, Bano-VNAV. L D A with alideoath. LNAV/VNAV and LPV
are AFV approaches. [AIM 5-4-5a.r.(b)]

When receiving “ V E C T O R S fo r th e L O C A L IZ E R ■ pilots should N O T tu rn in b o und unless

specifically cleared to **J O I N the lo c a liz e r” and/or " C L E A R E D for the -approach.”
Unless specifically told to “ E X P E C T V E C T O R S A C R O S S F IN A L for [s p a c in g , e t c .]." the pilot
should Q U E R Y the C O N TR O L L E R prior to blow ing through the L O C A L IZ E R .
Chances are he just forgot about you!;o(
^•%*******************A*******************************************************
58 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot
 C hap Z — F lig h t Rules & A p p ro a c h

1LS (Instrum ent Landing System ):

[31.17500, AIM 1-1-3. F/C Glossary, OpSpac C074|
1. A precision instrument approach system which norma
consists of a localizer, glide slope, GM, MM, approach lights.
An inoperative QM or MM does not preclude doing the approach.
2. Frequency range — Odd tenths & hundreds within the 103.10 thru
111-95 band are reserved for ILS andl localizer frequencies. ILSflocalizer
frequencies always have an odd number to the right of the decimaLPOint
— Examples: 108.10 105 15 10B.3. 108.35 108 5 108.55 108.7 10B 75
108.9 108.35 109,1. etc. (AIM (able 1-1-4).
3. Visibility values below V3 mile are not authorized.
4. Mid RVR may be substituted for TD Z RVR if TD Z RVR is not available.
5. RVR value (if available takes precedence over tower visibility
6. The Final Approach Fix is glide slope Intercept al Glide Slope Intercept Altitude (the "lightning bolt
symbol" on NOS charts or the ‘end of the feather" on Jepp charts). When the approach chart shows an
alternative lower glideslope intercept altitude, and A TC directs a lower altitude, the resultant lower
intercept position is then the FAF.
7. Minimum! for approach are predicated on VISIBLITY N Q T CEILING1
8. When the glide slope fails, the ILS reverts to a nonprecision localizer approach

M A R K E R B E A C O N : (aim 1-1-2, 1-1-3. 91.175}

1. ILS marker beacons have a rated power output of 3 watts or less and an antenna array
designed to produce an elliptical pattern with dimensions, at 1,000 feet above the
antenna, of approximately Z.40D feet in width and 4,200 feet in length.
2. Outer Mariter— Blue Light— dull tone— slow speed— "dash dash.,,1’ [2 per second)
a. A compass locator, PAR, ASR: or DME, VOR or NDB fixes may be substituted.
b. An aircraft on the glideslope will normally be approximately 1,430 feet above the
runway elevalion at the outer marker.
3. Middle Marker— Amber Light— medium tone 8 speed— “dot dash dot dash..." (2 per second)
a. A compass locator or PAR may be substiluted.
b. An aircraft on the glideslope will normally be approximately 200 feet above (he
runway elevation at the middle marker (and about 3,500 ft from the threshold s
4. Inner Marker (Fan)...White Light— high tone— high speed— "dot dot dot do t...'* (6 per second)
The inner marker is associated with Category II 8 III ILS approaches.
5. BjLck_C_Q.ur_5_e Marker... White Light— high tone— "¿fiLtifil (slight pause) daLfifiL^”
A back course marker (when available) normally indicates the ILS back course final approach fix where
approach descent is commenced. ArVinVner.v.Ce mVrkJr hsVoQ j
(affect on slraighl-in landing minimums-. ■

L O C A LIZ E R .¿ T R A N S M IT T E R A N T E N N A : «aim 1-1-».}

1. The localizer antenna is located at the far end of the approach runway.
2. The localizer signal is usable from a distance of 18 NM from the antenna site.
3. The localizer signal provides an angular widlh of belween 3° to 6*. as necessary to provide a linear
width of 700 feet at the runway threshold (full-scale fly left — to — full-scale fly right).
4. Full GDI Reflection occurs at approximately 2.5tt from the centerline of the localizer course.

G L IDE SLO PE A N T E N N A : (aim 1- 1 -fid)

1 The glide slope antenna is located between 750 feet and 1.250 feet from the approach end of the
runway (near the “aiming point marking" ). and offset 250 feet to 650 feet from the runway.
2. The glide slope is normally usable to a distance of 10 NM (al some locations further than 10 miles).
3. The normal glide slope angle is so that intersects the Outer Marker at about 1^AOOJeet and the
Middle Marker at about 200 feet.
4. The glide slope beam is normally 1.4 degrees wide (full fly-up to full fly-down).

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 59

[chap 2 — Flight Rules & A pproach]

TRAFFIC PATIrERN — MINIMUM ALTITUDES

GLIDE SLOPE When Operating to an
AIRPORT in Cllass B, C, or D A irspace: (91.12sthru01 .igi)
1. A LA R G E (12,500 ibsormaroi or TU R B IN E -P O W E R E D airplane shall, unless otherwise
required by distance from cloud criteria, enter the T R A F F IC P A T T E R N al an altitude of at least
1 . 5 0 0 f e e t A G L and maintain 1,500 AGL until further descen t ■£ required for a safe landing.
[Noise abatement]
2 . NOTE: Many Class B, C and D airports have non-standard traffic pattern altitudes listed in the
fiirport/Eacllity directory.
3. A large or tu rb ine^powered airplane approaching to land on a runway served by an ILS shall fly at
or above the G LID E SLO PE between (he O U TE R marker and (he MIDDLE marker.
4. A ny airplane approaching to land on a runway served by a VA S I shall maintain at or above
the G L ID E S L O PE (aka glide path) until a lower altitude is necessary for a safe landing.

“At or above the glide slope" does not

prohibit norm al bracket ¡no maneuvers above
or below the glide slope for the purpose of
remaining on the glide slope,
^ ■ m -n y n r jr r n r n T r r n r n r o
■ManmjLbjmckeiina autwuvtrs
are maneuvers which remain wilhin
the limite at 1he N o tie r and lower
glide alone signale.

Vou must remain at or above the glide slope between the

OUTER m arker and the MIDDLE marker LA R G E or TURBINE-powarad
Once you pass the middlo marker all bets are off. aircraft must maintain at least 1J500
Remember Runway behind you. altitude above you feet A G L in the traffic pattern in
and air in the fuel tanks are totally worthless Class B. C, or D airspace.
* WWW WW■

Threshold Crossing Height
— The theoretical height above
the runway threshold at which the
aircraft's glides lope antenna would
be if the aircraft maintains the
trajectory established by the mean
ILS glideslope or MLS glidepatl
V would sound Ilka this:
LOW A L T IT U D E A L E R T — S A F E T Y A L E R T :
(AlMl 4-1-16, F/C Glossary, FA A -H -8 2C 1-1, Order J O Í11.65TJ
1■ Contrallare will issue an alert to an aircraH II they Feed It is too low
(information recurved from Modo C). It i& Lho pilot's proroQitlve to
darernnrle what course of action to take... if arw .
2. At danger airporis. an automated 'unction callad M 5 A W i|fl in mum Earn
Altitude Warning) also calculates your do scant rate — if it exceeds wtial is
considered tube a sale closure rale with the terrain — a very annoying alarm
sounds in the lower Hnd 1-he TFtA C Q N , In addition, the leltsrs L A (L QW
Altitude) Hash in your radar data tag. Normally ihe call From the controller
" Low attitude alert. Freight Pop 113- check altitude Immediately." If you
get one ol these calls (e.g., while executing a Screaming high-speed dive in
□rder to recapture the glidesbpe) a suitable response might bE..
J u . s t j M t U u l b e c , thanks for tire cal 11"

60 E V E R Y T H IN G EH P LA JN ED for the Profess to nal Pilot

 Chap 2 — Flight Rules & Approach
LO C A pproach; (a im 1 -1 -9. 1 -1-1 n. FAA-H-aofl3-i5. FAA-H-ez&vi)
1. Basically an ILS without alideslcpe information (a nonprecision approach).
2. ILS approach with an inoperative glides lope — When the glideslope fails, the JLS reverts
10 a nonprecision localizer approach. A T C will clear pilots for the approach as it is
named on the chart (ILS). It is up to the pilot 10 make adjustments for the inoperative glideslope (i.e_.
localizer only approach).
3. Start lime at the Einal Approach Eix (Maltese Cross') inbound to determine the missed approach point.
4. After passing the Emal Approach fin. descend as quickly ms possible (i.e,. DIVE & DRIVE) so as to
reach Minimum Descent Altitude well before the missed approach point. This will allow ample time to
find the airport and descend in a normal manner to the runway.______________________
fAF lo MAP 5.4 NM Timing for any non-precision
Knots 60 90 120 150 180 approach is based on
Min: Sec 5:24 3:36 2:42 2:io 1:48 grounds peed not airspeed

ILS or LOC APPROACH

IOM Gl kl- SlfSfMAlLiU.Mli-
.it Out»'i Miifk^irf AF
v ^ l t*Frv*rl>CÜIïGLii<)l«l4iH"**ri*?iF
Ptlk«line Turn
| .. fAF (ncn-pretiiion npp«Mi.hri)
inv
2400^ Miiied Approach fVnt
Glide Hop* - — _____
Minol ApproathTncIi
Threshold CrajsingHeight- -10 I i>i 2400
O lid « lnltirccf?L AlEi1udtJ '
Aiipwl Profile

Localizer B A C K C O U R S E A pproach: (MCGlossary FAA-H-stFei-is, faa-h-sjci-I)

1. Some ILS installations provide a mirror image of the localizer for the reciprocal runway.
2. The Course Bevialion Indicator in the aircraft will show (he opposite of (he correct indications (of a
normal localizer} unless fitted with a backcourse selector switch that reverses the signal infernally
allowing normal right and left indications,
3. Without a backcourse selector switch, you musl imagine that the NEEDLE is the AIRPLANE and
you must fly the airplane over to the centerline.
4. A Horizontal Situation Indicator (U£l) without a backcourse selector switch can be rotated 1SD° so
as to make Ihe backcourse indications act in the same way as a front course.
5. A alidealaoe is normally not associated With a bAcJKco.ur.Sfi approach.
6. Some backcourse approaches utilise a Back Course Marker... White Light— high lone— “dot dot
(slight pause) dot dot..." A back course marker (when available) normally indicates the ILS
backcourse final approach fix where approach descent is commenced.
If crosshatched markings appear on the left-hand side of the arrow head, a back course (BC)
signal is transmitted.
— a aaaaaa

A S R A p p r o a c h { A i r p o r t S u r v e i l l a n c e R a d a r ) : (mm 4- 5- 3. 5-4- 3. 5-4-5 r a Glossary,

faa - h - m s w s )
1. Airport Surveillance Radar approach.
2. A TC gives you heading and descent instructions lo Ihe airport — basically a vectored approach

PAR Approach {P recision A pproach Radar): iw m 4- 54 . w -a. p/cGbssarj, FM-H-sma-i5)

1. Almost exclusively found at military fields — also known as Ground Control Approach (G C A ).
2. Controller tells you or corrects you with respect lo your vertical & lateral approach path.

DME A rc Pro c edures: (AIM 1 - 1- 7. 1 - 1 - 10, faa - h -8cs3-i 5. faa - h -&083-25. FAA-n-a26i-i. a c do-m . tzr p s j
If a feeder route to an Initial Approach Fix is part of the Instrument Approach Procedure, it is considered the
M ANDATORY starting point for the approach. In other words — you cannot just pick up the DME Arc
anywhere you like and then fly the rest of Ihe approach. You must start the DME Arc at a PUBLISHED
[nitial Approach Fix.

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 61

[chap 2 — Flight Rules & Approach]
R N A V (G P S ) A pproaches — L N A V I V N A V l LPV t LP /LNAV+V t W AAS / RNP:
(AIM 1-1-19, 1-1-20, 1-2-1 thru 1-2-3, 6-3-4. 5-4-5. 5-4-7, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-BOB3-15, B261-1, A C 20-138. A C 30-105, A C 90-107)
1. RNAV j GPS) {a Rea NAVigalion) standalone instrument approaches are becoming more core men place as.
GPS and the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) « further developed. UwRj
2. Virtually all GPS approaches require an RNP (Required Navigational Performance) of tT3 which means an I H
aircraft tracking the 6nai approach course with s ccntprpd npodto can be expected to bo within 0.3 NM of the
centerline 05% of the tim e . All IFR certified GPS units meet 0,3 performance.
3. Some RNAV units use DME cross referencing iDME.'DMEi to achieve RNP 0.3 Certain RNAV (GPS} approaches
are not available to these type units as the airplane could be beyond the service volume of s necessary OWE
facility. Check the chart notes [e.q.. DMEfDME RNP-0.3 MAI.
4. LNAV minimums are published for Litoral NAVitiation only and will be published as a Minimum Coscent Altitude
i WDAj because vertical guidance is N O T p rovided.
5. LNAWVNAV (aka U VN AVi minimums accommodate an RNAV Approach with Vertical guidance (APV), but with
integrity limits larger than a precision approach. VNAV stands for Vertical NAVigatton. Aircraft using LNAVrVNAV
minimums may descend to landing Y|a an internally generated glide si ope based on. satellite or other approach
approved VNAV systems. Since electronic vortical guidance is amvi.dcd. tho minimum is published as a DA If
your airplane depends on Baro-VNAV {Barometric Vertical NAVfqalioni instead of WAAS Tor VNAV, you may be
restricted by temperature from the using tho (sometimes} lower VNAV minimums. Check tho chart notes [c.g..
Baro-VNAV NA bolow -15 X fS"FR You'll notice thal some LNAWVNAV m inim um s are HIGHER than LNAV
minimumsf
6. LPV (Localizer Eerformarice with Vertical guidance) minimums require a WAAS receiver in the airplane and can
have minimums as low as 200 HAT and Vi mile visibility with proper approach lightirg. WAAS receivers provide
RNP-like accuracy of 0.3 run without special operational approval from (be FAA as required for RNP SAAAR
(Special Aircraft and Arcrew Authorization Enquired) approaches now called Required Navigation Erocedure with
Authorization Required - RNP AR If fhe approach doesn't have WAAS, LPV minimums will not be listed.
7. LE (Localizer £orformance} ■ Non-procisIon WAAS approach. Lateral-only WAAS guidance found at locations
where terrain or obstructions prevent vertically guided LPV procedures. Older WAA5 receivers do nof contain LP
capability unless the receiver has been upgraded. Receivers capable of flying LP procedures must contain a
statement in the Flight Manual Supplem ent or Approved Supplemental Flight Manual stating that the receiver has
LP capability, as well as the capability for the other WAAS and GPS approach procedure types.
8. WAAS units are designed to evaluate the low est m inim um s possible based on meeting required horizontal and
vertical limits. The approach mode annunciator on The unit w ill n o tify you of which m inim um s you may use.
9. LNAV+V — LNAV approach with AD ViSO R Y Vertical guidance. If you soc LNAV+V displayed on your unit's
annunciator, you may fly the g lid e s lopc to the LNAV MPA.
10. APV (Approach with Vertical Guidance) — RNAV (GPS), RNAV (GNSS) and RNAV (GPS) PRM are all considered
to be non-precision (aka "predslon-liko") approaches with vertical guidance. (OpSpecCOSZ, Page 55)

C O N T A C T A pproach: (AIM 5-4-25, 5-5-3, PfC Glossary, FAA-H-BO&3-15, FAA-H-B2&1-1, Op&pec C076)
1. Must be requested by of lot — ATC cannot initiate this approach.
2. Reported ground v is ib ility mut,: bu ;il lout,l 1 SM Lnu ' rule llu.nl v t, b I ly liom vu- LoH.i
3. Tho airport must have a published instrument approach and you must remain clear of clouds.

O P TIO N A P P R O A C H : (AIM 4-3-22, PJG Glossary)

1. The " Cleared for tho O ption^ procedure will permit an instructor, flight examiner or pitot the option to make a
touch-and-go. low approach, m issed approach, stop-and-ao or lu ll stop landing
2. The pitot should make a vtsmsi. <Ni procedure passing tho final approach fix Inbound on an Instrument
approach a r entering dow nw ind for a VFR traffic pattern.*1
3
2

LOW A P P R O A C H : (AIM 4-3-12, F iC Glossary)

1. A ao-around maneuver over an airport follow ing a
practice instrument or visual approach where instead
of larding or making a touch-and-go, tho pilot
intentionally does not make contact with Ihe runway
(sometimes called a low p a ss).
2. When operating In Class B, C, o r 0 airspace, the pilot
should request the low approach prior to starting 1he
final approach
3. When operating to an airport in Class E or G airspace,
a pilot Intending to make a low approach should, prior
to leaving the final approach fix Inbound, broadcast
intentions on the UNICOM or F5S frequency.

62 E V E R Y T H IN G EH P LA JN ED for the Professional Pilaf

 Chap 2 — Flight Rules A Approach.
NonDirectional Radio Beacon (N D B ):
(AIM 1-1-2, 1-1 —B. P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, FAA-H-B261-1)
o NDB (Non-direttional
1. Frequency band 150 to 535kHz identified by
Rodio Beacon)
two or three-letter Morse code identifier,
2. Some NDBs can also broadcast voice transmissions; most often transcribed
weather.
3. When co-located with the outer marker of an (LS it's called an “outer compass
locator'’ Or LOM (¿ocalor Quler Marker), Compass locator transmitters are often
situated at OM or MM and sites. The transmitters have a power of less than 25
watts, a range of ai least 15 miles and operate between lj)Q and 535 k H j.
4. An O U TE R COM PASS L O C A TO R transmits the first two
letters of the locali2er identification group. LMM, LOM (Compass locator)
5. A MIDDLE COM PASS LO CA TO R transmits the last two
letters of the locali2er identification group.
6. Al some locations, higher-powered radio beacons, up to 400 watts, are used as OM compass locators.
These generally carry Transcribed WEather Broadcast (TW E B ) information. (i-i-9 g .|
7. An IFR-certified GPS (with a current database) may be used as a substitute for DME and ADF m all
operations except MDB approaches that do not have a GPS overlay, [aim 1- 1 - 190. tbl m - bj
e. Subject to disturbances from lightning, precipitation static and (al night] distant radio stations
9. Noisy Identification usually occurs when the ADF needle is erratic. Voice, music or erroneous
identification may bo heard when a steady false bearing is being displayed.
10 . Since ADF recelyers do not have a "flag" to warn when erroneous bearing information is being
displayed, the pilot should continuously monitor the NDB's identification.
11. “A D F'1mode — The pointer is activated and tries to point to the station.
12 . “A N T ” mode — Provides clearest audio for listening to the bail game. Pointer does not point to the
station but {for most brands) usually parks itself at the 90* position. This mode also doubles as Ihe
“T E S T 11 mode If your ADF does not have a ‘ TEST" button.
13. “ B FO ” mode — Stands for “fieal Erequency QsciilatorM. Used lo generate an audio tone so as to
identify beacons identified by using "Intermpted-carrier keying". Seldom found in the United States.
SHCtM M ftfrra M f
NDB Service Volum es
CLASS D IS T A N C E (R ad iu s)
Compass Locator 15 NM
MH 25 NM
H 50 NM*
HH 75 NM
* Service ranges of Individual facilities may be less
than 50 NM. Restrictions to service volumes are
first published as a Notice to Airmen and then with
the alphabetical listing of the NAVAID in the A)FD.

PR IM AR Y NDB C O N C E P T S ; (AIM 1-1-2, 1-1 -H. FAA-H-BQB3-15, FAA-H-B2G1-1)

1. PARALLEL the Course you want to be on {inbound or outbound):
* The HEAD of the needle ALW AYS points to the COURSE, (and the wind).
2. While PARALLELING the Course you want to be on (inbound or outbound):
|f (he H E A D Of the needle is:
+ L E F T of Center - Turn L E F T - 30* or 45* for a few seconds
(turning only "double the deflection" is usually much loo wimpy, it wilt JVOT work in
any significant wind).
* RIGHT of Center — Turn RIGHT — 30° or 45° for a few seconds
(turning only "double the deflection" is again much too wimpy).

FAF lo MAP 5.4 NM Timing fui any mu-precision on |

Knoti 60 90 120 150 100 approach is basstl on

MirvSet 5:24 3 36 2:42 2:10 1-48 J

jm u r d s p w d nn( airspeed

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 63

[c h a p Z — F lig h t R u le s & A p p ro a c h ]

(turning only "double (he deflection" ¡s usually much too wimpy, it will NOT work in any significant wind).
RIGHT of Center — Turn RIGHT — 30° or 45° for a few seconds
(turning only "double the deflection" is Spain much too- w im fyj.
Since A D F raceivere do ncl Nava a "Nag" 10 warn when orronaous information is

NOB OUTBOUND;
1. Parallel the outbound course.
.being displayed. Lhe pilot ShOU N coiitimiOLJBjj(_fTionitDr the MDB’s identification
j
2. Turn towards lhe HEAD uf the needle — Sfi! or i E for e few seconds.
3. When the TA IL (superimposed on (he DG) points to the outbound course — YO U 'R E ON IT — turn
back to the outbound heading and see what you got — repeat If necessary (H's just like shampooing!).
4. NOTE: The Procedure Turn is always A W A Y from the fix (unless you're neanng the 10 mile limit),

NPB INBO U N D ;
1 Parallel the inbound course.
2. Turn towards the HEAD of the needle — or 4 E for a few seconds,
3. When the HEAD (superimposed on the DG1 points to the inbound course — Y O U ’RE ON IT — turn
back lo lhe inbound heeding and see what you got — repeal if necessary.

NPB or V O R — ON t h e F i e l d :
1 When established on the inbound course — DROP the GEAR f FLAPS & DESCEND lo MPA as
quickly as possible — A T LE A S T 1.000 to 2.000 FPM
(you must get lo MDA fis £oon ¿s Eosslble so you have lime lo look for the airport).
2, If this will be a Single Engine CIRCLING approach — be ready to get the gear I flaps back UP before
reaching M DA.

NPB or V O R — OFF t h e F i e l d :
1 When crossing over tha NPB i VOR inbound— start TIM E— DROP the G EAR iFLAFS & DESCEND lo
MDA as oulcklv as possible — A T LEA S T 1.000 to 2.000 FPM
(you must get lo MDA As £oon As Possible so you have time to look for the airport).
2, If this will be a Single Engine CIRCLING approach — be ready to get the gear I flaps back UP before
reaching M DA.

HOLDING — Direct I Parallel ! Teardrop:

(91.155, 91.179. AIM 4-4-3. 5-3-A 5 ^ -5 , 5-4-9. 5-4-19, 5^-21. FAA-H-S0S3-15, FAA-H-&261-1)
STANDARD (RIGHT turns) NON-STANDARD {LEFT turns}

E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilaf

 HOLDING PATTERN SPEEDS
[AIM S-3-4, TBL S-3-1 FA A Order 71 30.3A)
A L T I T U D E (MSL) A IR S P E E D (htE)
6,000' and below 200
6.001 - 14,000' £30
14.001 and above 265
NOTE: A maximum holding speed qthcr than standard
may be depicted either inside or just outside the charted
racetrack symbol.

H O LD IN G P A T T E R N SPEED S and T IM IN G : (AW5^ )

1. When an aircraft is 3 minutes or less from a clearance limit and a clearance beyond the fix has not
been received, the pilot is expected to S TA R T a SPEED REDUCTION so that the aircraft will cross the
fix, initially, at or below the maximum holding airspeed, (AIM 5-3-7d.)
2. Make all turns during enlry and while holding at:
a, 3° per second; or,..
b. ifilb in Ji angle; or.
C. 25* bank provided a flighl director Sy&lem is used.
(NOTE: Use whichever requires the LEAST bank)
3. TIMING for INBOUND teg:
a. At or below 14.QQQ feet MSL. 1 minute.
b Above 14.0QQ feet MSL: v/, mlnutes.
4. TIMING for O U TB O U N D leg begins ovanfabaam the fix, whichever occurs later. If the abeam position
cannot be determined, start timing when turn to outbound is completed
5. If an aircraft is established in a published holding pattern at an assigned altitude above the
published minimum holding altitude and subsequently cleared for the approach, the pilot maw
descend to the published minimum holding altitude The holding paltern would only be a segment
of the IAP if it is published on the instrument procedure chart and is used in lieu of a procedure turn.
0. When a CLIMB-IN HOLD is specified by a published procedure {e,g.f 'Climb-in holding pattern io depart
XYZ VO R TAC at or above 10,000/ or "All aircraft climb-in TR U C K holding paltern to cross TR U C K Ini
at or above 11.500 before proceeding on course."), additional obstacle protection area has been
provided to allow for greater airspeeds in the climb forthoaa aircraft requiring them. The holding
pattern template for a maximum airspeed of 310 KIAS has been used for the holding pattern ]f there are
no airspeed restrictions on the holding pattern (as specified in AIM 5-3-Sj.). Where the holding
paltern is restricted to a maximum airspeed of 175 KIAS. the £00 KIAS holding pattern template has
been applied for published: climb-m hold procedures for altitudes 6.000 feet and betow and the 23Q
KIAS holding pattern template has been applied for altitudes above 6.000 feet. The airspeed
limilations in 14 CFR Section 91.117 — Aircraft Speed — still apply.

HQLDIN,G_PATTERNJr lie u j f j i FROCED.gRE_T_g_RN _ |f “cleared for the approach ' prior to returning
to the holding fix. AND the aircraft is at the prescribed altitude, additional circuits of the holding
pattern are not necessary or expected by ATC. (AIM G-t-fi. .'AA-H-I30R3-15;

H O L D IN G at a FIX w here the P A T T E R N is N O T C H A R TE D : <aim5-3-b. faa-h-s2bi-i )

Will include the following information:
1. Direction of holding FROM the fix in terms of the eight cardinal compass points (i e ., n . n e , e . s e , b e g .)
2. Radial, course, bearing, airway or route on which the aircraft is to hold.
3. Leg length in miles if DME or RNAV is to be used a t otherwise in minutes.
4. Direction of turn if L E F T turns are to be made (standard pattern is RIGHT turns).
5. Time to Expect Esther Clearance. f *■
"Hold W EST of 'Elvis' on the 270* radial. LE FT turns. 10 mile leg
Expect Further Clearance at 1520Z. time now 142DZ.”

West

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 65

C hap Z — F lig h t Rules A A p p ro a c h

LDA Approach {Localizer-type Directional Aid}:

(1,1, AIM 1-1-9, 5-4-5, 5-4-16, PtC Glossary FAA-l+0083-15, FAA-H -02G 1-1, OpSprac C 052}
1, A navaid used for nonprecision instrument approaches,
2, The LDA is of comparable utility and accuracy to a localizer but is not part of a complete ILS.
3, LDA course width is between 311and 6* and thus provides a more precise approach course than an
SDF installation.
4 The LDA course ia notaliqn^d_with the i f , but STRAIGHT^IM_MJN}MUMS_may_be published
where the angle between the runway centerline and the LDA course does not exceed 30”.
|f this angle exceeds 30°. only C IR C LIN G m inim um s are published.
5. May have Glide Slone if noted. By definition qualifying if as a PRECISION approach FAR 1.1 and the
P/C Glossary define a “ precision approach procedure" as AN Y standard Instrument Approach
Procedure with an electronic glide slope.
6. May incorporate a Decision Altitude i decision Height. DA{H) by definition is the decision altitude on a
PRECISION approach (P/C Glossary).
7. An LD A with a Glide Slope could be considered a "PRECISION" approach due to the fact that it
provides an “electronic glide elope" and may also
incorporate a Qecision Altitude (Height). However the LDA RWY ó
R O A N O K F R ffilO N A L / W O O D R U M FiriO (ROA)
definition of Localizer Type Directional Aid given in the P £
Glossary conflicts with these two statements, calling it “a
navaid used for NONPRECISION instrument approaches'
LDA/GLIDE SLOPE
Of course the P/C Glossary does not define a 'Localizer Type Directional Aid w/GS."
a As an additional side note see AIM 1-1-22 — “ Precision Approach Systems other than ILS. GLS.
and MLS“ — "Approval and use of precision approach systems other than ILS, GLS and MLS require
(he issuance of special instrument approach procedures..."
9. From an alr_carri&jlQ p _$p _b_cs standpoint, an LDA w/GS is classified as a "PRECISION-LIKE"
approach that provides vertical guidance but is not as accurate as a fme precision approach. FAA
policy i$ that even though a glide slope is available. Ihe accuracy is not the same as an ILS, MLS. GLS.
or TLS. OpSpec CO52 lists "precision-Iike" approaches as Instrument Approach Procedures other than
ILS, MLS, and GLS fl.e., NONPRECISION approaches), at least for air carriers
10. From a practical standpoint an LDA with a glide slope normally brings you right down to the end of the
runway, that's pretty dam precise. Who cares if you have to make a slight jog just before louch down...
you've probably done worse jogs at the end of many of your ILS approaches!
11. AIM 5-4-5a,7,fb) — “Approach with Vertical Guidance fAPV) — An instrument approach based on a
navigation system that is not required to meet the precision approach standards of ICAO Annex 10
but provides course and glidepath deviation information. For example. Baro-VNAV. LDA with
alidepath LNAV/VNAV and LPV are APV approaches ” When it's all said and done, it’s merely a
question of semantics. The only lime it could become an issue is when choosing and alternate.
Would lhai be GQQ & 2 or &Q0 4 2? Since an LDA w/glide slope is not addressed as a PRECISION
approach in the AIM, it would have to be considered a NONPRECISION approach.

SDF Approach {Simplified Directional Facility}:

[AIM 1-1-10, P/C G lossary F A A rtf-* B 3 -1 5, F A A -H -B 261-1)
1 . A navaid used for nonprecision instrument approaches.
SDF Course
2 . Provides a final approach course similar to the U localizer except that the SDF course may be offset
from the runway, generally nol more than 3 degrees.
AH SDF approaches in the U.S. are aligned within 3° of Ihe runway The course mgy be widqr than a
standard ILS localizer, resulting in slightly less precision, but an SDF flown with the needle centered
can be Just as accurate as a localizer.
The course width of the SDF signal emitted from the transmitter is fixed at either 6" or 12". as
necessary, to provide maximum flyabilily and optimum approach course quality.
The SDF antenna may be offset from the runway centerline Because of this, the angle of
convergence between the final approach course and the runway bearing should be determined by
reference to the instrument approach chart. This angle is usually not more than 3".
6. Usable off-course indications are limited to 35" either side of the course centerline.
7. May have Glide Slope if noted (refer to the LDA w/GS discussion above),

66 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot

 C hap Z — F lig h t R u le s & A p p ro a c h
STR AIG HT-IN Approach: (5 -t-s th v u 5 -4 -9 , 5 - 4 - 20 , 5- 4- 5 5 , p v c o i c ^ r y . f a a - h - bd -63- i 5.
1. The final approach segment is begun without having firet executed a procedure turn.
2. In order to- allow straight-in min ¡mums to be published, the fin al approach course must be within 30° of the
landing runway. AND the descent gradient muet not exceed 400 ft/NM from the FAF to the runway Esceeding
either requires the approach to be published as a circling approach.
3. The fact that 3 straight-in minimum la n ot published does p a t r a s h U ll Pi'ots from la M L n f lj^ jA h L : ^ if they
have the active runway in sight and have sufficient time to make a normal approach to landing.

CIRCLING Approach: (91.129. 9 1 . 17 5 . 121.631. 135.223. 135.297. AIM 5-4-20 thru 5-4-22 5-5-4. PfC Glossary)
1. An approach is considered a circling approach if it requires a turn of more than 3Q° from 1he final approach course.
Anolher clue is a LETTE.RJnstortd_oLa_n.umbei: (e g. VORcA;,
2. A circling approach Is also designated if the fin al approach descent is unusually STEEP because of high terrain
or obstacles near the airport requiring a descent rate greater than 400 ft per NM. In this case, you can still land
straight-in if you can do it comfortably using normal m aneuvers.
3. Normally, circling MDA only offers 300 feet of obstacle clearance This can be an important consideration when
flying i t i o w the airport in extremely LOW temperatures — the actual (true) altitude o f the aircraft can be
significantly lower than indicated. This can be especially important when approaching to land at an airport
surrounded by h ig h TERRAIN At (-3Q-C) flying at 2000 foot (AGU indicated above the airport — Your
true altitude is approximately 3BP feet low er than indicated... or,,. 1650 feet true. Obstruction clearance could get
EXTREMELY TIGHT! During extrem ely low temperatures ADD SOME ALTITUDE during any part of an
approach whore you might direst Ion vou r obsta d e clearance. Of course, when you reach the RUNWAY, a
perfectly set altim eter should be exactly correct no m atter what the tem perature.
4. Circling approach protected areas are defined by ARCS drawn from the e n d of each RUNWAY Tho arc rqdii
distance d iffors by the aircraft approach category (and il developed after late 2015 — Altitude).

C ire ling A p p ro a c h R ad ius

fDHveloped Prior to lata 20121 ¡AIM 5-4-2DJ
Approach Category R a d iu s (N M )
A 1.3
B 1,5
C 1.7
P 2.3
E 4.5

E X P A N D E D C irc lin g A p p ro a c h M a n e u v e rin g A ir-sp a ce R a d iu s

[Developed Alter late 2012 Identified by h 3 'symbol on circling line minima;
{Accounts Tor true airspeed increase with altitude )iAIM 5-4-20)
C irc lin g M DA A p p ro a c h C a te g o ry & C irc lin g R a d iu s (N M )
in fe e t M 5 L Cat A Cat B Cat C Cat D Cat E ^
When an approach procedure doesn’t meet ‘he 1
1000 or less 1.3 1.7 27 3.6 4.5__ : crltorla Tor a straight-in nuthorijcalion. it is
1 0 0 1 -3 0 0 0 1.3 1.B 2.0 3.7 4.6 identified by Ihs type ui navigational aid Which
30Q 1-SD 00 1-3 1.0 2.9 3,a 4.0 ; provirias final approach quid area and an
; cIp.babiiAJi-iLiuflli slarting wilh tho beginning ol
5O01 -7 0 0 0 1.3 1.9 3.0 4.0 5.0
the alphabet <i.e.. V O R -A 1. As additional
7 0 0 1 -9 0 0 0 1.4 2.0 3-2 4.2 5.3 ■ procedures ara lormulalad, (hay am identified
9001 a nd a b o ve 1.4 2.1 3.3 4.4 ", alphabetically In sequence (i.e.. V O R ^ j.
Ls

s. DIRECTION of TURNS — Unless you ere adhering lo specific instructions from ATC — You must still comply with
91.126(b)(1) -'a lL iu m a must be made to the left unless approved signals indicate turns should be made to the
r ig h t" Nothing In this rule restricts Us applicability to VFR operations only
6. You cannot descend below MDA until the aircraft is continuously in a position from which a descent to a
landing can be made at a normal rata of dascont using normal maneuvers Pilots should use ‘'BOUND
JUDGMENT' as to when to Ipavo MDA for final descent to the runway. There is no "within 30° of the centerline"
rule! The “ BANK ANGLE should not exceed 30°'' according to the Airline Transport PilotfTvne Rahnp PTS
and Appendix F to Fart 121 [NOTE: ihe Instrument Pilot PTS says nothing about bank angle],
7. You must also have:
a. Flight visibility that is ncn lass than the visibility prescribed in the approach.
b. At least one of the specific runway visual roforonces Tor the intended runway must be distinctly visible
and identifiable.
S, If VISUAL reference is LOST while ending to land, the pilot should make an initial climbing TURN TOWARD the
landing RUNWAY and continue the turn until established on the missed approach course.

E V E R Y T H I N G EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 67

Chap 2 — Flight Rules & Approach
Terminal Arrival Area (TA A ) — RNAV (GPS) Approaches: .a im i - i - ifm ™-., 1-1 -20. n-B-n.
5-4-5, PiCi Glossary, FAA-H-S0&3-15, FAA-H*B2fl1*1)
1 The objective oF (he TA A is to provide a
seamless transition from the ftn route
structure la the terminal environment For
arriving aircraft equipped with Flight
Management System ( FMSI and/or Global
Posilioning System (GPS} navigational
equipment. The underlying instrument
approach procedure is an a&ea NAVioaiion
■RNAV} procedure. The TA A provides (he
pilot and air traFfic controller with a very eFficient method For routing traffic into the terminal environment
with little required air traffic control interface, and with minimum altitudes depicted that provide standard
obstacle clearance compatible with the instrument procedure associated with it. The TA A will not be
found on all RNAV procedures, particularly in areas of heavy concentration of air traffic. When the TA A
is Published, it replaces the MSA for that approach procedure {obstacle clearance 1000 feet or more).
The RNAV procedure underlying the TA A will be the “ I ” design (also called the "Basic X*1), or a
modification of the "T.’ The T design incorporates from one to three lA Fs. an Intermediate Fix (IF)
that serves os a duel purpose IF (IAF); a Final Approach Fix (EAE). and a Missed Approach Point
(M AP) usually located at the runway threshold. The three lAFs are normally aligned in a straight line
perpendicular to the intermediate course, which is an extension of the rinal course leading le the
runway, forming a "T.* The initial segment is normally from 3-6 NM in length; the intermediate 5-7 NM,
and the final segment 5 NM. Specific segment length may be varied to accommodate specific aircraft
categories for which the procedure is designed. However, the published segment lengths will reflect the
highest category of aircraft normally expected to use the procedure.
a. A standard racetrack holding pattern may be provided at the center IAF. and if present may be
necessary for course reversal and for altitude adjustment For entry into the procedure. In the
latter case, the pattern provides an extended distance for the descent required by the
procedure. Depiction of this pattern in U.S. Government publications will utilize the Khold-in-
lleu-of-PT” holding pattern symbol.
The published procedure will be
annotated to indicate when the Basic "T" Design
course reversal is not necessary
when flying within a particular Plan V ie w
TA A area; e.g„. “ N oP T."
Otherwise, the pilot is expected to IF (IA F )
execute the course reversal
under the provisions of 14 CFR IAF
■4— +- IAF
{3 lo- B Nautical Milas) {3 ta B Nautical Milas)
Section 91,175. The pilot may Initiât Segment Initial Segment
elect to use the course reversal
lit e r .T ia d in lc S a g m e n i
pattern when it is not required
(5 Nautical Mi last
by the procedure, but must
inform Air Traffic Control and
receive CLEA R AN C E to do so
FA F

Flyby Waypoint Final Segment

Requires the use of turn anticipation to (5 Nautical Miles]
avoid overshooting the next flight segment.

MAP
Runw ay
Flyover W aypoint
Premature turns can reduce obstruction clearance
and/or prevent the GPS from sequencing between
waypoints Typically found at missed approach
________ and holding points._______________ Missed A pproach
Holding Fin

E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot

 Chap Z — Flight Rules & A pproach

Basic T Design
Plan V ie w
'V i r \ Missed A pproach
£
Holding FIX
IF {IAF>
1AF
(3 to C Nautical Milas] 13 lo 6 Nautical Miles) } IAF
Jr iti al Segment Initial Segment

inlermediale Segment
)5 Nautical Miles)

FA F I Final Segment
t

(5 Nautical Miles)

See Page 62 for more extensive

information concerning RMAV (GPS)
approaches including LNAV MAP i K
LMAVyVNAV. and LPV approach
minimums ! Runway/

Modified Basic T 1
Platt V iew A

IF {IA F )

P T re q u ire d fa r a irc ra ft IAF

Initial Segment
a p p ro a c h in g fro m th is side
du e to d e s c e n t g ra d ie n t.
intermediate Segment

FA F y

Final Segment

MAP
+
R unw ay

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 69

[c h a p Z — FU o h t R u le s & A p p ro a c h
L A N D I N G U N D E R J F R : (ei.iTfi.AiM5-4-21,9-4- 22) An Enhanced
FHgh( Vision
1 O P E R A T I O N B E L O W P H o r M P A — No allot may operate an aircraft System ÍE.FVS'
may ¿e used on
al any airport bgloyy the authorized MPA or continue an approach bplgyv (he steaiflbfcin
authorized DH unless: approaches [only]
a. The aircraft is continuously in a position from w hich a descent 10 a IflpdJnfl 1c? descend below
on (he intended runway can be made al a normal rate of descent using MPA or HE bill
not below 100
normal m aneuvers, and for operations conducted under Part 121 or Part 135
foot above Mio
unless that descent rate will allow touchdown to occur within the touchdown TDZE unless
zone oF the runway of intended landing: asli&i FLIGHT
b. The fliflht_vi.sibil.itY (or Enhanced Qlghlt Wsbllity) is n.o.Uessjthan the visibility VISIBILITY It
soffio ient ro
prescribed in the instrument approach being used: and
corilinue (he
c. Except for a Category It or Category III approach, al least _QME_flf (he approach without
use aF the EFVS.
following visual references for the intended runway is distinctly visible and
identifiable to the pilot:
* The A pproach Light System , except that the pilot may not descend below 100 Feet above
the touchdown zone elevation using the approach lights as a reference unless the red
terminating bars or the red side row bars are also distinctly visible and identifiable:_____
+ The threshold:
FLIGHT VISIBILITY <1.1 > - The
* Threshold markings. ^ E
average forward horizontal distance,
* Threshold lights: from the cockpit in flight. a( which
Runway End Identifier Lights (R E ID : prominent unlighted objects may be
* Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI): seen and identified by day and
*■ Touchdown ¿one or Touchdown ¿one markings prom inent lighted ob|ectS may be
* IouchDown Zone Lights (TD Z L ): seen and identified by night.
* Runway or runway markings: or
* Runway lights.
L A N D I N G - No pilot operating an aircraft may land that aircraft when the FLIGHT^VISIBILITV (or
I
Enhanced Flight Visibility) is less than the visibility prescribed in the instrument approach procedure
M I S S E D A P P R O A C H — Each pilot operating an aircraft shall immediately execute an
appropriate missed accroach procedure when either of the following cgpdUlons g?tlst
a. W henever (lie requirements of paragraph #1 are not met at either of the following times:
* When the aircraft is being operated below M PA: or
* Upon arrival at the missed approach point and at anv time after that until touchdown.
b. Whenever an Identifiable part of the airport is not distinctly visible to (he pilot during a circling
maneuyer at or above M DA. unless the inability to see an identifiable part of the airport results
only from a normal bank of the aircraft during the circling approach.

Even though flight visibility is controlling, the reported

weather could be used in an enforcement action when it is
doubtful chat the flight visibility reported by the pilot could
have existed. This would be extremely difficult (hut not
impossible) for the FAA to "provo.’ Flight visibility can
vary greatly from ground visibility.
FAA Legal Interpretation (Mar td. 1530 a Sep 10, 2010>:
\ . .Enforcement action would be taken only in (hose cases
in which the pilot could not reasonably conclude flight
visibility was al or above approach min ¡mums, but the
pilot nevertheless proceeded to land..."
Comment — D a rt do or say somethin' stupid.
................................................................................... \
For tha purposes of Special VFR (only) during operations
from a satellite airport that does not have weather
reporting — If ground visibility is not reported, 1 SM flig h t
visibility may be used. For the purposes of Special: VFR
(only). FLIGHT VISIBILITY includes the visibility from
the each pit of an aircraft In ta keo ff position, operating
under Part 91. at a satellite airport that does not have
weather reporting capabilities. 191.157(c)!
\
*........................................................................... \
91.175 does NO T require the use of
“ reported visibility" for Part 91 operations.
The pilot is the only person who can
determine what the “flight visibility" isfwas
If you LA N D when the “ reported visibility'' is
below minimum, usually the only thing that
\
might happen is the controller may ask:
i
“what altitude did you break-out." Of course
your answer should be 'right at m inim tim s. we
had the runway in sight11' or “ just above
m inim um s. we had the runway in sigh t." :
It was wasn’t it?
:
Of course if you CRASH when the reported visibility
is below minimums il doesn't matter what you say
If you’re still alive, you're gonna get spanked!
J V J

70 E V E R Y T H IN G EX P LAIN ED ter the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot

 C hap 2 — F lig h t Rules & A p p ro a c h

Bay that landing sure was Interesting.

Now the hard part's gonna be finding the rampl

Skippy, can you see anything out of your window?

Proposed naw 91.17E ruio will pamnlt approved operators

to use an Enhanced High! Vision System fEFV S>in lieu
of natural vision to continue descending from 10D Fae(
above touchdown to this runway and land. Whan it Is
finalized, it will aFFecI numerous regulations.

STANOARP RATE TU R N S : (* c uiossay)

1. V per second.
2. 10 seconds for 30*.
3. 2 m in u te s fo r 360g (1 m inute for 180gl
4. To find Hie bank angle for standard rale turn:
Divide the true airspeed (knots) by 10 and add
50% of that value. Example: if true airspeed is 200 kts 20 plus 50% of 20
equals a 30° bank angle for a standard rale turn.

NO-GYRO Approach: (AIM 5-4*11, P.'C Glossary. FAA-FI-BQB3-I5, F A A -H -B 2 &1 - 1 )

1. Use standard rate lams until final approach then % standard rate turns,
2 Controller says — ‘Start turn” — "Stop turn.1’

MISSED Approach— PRIOR to MAP: (31.175, AIM 5-4-5, 6-4-21, PIC Glossary, FAA-H-SOB3-15, S261-1]
1. E V E R Y mjssed approach begins EXACTLY the same way - ClMBJifciLjUfliitha Ftt€k£®f
2. Must continue along the final approach to the MAP but may climb immediately to the altitude specified.
3. Turn towards the airport— if necessary— then comply with the missed approach procedure,
4. It is prudent (but not mandatory) to execute a missed approach with full GDI or glide slope needle
deflection,

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 71

C hap Z — F lig h t Rules & A p p ro a c h

Com parable Values of RVR and G R O U N D V IS IB IL IT Y :p i. 175(h)]

If RVR minimumfar takecfi or landing are prescribed in an instrument approach procedure, fcyl the RVR
is not reported for the runway of intended operation. the RVR minimum shall be converted to ground
visibility in accordance with the table below and shall be the visibility minimum for takeoff or landing on
that runway. ................................... ......... ....................................................... ...............
RVR V is ib ility
(feat) (statute m iles)
RVR — Runway Visual Range: (aim 7-1-ie) 1
There are currently two canfigu rations of RVR—
1 ,6 0 0 1/4
a. TA S K ER S - The existing system — RVR values are measured by
2 ,4 0 0 1/2 projector & receiver "transmissorneters" mounted on 14-foot
3 ,2 0 0 5/8
towers. 250 feet apart along the runway. A known intensity of light
is emitted from the projector and measured by the receiver. Any
4 ,0 0 0 3/4
obscuring matter such as rain, snow, or fog reduces the light intensity
4 ,5 0 0 T/e arriving at the receiver. Readouts to a minimum of 600 ft — In 200-fl
5 ,0 0 0 1 increments to 3,000 ft — 500-ft increments from 3,000 to a maximum
of 6,000 ft. These values are updated once every minute
6 ,0 0 0 1-1/4
b. HEW G EN ERATION — Currently replacing the old taskers — Still
mounted oh 14-foot towers but use “forward scatter" technology,
Can measure down to 150 ft RVR in 100-ft increments below 600 ft
— 200-ft increments between SQO ft &. 3,000 ft — 500-fl increments
between 3,000 ft to a maximum of 6,500 ft.
MLW UflCnlH**ÏO0Ü

B R A K IN G A C T IO N / R U N W A Y F R IC TIO N R EP O R TS :
(AIM 4-3-8 4-3-9, P/C Gloïsary. AC 150/5200-300)
1. BRAKING ACTION reports are provided by A T C to pilots using the terminology “ good." “fair."
“poor," and “nil." Either pilots or airpori management provides these reports ic a t c .
2. “ Braking action advisories are in effect” — a statement broadcast on ATIS when weather conditions
are conducive to reported poor, nil or deteriorating runway braking conditions.
3. RUNW AY FRICTION reports are provided to A TC by airport management at airports with friction
measuring devices. At Lhese airports, reports for A T C advisories and NOTAMs will be given using
Greek letter m u (pronounced “myew") in values ranging from 0 to 100. The lower the MU value, the
less effective braking performance becomes. A MU value of 40 çr less is the level when braking
performance starts to deteriorate and directional control begins to be less responsive.

>: (A IM 4 -3-20) 1i
1. Pilots ars expected Lo aail lhe runway without delay at lhe first available taaiway or taxi way as instructed try A TC .

if:
I
Do N O T exit onto another runway, or stop, oi iBvarsa course on Itis- runway unless authorized by A TC.
You aru nul technically CLEAR aI the RUMWAV" unliiALL PARTS ol lhe aircraft aru on Lire OTHER SIDE u' lhe
HOLD-SHORT UNE.
: 4. Aftai clearing 1ha runway, come to a complete stop on lhe oilier side of tiia hold-short lire. Do MOT continue
i ta.nilrrg unless taxi clearance has bean issued by A TC.
: &■ Do N O T chance to around frenuenev until you are
i 6, Immediately change to ground control Frequency when advised by lhe tower and obtain e laru clearance.
V
72 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED for the Professional Pilot
 Chap Z - Flight Rujes^K.Approach

(* )
ALSF-2 A pilot may not descend be]ow 100 fast
above the touchdown zone elevation when
G R E E N T H R E S H O L D L IG H T S
using the approach lights as a reference unless
the
OOOOO RED TERM INATING B A R S '
or the
I ooooo
" — RED SIDE ROW BARS
h ooooo are also distinctly visible and identifiable.

\
LU [91.175fc)(3)(i>, AIM 2-1-1]
LÜ ooooo
OOO ooooo ooo
O
O ooooo RED SIDE ROW BAR
o OOOOO

ooooo
/
ooooo Q
ALSF-1
G R E E N T H R E S H O L D L IG H T S I
ooooo oooooo
Ü
OOOOO •M *a
O
OOOOO
o
W H IT E ooooo
0
ooooo
o
ooooo RED T E R M IN A T IN G BARS
o
ooooo
G
ooooo
o
ooooo
*
ooooo
*
ooooo oooooo
if
ooooo
o
ooooo
o
ooooo
o
ooooo
O'4
LEN G TH ooooo
24Ü0J300D F E E T ; S E Q U E N C E D F L A S H IN G
o

1
A L S F — Approach Light System with Sequenced Flashing Lights

A D O T “ * " portrayed with approach lighting

letler identifier indicates sequenced flashing
lights (F ) installed with the approach
pp r^cl light
system, example:
,;©
NEGATIVE SV M B O LQ G V. example;

d LENGTH

J
Indicates Pilot Centre lied Lighting [P C L ) 2iDO.i'3QDO F E E T

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 73

Chap 2 Flight Rules & Approach
A pproach Light System s (A L S )
(AIM 2-1-1)

u u ü L u u .< »iU ü ifi}B

■viti
0fl
*■*
*****
**»4*
**■
***
*■»■* »**
M il* fit tit

White Sequenced
Flaihlng
A Flashing F la s h in g
Light Lig ht
A
A
4 Steady Steady Steady
B u rn ing **A*** Sequenced
A Burning B u r n in g
L i0 ht Itvl# F la s h in g
A
*****
L ig ht A
Vfl+lt L ig ht
A A
***** *****
N O TE: Civil ALBF-2 A A
m a y I.IIJ o p g f B l o d 0Ï A A
SSALR during lavorable ■ i V* r ***
A A
weather conditions

ODALS MALS F ODALS

i ô A Flashing
A Q m n id lríe tio n a l f t
L ig h t ' , FlJihing

B u rn in g ■«!»**»9* ■•**•■*
U rti I
15* l a ­ id1 I V

SSALR Approach Liqht Systems i ALS : are a configuration o f signal lights starting at the landing threshold
and extending unto the approach area a distance t>i 2400 - 3D0Q foot for PRECISION instrument
runways ana 1400 -1500 feet for NONPRECISION Instrument runways. Some systems include
soqtionced flashing lights which appear to (he pilot as a ball of light traveling towards tho
runway at high speed (twice a second) — aha — “ tho rab bit11(aka "wabbit").
....................................................................................................... ........................................
fMAJhOTTF MC*Ih Ca#OUima Al TtlfAAl
tot. i d o g APP [B i Cuy IíIq 10000 ILS or L O C R W Y 3ÓL
IBM 707
111.T 003 Afir lin* 7AH ♦ ________ CHAitlOllfc/OOtlGLAS IN H A L T )
U N IC O M NO-1
ílISSfb *ÍWQAQ I. 0 - 4 Ip 1M0 «1^ (limita kh i^iñ
S iSÜQC nuih« xjiiifp 3f 4*und FMi fi'347 FuSlANN
123.05 (CTAFJ 0M£o. HAtwRÈ[Cmttb M Ä 5 tm andhold
Arib CKAilOITt AfPCOH Íl^iriTTí^^FB OND0CH CINC HI
AB*121. IS loor■i i î "i 12*32 [lUrrt Ih-J**. A j í tta .t Î5T.0 | i k : i - 1W - M 21. B 340.0 1Î 7.15
ilio '’ H S - > 120,115 340.0
H P 102.1 [ h , 1 1- 3 0 1 1 » . 4 Î 5 7 .fl [3*0*'1 71*1131.9 34S.Í
|?4p' 3dCT| 134.T5

A dol " * " porlroyed with approach lighting leder identifier indicotes iequenced Hashing lighlí [F) imiglled wilh the
opprooch lîghimg system o.g., (£j) Negeiive symbology, e g ¡¡j) O indicóles Pilot Controílfld Lighting (PCL).

74 E V E R Y T H IN G EK PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilaf

 C hap 2 — F lig h t R u le s & A p p ro a c h
V is u a l A p p r o a c h S lo p e In d ic a to rs

Two-Bar Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI): (aim z -i -z >

Two-Bar VASI installations provide one visual glide path which is normally set at 3 decrees. VASI lights are
visible from 3-5 miles during |he dav and up to 20 miles ur more at niaht. Provides safe obstruction
clearance within i 10 degrees of the extended runway centerline and to 4 NM from the runway threshold.

Th re e -B a r Visual Approach Slope Indicator (V A S I): (aim 2-1-2;

Three-Bar VASI installations provide T W O visual GLIDE P A TH S . The LO W E R glide path is provjded by
the near and middle bars and is normally set at 3 degrees while the U P P ER glide oath, provided by the
middle and far bars, is normally 1f4 degree higher. This higher glide path is intended for use only by high
cockpit aircraft to provide a sufficient threshold crossing height. Although normal glide path angles are
three degrees, angles at some locations mav be as high as 4,5 degrees to give proper obstacle
clearance, Provides safe obstruction clearance within ± 10 degrees of the extended runway centerline
and to 4 NM from (he runway threshold.•

The precision approach path indicator (PAPI) uses light units similar to the VASI but are installed in a single
row of either two or four light units. These systems have an effective visual range of about 5 miles during
the day and up (o 20 miles at night. Provides safe obstruction clearance within ± 10 degrees of the
extended runway centerline and to 4 NM from Ihe runway threshold.

•Other variations of V A S I system s are found in A IM 2-1-2 -

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 75

Chap 2 — Flight Rules & Approach
V I S U A L A p p r o a c h : ( A I M 2 - 1 -2 . 3-2 - 3 . 3. ^ . 5-4 , 3, s-4-4,
5-4-23 5-5-11. E11.155. 135.205, 135.213,121,MS, OpSpec C077}
1. Must be on an IFR flight plan— A TC may assign—
and you may or may not accept. This is a controller
requirement; you should not get clearance for a
visual unless the proper conditions exist.
2. The airport must be reporting at least a 1,000 ft
ceiling and 3 miles visibility, An additional controller
requirement is that the ceiling is at least 500 feet
above Minimum Sectoring ¿ititude.
3. The flighlcrew must have either the airport or (he
preceding aircraft in sieht {the pilot is responsible for
wake turbulence separation},
4. This IS an instrument approach in the sense that it
can [and should] only be assigned when on an IFR
flight plan — however it is N O T an instrument
approach in the sense that it does not have a missed
approach point — It is N O T an instrument approach, but it
is an IFR authorization, (ho flight is still IFR.
5. For Fart 135 non-turbojet (even with OpSpec G077) and
operations — you must only remain clear of c lo u d s.
6. Part 121 operations and Part 135 turbojet operations are ruled by
OpSpec C077 — you must have 91.155 VFR cloud clearance
applicable to the airspace involved. That means... Class B — clear of
clouds. Class C. D & E — 500' below. 1000’ above, 2000' horizontally
(when below 10,000 feel MSL) (higher cloud clearance and visibility is required
when at and above 10,000 feet MSL}.
7. Additional requirement of OpSpec C077 (Part 121 operations & Part 135 turbojet operations) include:
a. The flight remains in Class B, C, or D airspace, within 35 miles of the destination airport in
Class E airspace, or the airspace beneath the designated transition area.
b. Ceiling and cloud clearance must be as such to allow the flightcrew to maintain the minimum
altitudes prescribed In 91.129, 91 ..130, or 91,131, as applicable for the Airspace Class in which
the flight is operated. Generally — for large or turbine powered aircraft this means —
[91.129(e)(1)] “ ...unless otherwise required bv the applicable distance from cloud criteria
enter the traffic pattern at an altitude of at least 1.5D0 AGL and maintain at least 1,500 AGL
until further descent is require for a safe landing."

WEATHER REPORTING & 1 3 5 -2 1 3

1. The FAA considers commercial pilots (etc.) competent to provide weather information for Part 135 j
VFRjapjerations (only). However, In order to use this concession, "the operator’s GOMjmust
specify the circumstances under which PlCs may use the provision of § 135.213(a). *"If observers ;
ether than PICs are used, operators must specify the training and qualifications of these observers." ;
(&900.1) OpSpec C07T may impose further restrictions {Page 265}.
2. To conduct IFR operations, pilots must use weather observations (from official sources} taken at
the airport where those operations are conducted.
3. Reminder — A visual approach is an IFR operation.

*
From FAA Order &900.1 1p
...Ar AWOS cannot be- used as an ■i
authorized wealher source for Part 1 2 1 and i■..
Fart 135 IFR operations if the v is ib ility is
reported m issin g ..."

OpSpec C077 (Pan 121 operations, or Part 135

tMrh_oie_t operations] requires “ REPORTED"
t ceiling 6 v is ib ility ¿Pane 265)
.......................................................... *»*

76 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot

 1. A defined point on the final approach course of a rtonpreeisian straight-in approach from which
normal descent from ihe MDA to ihe runway louch-down zone may commence, provided the runway or
approach lights, etc., are clearly visible to the pilot.
2. The VDP is almost always located so that it coincides with a V A S I. P API. or other ground-based
descent aid. The VDP is identified on the profile view of the approach chart by the symbol: V.
3. To calculate a 3J descent angle from the VDP to the runway — Divide the grounds peed bv 2. then
multiply the result bv 10 MOO Kts (GS) + 2 x 10 = 500 fpm descent!.
4. Another good method is to look at Ihe end of the runway— drive the airplane over lo it— and then land!
5. 121.651 (c)(4) — A pilot mav descend below the M D A prior to the published VDP ontv where a
descent to the runway cannot be made using norm al procedures or rales of descent if final descent
is delayed until reaching that poini.

PLAN NED Descent Point (PDP): (AC 120-71A>

1. That point during an approach where a pilot MUST begin the descent to the runway or he will MOT
land in the landing zone. My guess is a woman will have the same problem. (A small gift toriha PC police.u)
2 RULES of TH U M B :
Whan using DME Far distance inicrmalicn, 1ha DME
(a] TIM E Method — lO feet per second ditanca of lha IM P or runway threshold must ba
fb) D IS T A N C E Method — 3D0 feet per mile adtted (nr subtracted) I d the calculated PDF.

3. Of course once again, Ihe aliemate meihod Is to look at the end of Ihe runway— drive Ihe airplane over
to It— and then land! Works every time for most pilots... boys and girls !,o).

Vertical Descent Angle (VDA): (a i m 5 - 4- 5 . f a a - h - bo 33- i 5, f a a -h - b z b i - i )

1. A computed path from Ihe Eir>al Approach 5 x and altitude la the runway threshold at T ffH The
optimum descent angle lo be used is 3.00 degrees
2. Pilots can use the published angle and estlmated/actual qroundape&d to find a target rate of descent
from a rate of descent table published with the instrument approach p rocedure.
3. The published angle is for information only and Is strictly ADVISORY In nature. The tried and true
LDlve and Drive11 method is still perfectly legal (and preferred by most pilots).

Charted VISUAL Flight Procedure Approach fCVFPl: (AIM 6-4-24, pyc Glossary. OpSpeu C077)
An approach conducted while operating on an IFR flight plan which authorizes the pilot of an aircraft lo
proceed visually and clear of clouds to the airport via visual landmarks and other Information depicted
on a charted visual flight procedure. The approach must be authorized and under the control of the
appropriate air traffic control facility. Weather m inim um s required are depicted on the chart

E V E R Y T H IN G EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 77

[chap Z — Flight R ules & Approach

T r a n s p o n d e r L a n d i n g S y s t e m ( T L S ) (“Special Instrum ent Approach Procedure”):

(AIM 1-1-21, AC 120-2SA}
1, TLS is £ Category I PRECISION approach System Certified for use in
weather as low as 200 feet with half-mile visibility (200 - ’/*}.
2, Essentially, the Transponder Landing System can provide □
Category IIL S (like) approach to airports that previously could not have one due to terrain and/or
land acquisition issues. Terrain lhat would prohibit an ILS installation due to beam reflecting or
bending is no problem for TLS,
3. Standard ILS systems need a lot of real estate to make it function properly. TLS system components
are all contained within a 350' x 350' footprint that can span the runway itself, with T L S components on
either side. No new real estate need be acquired or excavated, a significant cost saving.
4. The System does require a ilTL S operator" on the ground (who is not a Controller) lo enter the aircraft’s
transponder code into the TLS computer. This requires a radio call to the TLS operator requesting TLS
acquisition with your squawk code. Communications between Ihe pilot and Ihe TLS operator will
mainly use squawk code inside of tail number {e.g., "Airplane squawking 4321. TL S is acquiring..,"}
5 Only ONE aircraft is allowed on the approach at any one time.
6, TLS ground equipment Interrogates the transponder fno Mode C needed) of an approaching aircraft,
computes an error value for the aircraft position relative to the desired approach path, and
broadcasts ILS frequency signals vis standard localizer and olideslope frequencies lo guide Ihe
aircraft along the desired approach path.
7, TLS determines Ihe position of the aircraft by “ pinging” its transponder. Two antenna arrays on Ihe
ground receive the response and the system’s computers measure tlme^of^arrival for range and angle -
of-arrival lo determine the aircraft's exact position on the pseudo glide slope.
B. No special equipment is required on board the aircraft s ince il effective Iy spoof s the airc rafts
siandard ILS equipment Into displaying standard localizer and glidesbpe information. There is no ‘ radio
beam", but the pilot flies the aircraft exactly as if it were a standard ILS approach. T o the pilot and the
airplane, there is no difference between ILS and T L S needles since they are the same needles.
9. Simulated outer and middle marker beacon signals are transmitted on the audio portion of the ILS
signal (if you have the volume up), but you will not receive any marker lights.
10. Autopilots handle TLS guidance perfectly so coupled approaches are no problem.
11. TLS is a “ Special Instrument Approach Procedure” and is not distributed for general public use
(i.e., you will not find a TLS approach in a "normal" approach book). These procedures are issued to
an aircraft operator when the conditions for operations approval are satisfied: (a i m 1- 1-2 1 )
a. G EN ER AL AVIATION operators must coniad the local FSDO to obtain a letter of aulhorization.
b. AIR CARRIER operators requesting approval for use of special procedures should contact their
Certificate Holding District Office for authorization through their Operations Specification.
12. Localizer control is effective up lo 22 N M . Glideslope control is effective up lo 10 N M .
13. TLS sites have been commissioned at many locations around the country.

* The TLS interrogates ("pings") the

approaching aircraft's transponder
(no Mode C required).
* TLS antennas receive the transponder's
echo, and computers calculate time and
angle of arrival to determine the
ai rcraft's exact 3-D posi lion. j
................................................ U M U U W 1

Computers derive the error between

Lhe current aircraft position and a
pre-programmed approach path.
The error is broadcast on standard
ILS frequencies, and displayed on
the aircraft’s ILS display.

78 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot

 A nonrotating staclranic antenna ‘ S P E C IA L P I L O T T R A IN IN G R E Q U IR E D
Current PRM locations: provides a pjjp ssGOflfi radar muUte batane accepting a clearance foi en ILSj'PRM
ATL, CLE, DTW , MSP, speed on two hlcrh definition displays. approach. Pitots shall netlly A T C no less than
Th e displays also show a 10 second ICO NM from the destinalion if they cannot
PUL, SFO, and STL prediction gl 1he aircraft's pQsijion K m-ool oquiprnenl cwlrainlng raqui ramants.
ns current course is conlinued. (sas ' belrj wj
................... ..........
ILS.PRM Approach N ew Nam e for...
S IM U L T A N E O U S “C LO S E P A R A L L E L " A P P R O A C H : (AIMS-4-\3 thru5-J-16. AC90-9-0}
1. “Close parallel’*refers to approaches to runways with less than 43PP feet between runway
centerlines
2. ‘LIL5 PRM Approach11is derived from (he Precision Runway Monitor System that is required for
simultaneous close parallel approaches. T h e use of this s h o r t e r name makes it easier for controllers
and pilots to refer to the approach. For example, it takes less time for the controller to dear pilots for
an “ ILS PRM approach'^ than for a “simultaneous close parallel iLS approach."
3. For pilots, an ILS PRM approach is like any other simultaneous parallel ILS approach with one
exception — aircraft are flying alongside one another less than 4300 feet apart.
4. If an aircraft leaves the localizer and heads toward the adjacenl parallel approach course, the controller
has less time to recognize the problem and keep two airplanes from colliding.
5. You must fly accurately down the localizer cenierline.
6. The controller will direct you to return lo the localizer should you begin to stray off course.
7. When an aircraft penetrates the “ NO T R A N S G R E S S IO N Z O N E '1(NTZ). a 2000-foot wide rectangular
area centered between approach courses, it Is “T R A F F IC A L E R T — U S A ir 3 4 3
mandatory for the controller to breakout endangered
T U R N L E F T IM M E D IA T E L Y H E A D IN G 330
aircraft on the adjacent approach course. Breakout
C L IM B A N D M A IN T A IN F O U R T H O U S A N D ”
phraseology will begin with T R A F F IC A L E R T :
8. Communicalions problems such as stuck microphones and two transmissions at Ihe same time must
be avoided. Some airports will use TW O FREQUENCIES assioned to each runway to overcome
these problems. If this method Is used, your cue will be a note on the approach chart slating thai dual
communications are required and the Identity of the second frequency. In this case your aircraft must
have the capability to allow you lo listen to two separate frequencies at the same time The
controllers will transmit on both frequencies while the pilots will transmit only on the primary
frequency. In other words, when the controllers key their mics, they will automatically be
transmitting on two frequencies at the same time. Pilots must maintain strict radio discipline by
eliminating lengthy, unnecessary radio transmissions.
9. Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS) provides an additional element of safety, Should a TCAS
RA be received, the pilot should follow the RA. even if it conflicts with instructions. If following an RA
requires deviating from an A TC clearance, the pilot must advise A TC as soon as practical <Duhf).
10 The “ B R E A K O U T M A N E U V E R ” — A LL B R E A K O U T M A N E U V E R S A R E T O BE H A N D
F L O W N . Although you are encouraged to use the autopilot during an ILS PRM approach, you piust
disconnect the autopilot and hand-fly the breakout procedure. Simulation studies have shown that
the hand-flown breakout is performed consistently faster than Ihe breakout maneuver performed using
the autopilot. The maneuver can Include a descent If the controller feels that a descending turn is the
only way to keep you away from the blundering aircraft,
11. *N O T E S P E C IA L P IL O T T R A IN IN G R E Q U IR E D All pilots must complete ILS/PRM Approach
Training before accepting a clearance for a simultaneous close parallel ILS/PRM approach. For
operations under Fart 121, 129, and 135 pilots must comply with FAA approved company training.
For operations under Fart S1. pilots must be familiar and comply with the information as provided in
the AIM or as provided at httpif/w ww.faa.gov/training testmg/training/prmf
E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 79
.Chap 2 — Flight Rules A Approach
SIM ULTANEOUS “CONVERGING” IN S TRUMEN T APPROACHES:
(AIM 5-4-17, FAA-H-B2B1-1)
1. A T C may conduct instrument approaches simultaneously to converging runways; i.e., runways having
an included angle from 15 to 10(3 degrees, at airports where a program has been specifically approved
to do so [example: PHILADELPHIA IN TERN ATION AL (PHL) “CONVERGING ILS RWY 9R" and
“CONVERGING ILS RWY 21"].
2. The basic concept requires (hat dedicated, separate standard instrument approach procedures be
developed for each converging runway Included, Missed Approach Point? must be al least 3 miles
aoart and Missed Approach Procedures ensure that missed approach protected airspace dees not
overlap
3. Other REQUIREM ENTS are: radar availability, nonlntersectlna final approach courses, precision
(ILS/MLS3 approach systems on each runway and, if runways intersect, controllers must be a hie to
apply visual separation as well as intersecting runway separation criteria. Intersecting runways also
require minimums of at least 700 foot ceilings and 2 miles visibility. Straight in approaches and
landings must be made.
4. Whenever simultaneous converging approaches are in progress, aircraft will be informed by the
conlrolier as soon as feasible after initial contact or via ATIS. Additionally, the radar controller win have
direct communications capability with the tower controller where separation responsibility has not been
delegated to the lower,
5. NOTE: The “CONVERGING ILS" approach procedure for a particular runway will typically have a
hm*L BafilalmHsighl higher Visibility minimums. and very often a completely different missed
approach procedure than the "NORMAL ILS" procedure assigned to the same runway.

** u
“CmO N
u V
i fEERBGnIN
uGr ■■ a n"
IL S A p proach Procedures g
Example: Runway 3Ft and Runway 17 @ EhU^Muhis (EHL: ■
=? Minted Accroach Points at k » l 3 mHos apart.
=> Hissed Approach Procedures ensure 1'ial missed
approach protected flirficaefl J obs not overlap
=j Radar available.
=s- RonintBrsectino final approach courses.
=> ILS approaches tor bath runways
=? HtGHER MINIMUMS and different Missed Approach
Procedures lor the "CO N V ER G IN G ILS '1as opposed la
(ho " NORM AL IL S " procadura assigned to each runway ]
(■see approach plate far the details).

i* u

■i i »
CONVERGING ILS RWY 17
PHILADELPHIA INTL U JH L )

SIDE-STEP MANEUVER: (a im
1, A TC may authorize a nonprecision approach procedure winch serves either one of parallel runways
that are separated by 1200 feet or leas followed by a straiaht-in landing on the adjacent runway.
2, Aircraft that will execute a side-step maneuver will be cleared for a specified non precision approach
and landing on the adjacent parajlel runway. Example, “ cleared ILS runway 7 left approach, side:
step to runway 7 right/' Pilots are expected to commence the side-step maneuver as soon as
possible after the runway or runway environment is in sight.
3, Landing minimums to the adjacent runway will be based on nonprecision criteria and therefore
higher than the precision minimums to the primary runway, but will normally be lower than the
published circling minimums.

B0 E V E R Y T H IN G EK PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot

 C hap Z — F lig h t R u le s & A p p ro a c h
CANCELING IFR FLIGH T PLAN:
[01.123(a). 91.IBS, 01 1S7, 01.160(d), 121.649, 135.205, AIM B-1-15 5-4-23, FAArH-6261, OpSpac 0077]
1. You may cancel with A TC at any time In VFR conditions below 18,000 feet.
2. You may cancel with A TC or FSS upon completing flight (on the ground).
3. Do NO T cancel in the air while on approach to an airport with a Class E surface area unless the
reported weather meets Ihe basic VFR weather requirements of 91.155: Visibility — 3 SM :Cloud
clearance — 500' below. 1.000' above, 2,000' horizontally. No person may operate an aircraft beneath
Ihe ceiling under VFR within the limits of Conlrolled airspace designated 1C Ihe Surface for an airport
when the ceiling is less than 1,000 feet i.except "Special vfr ' — s i .i &7).
4. Do NO T cancel in the air while on approach to an airport in Class B, C, or D airspace if that airport
does not meet the basic VFR weather mlnlmums and cloud separation requirements of 91.155 (unless
you receive a "Special VFR" clearance). Of course, canceling on approach lo an airport with an operating
control tower is guite simply a stupid waste of lime.
5. R O TE: A " Special V FR ” clearance is treated almost the same as an IER clearance as far as
separation is concerned. It is not likely to save you or the guy behind you any tim e. If the weather
is below 1000' & 3 miles, just wait till you're on the o round to cancel. You never know who might be
lurking in the weeds just wailing for a chance to make your life miserable,
6. If arriving at an airport with an operating control tower, the flight plan is automatically closed upon
landing.
7. If you fall to cancel your IFR {or VFR) flight plan within 30 minutes of your E T A ; search and rescue
procedures will be initialed. The Sheriff WILL come looking for v o u l
S. Additional requirements of OpSpec C077 for Part 135 turbojets and Part 1Z1 aircraft include:
a. The flightcrew must maintain 91.155 VFR cloud clearance applicable lo the airspace involved.
That means... Class B — clear of clouds. Class C, D & E — 500’ below, 1000' above. 2000'
horizontally (when below 10,000 feel MSL)(higher cloud clearance and visibility is required
when at and above 10,000 feet MSL}.
b. Ceiling and cloud clearance must be as such to allow the flightcrew to maintain the minimum
altitudes prescribed in 91.129, 91,130, or 91.131, as applicable for the Airspace Class in which
the flight is operated. Generally — for large or turbine powered aircraft this means —
[91 129(e)(1)] "...unleaa otherwise required by the applicable distance from cloud criteria,
enter the traffic pattern at an altitude of at least 1,500 AGL and maintain at least 1.500 AGL
until further descent is require for a safe landing.”
c. For CO N TR O LLED airports — The flight must be operated within Class B. C. or D
airspace, or within 10 miles of the destination airport in Class E airspace: and remains
within controlled airspace and in direct communications with ATC,
d. For U N CO N TR O LLED airports — T:ie ilkihlcrew must be In direct communications with an
air/around communication facility or agent of the certificate holder that provides airport
traffic advisories and Information that is pertinent lo conditions on and around the landing
surface during Ihe terminal phase of flight; and the flight is operated within 10 NM of the
destination airport. OR visual reference with the landing surface is established and can be
maintained throughout the approach and landing.

E X IT IN G the R U N W A Y after LA N D IN G :
(AIM 4-3-20)
1 Pilots, are expected lo exit Ihe runway without delay al
the Bret available laxiwav cr taniwav as instructed
by ATC.
2. Do MQT exitonlo another runway unless aulhorized.
3. Yqu erg ntf technically " CLEAR O F TH E RUN W AY"
until a l l PARTS of ihe aircraft are on the O t h e r
SIDE 01 Ult H O L D -SH O R T LIME.
4 Arior clearing the runway, coma lo .i complote atop on
Ihe other side of Ihe hold-s-horl line. Do N O T
continue laxiing unless laxi clearance has been
is m a d by A TC
5. Do H O T chanqa to ground frequency until you are
instructed tP dp 5P by the to w e r.
6. Immediately change lo ground coni ml iruuuency
when advised by The lower and oblain taxi clearance. *
V

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot ai

rg i.m . 91.125. -01.125, eh. 127. 91.129a. aim 4- 2- 13. ^3-ia, 5- 1- 1 . w -1 twit e-i-3)
VFR Conditions:
1 SQUAW K — 7600
2. Continue VFR — ala y F R a titiijjg — and LAND_A_s_$_o_Q_n_As_PraLji_c3_tjJ,e at the
nearest airport “ suitable” for your aircraft.
3, Do W OT continue on to your destination If there is a 'suitable'' airport for you to
land at. UNLESS you're just “minutes" from your original destination. Flying another 30 minutes after
losing the radios, passing several ‘ suitable" airports in VFR conditions along the way, would probably
not be considered "just minutes from your original destination."

JlMOTE:
INSTRUM ENT Conditions: 4 C ontrallara can transm it on some VOR. NDB. and
b Localiser frequencies
1. SQUAW K 7G00 ■ ♦ You can also try broadcasting in the blind on 121.5
2 R O U TE;
* Last assigned: or
* If being radar vectored — direct to (he fix, route, or airway specified in the vector clearance:
* In the absence of an assigned route — route that ATC has advised may be expected in a
further clearance; or
* In the absence of an assigned route 21 a route that A TC has advised may be expected in a
further clearance — by the route filed in the flight plan.
A LTITU D E - HIGHEST O F :

# #W Y
*■ Last assigned: or Another Brilliant Ideal
* Minimum £n route Altitude; or Whip out your smartphone- and give 'em a call.
At lower altitudes this might actually work.
* The altitude told to expect.
If you d o n 't have the number ju s t ask 5iri:o) .
I f ■ ■■ J J J J J J ■■

W H E N Can You D ES C EN D for APPROACH?panes)

1. Upon reaching the IAF but H O T before E T A .
2. IF EARLY — Holding and descent to the initial approach altitude shall be in the DEPICTED HOLDING
PATTERN, if NONE is DEPICTED, holding and descent shall be in a holding pattern on the
PRO CEDURE TU R N SIDE of the FINAL APPROACH COURSE.
3. OR... As long as you're in a RADAR environment, no one's gonna be looking at a stopwatch to see if
you dare to start down 60 seconds early — Just go ahead and shoot the approach when you arrive
at your destination — That's what they're expecting you to do anyway — You’ve got enough to worry
about — Losing communications in hard IFR can certainly be considered an emergency situation (your
nav radios could go nextllfsae 91,31— The controllers are clearing all traffic away from you —
Get the airplane on the ground as soon as possible so everyone else can get back to work {and you can
get some lunchf). Ask most any controller and that’s exactly what they'll tell you.
4. N O T E : — When filing your flight plan it's always good practice to LWPER-estimate your time
enroute just slightly in order to eliminate any thoughts about this ridiculous detail. You'll have much
more important things to think about if you lose communications.

If Communication Lost in HOLDING P A TTER N :

1 Commence descent and approach at EFC time
2. If no EFC time given — commence descent at E TA or amended (wiih ATC) ETE
3. If holding at a fix that is not an IAF — Leave holding al EFC time or if none has been received —
upon arrival over the fix,
4. Then proceed to an IAF and commence descent and approach as close as possible to the ETA
filed or amended (with A TC ) Estimated Time En route {E TE ),

T O T A L ELECTRICAL FAILURE in IMC Conditions:

1 Climb or descend to a VFR A LTITU D E and proceed to the NEAR EST VFR CONDITIONS
2. You do know WHERE the nearest VFR is. don’t you? You do have ENOUGH GAS to get there.
don't you?
3, G O O D LU C K I

82 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the P r o f e s io n a l Pilaf

 C hap Z F lig h t R u le s & A p p ro a c h
CO M M UNICATIO NS w ith TOWER w hen RADIO INOP:
(91.125, 91.126, 91.127, S l . m d 91.105, AIM 4-2-13, 4-3-13, 5-4-1 BlftJ 0-4-3)
1. Class B or C airspace — When in VFR conditions, S TA Y O J T of Class B or C airspace unless you
have a bona fide EM ERGENCY (such as low fuel) thal cannot be resolved except by entering that
airspace. If you're already inside Class B a r C — unless you're pretty m u d i on final approach —
sguawk 7600: leave the airspace at a VFR altitude and land at an uncontrolled [or Class P i airport.
Then call A TC and/or the lower to let them know you're OK. If you're already in the "pattern11at a
Class B or C airport when you lose communications — you could elect to continue — and hope that
you get a green liaht at the appropriate time from an on-the-ball controller [squawk 7600 of course).
2. Class D airspace — Remain outside Or above the airport traffic area until direction end Qay* of
traffic has been determined, then join the traffic pattern and maintain visual contact with the tower
to receive lig ht gun signals
3. Rock the wings in the daytime or flash landing of navigation lights at night to acknowledge.
A TC Light Signals (aim 4-3-idj
Color & type Meaning on S U R F A C E Meaning in F L IG H T
Steady G REEN O Cleared for takeoff Cleared to land.
Return for landing (to be
Flashing G R EE N Cleared to taxi followed by steady green
o o o o at proper time).
Steady RED § STOP Give way to olher aircraft
and continue circling.
Airport unsafe— do N O T
Flashing RED • # # Taxi clear of runway in use
land
Return to starting point on
Flashing W H IT E O O O airport Not applicable.

A lt e r n a tin g 0 Exercise extreme caution Exercise extreme caution.

RED & G R EE N [ 1

Hey Vinnle,
ya reckon we otta
give him a GREEN
LIGHT this time?
Naw, I'm still busy on the land line.
Give him another red light.

C O M M U N IC A T IO N S w ith C O N T R O L TO W E R S — Class G A irsp a ce : tsna^i

1. N O TE. Tem porary" control towers (per NOTAM ) are sometimes established at Class G airports to
handle increased traffic due to a major public event. The tower would “control" the flow of traffic but
the weather requirements of Class G 'control" the airports use by VFR traffic. Meaning — during the
daytime, you only need " 1-mile & clear of clouds'1in order to operate in the "tower-controlled" Class G
airspace as long as you slayj&rithip Luno_o_n.tr_ollod t airspace (normally b_ejo_w_7_0_Q' or jU & £_& G U
2. Unless otherwise authorized by A TC , no person may operate an aircraft to, from, through, or on an
airporl having an operational control lower unless two-way radio communications are maintained
between that aircraft and the control tower. Communications must be established prior to 4 NM from
the airport, up to and including 2,500 feet A G L . However, if the aircraft radio fails in flight, the Pilot In
Command may operate thal aircraft and land if weather conditions are at or above basic VFR
minimums, visual contact with the lower is maintained, and a clearance to land is received. If the
aircraft radio fails while in flight under IFR, (he pilot must comply with 91.165.
E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot S3
Chap 2 — Flight R ules & Approach
INSTRUM ENTS & EQUIPM ENT REQUIREMENTS:
(91.205, 91.597,91.1045, 121.157, 121 Subpan K, 135.149,136.167,135.159,135.193, 135.173, 135.175, 135.177, AIM 3-2-2 thru 3-2-5)
1. V FR — D A Y :
a. Airsneed indicator.
b. Altimeter.
c. Compass
d. Engine gauges — Tachometer, oil pressure gauge, oil temperature gauge, temperature gauge
(lor liquid corned ongmoj, and manifold pressure gauge (for nUituda onglna) for each engine.
e. Fuel gauge indicating quantity in each tank.
f. Landing gear position indicator (if retractable landing gear),
g. Anticollision light system for smali civil airpianes certificated after March 11, 1996 under Part 23.
h. If for hire -over water &. beyObd power-Off gliding distance from Shore— approved flotation
gear readily available for each occupant and at least one pyrotechnic signaling device.
I, Safety belt for each occupant 2 years of age or older.
j. Shoulder harness for each front seal — for small airplanes manufactured after July 18, 1978
and all normal, utility, and acrobatic airplanes seatir
December 12, 1986.
k. Emergency Locator Transmitter, if required by 91.2

S A F E T Y B E L T S : (H JU I 121,311 135.125)
; Each person (2 years of age or older) must occupy an approver
i seat or berth with a safety belt properly secured about him or hn
i during movement on the surface, takeoff, and landing (unless it is
! person pushing off a seaplane or float equipped rotorcraft from a
■ dock). See 91.107 for the specifics of child restraint systems.
FOR P A R T 91 OPE R A T IO NS O N L Y :
■ A person may use the FLO O R of the aircraft as a seat, provide
Hie person is on board for the purpose of engaging in
\ 3 P O R T P A R A C H U TIN G

2. V FR — N I G H T — A L L OF T H E A B O V E , PLUS'-
a. Position lights.
b If for hire, one electric landing light
c. Adequate source of electrical energy for all instai
d. One spare set ot fuses, or three spare fuses of ea<
3 , IF R :
a. All instruments and equipment required for VFR day —
and for night flight, all equipment required for V FR n ig h t.
b. Communications radio and navigation equipment appropriate for the ground facilities to
be used.
c. Gyroscopic rateof-turn indicator {not needed if there is a third altitude indicator installed).
d. Slip-skid indicator,
e. Sensitive altimeter adjustable for barometric pressure.
f. Clock with sweep-second pointer or digital
representation.
g. Generator or alternator with adequate capacity.
h. Attitude Indicator (artificial horizon).
i. Directional Gyro or eouivalent.
4. At and above 24,000 feet M SL (F L 240):
a. DME is required if VORs are to be used.
b. An IFR certified GPS (with a current database) can
substitute f o r D M E . (AIM 1-1-13, TEL 1-1-6;-
5. M O TE : Pilots must REPORT any lo sso fV O R A D F. 1LS etc.,
capability or Impairment of air/ground communications and any other information relating to the
safety of flight (AN 544).

84 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot

 C hao 2 — F lig h t R u le s & A p p ro a c h

C L O C K : (91.505, 91.213. FAA-H-B0B3-15. FAA-H-0261-1, FAA Legal Imerpntaltori datad April 23. 1901}
1. A dock displaying hours, minutes, and seconds with a sweep-second pointer or digital representation is
required for instrument flight rules flight.
2. The specified dock must be installed either under the aircraft
type certificate, or an S T C . or via a field approval.
3. !f the installed clock [the one listed on the equipment list] breaks
or is removed, just Velcroina a different clock to the instrument
panel or using your wristwateh does not meet the
requirements of 91.205. Only the dock listed on the equipment
list will do. Installed equipment cannot be substituted for by
portable equipment.
4. Also, to maintain the validity of the airworthiness certificate without
a change to the type certificate, if a clock is installed, it must be
operating for ALL operations unless the aircraft is operated
under a MEL and the MEL provides a way lo operate with the clock
inoperative. (91.213}
5. One more time — it can't be just AN Y clock — it has to be tbe one installed under the aircraft type
certificate, an STC, or a field approval.

A IR C R A F T L IG H T S : (91.20911 : P O S ITIO N L IG H T S :
; R E D — -Left wing
No person may:
(a) During the period from sunset to sunrise (or, in Alaska, during the period a — Right wing
W HITE — Tail
prominent unlighted object cannot be seen from a distance of 3 SM or the
sun is more than 6° below the horizon)—
(1) Operate an aircraft unless it has lighted position liohts
( 2 ) Park or move an aircraft in, or in dangerous proximity to, a night flight operations area ofo an
airport unless (he aircraft—
{i) Is clearly illuminated:
(il) Has lighted position lights: or RED GREEN
Is in an area that is marked by obstruction lights:
(3) Anchor an aircraft unless the aircraft—
(i) Has lighied anchor lights; or WHITE
(ii) Is in an area where anchor lights are not required on vessels; or
(b) Operate an aircraft that is equipped with an anticollision light system, unless it has lighted anticollision
lights, However, the anlicollislon lights need not be lighted when the Pilol-ln-Command determines
that, because of operating conditions, it would be in the interest of safety to turn the lights off.

"Always trust your Instruments Sonny...

,..ya see how this baby's clim bin’ like a rocket right now ?”

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot as

Chap 2 — Plight Rules & Approach

Interference With C re w m e m b e rs: izv5iio. is.s!i.u5.j2ci

This regulation prohibits any person from "assaulting," "threatening." ‘ intimidating,” or "interfering" with a
pilot in the performance of his or her piloting duties aboard an aircraft.

D r o p p i n g O b j e c t s : (ai.is>
A pilot may drop things from the aircraft as long as it does not create a
hazard to persons or property. This section does not prohibit the dropping of
an object as long as reasonable precautions are taken to avoid injury or
damage to persons or property.

R i g h t - O f - W a y _ R u l e s — E x c e p t w a t e r o p e r a t i o n s : (Bi.na)
1 JN D IS T R E S S — An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other air traffic.
2. C O N V E R G IN G — When aircraft of the same category are converging at approximately the same
altitude (except head-on or nearly so), the aircraft to the other’s right haa the rtaht-oNwav. If the
aircraft are of different categories—
a. A BALLOON has the right-of-way over any other category of
aircraft;
b. A GLIDER has the riaht-of-wav over an airship, airplane, or
rotorcraft: and
c. An AIRSHIP has the rioht-of-wav over an airplane or rotorcraft.
d. However, an AIR CR AFT TOW ING or REFUEUM G other aircraft has the
right-of-way over all other engine-driven aircraft.
3. A P P R O A C H IN G H E A O -O N — Whan aircraft are approaching each other head-on,
or nearly so, each pilot of each aircraft shall alter course to the right.
4. O V E R T A K IN G — Each aircraft that is being overtaken has the right-of-way and each pilot of an
overtaking aircraft shall alter course to the right to pass well clear.
5. L A N D IN G - Aircraft, while on final approach to land or while landing, have the right-of-way over
aircraft in flight or operating on the surface, except that they shall not take advantage of this rule to
force an aircraft off the runway surface which has already landed and is attempting to make way for an
aircraft on final approach. When two or more aircraft are approaching an airport for the purpose of
landing, the aircraft at the lower altitude has the right-of-way, but it shall not take advantage of this
rule to cut In front of another which is on final approach to land or to overtake that aircraft.

Right-of-way over an
airplane or rotorcraft

ae E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot

One Last Exciting A pproach You Should T ry Som etim e —
Th e O V E R H E A D A P P R O A C H M A N E U V E R : (a im
1. Pilots operating in accordance with an IFR flight plan in visual meteorological conditions (VMC)
may request A TC aulhorization for an overhead maneuver.
2. An overhead maneuver is not an instrument approach procedure
3. Overhead maneuver patterns are developed at airports where aircraft have an operational need to
conduct the maneuver.
4. An aircraft conducting an overhead maneuver is considered to he VFR The IFR flight plan is
cancelled when the at re raft reaches the initial point on ihe initial approach portion of the
maneuver.
5. The existence of a standard overhead maneuver pattern dees not eliminate the possible requirement tor
an aircraft to conform lo conventional rectangular patterns if an overhead maneuver cannot be
approved.
6. Aircraft operating to an airport WITHOUT a functioning control tower must initiate CANCELLATION
of an IFR flight clan prior to executing the overhead maneuver.
7. Cancellation of the IFR night plan must be accomplished after crossing the landing threshold on the
initial portion of the maneuver or after landing.
S. Controllers may authorize an overhead maneuver and issue Ihe following to arriving aircraft:
a. Pattern altitude and direction of traffic. This information may be omitted If either is standard.
PHRASEOLOGY — PATTER N A LTITU D E {altitude). RIGHT TURNS.
b. Request for a report on initial approach. PHRASEOLOGY — R EPORT INITIAL.
c. "Break" information and a request for the pilot to report. The "Break Point" will he specified if
nonstandard Pilots may be requested to report "break" if required for traffic or other reasons.
PHRASEOLOGY — BREAK A T (specified point). R E P O R T BREAK.
O verhead M aneuver

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 87

C hap 2 — F lig h t R u le s & A p p ro a c h
S A M E R U N W A Y S E P A R A T IO N — D E P A R T I N G : <f a a Order 7110.65, Chapter
The controller must separate a departing aircraft From a preceding departing or arriving aircraft using the same
runway by ensuring that it does not begin takeoff roll until:
a. The other aircraft has departed and crossed the runway end or turned to avert any conflict. If the
controller can determine distances by reference to suitable landmarks, the other aircraft needs only be
airborne if the following minimum distance exists between aircraft:
1. When only Category I aircraft are involved. — 3.000 feet.
2. When a Category I aircraft is preceded by a Category II aircraft — 3,000 feet.
3. When either the succeeding or both are Category II aircraft — 4.500 feet.
4. When either ¡8 a Category III aircraft - f i J J M r a t
5. When the succeeding aircraft is a helicopter visual separation may be applied In lieu of using
distance minima.
Same Runway Separation [View 1] Same Runway Separation [View 2]

Same Runway Jep-aratiGn - SR S' Categorise are bused upon lha lollowiriy daFinitions.
4 Category I - small aircraft weighing 12,500 lbs, or less, with a single propeller driven engine, and all helicopters,
=o Category II - srrtell aircraft Washing 15,500 lbs. or laSl, With prtjpaller driven IWin-arlgined.
=> Category III - a other aincrall including high performance singles, largo mulli-engine aircraft and all turbine powered aircraft.
............... ................................. ‘
b. A preceding lending aircraft is clear of the runway.

SA M E R U N W A Y S E P A R A TIO N — A R R IV IN G : <f a a Order 7110.65, Chapter 3)

1. Arriving aircraft must be separated from another aircraft using the same runway by ensuring that the
arriving aircraft does not cross the landing threshold until one of the following conditions exists:
a, The other aircraft has landed and is dear of the runway: or

* H = - i

b. Between sunrise and sunset, if the controller can determine distances by reference to suitable
landmarks and the olher aircraft has landed, it need not be clear of Ihe runway if the following
minimum distance from the landing threshold exists:

Category I aircraft landing behind a Category I or II — 3.000 feet

is.
« ------ 3,000 ftel ------- ►

Category II aircraft ¡8 landing behind a Category I or II - 4.500 feet

V

When either is a category III aircraft - 6,000 feet.

* J.flflO Fm I *■
* 4.5411 toil »
fi.ono rail —N

88 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the P rates« ¡anal Pila*

 Chapter 3

Navigation & Radios

“Options 491... WHERE YA GOIN’?”
C o m p « » S tu ff.......................................... 90
V O R .................................................................................................................................91
VOR Chech........................................................................................................................... 91
V O T ........................................................................................................................................91
C l « » I & C la ss II N a v ig a t io n ............. . .................... 92
D M E .......................................................................... ...................... 93
Portable Electronic Devices...,....... ............... . ...................... 93
G P S ................................................................... ........... 94, 95
Wide Area Augmentalion System (W A A S }....... ...................... 96
Local Area Augmentation System fLAAS i........ ...................... 96
Ground Based Augmentation System fG B A S f . ...................... 96
A N T E N N A S ..................................................... ............. 97-99
Transponder Codes.............................................. .................... 109
Frequencies........................ ......................... ........ .................. 100
N D B .................................................................... ................ 101
UN ICOM .............................................................. ................... 1Q2
EFAS f Flight Watch 1 FSS — Frequencies.... .................. 102
ADS-B — Automated Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast..................................... . 103
High Frequency (H F ) Radio ...............................................................................104
Telecommunicaüon Terms — Datalinks................................................................. . 105

Founders of fiaunin;
Gary Burrell and Min Kao

E V E R Y T H IN G EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 89

C h a p 3 — N a v ig a tio n & R a d io s .

COM PASS S TU FF | (91 205, FAA-H-0003-15, FAA-H-MS3-2S)

T h e m agical navigational device.
N O B A T T E R IE S N E C E S S A R Y ! •'*...... U N O S
Undershoot North
On an East or West heading Overshoot South
ANDS
Accelerate ^compass shows a turn Id the) North
ANDS
Decelerate (Compaq stiowt a Lurn to iha; South
Anticipale North
■■■■■h m m w h m n m m m m « m n m m n n m M
Delay Sooth

C O M P A SS PIP ER R O R S : (FAA-H-BDS3-15}
1. Acceleration error: On east or west headings, while accelerating,
compass shows a turn to the north and when decelerating it shows
a turn to the south.
2. Northerly turning error: LAG — North................ L E A D — Soulh
ËMly cam pim im m n n tVIH tleohcl j
3. ROLL O U T from a compass turn: i flj»., "BtlLllktS." « m p a s ìli ( « l a v 3 compassi^ ;
a. 3Qr B EFO R E the compass gets to North {lag) *ra Tiled Alin rthltfi harnsaiia or slllca-nfr.
b. 30^ A FTER the compass gets lo South {lead)
c. ON the heading for East or West (relatively accur,
-2 4 E
2*W
O T H E R C O M P A S S ER R O R S:
1, OscllJatlon error — Erratic movement caused by
t u rb u le n c e o r r o u g h c o n tro l t e c h n iq u e . - 2jo e
2, Deviation error — Electrical and magnetic disturbances
(he aircraft,
3 Variation error — Angular difference between true and
magnetic north, reference isogenic lines of variation.
* To convert from TRUE to MAGNETIC north, note the variation shown by the
nearest Isoqonlc line. If (he variation is west, add: if east, subtract.
East Is Least {subtract}
W est is B e s t (add)
“r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r f f r f f r f r rr rr r r r rr f f f r r r f f r r f f r f r f f f f r f

Use o f C O M P A S S d u r i n g G Y R O F A I L U R E :
When on a heading of SO UTH — as the airplane starts to bank, the compass moves in the proper
direction IM M EDIATELY. This makes S O U TH
most Suitable heading the for maintaining a
wings-leveJ attitude when descending through a layer of clouds
during a failure of all gyroscopic instruments (DG & Altitude Indicator).

C O M P ASS C ARD
PARTS 23.1547. 25.1547, 27.1547 & 29.1547 & AC 43.13-1B —
AIRW ORTHINESS STANDARDS — Require that a PLACARD
("compass card } most be installed on or near the compass showing
its CALIBRATIO N in level flight with the engines operating for
virtually ANY aircraft (normal, utility, acrobatic, commuter & transport
category airplanes and rolorcraft) to be airworthy regardless of the
type of operation (VFR or IFR). The placard must state whelher the For H 30 to ■ 1W t50
calibration was made with the radio receivers on or off. If the
Sloe-r 35S 029 D6D Ü9D 12*0 149
compass has a deviation or more than 10* caused by the operation of
electrical equipment, the placard must slate which electrical loads For s 210 Z40 w ÌM 330
would cause that deviation of more than 10° when fumed on. Slser 1BO 3on Ï1B 3Ï7 ZÏ9
................. ......................................... ...................... .. Date — 11-14-20IXX (Radios OHJ

90 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot

 [C h a p 3 — N a v ig a tio n A R a d io s
V O R (V ery high frequency Om nidirectional Range); gaimi-14Hy u m -s)
1. VORs operate in the VHF frequency band between 1QB.0 and 117.95 — except the odd tenths &
hundred^ within Lhe 108.10 thru 111.9^ band that are reserved for ILS and localizer frequencies.
2. ILS/locallzer frequencies always have an odd digit to the right of the decimal point — 10B.10,
108,15. m i . 108.35. m s . 108,55. 108.7. 108,75. M S , 108.95. m i , etc (AiMtebte i - 1 h*j
3. Most VORs will also be VO RTACs which also give distance information for DM Es. 0 VOR
4. Some VORs have voice weather
a VOR/QMt
5. O B S — fimni Bearing Selector — Bearing selected by the pilot.
6. CPI — Course Deviation Indicator — Needle that indicates any deviation. V VORTA.C

7. VORs are identified by their Morse Code ID and/or by recorded voice ID (e.g,, 'Charlotte VOR"
alternating with the Morse Code ID). VORs without voice are indicated by the letter "W" (i.e., VORW ).
8. Properly working VQRs transmit their Morse Code ID every 10 sec with a 102Q Hz tone (bsiwasn b 4 c>.
Properly operating DMEs transmit that same code every 30 sec with a 1350 Hz tone (batean E a F).
9. During maintenance, the facility may radiate a T -E -S -T code or the code may be removed.
VOR/DM EJTACAN Standard Service Volum es
A N G U L A R D E V IA T IO N : flFAMt-eoaa-IS)
Terminal VOR 1,000 to 12,000 AGL 25 NM ♦ Full scale deflection * 10°
1,000 to 18,000 AGL * Half-scale deflection = 5g

I
to w 'Altitude 40 NM
D IS T A N C E O F F -C O U R S E :
High- Artltude 1,000 tú 14,500 AGL 40 NM Off course is approximately 200 feet per
14.500 to 1B.OOO AGL 100 NM dot per mile.
1 dot 30 miles out = 1 NM off course l
18,000 to 45,000 AGL 130 NM 1 dol 60 miles out = 2 NM off course ¡
45,000 to 60,000 AGL 100 NM * * ««
Aptapoatd Minimum QiporallonBl
NeLwork (M O M ni VORs Will be
Standard Service Volumes are maintained well Into !ha Future as a
applicable only <o‘'jcanrifli»’' [¡,e,, backup hr VOR-aquippud aircroU in
diracl] foulas. They never apply case al a GPS outage. All VORs will
te published FR routes. be retained in Alaska, the Western US
MaunlalntHMArea, and US island*
V O R s are aligned and temlonas. In case of an outage,
(approximately^ w.ih aircraft will hin able la navigate using
M agnetic Fiorili. VORs at *r above 5.MO It AGL (or
------------------------------------A" less) lt> an airport wiLlim 1C0 NM and
i m \¡ land using ILS. localizer, or VOR
based approaches.
V O R C H E C K : (91.171, AIM 1 -1 -4 , 2-3-6. FIG 2-3-2Q, FA A -H -B 0 Ö 3 -1 E ;- '*WWWIWfWWf#HWWWWWWWWWWiWHWlF
1. Required within the previous 30 days for IFR flight:
* 7Fib Pilot In Command is rgsuonaibla
a. V Q T surface (or airborne) check — ±4°; ^ for datarrninino whether 1ha aircraft is In
b. Radio repair,station — Max permissible varialion ±4*; g£ • an airworthy condition f91.7(bH.
c. Surface V O R checkpoint — ±4'; or
d. Airborne VO R checkpoint - ±6® (if neither 0.. b., Or c. is available); a t
e. Airborne over prominent landmark — ±6" (if no check signal or point is available) — over a
prominent ground point; along the centerline of am established airway: preferably more than
2Q NM from the VOR. at a reasonably low altitude: or
f. Dual V O R system check — 4° between each other (a person may check one system against
the other In place of all the other above checks).
2. All checks can be performed and signed off by the pilot EXCEPT a radio repair station check. A radio
repair station can use a radiated test signal, but only the technician performing the test can make an
entry in the to£. Locations ot airborne & surface checks can be found in the A/FD.
3. Each person making a VOR check must enter
D E P S — Date, Error, Place, and Signature in the aircraft log or other reliable record.
4. The C O U R S E S E N S ITIV ITY can be Checked by recording the number of degrees of change in lhe
course selected as you rotate the OBS to m ove the C P I from center to the last dot on either side.
This should be between 10* end 12°, <faa - h -0QS3-i s )

V Q T CHECK: (91.171, AIM 1-1-4, .2-3-6, FIG 2-3-20, FAA-h-0003-15)

♦ VOR Test facility. Locations and frequencies of VOTs are published in lhe A/FD and Jeppesen airport
charts With the GDI centered, lhe OBS should read 180» T O & 360° FROM (within ±4"). V O T checks
are permitted in flight limited to areas/altitudes authorized in the A/FD or supplement,

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 91

Chap 3 — Navigation & Radios]

C LA S S I N A V IG A T IO N : (ppSpocsAfloa, BOaz. BOM;aim l-l-s. ac 90-45A.Acso-se,Acsi-70,AC 12O-26D)

1. Class I navigation is any an route flight operation or portion of an operation that is conducted entirely
within the designated Operational Service Volumes (or ICAO equivalents) of ICAO standard airway
navigation facilities iV Q R . VOR/DME. N D B ). Clast I navigation alto includes en route flight
operations over routes designated with an " M EA C A P ” (gap in nav signal coverage), En route flight
operations conducted within these areas are defined as "Class I navigation" operations irrespective of
the navigation means used. Class I navigation includes operations within these areas using pilotage
or any other means of navigation which does not rely on the use of VQR. VOR/DME, or NDB.
2. In plain English — Class I navigation must be conducted entirely wilhin the Qperahonai gervjce Volume
of "standard" — VOR or NDB — navaids. You must be within the QSV of at least one VQR or MDB at
all limes, even though you need not be using that particular navaid lor navigation at that lime. And you
do not need to be proceeding directly to any of these navaids.
3. Operational Service Volume — is that volume of airspace surrounding a NAVAID. which is available for
operational use and within which a signal of usable strength exists. Operational Service Volume
includes — Standard Service Volume, Expanded Service Volume, or any published instrument flight
procedure (victor or jet airway. DP, STAR S and lAPs).
4. If you're outside the Operational Service Volume of a VOR o r NDB. and you’re off an airway, you are
conducting Class II operations, and must possess O p S pccs for Class II operations regardless of
what navigational equipment Is on board and regardless of how good a signal you happen to be
receiving from the VOR or NDB

C L A SS II N A V IG A T IO N : (o Ps pBCi A002. 6032. B034. B03S, B054: AC 90-45A. AC 90-96. AC 31-70. AC \20-2Bty
1. Class II n a v ig a tio n is any en route flight operation or portion of an en route operation (irrespective Of
the means of navigation) which takes place outside (beyond) the designated Operational Service
Volume (or ICAO equivalents) of ICAO standard airway navigation facilities IVOR. VOR/DME, IMDBi.
However, Class II navigation does not include en route flight operations over routes designated with an
"MEA GAP" (gap in nav signal coverage).
2. For example, an aircraft equipped with only VOR conducts Class il navigation when the flight
operates in an area (off an airway) outside the operational service volumes of federal VORs/DMEs.
3. Class II havigalion involves operations conducted in areas where the signals from ICAO standard
navaids have not been shown to meet signal strength, course quality, and/or frequency protection
standards. Therefore. A TC cannot predicate aircraft separation on the use of these facilities alone and
must apply larger separation criteria. When operating outside the operational service volume of ICAO
standard navaids, signals from these stations cannot be relied upon as the sole means of conducting
long-range operations to the degree of accuracy required. Therefore, when operating outside the
designated operational service volumes of ICAO standard navaids, operators must use Long-Range
Navigation Systems fLR N Si (GPS, Loran C . Omega. INSi O/? “ special navigational techniques”
(Dead Reckoning, pilotage, flight navigator, celestial) or both. These systems and/or techniques are
necessary to navigate to the degree of accuracy required lor the control of air traffic and to avoid
obstacles.
4. The dftfi.nition_ojf_Cla5.5_ll navigation is DflLdttBflndttnmnaaJhflJailipmon.tjn3t3lle.d_in the aircraft
All airspace outside the operational service volume of iCAO standard navaids is a three-dimensional
volume of airspace within which any type of enroute navigation is categorised as Class II navigation.
 I C h a p 3 — N a v ig a tio n & R a d io s
DME (D istance M easuring Equipm ent):
(91.205a, 91.711, 121.349, AIM Î-1-7, 1-1-9*.) ~
1. DM E is REQUIRED at and above FL 240. An IFR certified G P S with a current
database can substitute for D M E . (91.205,91.711, aim 1- 1- 211.5.)
2. Paired pulses at a specific spacing are sent out from the aircraft and are received at 5 Ffi’B fc 'i
the ground station (VOR or ILS), i ' ) I i
3. The ground station then transmits paired pulses back
|V| 7ACAN muti b* placed
10 the aircraft at the same pulse Spacing but On a (T| ¡ndicortl frequency in mod* Fa n o tiv i
different frequency. The time required for the round protection rtng* IdmfiW
I udinante
IS’ullCB i-fornonon
trip is measured in the airborne DME unit and is
Frequent/^ \ W w 4 )o /
translated into distance in Nautical Miles.
4 DME O R O U N Q S P E E D and T IM E -T Q -S T A T IQ N are ? ______ Gwgropbit
____
only accurate when flying directly to or from the N7ÌT37 t m ^ S Î S t "- kùlirion
ground station. If you are flying in any other direction, Uiidt'liiii ¡i-.d-iiolib Mf, Î + T Dto£ m
TACAM
the groundspeed will be erroneously low and the time- -no volta ■rammiNtd Erv-ouit C Fiait Cbanntü
to-station will be erroneously high. on lMi frequency liilw*n£t
5. Accurate line-of-sight information fS L A N T R A N G E D IS T A N C E ! The pfressnes at u p^JOJOfil [“.g . CMn_5_3j
can be received up to 109 NM from the station with an accuracy tails you Lhai DM E is available.
of belter than % mile or 3%,
6. “S L A N T R A H G E E R R O R ” is not an important factor unless the aircraft is passing directly over the
station at high altitude. When directly over the station, ihe DME shgws the altitude of Ihe aircraft
above the station in nautical miles (i.e., &000 ft AGL = 1 NM, 9000 ft AG L = 1.5 IMM). Slant range
error also affects groundspeed and lime-lo-siation when the aircraft is close to the station.
?. DME transmits the same coded identification as the (co-located) VOR, but sends it during the pause
between sequential VOR idenls (Note: DME idenl is also higher pitched). If a single coded identifier of
the VOR repeats only every 30 seconds — the DME portion of the VOR/DME signal is operative (but
the VOR may be inoperative).
8. DME ground equipment can service only a limited num ber of aircraft at any one lime. If too many
aircraft are interrogating the ground station, it will automatically desensitize and respond only to the
strongest interrogations. The result can be less lhan normal DMEj-angt?.
9. If the DME becomes inoperative while enroute, the pilot shall notify A T C as soon as possible. ( 121.349)
10. DM E ARC Procedures — If a feeder route to an initial Approach Fix is part of the Instrument Approach
Procedure, it is considered the M A N D A TO R Y starting point for (he approach. In other words — you
cannot just pick up the DME Arc anywhere you like and then fly the rest of the approach. You must
start the DME A rc at a PUBLISHED Initial Approach Fix.

P O R T A B L E E L E C T R O N I C D E V I C E S : (9121 121.an, is m 44)

(a) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this section, NO PERSON MAY O P E R A T E ,
nor may any operator or pilot in command of an aircraft allow the operation of, ANY
Portable Electronic Device on any of the following U.S.-registered civil aircraft:
(1) Aircraft operated by a holder of an AIR CARRIER operating certificate or an
operating certificate: or
{2) A N Y other A IR C R A F T while it is O P E R A T E Q under [EB.
(b) Paragraph (a) of this section does not apply to—
(1) Portable voice recorders:
(2)Hearing aids: At press lime the FAA in their infinite wisdom
(3)Heart p a c e m a k e rs : had finally announced what pilots and
(4)Electric shavers, or passengers have known for decades.., iPads
and smartphones don't crash airplanes! They
(5)Any other portable electronic device
decreed that passengers may use their tablets
that the operator of the aircraft has and! other gadgets in airplane mode gate to
determined will not cause gate. By the time you read this I expect 91.21,
interference with the navigation or 121.306, and 135.144 will have changed.
communication system of the aircraft. J ' - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................................................ ^
(c) In the case of an aircraft operated by a
holder of an air carrier operating certificate or an operating certificate, the determination required by
paragraph (b)f5) of Ihis section Shall be madE by that operator cf the aircraft on which the pedicular
device is to be used, in the case of other aircraft, the determination may be made by the pilotJn
command or other operator of the aircraft.

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 93

 C h a p 3 — N a v ig a tio n & R a d io s

§-43.3[kh StaLaS Ilia! 'Updates ol databases in Certain somituitiicatioriB froauanciEs have **

installed avionics meeting (he conditions of this
paragraph sm oLfiJ corisiderad m ainta nance :n*1
may be performed by pilots.'
They must be uploadable from the flight deck
urilhoul use of tools of special equipment.
been known lo cause h a rm o n ic in te rfe re n c e .
which may have bh Bdvaiso ■orrocl on Iho
receplion or a GPS signal. These frequencies
include 1 2 L 1 5 . 121.175. 121.ZOO. 131,250.
131.275 and 131.300 MHz. (AC 20-136i

G P S — G lo b a l P o s itio n in g S y s te m :
{AIM 1-1-10 thru 1-1-21, 1-3-3, 5-1-0, 5-3-S, 5-4-5, AC 2IJ-13DA, AC 23-130, AC M -10E. T& O C129, TSO-C196>
1. A GPS receiver automatically selects signals from the satellites in view. Based on continuous
knowledge of the position of each satellite — with respect lo precise time and distance from each
satellite — the receiver translates this information info Ihree-dimensional position, velocity and time. As
an example of how accurale the liming is — if the measurement were 1/1000^ of a second off — there
would be a 186-mile error In your location, or approximately one foot error per billionth of a second
Location is calculated by comparing the known time that the signal is broadcast by the atomic clocks in
Ihe satellites, with the actual lime of reception, aka Time Of Arrival (T Q A ) ranging.
2. The main GPS system is made up of 24 satellites {plus a few spares) — 4 of which must be received
by your unit lo yield a three-dimensional position and time solution. They orbit the earth iwioe a day at
an altitude of 11.000 miles At least 5 satellites are in view at all limes from virtually any point on earth.
3. Each satellite transmits its own ‘pseudo-random code." The receiver is programmed to recognise the
code and match it to the specific satellite. The receiver does this with at least 4 different satellites as it
simultaneously updates its own internal clock bias. The receiver then converts the time lapse cf each
satellite's signal into a precise distance measurement. Simple eh!
4. GPS is a VERY high maintenance system. The satellites require regular clock upkeep, orbit position
adjustments, and data uploads, If the ground support teem (the U,S. Air Force) went on strike, Ihe
system would degrade and become completely unusable within a couple of weeks.
5. Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring [R A lM j (aka Fault Detection) continuously monitors the
(IFR certified) unit in your aircraft for integrity. A R A IM error message is a way of warning the user
that there is loss of accuracy, whether due lo solar interference or intentional jamming.,, time lo go to
Plan B for a while. RAIM error is extremely rare and typically lasts for less than 5 minutes. RAIM is
specific lo n o n -W A A S GPS eve terns which are not considered standalone which is why the AIM calls
for an alternative form of navigation... yup good old fashioned VORs.
6. GPS provides "Great Circle Track" navigation.
7. Units with “Eredse £ositioning Service" (E E S ) capability can expect accuracy to 16 meters f52 feet).
PPS was originally intended only for the military but is now available to all users.
8. A study commissioned by the D O T has shown that GPS is susceptible to occasional disruption from
atmospheric effects, signal blockage from buildings or mountains as well as deliberate GPS
interference caused by Cheap, pockel-Sized "JAM M ER S.” Long-term OulageS Could be caused by
hostile actions far less overt than full-scale war. Another danger is “ SPOOFING" of the signal. False
GPS signals could bo ironsmitied, which could slowly divori on aircraft off course unbeknownsi lo Ihe
pilot. For these reasons a backup system of V O R r IL5; and/or INS is highly recommended.
3. The most critical GPS deficiency is its extremely low-powered signal and ils single civil frequency
(1575.42 MHz). These deficiencies would be corrected when GPS III is commissioned sometime
between 2012 and 2015. G P S IM will transmit al much higher power over twm dedicated civil
frequencies, which will virtually eliminate natural interference and overcome cheap jammers.
10. A “worm hole” is an FAA term for a point where the GPS unit is coincidentally equidistant from four
satellites, and for a short period of Lime the unit may nol be operational.
11. An IFR-cerlified GPS (with a current database) may be used as a substitute for DME and ADF in all
operaiions except ND6 approaches that do nol have a GPS oveday, (AJM 1-Mft)
12. An IFR certified GPS is required to have a separate £ourse Deviation Indicator (CPU located in the
pilot's primary rield of vision. (AC zc-isaj
13 IFR certification requires a FLIGHT M ANUAL SUPPLEM ENT that must be on board the aircraft,
Alternate Airport Consideration»
CP S user's may plan to use GPS-based approach as at Hither *
Lheir destination or alternate but nol al both locations. ADF I V O R I GPS: (a im 1- 1 - 1 3, a im 1 - 2 - 3 )
W AAS ' ■.!■■■. WITH bj.ro-VNAV i t i|:-..... ' m.iy ui.ui An IFR-certified GPS (with a current database) may be
LNAVfVrfAV or RhP 0.3 DA at destination and alia male. ■ used as a substitute for VOR/DME/ADF n all operations
W AAS users withQUT baro-VN AV may plan !or LHA.V al the f
desllnallon and ahemalu. [AIM 1-1-19, 1-1-1Bg., 1-2-3d.) I

94 E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D tor the Professional Pilot

 *An IFR certified GPS with
an EXPIRED database
can still be used for IFR
*
fenroute and terminal
operalions. bjuLn.pt
approaches.
Requires verification of
data from current enroute
andJor terminal charts,
y [AIM 1-1-19, T liLi Iu 1-1-6) j

% A M W W W W W W rf^

G P S — IF R D ire c t w ith a V F R G P S : (s1.205(d)(2), aim 1-1-ia, 5-1-6.5-1-101

1. There is nothing In the regulations that prohibits use of a V F R G P S for navigation on an IFR flight
plan — You just c a n M O f use it as your ONLY or PRIMARY source of navigation.
2. You WILL need to have the appropriate radios to conduct an instrument approach at the destination.
An ADF approach will require ADF equipment; a VOR approach will require VOR equipment, etc.
3. E N R O U T E — As long as you’re in a RADAR environment, you can legally file direct to the
destination. It is legal 10 use dead reckoning for portions of any IFR flight. There are slill many airliners
out Ihere— without area navigation— that ask for and receive direct headings on a daily basis, staring at
VOR flags for long periods of time. Think of (he GPS as a foam of suoer-accurate dead reckoning.
It's a good idea to have Ihe maos, out and cnas-S-cadia.l off the passing VQRs just to keep Ihings
honest. This is especially helpful if the GPS decides to go to lunch and doesn’t invite you.
4. A P P R O A C H — You ca n N O T usp the VFR G P S {or an IFR certified GPS that does not have a current
database} as (he P RIM ARY source of navigation for an Instrument approach. But it certainly makes
a great backup for situational awareness.
5. FILING the FLIG H T PLAN — Unless the GPS is IFR certified do W O T file at IG IG tells them you
have an IFR certified G P S wilh Enroute and Term inal (approach) capabilities (AIM 5-1-8). Always file
the correct Equipment Suffix for your aircraft, usually (U or [A. If you want, in the remarks section, you
can mention the fact that you have a GPS on board. File direct to your destination, but be ready with
the latitude and longitude FSS personnel will appreciate you having thal information handy.
6. If you are navigating with VORs; you have to be within (he standard service volumes (AIM 1-1-8). The
exception is, if you are in R AD AR C O N T A C T (which you would have to be so as to fly off-airway routing
anyway), standard service volum es don't a pp ly.
7 If you hear the question, “H O W A R E Y O U N A V IG A TIN G D IR E C T . W E S H O W Y O U A S A S L A N T
U N IF O R M ?" Simply state " W E HAVE GPS ON B O A R D ." You didn't lie. You didn't say you were
slant Golf. You just said you had GPS. The controller doesn't care if you spent the extra S8.-000 to gel
i f IFR certified", he just wants to know if you're gonna make his life simple or complicated. Keep it
simple! The controller couldn't care less about youir legal status other (han how it affects his operation.
* ** 1. If your GPS is hardw ired into the system, a FAA
4 R EM EM B ER : 137 [Major Repair & Alteration': form is required.
A handheld or “V F R ” GPS c a n N O T be used If it's plugged into the cigarette lig h te r, the 337
as your "P R IM A R Y ” source of navigation, form is not required.
2. IF a tool is used 1o mount Ihe GPS, a 337 form is
but It certainly can be used for required. If it's just simply clamped to the yoke or
— and is acce pta ble to provide — attached with Velcro, the 337 form is not roouired
"situational aw areness."

S o .- keep those V O R & A D F radios on and

keep rem inding yourself that they are
your m“P RmIM A R Y ” source of navigation,

Also comes in handy for

the drive to the motel.

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 95

[c h a p 3 — N a v ig a tio n & R a d io s ]

W A A S (S B A S Ì G B A S (L A A S )

4
v

W id e A r e a A u g m e n ta tio n S y s t e m (W A A S)
IC A O T e r m — S p a c e B a s e d A u g m e n t a tio n S y s t e m (S E A S ):
(AIM 1-1-1&. FAA-H-BOB3-15, FAA-H-B251-1)
1. A satellite navigation system consisting of ground eaummoint and software, which augments the GPS Standard
Eositioning Service (SPSi The WAAS provides enhanced integrity, accuracy, availability, and continuity over and
above GPS SPS. WAAS imgroves the accuracy of the navigation system by determining position error from the
GPS satellites by use of Ground Reference Stations, then transmitting corrective factors to a geostationary
satellite then on to your airborne GPS receiver.
2. WAAS a llow s GPS 10 be used, from [aKooff through Category I precision approach with minimums available as
low as 200 ft and % mile. It also may allow use at your attorneto even when a non-GPS approach is unavailable,
3. Wide-area ground Reference Stations i'WRS: arc linked to form a US WAAS network. These precisely surveyed
Ground Reference Stations (IfliRS) (about 2b in the US including Puerto Rico. Hawaii, and Alaska) receive signals
from GPS satellites and any errors in the signals are then datarmined Each station in the network rolays the
data to a Wide-area Master Stalion fW MSj where correction information for specific geographical areas is
computed. A correction message is prepared and uplinked to a GEOstationary satellite i'GEQ) via a Ground
Uplink Station [GUST The message is then broadcast on the same frequency as GPS to WAAS receivers.
4. The WAAS broadcast message improves the GPS signal accuracy from 100 motors (32S foot) to approximately
ore to two unctcrs 13-6 fa rt) horizontally and two to three meters verticafly.
5. WAAS avionics are evaluated without reliance o r other navigation systems. As such, installaiion of WAAS avionics
doe» MOT require the aireraflto have o the r equipm ent appropriate to the route to be flown. (AIM i-i-i9u.7.)
S. Pilots with WAAS receivers equippec WITH baro-VHAV may flight plan to use any instrument approach procedure
authorized for use with their WAAS nvtonics as ihe planned approach at the original destination and required
alternate.. When WOT equipped with baro-VNAV. flight planning to the destination and alternate may be based
on flying the r n a v (GPS) LNAV minima line, orminima o r a GPS approach procedure, or conventional approach
procedure with J'or GPS" in the title. Upon arrival at tho destination or alternate, whan the WAAS navigation
system indicates that LNAVtVMAV or LPV service is available, then vertical guidance may be used to complete
the approach using the displayed level of sorvico The FAA has begun removing tho & N A {Alternate Minimums
Not Authorized) symbol from select RNAV (GPS) and GPS approach procedures so they may be used by approach
approved WAAS receivers at alternate airports, [a im i-i-i9c,7.}

G r o u n d B a s e d A u g m e n t a t i o n S y s t e m ( G B A S ) {“ geo b a s t") — I C A O t e r m f o r . . .
L o c a l A r e a A u g m e n t a t io n S y s t e m (L A A S ): (aim 1-1-20,5-4-5, faa-h-sob3-15, sae1-1)
1. A fiifterential Global Eosltioning System f DGPS) that improves the accuracy of the system to sub-m eter to vats by
determ ining position error from the GPS satellites at a fix e d , local around station on The a irpo rt, then
transmitting the error, or corrective factors. seamlessly via VHF data link to the airborne GPS receiver.
2. When a LAAS unit is installed at an airport, it will serve all runways at that airport with the potential of CAT III
autoland minimums in anv visib ility to each runw ay. The short-term goal is not to replace ILS but to provide
precision approaches at airports where local terrain makes ILS equipment unsuitable,
3. LAAS can be used to create curved approaches invoking numerous approach paths within 30 miles of the airport.
4. The LAAS ground based m o n ito r can be installed at an airport for about (he price of a single ILS. but can
potentially provide q n?&isi° n to virtually all of the airport's runw ays.
5. The signal can also be used at reliever airports dose by to develop non-precision approaches without the cost
of expensive ground equipment,
6. Pilots wiil select the five d ig it GBAS channel number of the approach within the Elight Management System.
7. At press time available only at Newark {EWR) and Houston (IAH) but expanding internationally.

96 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot

 C h a p 3 — N a v ig a tio n & R a d io s

A N TEN N A S
B A S IC R A D IO S T U F F :
1. Radio frequencies range from 30 KHz ( Kilohertz — thousands of cycles per second) to
30,000 MHz ( megahertz — millions of cycles per second).
2. This frequency range is broken down into various ‘"BANDS'" that are grouped by
‘"W AVELENGTH" measured in meters or centimeters:
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
U S E D FO R W A V ELEN G TH
BAND RANGE
Low frequency — LF 30-300 kHz Loran & ADF 10,000-1,000 m
Medium Frequency — MF 300 - 3,000 kH2 AG F 1.000 - 100 m
AM ■Arr-Cil Lurie Modulation) Broadcast 53 5 -1 ,6 0 5 kHz ADF & Broadcast radio 5 6 0 -1 8 7 m
tiiqh frequency >
— ti£ 2 - 3 0 MHz Long Range Communications 100-1 0 m
Communications, V O R ; E LT
Very High Frequency — VHF 30 - 300 MHz 10-1 m
& Marker Beacons
Transponder, Radar,
Ultra High Frequency — UHF 30Q - 3,000 MHz 1 0 0 - 10 cm
Glideslope. DME. & GPS
3. LOW frequency radio signals travel jong distances. buL are more Susceptible to interference from
atmospheric conditions. This interference also affects long range High Frequency ""HF” radios.
4. VHF and UHF are much less prone lo interference, but are IinnIled to llne-of-siqht range.
5. Generally, the SIZE of an antenna depends on the frequency and W AVELEN G TH it is designed to
receive or transmit. Wavelength being inversely proportional to frequency. Antennas are normally
designed to be ’/¡, Vi, or some other fraction of the wavelength,
6. COM M UNICATIONS antennas are usually mounted V E R TIC A LLY so they can receive and transmit in
all directions (Note: Comm radios u&e Amplitude ¿¿adulation — "AM ”)'
7. NAVIGATION antennas are norm al Iy mou nted H O RIZ O N T ALL Y d je to their direction al nature.
'■ Vi'niri Jinüflti conMUMiiialloni fi*.l o tisie d . me only ra&M
avalsSia M r s ur firiplltude Mudn j I ilti i AM ;■ frequency
C O M M U N IC A T IO N A n te n n a : Modulili UIÌ : FM I tobUd Uttlriitely tJfr pitlii;iLi|'r bacause Cl i l i immunity
id nolpa or itiiri, irircintri bui Ihql mould rriquitir changing uvBf ill tatl.di
1. VHF frequencies from 118-0 to 137,&7S M Hz.
In ihi- air and on Ilia ground wnUlaneDij-aly. TIìbA an't goivu lispirent
2 Wavelength approximately two meters.
3. Approximately % meter long (20 inch) whip {bent or straight) or can be in the shape of a smaller
‘"blade" or "V-blade" (boomerang silting on top of a vertical support), normally mounted vertically to the
TO P of the aircraft (wilh about 20 inches of copper wire coiled inside; l.e., V* of the wavelength).
4. If there are two radios, there will normally be two antennas.
C o m m u n ic a tio n s
■ NOTE: Many "NAV- **,
COMM" unite, share
(he eprmg box, hut
very lew tomponente
are shared. So if the
NAV or CQMM fails,
the other unit in the
same box is still likely
to t?o working, j
E L T A n t e n n a:
1. VHF frequency 121 -5 MHz
2. Usually slightly shorter than a communication antenna due to its fixed frequency.
3. Most often a thJn whip anienna mounted vertically on top of the fuselage.
4. Sometimes ELT antennas are attached to the E LT transmitter (or buried in the vertical tail) and
therefore no external antenna is observed. %
IMHO — Ona of tha dumbest things Obama ever did
was 10 sign the order dismantling Vis LORAN
LORAN A n ten n a: system . leaving us without a backup For long range
navigation A violent solar slorm or concerted
1. LF frequencies from 90 to 110 kHz. enemy attack could easily take out the entire G PS
2 Looks virtually the S AM E AS a COMM UNICATION network leaving us wallowing in deep s#!l — IMHO
A N TEN N A even though il operates at a lower frequency.
3. Typically a WHIP (straight or bent) mounted to the TOP or BO TTO M of the fuselage.
4. If an aircraft looks like it has three communication antennas, one of Ihem is probably for the loran.

E V E R Y T H IN G EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 97

Chap 3 — N avigation & Radios)
More About ANTENNAS
V O R / L O C A L I Z E R A n te n n a :
1 VHF frequencies 108 to 117.95 MHz.
2. Most often attached to the vertical fin and shaped like a horizontal V-w hip or rectangular wilh a
tubular cross-section.
3, In some applications the VOR/locailzer antenna can be com bined with the com m unications antenna
to take the shape of a boomerang sitting on top of a vertical support. In this case the vertical
support is the corruimin¡cations antenna while the b.orjrociitaLb.o.o.me.rang section is for Ihe
VORflocalizer

V O R / L O C A LIZ E R IF

A P F A n ten n a:
1. LF, MF and AM broadcast frequencies 190 to 1605 kHz.
2. Older ADFs have a lone "sense" antenna stretching from the top of the cockpit to the vertical fin
and in addition a small “ loop” antenna mounted on the underside of the fuselage.
3. Newer installations combine the sense and loop into one rectangular or teardrop-shaped fiberglass
box mounted on the belly. This arrangement eliminates the significant parasite drag of the long sense
antenna.

G LID E SLO PE A n te n n a :
1. UHF frequencles from 329.15 to 335 M Hz.
2. Can sometimes be a wire embedded in a wide, oval shaped plastic plate installed Inside the
windshield near the to p .
3. Or... a T-shaped antenna on top or in front of the windshield.
4. Or.,, a small fiberglass appendage that looks like a boomerang mounted on top of the cockpit or
sometimes to the belly.
5. Or.,, a U-shapcd band with a brace through ihe center mounted on ihe nose.
6. O r... can sometimes be combined with the VQR antenna.

98 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 Even Afore About ANTENNAS
MA R K E R B E A C O N _ A n ten n a:
1. VHF frequency 75 MHz (low-power, about three watts).
2. Can be a ¿mall BLA D E mounted on the bell v somewhat longer than a DME blade.
3. O r... a thick WIRE on (he belly (hat BENDS sharply REARW ARD with a metal support near its tail.
4. O r,., a " canoe-shaped” fiberglass attachment mounted on the belly.

Marker &oacon or DME or 1 ranspondor

TRAN SPON D ER A n te n n a :
1. UUE frequencies, Transmits on 1090 MHz and receives on 1030 MHj .
2. Normally located on the B E LLV . may be a 2-inch VERTICAL M ETA L WHIP with a SM ALL B ALL on
the end or a small fiberglass FIN or blade Identical to the DME antenna.
3. The DME and transponder operate in approximately the same frequency range and therefore require
the antennas be placed as far apart as possible to avoid interference (at teasf 6-feel apart).

DM E A n t e n n a :
1. UHF frequencies 962 to 1213 MHz
2. Small FIN or blade mounted on the B E LLV .

G P S A n ten n a:
1. UHF frequency 1575 MHe
2. Thin CIRCULAR or R ECTAN G ULAR or te ardrop -a haj>ed fiberglass box mounted on the TOP of the
fuselage.

T R O U B L E SH O O T IN G R a d io s :
1. Keep all antennas CLEAN and FREE from G R EA SE and p iL A dirty antenna Will not work properly.
TRANSPONDER antennas or any other antennas located on the belly need to be cleaned on a regular
basis to keep those radios operating correctly.
2. Check for LO OSE antenna-to-airframe CO N N ECTIO N S or SW ELLING and CRACK ING of the
FIBERGLASS sheathing on COMMUNICATION antennas. Corroded metal underneath the fiberglass
can expand and cause the fiberglass sheathing to swell and split.
3. VOR antennas are susceptible to cracks where the antenna bends.
4. Lona-wire ADF sense antennas are also prone to cracks at the attachment points

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 99

C h a p 3 — N a v ig a tio n & R a d io s

TR A N S P O N D E R C O P E S : (A i m 4 - i - i s , 4 - 1 -2 0 ,4 -5 -2 .4 -5 -7 .6 -3 4 . 6 - 4 -2 . f a a -h - m m - i s flöß3 - 2 5 , a » i - i )
1, 1200
2. 1202 Gliders Complete Information about >
TRANSPONDERS can be !
3. 1255
found on Page 127.
4, 1277
5. 7700
6. 7600
7. 7500 Hijacking In progress
6. 7777 Military Interceptor Operations
9. 0000 — Military Operations by North American Air Defense. Should never be used by civilian pilots.

C O M M U N I C A T I O N T R A N S C E I V E R F R E Q U E N C I E S — VHF — 11B.0 to 137.975 MHz

N A V I G A T I O N ( V O R IL S / L O C ) - 1QB.0 tû117.95 MHz

A D F — 190 to 535 kHz (also broadcast stations 550 to 1600 kHz)

G P S _ — 1575.42 MHz

L O R A N — 90 to 110 kHz

P M E — 961 to 1213 MHz

G L I D E S L O P E — 329.15 to 335 MHz

M A R K E R B E A C O N — 75 MHz

R A D A R — 1030 MHz

T R A N S P O N D E R — 1090 MHz

FR EQ UENCY FREQUENCY
U S ED FO R W A V ELEN G TH
BAND RANGE
Low F requency — LF 30-300 kHz Loran & ADF 10,000 -1 .0 0 0 m
Medium Frequency — MF 30 0 -3 ,0 0 0 kHz ADF 1 ,0 0 0 - 100 m
AM [Amplitude Modulation} Broadcast 53 5 -1 ,6 0 5 kHz ADF & Broadcast radio 5 6 0 - 187 m
High Frequency — HF 2 - 3 0 MHZ Long Range Communications 100- 1 0 m
Communications, VOR, ELT
Very High Frequency — VHF 30 - 300 MHz 10-1 m
& Marker Beacons
Transponder, Radar,
Ultra High Frequency — UHF 300’ 3,000 MHz 100 - 10 cm
Glides lope, DME, & GPS

100 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the PicfnsEtcn.il Pilaf

 C h a p 3 — N a v ig a tio n & R a d io s
N o n D i r e c t i o n a l R a d i o B e a c o n (N D B ):
■Q.. N D 6 (Non-direchonal
(AIM 1-1-2, 1-1 —B. P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8Ö83-15, FAA-H-B261-1)
1. Frequency band 190 to 535 kHz identified by Radio Beacon)
two - or three-letter Morse code identifier.
2. Some NDBs can also broadcast voice transmissions; most often transcribed
weather.
3. When co-located with the outer marker of an 1L£ it's called an “outer compass
locator” Or LOM (¿ocalor Quter Marker), Compass locator transmitters are often
situated at the MM and OM sites. The transmitters have a power of less than 25
watts, a range of ai least 15 miles and operate between and 535 kHz.
4. An O U TE R COM PASS L O C A TO R transmits the first two
letters of ihe localizer identification group. °. LMM, LOM (Compass locator)
5. A MIDDLE COM PASS LO CA TO R transmits the last two
letters of ihe localizer idenlificalion group.
6. At some locations, higher-powered radio beacons, up to 400 watts, are used as OM compass locators.
These generally carry Transcribed WEather Broadcast (TW E B ) information.
7. An I FR-certifiecJ GPS (with a current database) may be used as a substitute for DME and ADF mall
operations except MDB approaches that do not have a GPS overlay, [aim 1-1-2115J
8. Subject to disturbances from lightning, precipitation static and (at night] distant radio stations
9. Noisy Identification usually occurs when the A D F needle is erratic. Voice, m usic or erroneous
identification may bo heard when a steady false bearing is being displayed
10. Since A D F receivers do not have a “ flag" to warn when erroneous bearing information is being
displayed, the pilot should continuously m onitor the NDB's Identification.
11. “A D F” mode — The pointer is activated and tries to point to the station.
12. “A N T ” mode — Provides clearest audio for listening to the ball game. Pointer does not point to the
station but {for most brands) usually parks itself at the 30* position This mode also doubles as Ihe
“T E S T 11 mode if your ADF does not have a 'T E S T " button.
13. “ B FO ” mode — Stands for “fieal Erequency Oscillator." Used lo generate an audio tone so as to
identify beacons identified by using "interrupted-carrier keying." Seldom found in the United States.

NDB S e r v ic e V o lu m e s
CLASS D IS T A N C E {R a d iu s )
Compass Locator 15 NM
MH 25 NM
H 50 NM*
HH 75 NM
* Service ranges of Individual facilities may be less
than 50 NM, Restrictions to service volum es are
flrst published as a Notice to Airm en and then with
the alphabetical listing of the NAVAIÜ In the A/FD.

P R I M A R Y N D B C O N C E P T S : (AIM 1-1-2, F AA-H-0 003-15. 0QS3-2S. 0201-1)

1. PARALLEL the Course you want to be on {inbound or outbound):
* The HEAD of the needle ALW AYS points to the CO URSE (and the wind).
2. Winfe PARALLELING the Course you want to be on {Inbound or outbound):
If the HEAD of the needle is:
L E FTQ fC & n t& r — l u m L E E I — 3_0^O.M5Mor_aJ_e_w_se_c_&nds
(turning only "double the deflection" is usually much loo wimpy, it will NOT worii in
any significant wind)
* RIGHT of Center — Turn RIGHT — 30° or 45° for a few seconds
(turning only "double the deflection" is again much too wimpy)

FAF to MA 5 4 NM Timing for any non-precis-ion

un I
Knoti ¿0 90 120 150 180 approach is bnsed on

MinScr 5:24 3:3A 2 4 2 2:10M 48

gremndspe-ed not airspeud
J
E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 101
Chap 3 — Navigation & Radios

U N IC O M 1M U LTIC O M & A IR -T O -A IR F R E Q U E N C IE S
|AIM 4 -1 -9 . 4-1-11. 4 -1 -1 2 . 4 -2 -G, P/C G lo s s a ry . F A A -0 0 8 1 -1 , F A A -H -8 Q B 3 .1 5, F A A -H -8 Û B 3 -2 5 . F A A -H -B 0 2 6 1 -1 }

U N IC O M at Airports 122.7, 122.725, 122.6, 122.975,

W I T H O U T an operating control to w er 123.0, 123.05, 123.075
U N IC O M at Airports W IT H a Control to w er or FSS
(the normal contact frequency for LA R G E F B O ’S at 122.95
LA R G E A IR P O R TS )
A IR -TO -A IR betw een fixed-w ing aircraft 122.75
A IR -TO -A IR betw een fixed-w ing aircraft & helicopters 123.025
M U L TIC O M Frequency — Airports w ith no to w er, FSS, or
U N IC O M — or for certain activities of a tem porary, 122.9
seasonal, o r em ergency nature
(M U L TIC O M F R E Q U E N C Y ) Forestry m anagem ent and fire
suppression, fish and game m anagem ent and protection, 122.925
and environm ental m onitoring and protection
A viation instruction, Glider, Hot A ir Balloon (not to be 123.3
used for advisory service). 123.5
A U T O M A T E D U N I C O M — a k a — S u p e r U n ic o r n : (PVC Glossary}
1. Provides automated weather, radio check capability and airport advisory information selectable by
microphone clicks.
2. Upon initial contact, an automated greeting will provide general information including wind, altimeter,
favored runway and instructions for further services available using microphone clicks.
3. 3-clJcks will get vou advisories
4. 4-clicks will get you a radio check — the system responds — "Transmit radio check" — the pilot
transmits — the Unicom echoes the transmission so the pilot can judge for himself Ihe radio's quality
and reception.
5. Weather advisories are updated every second.* 1

E F A 3 / F L IG H T W A T C H I F S S — F R E Q U E N C I E S : .a im 1 a .. 7 1 -1.71 r, 7 1 10 7- 1- 11 ,
7-1-21. P/C Glossary, FAA-H-BM3-15, 0003-25, 8201-1)

1. Enroute Elighl ¿dvisory Service — E F A S .

2. 122.0 — 6:00 AM to 10:00 PM local time — EFAS provides communications
capabilities for aircraft flying at 5,000 feet A G L to 17,500 feet MSL - Tell them whal
VOR you are near.
3. Discrete EFAS frequencies have been e&iablished to ensure communications
coverage from 13.000 through 45,000 MSL serving in each specific ARTCC area.
These discrete frequencies may be used below 13.000 feet when coverage
permits reliable communication.
4. Used for updating weather information and pilot reports o n l y .
5. Not to be used for filing, opening or closing (light plans,
6. Other FS S frequencies:
a. 122.1 — used to TRANSM IT to FSS — the pilot Should listen on the listed VOR frequency —
however the pilot must remember to tell FSS which (VOR) frequency he is listening on.
122.1 is the mosi common transmit-only frequency, although there are olhers.
b. 122.2 — Assigned to the majority of FSSs as a common Enroute TWO-WAY frequency.
c. 123.6 — Local Airport Advisory frequency for certain FSSs that are localed on an airport.
d . 121.5 — Em ergency frequenc y.

102 E V E R Y T H IN G EX PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilaf

 [ch a p 3 — Navigation & Radios]

A D S - B — Autom ated Dependent Surveillance - Broadcast aka Nextôen:

(91.225, 91.227, AIM 4-1-20. 4-4-17, 4-5-7 thru 4-5-10, 7-1-11, 10-1-4, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-3033-15, 6093-25, 0261-1;-
1, By 2020. aircraft flying in U.S. controlled airspace m ust be equipped with |ADS-B OUT] avionics.
2- ADS-B — the FAA's ‘ Capstone project” — das the potential to revolutionize the air traffic control system.
Already being tested at various locations around the country (extensively in Alaska). M ost of the Eastern
Snaboard of the U.S. is now covered including the Gulf of M exico. The entire country wifi be covered by 2011.
3 ADS-B relies on the £ E S equipment in the a ircraft to BROADCAST its p osition around track altitude around
spood: nnc (if desired) ta ll number ot one-second intervals to ground receivers as well as other a ircra ft.
4 There are tw o types of AD5-B equipm ent:
■* |a d s - b out ] A ds sim ilar to a transponder, it simply transmits aircraft location and altitude information
once per second. The cost to equip with ADS-B OUT capability is relatively small {compared lo ADS-B IN) and
woulc benefit the airspace with surveillance- in areas not cu rren tly served by rad ar. The FA A wants
ADS-B OUT to be MANDATORY for all aircraft operating in controlled airspace by 2020.
■* ADS- 3 IN [aka “ fu ll ADS-B:"i — Requires a display in the aircraft that supplies weather, te rra in , and tra ffic
information pfotoriallv ADS-B IN is potentially much more expensive,
5. The ground receivers relay 1he signal up to a satellite and back down to ATC computers, which calculate a
RADAR-LIKE PICTURE of all ADS-B equipped traffic on the controller's scope that is m ore accurate than radar
and fo llo w s the aircraft all the wav to 1t1C ground even If it's SCO m iles away.
6. ADS-B IN displays a picture of other ADS-B traffic in ihe c o c k p it. Other ADS-B [IN or OUT] equipped traffic is
depicted showing lhoir ID. p osition speed a ltitu d e , frond icllm bing or descending) and an estimate of where
the traffic will be located in the next minute or two.
IftDS-Blfd will also provide w eather information and a detailed terrain mao database: a m oving m ao with
topographical information that autom atically displays a terrain advisory (rod) iMhe airplane is below or w ithin
two m inutes {or 300 feet) of any large rocks
ADS-B has we added advantage ol showing ihe tower controllers where each broadcasting aircraft (or vehicle) is
located on the air port surface. You could get “ vectors for ta x i" on 1hose foggy nights when you land with the
RVR below minimums {of course the "flight visibility" was greei wasn't it?]).
The aircraft transmits information using a small transceiver in the cockpit. Ground Based Iransceivers fGBTs! use
a whip antenna 10 receive line-of-sight signals from the aircraft and a small sate 11¡to dish to transm it the
inform ation to ATC. No m oving parts and nothing to wear out An crormous departure from mega million
dollar, high maintenance radar sites. It essentially shifts a large portion of A T C s cost from the FAA to the
individual a ircraft owner with questionable benefit (slick move by the governmental!?!).
All this for mere $4,0D0 $400,000 per aircraft. Yup, potentially $400.000 or more for some turbine aircraft]
May eventually allow controllers to space aircraft closer together while enroute or even on approach since the
aircraft will be able to “sea" each other on their Owr cockpit disnfavs.
2 Get that Visa card ready!

This new ADS-B i G PS gizmo

Sure is somethin’.
I can see both them rascals,
even WITHOUT radar!
Ain't that unbelievable Willie?
ADS-B is slated to become the '‘ backbone" for
the next generation of Ihe ATC system . The
plan is to eventually replace most existing
rad ar, bu: net iuu.il ,;ill aircraft are eg nipped
Yeah, gonna save the with Ihe ADS-B transponders (hat make it
FA A a lot of money too. work. Most al I ADS -B ground stations have
Problem is,,, itfs gonna been installed, while tho FAA plans to
cost me $50,DDD to decom m ission many ATC radar sites.
Of course if that new transponder goes inop.
upfit my Cherokee)
you'll essentially become totally in v is ib le !

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

C hap 3 — N a v ig a tio n A R a d io s

H ig h F r e q u e n c y rad ---- 1 0 1 : (91.511, FAA-H-8261-1, AC 65-15, AC 91-76]

1. HF radio still remains one of the main Communications tools for operations in remote areas of
the world and for oceanic air travel especially al HIGH L A T IT U D E S where satellite coverage
for “satcom " communications is poor or non-existent- Salcom does nof moot the
requirements for a stand-alone system. Dissimilar responses to solar activity make the mix of
HF and satcom essential for the foreseeable future.
2. Air Traffic Control authority when using HF radio or satellites passes through " middlemen":
(a) ARINC iarinc.com) {phono 301-266-4000) is the biggest name in HF
communications. ARINC— licensed by the FCC and contracted by the FAA—
provides the sole HF communications link for Air Traffic Control and weather
services in those international areas for which the FAA has control These control
areas are called Flight Information Regions.
(b> Inmarsat (mmarsat.com) is the biggest name in satellite communications,
3. ARINC (Aero-nautical Radio INC.) provides Air Traffic Control services to the FAA through its long
distance centers located In New York and San Francisco. These services include position reports.
routing, altitude requests and actual operational con trol. ARINC operates five, sometimes
overlapping "networks” in the North Atlantic and three in the Caribbean. This company can also provide
discrete communications between FBOs and airlines.
4. HF frequency spectrum stretches from 2 to 30 MHz, which includes up to 280.000 possible frequencies
that can have a range from 2,000 to up to 4,000 miles.
5. High frequency radios transmit both " ground w aves1’ and “skv w ave s." The “sky wave" is reflected
back lo Ihe surface of the earth by Ihe Ionosphere and is the key to its long-range capabilities.
6. The Ionosphere can consist of up to four distinct layers, and their altitudes can vary from 60 to 2Q0
miles above the earth depending on season of the year, solar (sunspot) activity, geographical location
and time of day. The stale of the Ionosphere I» In control of the usable frequencies,
7. RULES OF THUMB: HIGHER frequencies work best during the DAY and LOW ER frequencies work
better at NIGH T. The lower frequencies have a longer wavelength and tend to ‘ reflect" off the
ionosphere better al night. The higher frequencies (shorter wavelengths) '“bend" better for daytime use.
A number of sources are used to select a proper frequency.
B. Frequency selection — Check the box on the ch a n for available frequencies. For example, standard
frequencies for the Pacific are 6655. &951.10046 and 16273, Also m onitor V H F air-to-air frequencies
(128.95 for the Pacific or 123.45 for the North Atlantic). If unable to make HF contact, you can ask
another aircraft for the current usable HF frequency or simply ask them lo relay your message to ATC.
9. Antenna Tuners - Automatically tuna the antenna to the frequency selected. Due to space and
design limitations, aircraft antennas are much too shod for efficient operation. An Antenna Tuner
electrically compensates for the inefficiency of the antenna and allows the transmitter and receiver to
operate at peak efficiency. When changing frequencies, key the microphone to " tune” the antenna.
You'll hear a Iona tone while it is tuning. Once the tone goes silent you can transmit.
10. Speak at a slower rate than normal. Use ICAO standard words and phrases, keep in mind that there
is a damn good chance English is üfil the operator's first language. It may also be necessary to say
“go ahead'1or "over" al the end of your transmission so the person at the other end understands it's
his turn to talk. KEEP IT SIMPLE, Allow time for your request lo be deaH wilh, The person you are
talking to most often is not a controller. He must clear your request with the man in charge and then get
back io you. Be patient.
11. 5 5 B - Single £idegand — A communication mode employing just one sideband of an AM {Amplitude
Modulation) signal. AM uses a central carrier signal and two sidebands, the Upper iU S B i and the
Low er iL S B ). The sidebands carry the information and the carrier is not used £mgle fijdeQand
concentrates all the transmitters power in just one sideband thereby Increasing range while
maintaining acceptable clarity.
12. SE LC A L — SE Lectivo CALIIng system — Enables the ground station to call a selected aircraft directly,
eliminating the need for Ihe pilots lo lisien IO HF static all day. Your aircraft is assigned a four-tetter
code. This code allows the ground relay station to send a signal, which activates a receiver in your
aircraft. The result is a “chim e" that sounds in Ihe cockpit when A T C is calling. When the chime is
heard, lurn the squelch up on the HF radio and answer with something like “Falcon 123 Is answering
S E L C A L ." When through, turn down the squelch so you don't have to listen to that annoying sialic.

104 E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot

 Chap 3 — Navigation & Radios
T E L E C O M M U N IC A T IO N T E R M S — D A T A L IN K S :
1 Satcom Satellite Com munication System
Aeronautical mobile satellite service developed as a
primary com muni cations link for remote areas and
oceanic airspace. Satcom supports voice and dala
transmissions but is prone to long transfer delays.
2 A C A R S - Airborne Communications Addressing and Reporting
System — An early form of air/ground datalink in use by the airlines for
over 20 years. ACARS fails to meel current performance and reliability
criteria.
3. H F D L — yigb-£requenCy QataUnk — Developed for remote area and
oceanic use. Advantage is low cost but also low capacity and high transfer
delays.
4 V D L 2 — VHF Digital Link Mode 2 — Developed by [CAO as an
"ACARS-like" system with a hopefully faster transmission rate. Datalink
messaging slows when use rates are high and VDL2 does not have (he
capability for voice transmission.
5. V D L 3 — ^H F Digital Link Mode 1 aka "nexcom" — Designed to
handle both digital and voice traffic. Permits up to 4 charnels to operate
on a single 25-kH7 band and has the ability to swap bandwidth between
voice and data as needed. Nexcom/VDL3 could emerge as the "global
standard" if the expectations of IATA. ICAO and the FAA are met.
6. VPL4 - ¥HF Qigital Link Mode 4 — Designed as a dala
communication link for the Automatic Dependent Surveillance-
Broadcast (A D S -6 ) system (Capstone). Requires multiple anlennas
per aircraft and does not carry voice transmission. ADS-B relies on
the G P S equipment In the aircraft to B R O A D C A S T its
position, around track, altitude, ground speed and tall number al
one-second intervals to around receivers as well as other aircraft.
The ground receivers relay the signal up lo a satellite and back
down lo ATC computers, which calculate a
RADAR-LIKE PICTURE of all ADS-B equipped traffic on
the controller's radar scopes that is more accurate than
radar (updates once every second instead of the typical
12-second radar scan) and follows the aircraft all the
way to the ground even if it's 500 miles away.
7. CFDLC — £on troll er-£Hot fiataLink
Communications — Exchange of text
messaging in real time, Now routinely
used by slate of the art aircraft crossing
the Atlantic. Clear dala link directives
as opposed to having to sift through
heavy European controller accents.

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 105

C h a p 3 — N a v ig a tio n & R a d io s I

" H o ly S t !t ...
J e t B l u e 5 3 9 tu rn r ig h t im m e d ia t e ly ...
*B r e a k #
S o u t h w e s t 4 0 9 tu rn r ig h t im m e d ia t e ly a n d
t r y n o t to h it th e t o w e r p le a s e ! "

1 % o f D o u b t?
D oubt has no business in yo ur airplane. If doubt has
entered the cockpit, it m ust be asked to leave Im mediately.
^ Y ou're in the cockpit ready to start engines —
You were distracted by a phone call during preflight —
Y ou're a lm o s t 100% sure you put that oil cap back on
but you have 1% of doubt Get your lazy ass out o f
the seat and confirm it. A lot less em barrassing than
taking off with it still sitting on top of the engine I
^ ATC gives you a new frequency —
Y ou're alm ost *100% sure w hat it is but he w as talkin'
real fast and you have 1% of d o u b t. Just ask him to
confirm it. "W as that 132.9?" A in 't no big deal.
^ C enter gives you a new altitude and you read it back.
As you set it in the alerter, 1% o f d o u b t c re e p s in
'cause you g ot d is tra c te d by a discussion about the
new flight attendant's considerable assets;o). Just ask
the controller to confirm it. No big deal. It won’t make
you sound stupid. There s no stupid questions in
flying!
Make it a habit to a lw a y s c o n f ir m that 1% o f d o u b t
It could save your ass som eday.

106 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilo!

 Chapter 4

Speed, Altitude & Jet Operations

Hold On
S p ee d L im its ....................................................................... ...............................10 S -1 10
Approach Categories; Circling Radii.................................................................................110
Speed Limits— Cross-Reference...................................................................................... 110
Crossing Restrictions; Hydroplane Speed....................................................................... 111
V -S p e e d s ...............................................................................................................1 1 2 , 1 1 3
Airspeed Errors, Types & Colors...................................................................................... 114
S p ee d of So u n d & M A C H ............................................... 115
Flight Regimes; Troposphere; Tropopause; Stratosphere; Temp Lapse Rate........... 116
JSA — international Standard Atmosphere ................. ,...... .....................,...........„ „ .....117
K o lls m a n W in d o w ; A ltitu d e T y p e s ..................... ...................................... . I I S
Altimeter Setting; Altitude Temperature Correction Chart............................ r119
Pressure/Temperature & Altimetry..... .................................................................120, 121
D e n s ity A ltitu d e ..................................................................................................1 2 2-1 25
Scuba Diving........................ 123
LOW & HIGH Altimeter Setting Restrictions....................................................................126
T ra n s p o n d e r — A ltitu d e R e po rtin g — M o de C . . ......... ................ ............ 127
IFR Altitudes; G SIA; Min/Max & Mandatory Altitudes..................................................... 123
Minimum Safe Altitudes: MVA: MSA: Changing Altitudes. Pilot’s Discretion...........129
Traffic Pattern Altitudes; GlideSlope....................................................................... 130, 131
C ru is in g A ltitu d e s ................................................................... .................................132
R e d u ce d V e rtic a l S e p a ra tio n M ín im u m s (W fSP II)|i..w ..M. . w . . ||f.WH|B. 133
Altimeter Setting— Flight Levels........................................................................................ 134
Mountain Flying— The Venturi Effect................................................................................ 134
Altimeter Pitol/Static Check .......................... 135
Radar Altimeter...................................................................................................................135
A ltitu d e C ro s s -R e fe re n c e ........................... 136- 136
Oxygen Altitudes.................................................................................................................139
A ltim e try A ro u n d the W o rld (Q N H , O N E , Q F E ) ..................................140, 141
Rapid Decompression........................................................................................................ 142
Altitude Chambers; Pressurization Basic Components.................................................. 142
Oxygen Systems.................................................................................................................143
J e t & T u rb in e O p e ra tio n s .............................................. 144
Jet Fuel Pounds vs. Avgas Gallons.................................................................................. 145
J e t / T u rb in e E n g in e — 1 0 1 ............................................ ..............................146, 147
Jet Engine Starting..................................................................................... ..................... 143
Jet Engine Terminology............................................................................. ..................... 149
Electrical Terminology................................................................................ ..................... 150
Fuel, Hydraulic, Air Conditioning & Flight Conirol Terminology............. ..................... 151
Avionics Terminology................................................................................. ..................... 152
T C A S ........................................................................................................... ..................... 152
Pressurization.....................................................................................
J e t Takeoff, Enroute & L a n d in g ...................................... ...........
T O L D Card ..........................................................................
Windmill Start; Altitude Alerting System Fire Detection; Wingleis........ ..................... 162
Windshield Heat; Tires; Swept Wing: Dutch Roll; Yaw Damper..........L. ..................... 163
R A T — T A T — S A T — O A T — T e m p e ra tu re s .............................................. 164
Noise Standards................. ................ .......................................... „........................ „........ 165
E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 107
 SPEED LIMITS I (91.117. 9 7 .X AIM 3-2-4C.5.. 3 -2 -5 b .5 . 4 -2 - » 1 . 4-4-1 2 5-3 -7 . 5-4-6. S-S-9 AC 90-6CA. C ûntfO llar'î
Handbook 7110.65. FAA-H-BDB3-3, FAA-H-flO03-15, FAA-H-0Ü03-25, FAA-H-E261-1}
Below 10,000 ft.............................................................250 KIAS
^ ClaSS B ........................................................................ 250 KIAS below 10.000 ft lunnestriclBdai ot abc-vo 10,000)
♦ Beneath Class B ...........................................................200 Kl A3 (or in VFR corridor through a Class B)
♦ Procedure Turn............................................................ 200 KIAS
Class C Or D (fceliw 2.6(10 AGL within 4HM of (he nirperl),,,, 200 (unless n higher speed is specifically approved by ATC)
Class E or G Airport Traffic Pattern.......................... 200 KIAS (recommended)
- B 1.117(d) — IMha mini mum so le airapood tor any particular operation Is greater ihan the msjti mum speed prescribed in ih is section, the
( alrtrafl m ay be opsralad at Ih-al minimum speed. NOTE.: There is no requirement to advise A T C when exceeding a speed lor this reason.

SPEED R E S T R IC T IO N / A D J U S T M E N T : (a im 4-4-12)
1. If a controller Issues a speed restriction while vectoring you. It continues to apply with an altitude
change
2. An approach clearance cancels any previously assigned speed adjustment (however the controller
would nol anticipate a large speed INCREASE when close to the runway). Pilots are expected to make
their own speed adjustments to complete the approach unless the adjustments are restated. Speed
adjustments should not be assigned inside the final approach fix oh final or a point 5 miles from the
runway, whichever is closer to the runway.
3. It is the pilot's responsibility and prerogative, to refuse a speed adjustment that he or she considers
excessive or contrary to the aircraft's operating limitations with a comfortable margin for safety.

SP EED B E LO W 10,000 and/or in C LA S S B : (91.1.91.117, 91.703, AIM4-4-12)

1 Speed — 250 KIAS below 10,000 feet (or 200 KIAS below the floor or in VFR corridor). 250 K N O T S
M U S T W O T be E X C E E D E D even if you are told to "M AINTAIN B E S T FO R W A R D S P E E D ."
2. "Maintain maximum (or best) forward speed'1— means — “maximum or best forward 'L E G A L' speed."
A TC does nol have the authority to lift the 250 below 10.000 speed restriction [91.117(a)]. You cannot
be cleared to violate a regulation, and you cannot accept such a clearance.
3. Al 1Q.000 feet and above in Class B ai rspace, you can go as fast as vou want (below Mach 1.0 of
course! :o) unless Issued a speed restriction by ATC.
4. If a controller assigns you 300 kls or greater Inbound (10,000 or above), and then later descends you to
8,000. it Is UNDERSTOOD that you must S L O W to 250 kts BEFORE descending below 10.000
5 NOTE: There was a test program that took place at H O U S T O N International (LAH) le delete the 250 kts
below 10.QQQ for DEPARTURES only. AND only if authorized by A T C . The phraseology was “ NO
S P E E D LIM IT" or “ IN C R E A S E S P E E D T O (numberl K N O T S " or “D E L E T E the 250 kt
R E S T B L C T J O rr or or " . " This program
was cancelled In January of 2004. Currently an air traffic coniroller does not have the authority to
authorize a speed above 250 kts below 10,000 anywhere in the United States.
6. The speed restriction: 250 kts below 10.000 does N O T apply to aircraft operating beyond 12 NM from
the coastline of the United States. FYI: Airspeed regulates bird splat deplh In glass and aluminum.

SPEED in C L A S S C,_Dj_E and G A irp ort A re a « raidit. ac 9p-bsa. faa-H-bob3-3. faa-h-scsb-is)

1. Unless otherwise authorized or required by A TC , no aircraft may operate at or below 2,500 A G L within
4 NM of the primary airport of a Class C or Class D at an indicated airspeed of more than 200 knots.
2. "... maintain best forward speed" Is N O T an authorization to exceed the 200 kts in Class C or D,
3. Any speed deviation above 200 kts must be specifically assigned by A T C (e.g. “...maintain 220 kts").
4. It is "RECOMMENDED " that while operating in the irsfliiu ia iis m Si an airport WITHOUT an operating
control tow er the pilot maintain an airspeed of no more than 200 knots. In any case, the speed should
be adjusted, when practicable, so that It is compatible with the speed of other airplanes In the pattern.
•N e v e r l e t a n a i r p l a n e t a k e y o u s o m e p l a c e y o u r b r a i n d i d n ’ t g e t t o f i v e m i n u t e s e a r l i e r . ¡

10a E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot

 C hap 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t

H O L D IN G P A T T E R N S P E E D S
{AIM 5-3-H, TBL 5-3-1, FAA-H-8083-1 5, 8261-1)
A L T I T U D E (MSL) A IR S P E E D (KlAS)
6,000 ft and below _________ 200 K lA S ___________
6,001 f t - 14,000 ft I 230 KlAS
14,001 ft and above 265 KlAS
NOTE: A maximum haldino speed olharttian siandard rnay be CBpicLed
cither inside or ¡ust outside Iha chaned raoetrach s/mbol

HOLDING PATTERN SPEEDS and TIMING: fAJM5-3-6)

1. When an aircraft is 3 minutes or less from a clearance limit and a
clearance beyond the fix has not been received, the pilot is expected to
S TA R T a SPEED REDUCTION so that (he aircraft will cross the fix
initially, at or below the maximum holding airso&ed ¡aim 6-a-7d)
2. Make all turns during entry and while holding at:
a. 3° per second: or...
b. 30^bank angle:or,,,
c. 25° bank provided a flight director system is used.
(N O TE: Use whichever requires the least bank);
3 T IMING for INBOUND leo:
a At or below 14,000 feet M SI: 1 minute
t>. Above 14.QQQ feel M S L VA minutes.
4. TIMING for O U TB O U N D leg begins over/abeam the ¡Jj, whichever occurs later. If the abeam position
cannot be determined, start timing when turn to outbound is completed.
5. If an aircraft is established in a published holding pattern at an assigned altitude above the
published minimum holding altitude and subsequently cleared for the approach, the pilot may
descend to the published minimum holding altitude. The holding pattern would only be a segment
of the IAP if il is published on the instrument procedure chart and is used in lieu of a procedure turn,
6. When a CLIMB-IN HOLD is specified by a published procedure (e.g.; ‘ Climb-in holding pattern to depart
XYZ VORTAC at or above 10,000.” or "All aircraft climb-in TR U CK holding pattern to cross TR U C K Ini
at or above 11,500 before proceeding on course."), additional obstacle protection area has been
provided to allow for greater airspeed^ in the climb for those aircraft requiring them. The holding
pattern template for a maximum airspeed of 310 KlAS has been used for the holding pattern if there are
no airspeed restrictions on the holding pattern [as specified in AIM 5-3-8 subparagraph j2(b)(2)].
Where the holding pattern is restricted to a maximum airspeed of 175 K lA S . the 200 KlAS holding
paitern template has been applied for published climb-in hold procedures for altitudes 6,000 feet and
betow and the 230 KlAS holding pattern template has been applied for altitudes above 6,000 feet. The
airspeed limitations in 14 CFR Section 91.117 — Aircraft Speed — still apply.

H O L D IN G P A T T E R N In lieu of a P R O C E D U R E T U R N — If cleared for the approach prior to

returning to the holding fix. AND (he aircraft is at the prescribed altitude additional circuita of
the holding pattern are not necessary or expected by ATC. (AIM 5-3-8, 5-4-9, faa-H-bob3-i &)

H O L D IN G at a FIX w here the P A T T E R N is N O T C H A R T E D :

(AIM 5-3-Ei.. FAA-H-8QB3-15, FAA-H-S261-1}
Will include the following information:
1. Direction of holding FROM the fix in terms of the eight cardinal compass points
(i.e„ N, NEt E f SE, S. SW, W, NW).
2. Radial, course, bearing, airway or route on which the aircraft is to hold.
3. Leg length in miles if DME or RNAV is to be used or otherwise in minutes,
4. Direction of turn If L E F T turns are to be made (standard pattern is RIGHT turns).
5. Time to Expecl Further Clearance.
“ Hold W E S T of 'Elvis' on the 270° radial. L E F T turns. 10 mile legs
Expect Further Clearance at 1S20Z, time now 1420Z,"
3
West
Elvis
E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 10$
C hap 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t

A i r c r a f t A P P R O A C H C A T E G O R I E S : [97.3, a i m 5-4-7 FAA-H-0093-15, P/C Glossary]

1. Speeds arc based o r V bi=i-. if specified. or if V h^- is not specified. 1.3 times Vsn at max landina wci-ohl.
2. If n m a u a d m at n h ifllic r ,a ir lo a d . you SHOULD use ttw a t i a f l Q far 1ho allUMdjfflLm U llllfl Tho higher
fuming radii of the higher speed may take you beyond the obstruction cleansrrce area provided during a circling
approach — or even during a stnaight-in approach if a missed approach becomes necessary — die missed approach
obstacle clearance area is predicated on the aircrafts speed.
A p p ro a c h
A B C D E
C a te g o ry
S p e e d (knots} 0-90 91-120 121-140 141-165 A bv 165

S T A N D A R D C irc lin g A p p r o a c h R a diu s

(OcVukjpud Prior UtliUu ¿C’ üjiAiM 1 -l ¿Ui
Approach C ategory R a d iu s (N M )
A 1 -a
B 1 .5
t 1«7
b 2 .5
E 4.5

E X P A N D E D C irc lin g A p p r o a c h M a n e u v e r i n g A irs p a c e Radiu s

(Developed After late M 1 2 Idenlled by a 0 syrfb'jl on circling line minima)
_______ fAccn-urrlg lor Im-a airspeed increase with
allHudsljAIM S-d-ac
Circling MDA A p p ro a c h C a te g o ry & C ir c lin g R a d in » (N M |
in f e e t M 5 L Cat A Cat B Cat C Cat O Cat E
1O0Ö o r l e » » 1.3 1.7 21 3.9 45
10011-3000 1.3 1I.Û Zfl 3.7 4.B
3 0 0 1 -5 0 0 0 1.3 1.3 it 33 4a
5 0 0 II-70 00 1.3 1.9 3.0 4.0 5.Û Without a specific request, a pilot should reporl a
change in trk£_air*Eged (curing cruise) when it
7 0 0 1 -9 0 0 0 1.4 2.0 3.2 4-2 5-3 varies by 5j£ or 1Ü knots (whichever is g re y e r}
9001 and a b e v e 1.4 2.1 3.3 4.4 .5.5 Irom LhaL filed In the flight plan. (M i 5-i .ji

S P E E D L IM IT S — C R O S S -R E F E R E N C E
i
265 KIAS * H o ld in g P a tte rn 1 4 .0 0 1 M S L a rid a b o v e f t i m i n a Tor in b o u n d le e r 1V* m in u t e s )

250 KIAS * B e lo w 10,000 M S L anvwhers ( e x c e p t b e y o n d (h e '1 2 - N M lim it" fr o m th e c o a s tlin e ).

T h is w o u ld o f c o u rs e in c lu d e C la s s B a ir s p a c e . . . b u t o n ly w h e n b e lo w 1 0 ,0 0 0 fe e l.

230 KIAS * H o ld in g P a tte rn 6 .0 0 1 to 1 4 .0 0 0 MSL f t lm in a fo r in b o u n d le a : 1 m in u t e )

200 KIAS ■ Below 2.600 A G L within 4 NM of an Airoort in C la s s C or D airspace

[A n v d e v ia tio n a b o v e200 k ts m u s t b e soecificallv a s s ig n e d b v A T C
( e x a m p le . “ B u q s m a s h e r 123 m a in t a in 220 k t s r,)l
(a ls o ih e " re c o m m e n d e d " lim it in th e tra ffic p a tte rn o f a n u n c o n tr o lle d a ir p o r t )
{d o e s n o t a p p ly to a C la s s B a irp o rt tr a ffic p a tte rn )
9 * B E N E A T H C la s s B fo r in VFR c o rr id o rK d o e s N O T a o o lv WITHIN C la s s B)
* Procedure Tu rn (AIM 5-4-9)
* H o ld ! n o Pattern 6.000 M S L o r b e lo w ( t i m i n g fo r in b o u n d le g : 1 m u n i tel
i ^ L_

* A T C Guidelines W hen Asslonlno S P E E D A D J U S T M E N T S : (A N 4-4-121 *

1. A ir c r a ft b e tw e e n FL2B0 a n d 10.000 f e e l — s o e e d n o t less th a n 250 K n o ts . ■
- 2. T U R B IN E a irc ra ft below 10,000 fe e t — s p e e d n o t le s s th a n 210 k n o t s . except \
■ w h e n w ith in 20 m ile s o f th e l a n d in a airoort. th e n n o t le s s th a n 170 k n o t s l
! 3. R E C IP R O C A TIN G e n a in e o r T U R B O P R O P a ir c r a ft w ith in 20 m ile s o f th e J
• landina airoort. n o t le s s lh a n 1 50 k n o t s . *
4 _
! 4. Departing T U R B IN E a irc ra ft — n o t le s s th a n 230 knots. ■
5. D e o a r t in o R E C IP R O C A TIN G e n o in e a irc ra ft — n o t le s s lh a n 150 k n o t s . j

110 E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D tgr the Prcfcssicnal Pilot

 C hap 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t

CROSSING RESTRICTIONS: (A i m * 4 - 1 0 . w-a(5 - 4 - 1 . 5 - 4- 1 # , f a a - h - b ü &î - i j . BttMa,02*1-1)

1. T h e g u id in g p rin c ip le is th a t th e j a s j A T C cleqfqoce h a s precedence over th e previous A T C
clearance
2. W h e n th e route o r altitude is am ended, th e controller w ill restate th e a p p lic a b le A L T IT U D E
R E S T R IC T IO N .
3. I f altitude to m a in ta in is changed o r restated, w h e th e r p rio r lo d e p a rtu re o r w h ile a irb o rn e , a n d
previously issued a ltitu d e restrictions a re om itted, those a ltitu d e restrictions a rc canceled.,.

How To M EET a CROSSING RESTRICTION:

1. Miles to descend to meet crossing restriction (3° descent) + Altitude to lose (in thousands) * 3 + 1 0 % .
2. 3&rale of descent + 1/2 the around speed and add a ze ro .
3 Rale of descent + Altitude to lose + time to fix = rate of descent (FPM).
4. To simplify for most jelS + Determine M IN U TE S from the [is {ground Speed + 60: or just gj^nce over at
the G P S or FMS), plan on descending at 2,000 FP M .

G ro u n d M ile s p e r
S p e e d (k ts ) M in u te
120 2
180 3
240 4
300 5
360 6
420 7
480 e
540 9

Mach vs Knots ( a i m 4 -4 -1 2 )
5. FL 310 is 420 knots a n d yo u a re c le a re d to c ro s s
Y o u r g ro u n d s p e e d a l
At o r above FL 2^fl speeds may
30 miles fr o m th e V O R a t 10,000 fe e t a n d 250 K I A S . How far out be expressed in terms d M a c h
w o u ld y o u n e e d to s t a r t th e d e s c e n t ? numbers In 0.01 increm ents
a. It’s c o m m o n fo r m o s t jets to descend a t Idle power u s in g th e T h e use o f M ach nu m b e rs is
3 t o 1 r u le (i.e .. 3 m ile s fo r e v e r y 1 ,0 0 0 f e e t o f a ltitu d e to lo s e ). restricted to turbojet aircraft with
b. T h e a ltitu d e to lo s e is 2 1 ,0 0 0 feet. D e s c e n d in g fr o m F L 3 1 0 to M a ch m e te rs (duhl),

10.-000 fe e t w o u ld p r o b a b ly re q u ire a 3 ,0 0 0 F P M d e s c e n t in
o r d e r to m a in ta in th e a d v a n ta g e o f th e h ig h e r a ltitu d e fo r a lo n g e Knots vs Mach (aim 4-4-12)
p e rio d o f tim e . 4 2 0 k t s is 7 m ile s p e r minute (4 2 0 + 6 0 ). Mach
O n a s ta n d a rd d a y th e
c. 21,000 feet-t- 3.000 FPM - 7 m inutes. numbers equivalent 10
d. 7 minutes x 7 miles per minute = 40 miles are required to 250 kts CA S are:
descend Ihe 21,000 feel. F L 2 4 0 — 0 .6 0
e. A d d a b o u 1 1 0 m ile s to c o m fo rta b Iy s l a w to 2 5 0 K I A S . F L 2 5 0 — 0 .6 1
t, 4 9 + 10 + 30 (fro m fix ) = s ta rt d o w n 3 9 m ile s fro m th e V O R . F L 2 6 0 — 0 .6 2
6. popular method is lo s im p ly e n te r th e V N A V in fo rm a tio n
A n o th e r V E R Y F L 2 7 0 — 0 .6 4
in to th e FM S a n d mash th e easy b u tto n ;o ) F L 2 8 0 — 0 .6 5
FL 2 9 0 — 0,

H Y D R O P L A N E S P E E D : (AC 91-5A, AC 25-7A, FAA-H-&083-3, FAA-H-B063-2E;-

1. HYDRQPLANE_S£EED — The minimum speed at which dynamic hydroplaning occurs differs for
takeoff and landing and can be approximated with the following formulas:
a. Takeoff (tires have spun up) - S.6 times (approximate, normally rounded to £ J!) the square
root of the (main wheel) tire pressure (PSf).
b. Landing {because tires have noi spun up) — 7.7 times Ihe square root of the {main wheel)
tire pressure (PSl).
2. R e a d m o r e a b o u t h y d r o p la n in g in Chapter 1 0 — in c lu d in g a ll th a t to ta lly u s e le s s dyn am ic, v i s c o u s
a n d r e v e r t e d r u b b e r c r a p th a t n o o n e re a lly g iv e s a d a m n a b o u t u n til s o m e fo o l (h o p e fu lly n o t y o u !) h a s
a b ra in fa n a n d la n d s w ilh th e a n li- s k id s w itc h in th e o f f p o s itio n © .

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 111

C h a p 4 — S p a r i , A ltitu d e A J e t

V SPEEDS — V means VELOCITY

T a k e o ff d e c is io n s p e e d Tor ie ts . lu rb o D ro d s o r T r a n s p o r t c a le a o r v a irc ra ft —
Enaine failure BELOW V- — ta k e o ff m u s t be a b o rte d and Lhe a lrw a fl brautjhl to a sto p on the nnwav. Enaina failure at or
ABOVE V] — m andates ihH pilot c o n tin u e fh e ta k e o ff — accelerate la Va — and after raratian accelerate To Vo. Dom . not
apply io <nwl llfiPi. prpp-ddvfin Iw o f bstuuM ihfry cani'w iertlnu» ■ laheon roll a«<l octelerele to on« onpita: t l« « la w thole« h it to alxw.

VZ T a k e o ff s a fe ty s p e e d fo r je ts , tu r b o p r o p s o r T ra n s p o rt c a te g o r y a irc ra ft — B e s t c lim b g r a d ie n t s p e e d
¡.a,, has.1 attitude increase per m ile with the m «1 critical angina inop — Iwin angina aircraft with an angina ¡nap ara
ouaryntead e i.4 % t liir ib o re d ie n t (£4 f t UP per l.flfto ft FOFtWARDi — min speed tt> be m aintained tp at least 400 ft AGL.

V Z M IN M in im u m ta k e o ff s a fe ty speod. U sually 1 .2 tim e s stall spood in ta k e o ff c o n fig u ra tio n ,

V a D e s ig n rm A n e u v e rin g s p e e d — T h e h ig h e s t s a fe a irs p e e d fo r a b ru p t c o n tro l d e fle c tio n o r fo r o p e ra tio n in

turbulence cr severe gusts,, If only ane spued is published ¡1 ¡e usually determ ined at max landing weight,
This spaed d e cre a se s as weld hit d a c r a « «
F o im u la fo r d e te rm in in g V a a t le s s th a n m a x la n d in g w e ig h t: V a z = V a x Y c u rr e n t w e ig h t + m a x In d g w e ig h t

V a b e M a x im u m s p e e d fo r A i r - I r a k * E x te n s io n .

V a s o M a x im u m s p e e d fo r A ir - B r a k e O p e r a tio n ,

V a c M is s e d A p p r o a c h C lim b s p e e d fo r l a p c o n fig u r a tio n w ith c r itic a l e n g in e ¡n o p { 2 .1 % c lim b g r a d ie n t).

V a jp A p p r o a c h ta r g e t s p e e d . V R .E F + c o n fig u r a tio n (fla p s ,'s la ts s e ttin g ) & w in d fa c to r,

V b D e s ia n s p e e d fo r m a x im u m o u s t in te n s ity fo r T r a n s o o r t - c a t e o o r v a irc ra ft o r o th e r a ir c r a ft c e rtifie d

under Part 25 T u rb u le n t-a ir-D e n e lra lio n speed lhat protects the structure in 66-fp& g u sts.

V C D e s ig n C ru is in g s p e e d . S p e e d th e a irc ra ft w a s designed to c ru is e a t. T h e c o m p le te d a ir c r a f t m a y
a c tu a lly cruise slower o r laster than V^. II Is the highest speed aL which the structure m ust withstand the FAA's hypothetical
'stan d a rd SO-foa o u s t '.

V d D e s ig n D ic in g s p e e d — T h e a irc ra ft is d e s ig n e d to be c a p a b le o f d iv in g to th is s p e e d (in very s m o o th

air) and be free of flutter, control reversal and buffeting. Control eu daces have a natural vibration frequency where they begin
lo "flutter' like a ifag in a «tiff L'mjuzu . If Nutter begins. It can become catastrophic in a m atter of seconds. It can w a n in until
Ihe aircraft is destroved even ¡1 airspeed is reduced as soon as flu lla r begins.

V dec A c c e ie r a te /S to o D E C is io n s u e e d f o r m u llie n a m e D isto n a n d lig h t m u ltie n c rin e tu rb o D ro o s .

V d f f D e m o n s tr a te d - £ lig h t g iv in g s p e e d — V b f is in k n o ts , M d f is in a p e rc e n ta g e o f M a c h n u m b e r.
Some j i craff ere Incapable uf resell ng Vd because of lack or power or excels drag. When lhte i tlie case .the Leal pilot dives lo lhe maximum
M d f
speed possible — me demanalralad-niahl divino epeed

V ef S p e e d a t w h ic h th e c ritic a l e n g in e is a s s u m e d to fa il d u rin g ta k e o f f (u s e d in c e r tific a tio n te s ts ).

V e n h E N R u u te c lim b s p e e d w ilh c ritic a l e n g in e in o p — a c c e le ra te lo V e n r above 1 5 0 0 A G L

V f D e s ig n £ la p s p e e d — D u rin g th e d e s ig n p h a s e , th e fla p s a re d e s ig n e d to b e o p e ra te d a l (h is
maximum upsed. ITli* enqineara<bd a pood |ob, lha aolual tlap a«taed—'VFp—will ba ih t mame.

V f c / M a x im u m s p e e d fo r u n d e s ir a b le F lig h t C h a ra c te r is tic s — m u s t b e r e g a r d e d w ith th e s a m e r e s p e c t aa

V _ — Rad line, .lilabililv rewld develop bevond me Dial's eUlltv 1o recover. V_la ex dressed m knots W... s expfessed In s oefcenlacie or
M f c M u lt i lumber.

V fe M a x im u m F la p - E x te n d e d s p e e d — T o p o f w h ite a rc — H ig h e s t s p e e d p e r m is s ib le w ilh w in g fla p s in a

presented »klended pottbp. Many re ra n allow lhe use trt Approach flap* i t upeedt highs* lhan Vre. P«lb*e load fax Normal calegory
alrplaiies Is usually reduced Tram t-'J dCs Ip «-2.00a ivllh llie 1laps dawn, and nsyalive load la reduced from - I.5.2Q& teZen. Ifte purpose or
nape during laming la 1o enable sleeper approaches vwlhout itre a fllu g lhe arspeed.

v f r £ la p R e tr a c t s p e e d — ■m in im u m s p e e d re q u ire d fo r fla p re tra c tio n a fte r ta k e o ff,

V fs £ m a i S e g m e n t s p e e d { je t ta k e o ff) w ith c ritic a l e n g in e In o p . A c c e le r a te to V f s a t 4 0 0 fe e t a g l .

V f t o EJnal l a k e Q f f s p e e d — e n d o f th e ta k e o ff p a th — e n ro u te c o n fig u r a tio n — o n e e n g in e in o p e r a tiv e .

V h M a x im u m s p e e d ui le v e l u i o h t w itl i m a x im u m c o n tin u o u s c o w e r M a in lv u s e d f o r a irc ra ft

advertising. UilralighLa are lim ited by F art 1Q3 to a V H o f 55 knots.

VLE M a x im u m L a n d in o a e a r E x te n d e d S p e e d — M a x im u m s p e e d a t w h ic h an a ir p la n e c a n b e s a fe lv
Itown wl1h Ihi laimoin usat extended in an EMERGENCY FORGEL&BOUT THIS BPEEP- THROW TBp GEAR (H ip

VLL1 M a x im u m L a d i n g L ig h t E x te n d e d s p e e d .

V l l o M a x im u m L a n d in g L ig h t O p e r a tin g s p e e d .

V lo M a x im u m L a n d in o d e a r O o e r a tin o S D e e d — M a xim u m s u e o d at w h ic h IhE landina a e a r can be safelv

nitendad ar *elrar[et|. Usually Lanilad by air Inada on lha vuh&al-wal doore. On soma altcramhe duora clean aflef exlenamn. allowing
ilciiHii'dllon Id Vtt - *4bk yutir nxlsndsd (mmirt in un EMERGENCY - whim Ow giduud ls yaCIIng t » is und ii* arupstd ih upyKdflciivia
redllna - FORGET ABOUT THIS SPEED. THROW THE GEAR d e n

112 EVERYTHING EX PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 Chap 4 — Speed, A ltitu d e & Je t
V lof L if t -O F f s p e e d . S p e e d a t w h ic h th e a ir c r a f t b e c o m e s a irb o rn e . B a c k - p r e s s u r e ¡3 a p p lie d a t V r
[rotate)— a somewhat lower s-pead— so that liH-off actually happens at V W -

V m c a er M o re c o m m o n ly k n o w n a s V m c {a lt h o u g h V m c a is m o r o c o i t o c i ) — M in im u m C o n t r o l s p e e d w ith
ii» A LI I UL-dl ¿CIILilM
s u d i n otr
, n
IUic&t MU-ds llt
ll¥. 1 1Lilt?
h a lIC
u fIU
f ì i11
rilU
n rUi err
c ! -.al
OLIVU r^i 11
iu t s U U 1L /Ltl
ì F . r i m im i 4 ü fF ü r-1 in f k o
U IV U IIL I A i r ___
III LT 1C rtl! ----- SfI P P H l iIII
n m1C” ____
----- M n c t
lYIVHL
VM C
critical engine ¡n o n & w in d m illin n 5 " b a n k to w a rd s o p e r a tiv e e n e in e : take-off power on
O D e r a liv e e n e in e : gear u d : Maos u d : and most rearward C .G . In th is c o n f i g u r a t i o n , if a i r s o e e d is
a llo w e d b e lo w V mc, e v e n fu ll r u d d e r c a n n o t p r e v e n t a y a w t o w a r d t h e d e a d e n g i n e . A t s lo w e r
s p e e d s , t h e s l o w e r m o v i n g w i n g — t h e o n e w it h t h e fa ile d e n g i n e — w ill s ta ll firs t, V mc is NOT a
c o n s t a n t , it can be reduced bv — f e a t h e r in g th e p ro p , m o v in g C . G , f o r w a r d , a n d red uc inti n o w e r .

VM CG M i n i m u m s p e e d n e c e s s a r y to m a i n t a i n d i r e c t i o n a l C o n t r o l f o ll o w in g a n e n g i n e f a i lu r e d u r i n g t h e
t a k e o f f ro ll w h il e still o n t h e G r o u n d — d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g p u r e l y a e r o d y n a m i c c o n t r o l s w it h n o
r e lia n c e o n n o s e w h e e l s t e e r in g — je ts , lu r b o p r o p s O r t r a n s p o r t c a t e g o r y a irc r a ft.

VM O i M a x im u m O p e r a t i n g lim it s o e e d — tu rb o o ro o o r i e l — V m o is i n d i c a t e d a i r s o e e d m e a s u r e d in k n o t s

M mO sceed
l i m i t a t LO W E R altitudes. M m O is a
a n d is m a i n l y a s t r u c t u r a l lim it a t io n t h a t is t h e e f f e c t i v e
p sm a n a g e of M acti l.miled by lha change La the aircraft's handling Gharaclarislics a s localized airflow over (ha aincralt
Approaches 1h o i peed ol sound cresting shock w av aslh a l can altar controllability, A s altitude incronsos. IndiciHofl inrsposd
decreases w hie M ach remains constant Mure is the sftecLrve SDeed Nmit l"barber pole“' on the airsceed indicator} aL
H IG H E fi altiludes. M ho I s usually much hnlinr lor swept winneri lets Ilian a airtight winp tlesitin

V m u M in im u m U n s t ic k s o e e d . Slowest soeed a t w h ic h en aircraft can become airborne. O rig in a te d a s

a resulL of lesting For (ha worid's lira! jot transpod. 1ha da Havilland to m a t". During an ill-latad lakaoff aHempt, (ha nose was
laisod :: j f- ij ' i .1 -n.l premalUrdy that Ihe resultuilL ilr:i'_: prevented lurthi i .k i.r oration and II m"I. 1“ sis Were1 Mien established
to ensure (hal Future heavy transports could safely Lakeall with Ihe (ail touching tha ground and maintain this allitude until out
gF ground offset.

V n e N ever Exceed soeed — " R E D lin e " — A p p lie s o n lv to e is t o n -p o w e r e d a irp la n e s . T h i s s p e e d is never

anv mere than 9 0 % -aF Vu,h. G leads imposed bv ANY turbulence can aasilv o v e r s iz e » an aircraN al this spend.
V n o N O g o th e re . M a x im u m s tr u c tu ra l c r u is in g s p e e d — B e g in n in g o f th e y e llo w a r c — o r c a u t io n r a n g e .
Thecrelically a brand new aircraft can wilhsland the FAA's SO-ips gust at this spa ad. UnFariunataly 1ha pilot h a s no- way c*
measuring gust Intensity.

V r R o ta tio n s o e e d . R e c o m m e n d e d s o e e d to s ta rt a o o lv in o back-pressure on the voke. r o t a t in a t h e

nose so ihnt Ideally the □ircralt lilts off the ground at V Lw .

V h e f approach speed. U s u a l l y 1.3 times Vso o r

C a l c u l a t e d R E F e r e n c e s p e e d f o r fin a l a p p r o a c h — f i n a l
h ia h e r . SM ALL PLANE — bottom of while are +30%. JE T S — c a lc u la te d fro m la n d in c p e r f o r m a n c e c h a rts
that c o n s id e r weight, temperature a n d Held elevation. T o this S D e e d je ts ty p ic a lly c a lc u la te a n a p p r o a c h
s p o o d G£a f I by adding (to V m f ) 'A the headwind c o m p o n e n t + a il the gust fa c to r (lo a max of 20 knots).

V s S ta ll s p e e d o r m i n i m u m s t e a d y flig h t s p e e d a t w h i c h t h e a i r p l a n e is c o n t r o l l a b l e . V s is a g e n e r i c
term -and usually d o ss not corrospond to 3 specific airspeed

V s i S ta ll S D e e d o r m i n i m u m s t e a d v f lia h t S D e e d in a s p e c i f i c ccnfrtao r a t i o n . N o r m a l l y r e o a r d e d a s t h e
'□lean'— gear and flaps up — atalt speed. Lower limit of (ha green art (remember Stuff Inj However this is not always ihe
case. It could represent stall speed wilh flaps in takeoff position or any number of different configurations. S o V n Is a clean
stall, but the definilion of “clean" could vary.

V so Stall s p e e d in landing configuration — L o w e r lim it o f w h i l e a r c — S t a llin q s p e e d o r th e m in im u m

Steady fliaht sewed at which the airnlane is controllable in landiria cenfinuration: a m in e s al idle. Droos in low oitch. usually
fu ll wine flK>5 c o w l fla p s c lo s e d C.G. at maximum forward limit n e. rrest unfavorable C G k m ax o ro s s landine weight
Maximum allowable V j * lor -smgle-anylne aircraft and many light twins is 61 knots (remember Stuff Out).

VSSE M in im u m S a f e S in g le E n g in e s p e e d (m u lti) — P r o v id e s a re a s o n a b le m a rg in a g a in s t a n
u n in te n tio n a l stall w h e n m a k in g in te n tio n a l e n g in e c u ts d u n n g tra in in g .

V t o s s T a k e o f f s a f e ty s p e e d fo r C a t e g o r y A ro to m ra ft.

V w w o M a x im u m W in d s h ie ld W ip e r O p e r a t in g s p e e d .

vx Best anale o f c lim b s o e e d — D e l i v e r s t h e g r e a t e s t g a i n o f a lt it u d e in t h e s h o r t e s t o o s s i b l e h o r i z o n t a l

distance. Tha speed given in the Right manual is good only at see level, at max gross weight, arid (laps in takeofl position.
V , increases wilh aliiiude (efcoul Vt knol per 1,000 feel), and usually decreases n ffl ■ reduction of weight. It wil take more
lima I d gain altitude at Vx b ecam e of Ihe slower spaed, but Ihe goal Is to gain the moal attitude in the shortest horizontal
distance — like before won hit th ose 7 f?EE 5 that they always seam to put at the end al most every runway!

V k s e B e s t S in g le -E n g in e angle of climb s p e e d (m u lt ie n g in e 1 2 ,5 0 0 L b s o r le s s ).

V y B e s t [ ¿ l e o f c lim b s p e e d — d e l i v e r s t h e g r e a t e s t g a i n ¡n a lt it u d e in t h e s h o r t e s t p o s s i b l e t im e . F la p s
and gear up. Decreases a s weight & reduced and also decreases with altitude. Lifl-to-drag ratio is usually al Its maximum at
this speed so it can also be used as a oood ball-park (ioure For baaE-qlide speed or m ax¡m um -en du ranca so a e d Tor ho d no.

V y s e B e s t S m a ie -E n o in e rate o f c lim b s o e e d — “B L U E line" f m u lt ie n o ir e 1 2 .5 0 0 L b s o r le s s ),

E V E R Y T N IN G E X P L A IN E D for thi? Professional Pilot 113

C h a p 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t )
P O S ITIO N ERROR
D E N S IT Y ERROR
C O M P R E S S IB IL ITY
ERROR
IN D IC A TE D Air-Speed
C A L IB R A TE D AirSpeed
E Q U IV A L E N T AirSpeed
T R U E AirSpeed
G R O U N D Speed
A IR S P E E D IN D IC A T O R C O L O R -C O D E S
White arc
Lower limit of W HITE arc
Upper limit of W HITE arc
GREEN arc
Lower limit of GREEN arc
Upper limit of GREEN arc
YELLOW arc
RED line
Red & White Hashmarked
Pointer (barber pole}
M U L T I-E N G IN E 12,500 L B S OR L E S S
BLUE line
RED line
114
A IR S P E E D IN D IC A T O R ER R O R S
C a u s e d b y th e s ia lic p o rts s e n s in g e r r o n e o u s s ta tic p re s s u r e . S lip s tr e a m flo w
c a u s e s d is tu r b a n c e s a l (h e s ta tic p o rt, p r e v e n tin g a c tu a l a tm o s p h e r ic p re s s u r e
m o v e m e n t. V a rie s w ith a irs p e e d , a ltitu d e , a n d c o n fig u ra tio n , a n d m a y b e a p lu s o r
m in u s v a lu e .
T h is in s tru m e n t d o e s n o l c o m p e n s a te fo r c h a n g e s in a ltitu d e a n d te m p e ra tu r e .
C a u s e d b y th e p a c k in g o f a ir In to th e p ilo t tu b e a t h ig h a irs p e e d s , r e s e llin g in h ig h e r
th a n n o rm a l in d ic a tio n s .
A l R SP EED S (1.1, 1 .Zr F A A H -0 0 8 3 -1 5 )
R e a d o ff th e in s tru m e n t. U n c o r r e c le d f o r v a ria tio n s in a ir d e n s ity , te m p e ra tu r e ,
in s ta lla tio n a n d in s tru m e n t e rr o r.
IA S c o rr e c te d fo r in s ir u m e n l a n d p o s itio n e rro rs . O b ta in e d fr o m th e A ir c r a ft
E lig h t M a n u a l o r £ ilo t O p e r a tin g H a n d b o o k .
C A S c o rre c te d fo r c o m p r e s s io n o f Ih e a ir in s id e th e p ilo t tu b e .
C A S (o r E A S ) c o r r e c te d fo r n o n s ta n d a r d p r e s s u r e a n d te m p e ra tu r e . T ru e
a irs p e e d a n d C A S a re ih e s a m e in s ta n d a r d a tm o s p h e r e a t s e a le v e l. O b ta in e d
fr o m a flig h t c o m p u te r (E 6 B ) o r th e ¿ ir e r a ft E lig h t M a n u a l. T ru e a irs p e e d
increases ro u o h ly 2 % fo r e a c h 1.000 f e e t o f d e n s itv a ltitu d e . T h e r e fo r e a t
1 0 ,0 0 0 fe e t, tru e a irs p e e d is a p p r o x im a te ly 2 0 % g r e a te r th a n in d ic a te d a irs p e e d .
T A S c o rr e c te d fo r w in d — s p e e d a c ro s s th e g r o u n d — u s e th a t n e w G P S o f y o u rs ,
(FA A 'H -8 0 0 3 -1 5 , F A A H B Ü 8 J 2 5 )
F la p s fu lly e x te n d e d o p e ra tin g ra n g e
Vs<>— S ta ll s p e e d in landing configuration (S tu ff Q u l)
VFE— M a x im u m fla p e x te n s io n s p e e d (fu lly e x te n d e d }
Normal operation range. S ta rts a t V e t (n o r m a lly g e a r a n d fla p s up
V N0 ( M a x s tr u c tu ra l c r u is in g s p e e d ).
s ta ll s p e e d ), a n d te r m in a te s a t
V91 — Stall s p e e d clean o r s p e c ifie d c o n fig u r a tio n ( S tu f f In )
VH0— M a x im u m s tr u c tu ra l c ru is e s p e e d
C a u t io n ra n c ie ff o r o p e r a tio n s in e x tr e m e lv s m o o th a ir o n lv l. S ta rts a l
V NO a n d e n d s a t re d lin e V NE.
VhE — fc le v e r E x c e e d s p e e d f o r p is lo n - p o w e r e d a irp la n e s . ANY
t u r b u le n c e ca n e a s ilv D E S T R O Y a n a ir c r a ft a t th is s o e e d .
V..,JIVLrn — Maximum o n e r a t io n soeed ftu rb o o ro D /ie tl.
S e lf- a d ju s tin g w ith c h a n g e s in a ltitu d e a n d a ir d e n s ity .
VY5E— B e s t r a ie - o f - c lim b w ith o n e e n g in e in o p e r a tiv e
VMC— M in im u m c o n tr o lla b le a irs p e e d w ith th e ‘ c r ilic e l" e n g in e ¡n o p
EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot
 C hap 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e A J e t
The SPEED of SOUND & MACH:
1. T h e s p e e d o f s o u n d v a r ie s with temperature.
T h e re fo r e a s a ltitu d e In c re a s e s — a n d te m p e r a tu r e
d e c r e a s e s — th e s p e e d o f s o u n d w ill a ls o d e c re a s e .
2. O f c o u rs e th e precise speed of sound a t a g iv e n
te m p e ra tu r e is an elusive figure d u e to Ih e o th e r
v a r ia b le s In v o lv e d s u c h a s th e e x a c t c o m p o s itio n o t
th e a ir, h u m id ity , th e c o e ffic ie n t o f h e a l, e tc ,
3. T h a n k s to ^ A e ro d y n a m ic s fo r N a v a l A v ia to r s ” a n d
o th e r g o v e m m e n l p u b lic a tio n s , Ih e g e n e r a lly
a c c e o ted v a lu e fo r th e s p e e d o f s o u n d a t 1 S ° C is:
B61.7 fcnotm: or,..
7 G 1 .4 8 rn p h ; o r ...
1116.95 feet'second; or...
3 4 0 .3 7 m e te rs / s c c o n d ; o r...
12.69 statute miles,1m inute.
O th e r s o u rc e s re fe re n c e th is n u m b e r to he a n y w h e r e fro m 6 6 0 .G to 6 6 2 .0 k n o ts . O f c o u rs e d u rin g
a c tu a l flig h t a t th e s e s p e e d s it is v ir tu a lly im p o s s ib le to m e a s u re a d iffe r e n c e o f o n e o r tw o k n o ts .
4. T h e s im p le fo rm u la b e lo w w ill b e a c c u ra te to w ith in a k n o t o r s o . ..
J u s t add 2 7 3 to th e f i u t s i d e ¿ :r J e m p e r a tu r e (°C ), m a s h th e square root b u tto n , th e n multiply b y 39
(FY I — A n o th e r p o p u la r and a cce p te d n u m b e r to m u ltip ly by is 3-B.94 — the p ro d u ct will e sse n tia lly be the sam e).

MACH — SPEED vs. TEMP an E6B:

P u l th e little a rro w im a c h n o . i n d e x >in th e
Speed of Sound rig h t h a n d In n e r w in d o w o f th e w h e e l.
(knots) 39 x V O A T in Kelvin S e t th e O A T {° C ) a g a in s t th e a rro w ,
“Celsius +273 T h e n re a d th e M a c h U on th e in s id e
Kelvin
s c a le {o n ih e w h e e l).
Rankin “Fahrenheit + 459.7° A b o v e th e in n e r w h e e l y o u 'll fin d
th e s p e e d o f s o u n d (M A C H 1 .0 ) a t th e
Fahrenheit (*C x 9/5) + 32
c u rre n t O A T .
o r... (“C x 1.8) + 32
A g a in s t y o u r T A S o n th e o u ts id e s c a le
Celsius 5/9 (“F -32) (fix e d s c a le o n th e fra m e ), re a d y o u r
or... 0.555555555 ("F -3 2 ) c u r r e n t M A C H U o n th e in n e r w h e e l.

Mach # ______ k t a s ______

Speed of Sound
@ current Ö A T
W h a t i t lo o k s l i k e N

Surprisingly, the S P E ED of S O U N D has to go supersonic. A

N O TH IN G to do with A L T IT U D E but U
E V E R Y T H IN G to do w ith TE M P E R A T U R E .

* * Another Speed of Sound Formula

TEMPERATURE VS. ALTITUDE Ì
* T e m p e r a t u r e d e c r e a s e s a t th e ra te
Speed of Sound *
o f a p p r o x im a te ly 2 ^Ç ( 3 . 5 T ) jo e r
O A T fK ) @ y o u r a ltitu d e

V
1 0 0 0 f t in c r e a s e in a ltitu d e u n t i l
S p e e d o f S o u n d @ 1 5 °C x
reaching th e T R O P O P A U S E a n d S ta n d a rd T e m p ( K ) ( 1 5 aC )
e n te r in g th e S tra to s p h e re .
E x a m p le :
T h e r e is e s s e n tia lly no temperature
23B.5 K f-34.5“C + 273) @25,000 ft
change in th e fly a b le a ltitu d e s o f th e
STRATO SPHERE
V 2SÖ.0 K {15.0°C + 273) @sea level

- 602.2 kts @ -3 4 .5 “C (s ta n d a rd te m p @ 2 5 .0 0 0 fe e t)

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 115

C h a p 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t]

F L IG H T R E G IM E S
Subsonic
Tra n so n ic
Supersonic
Hypersonic
Mach yb Indicated Airspeed
During climbs or descents the
transition from referencing speed
in knots to Mach number usually
happens around FL24Q
Controllers will generally assign
an airspeed in knots below this
approximate altitude and a Mach
number above it. (AIM 4-1-12)
f DEFINITELY NOT to scale. î
*+ % *» **+ + *A* * * * * *
B e low 0.75 M ach
0.75 to 1.20 Mach
1.20 to 5.00 Mach
Above 5.00 M ach
Standard Pressure Lapse Rate is
roughly 1 inch o f mercury for every 1.D0C
feet. But that really is only true for the
firs t 10.000 feet above sea level.
The pressure drops less than 7 Inches
between 10,000 and 20.000 fopt,
Between ¿0.000 and 30.000 feet,
pressure drops less 1fan 5 in d ie s
30.000 to 40.00C feet, the pressure drops
only a liitHe more thar 3 inches.
Pressure at 18,000 fpol (500 mb) ¡5 abbot
112 of what it is at sea level.
At l-owar altitudes a 1J1011 inch change
will translate to a 1C0 foot altitude
difference, in the upper flig h t levels, a
inch change equate about 300 fec i

T h e s u n h e a ts th e s u rfa c e
o f th e e a rth , w h ic h th e n
h e a ts th e a tm o s p h e re fro m
b e lo w . T h e h ig h e r y o u a re
a b o v e ih e h e a t s o u rc e
(E a rth ), th e m o re th e
te m p e ra tu r e d e c re a s e s (@
a p p r o x im a te ly 2 °C p e r 1 ,0 0 0
fe e t in th e T r o p o s p h e r e ).
O n c e re a c h in g Ih e
Tropopause a n d e n te r in g
th e Stratosphere (OO
a v e ra g e a b o u t 3 6 ,0 0 0 f e e l
In North A m e ric a ), th e re a re
re m a rk a b ly s m a ll c h a n g e s
in te m p e r a tu r e w ith a ltitu d e .
T e m p e r a tu r e s in th e
S tra to s p h e re w ill a c tu a lly
ris e e v e r s o s lig h t ly In th e
u p p e r re a c h e s d u e to th e
affecl o f Ih e s u n 's ra d ia tio n .

116 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Protêt »¡anal Pilot

 Chap 4 — Speed, Altitude & Je t

FYI ■
S u m m it o f M l. E v e re s t

IS A - IN T E R N A T IO N A L S T A N D A R D A T M O S P H E R E
A L T IT U D E T E M P *F T E M P 4C P R E S S In P R E S S psl PRESS mb o f Sound

6 0 ,0 0 0 -6 9 .7 -5 6 ,5 2 .1 2 102 7 2 .3 1 5 7 4 k ts

3 6 ,0 0 0 -6 9 .4 -5 6 .4 6 71 3 .3 0 227.27 574

T h e I R 0 P 0 P A U S E m a r k s Ih e b o u n d a ry b e tw e e n th e T re do sd he re a n d th e S tra to s p h e re . T h e h e ia h t o f th e
T ro p o p a u s e w a iie s w ith la titu d e a n d s e a s o n s — s lo p in g fro m a b o u t 2 0 ,0 0 0 ft o v e r th e p o le s to 6 5 ,0 0 0 ft o v e r th e
E q u a to r— a n d is h ia h e r in s u m m e r th a n in th e w in te r. A v e r a o e h e ia h t in th e U .S . is a o u r o x im a te lv 3 6 .0 0 0 ft
T h e s ; FR A TO S P H E R E is ty p ifie d b y r e m a r k a b ly small c h a n t ie s in t e m p e r a t u r e w it h altitude.

3 5 ,0 0 0 -6 5 .8 -5 4 .3 7 .0 4 3 .4 6 2 3 8 .4 1 577

3 3 ,0 0 0 -5 6 .7 -5 0 .4 7 .7 3 3 .8 0 2 6 2 .0 2 582

3 1 ,0 0 0 -5 1 .6 —4 6 .4 8 .4 9 4 .1 7 2 8 7 .5 0 587

2 0 ,0 0 0 -4 2 .5 9 .3 0 4 .5 7 3 1 4 .8 1 592

2 7 ,0 0 0 -3 7 .3 -3 6 .5 1 0 .1 6 4 .9 9 3 4 4 .3 0 597

2 6 ,0 0 0 -3 3 .7 -3 6 .5 1 0 .5 3 5 .2 2 3 6 0 .4 0 600

2 5 ,0 0 0 -3 0 .2 -3 4 .5 1 1 .1 0 5 .4 5 3 7 6 .0 1 602

2 4 ,0 0 0 -2 6 .6 -3 2 .5 1 1 .6 0 5 .7 0 3 9 3 .1 7 605

2 3 ,0 0 0 -2 3 .0 -3 0 .6 1 2 .1 0 5 .9 5 4 0 9 .9 6 607

2 2 ,0 0 0 -1 9 .5 -2 8 .6 1 2 .6 4 621 4 2 8 .3 3 609

2 1 ,0 0 0 -1 5 .9 -2 0 .6 1 3 .1 8 6 .4 5 4 4 6 .4 4 612

2 0 ,0 0 0 -1 2 3 -2 4 .5 1 3 .7 5 6 75 4 6 6 .0 0 615

1 9 ,0 0 0 -8 .8 -2 2 .6 14 3 3 7 .0 4 485 44 | 617

A t a p p ro x im a te ly 1 3 ,0 0 0 fe e t <500 m b ) —
A tm o s p h e r ic p re s s u r e d ro p s to a b o u t 1/2 of w h a t it is a t s e a le v e l.
1 6 ,0 0 0 -5 .2 -2 0 .7 1 4 .9 4 7 .3 4 5 0 6 .3 2 620

1 6 ,0 0 0 1.9 -1 0 .7 1 6 .2 2 7 ,9 6 5 4 9 .4 2 624

1 4 ,0 0 0 9.1 -1 2 7 1 7 .5 8 8 .6 3 5 9 5 .4 6 629

1 2 ,0 0 0 1 6 .2 -8 .8 1 9 .0 3 9 .3 5 6 4 4 .5 3 634

1 0 ,0 0 0 2 3 ,3 -4 .8 2 0 .5 8 1 0 .1 1 0 9 6 .9 4 639

6 ,0 0 0 3 7 .6 3.1 2 3 .9 8 1178 0 1 2 .0 4 648

3 ,0 0 0 4 3 .3 9.1 2 6 .3 2 1 3 .1 7 9 0 8 .2 0 655

1 ,0 0 0 5 5 .4 1 3 .0 2 0 .8 6 1 4 .1 7 9 7 7 .1 6 I 660

Sea Level 5 9 .0 1 5 .0 2 9 .9 2 1 4 .7 0 1 0 1 3 .2 5 0 6 1 .7 k ts

|
% ■

~■ ' " = C 8 d - 1
EVERYTHING EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 117
C hap 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & Jet

* T h e K o lls m a n w in d o w k n o b \
ro ta te s th e h a n d s a t th e ra te o f
roughly 1 inch p e r 'LOOP feet
o r l f l f l ? j ] n £ F>er 1 0 0 f e e t
........................................................ V
B u t th a t r e a lly is o n ly tru e lo r LO W ER IN G the altimeter setting
th e f i r s t 1 0 .0 0 0 f e e t a b o v e towers the indicated altitude. ;
s e a le v e l. In th e u p p e r flight RAISING the altim eter setting
levels, a 1f101h inch c h a n g e raises the indicated altitude.
e q u a ls a b o u t 3 0 0 feet.
\

A L T IT U D E T Y P E S ( B i . 121, S i . 144, A1WI7 - 5 - Î , F A A -H -fl0 tì3 -1 5, F A A H - S O B S -H )

PRESSURE 1. Determined bv settina the altimeter to 29.92 (1013 mb) and reading the altitude
indicated on the altimeter,
A L T IT U D E 2. Used by all aircraft at and above 18,000 ft fin the U.S. and Canada).
3. True altitude corrected for non-standard pressures.
4. Aircraft performance charts are usually based on pressure altitude (or sometimes
density altitude).
5. On that very rare ‘standard day11, pressure altitude will equal true altitude.
D E N S IT Y t. Density attitude is pressure altitude ( 29. 92) cor^tP,^.t9f.W Jl:5ifll0fisrd.t^fTUffii;s)U1^ and
is considered for aircraft performance. : Density Aitituda Calculator
A L T IT U D E 2. Warmer air is "thinner" than colder air. L j
3. Higher temperatures can be equivalent to higher altitudes as far as aircraft performance
is concerned (warmer air Is less dense, ihe molecules are further apart),
4. Density altitude is the altitude the aircraft "thinks" it Is flying.
5. In olher words — on a hoi day aircraft performance sucks.
6 . (O A T - ISA) x 120 + Press Altitude = Density Altitude. Example:
Pressure Altitude = 6,000 ft
Outside Air Temp ■ 13°C
ISA (@ 6.000 ft) = 3gC (from rule of thumb: f- 2 1 x each 1000 ft M SL) + 15 = ISA}
(1 3 -3 ) x 120 + 6000 = 7,200 ft Density Altitude
IN D IC A T E D 1. Read off the face of the altimeter. Indicated altitude Is what the altimeter reads when
the local MSL pressure (altimeter Setting) is set in the Kollsman window
A L T IT U D E 2. On the G RO UND — set the altimeter to the airoort elevation fat that ooinl on the
alrpod). indicated attitude should be Ihe same as the true altitude and the setting in the
Kollsman window should match the current altimeter setting.
3. i n the a i r — as vou fiv alona and encounter non-standard temperatures, Indicated
altitude can differ from true altitude. The colder the temperature, the more significant
(and possibly dangerous) this difference can be.
4. When flvinc above a location for which vou obtained a local current altimeter setting in
extremely low temperatures — the actual (true) altitude of the aircraft can be
sianificantlv lower than indicated. Of course, when vou reach the R U N W A Y , a perfectly
set altimeter should be exactly correct no matter w hat the temperature
5. The venturi effect of wind blowing through a mountain pass can create an isolated
low pressure area that can make your altimeter read as much as 1,000 feet off (the
aircraft will be 1.000 feet lower than indicated).
TR U E 1. Actual height above mean sea level (M SL) as if measured with a tape measure.
2 Elevations of airports, mountain tops, lowers and other obstructions are given in true
A L T IT U D E altitude.
A B S O LU TE 1. The actual height above the ground (Above Ground kevei. or AGL) again as if
measured with a tape measure.
A L T IT U D E 2. Instrument approach charts give the Height Above Jouchdown (HAT). Threshold
Crossing Height (TCH), etc. in absolute altitude.
3. Subtract the terrain elevation from true altitude.

118 EVERYTHING EX PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 C h a p 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t
A L T IM E T E R S E T T I N G: (sum, 135.255. aim £-4-5.7-1-12.7-2-1 thvu7-2-5.7-5-6. f m -h-aoss-is;
1. T h e c u rr e n t re p o r te d a ltim e te r s e ttin g o f a s ta tio n a lo n g th e ro u te a n d w ith in 100 NM of th e a irc ra ft.
2. I f n o s ta tio n w ith in 1 0 0 M M , ih e c u r r e n t r e p o r te d a ltim e te r o f a n a p p r o p r ia te a v a ila b le s ta tio n .
3. I f n o r a d io — set to field elevation before takeoff.
4. U s e 2 9 .9 2 — w h ile on th e g ro u n d to o b ta in " Pressure Altitude'1fo r p e r fo rm a n c e c h a rts . P re s s u re
‘‘Density Altitude".
A ltitu d e c o rr e c te d fo r n o n - s ta n d a r d te m p e ra tu r e w ill g iv e y o u
5. U se 2 0 .0 2 — fo r 1 8 ,0 0 0 f e e t a n d a b a v e ( F lig h t L e v e ls ) ( U n ¡ted S ta te s & C a n a d a ).
6. W h e n s e t to th e c u rr e n t a ltim e te r s e ttin g ■— a ltim e te r s s h o u ld re a d w ith in
± 7 5 f e e t o f f i e ld e le v a t io n and dual alt.m elers stiuuld agree within ±75 fe e t o f e ach o th e r .
7. E X T R E M E L Y C O LD W E A TH E R ca n c a u s e p o te n tia lly d a n g e r o u s a lt im e t e r e r r o r s . W h e n fly in g
ABOVE a re p o r tin g s ta tio n o n a n e x c e p tio n a lly c o ld d a y , th e a ir c r a ft w ill ba s ig n ific a n tly lo w e r th a n w h a t
th e a ltim e te r In d ic a te s . T h e p re s s u r e la p s e ra te d o e s n 't d e c re a s e a t its n o rm a l " s ta n d a rd " o n e in c h p e r
th o u s a n d fe e t b e c a u s e th e e x tr e m e ly c o ld a ir is a ls o e x tr e m e ly d e n s e .
T h e magnitude of in - flig h t error d e p e n d s m o s tly o n how HIGH the aircraft Is A B O V E the station th a t
Is re p o r tin g th e lo c a l a ltim e te r s e ttin g a n d just h o w s e v e r e ly c o ld th e te m p e ra tu r e Is.___________________
A t - 2 2 ° F (-3 Q » C ) Y o u r tru e a ltitu d e Is a p p r o x im a te d 3 S 0 f e e t
fly in g a t 2 0 0 0 feet Indicated a b o v e th e s ta tio n l o w e r th a n In d ic a te d = 1 6 2 0 fe e t tru e .

A t -2 2 °F f - 3 ( m Y o u r tru e a ltitu d e is a p p r o x im a te d 1 9 0 fe e t
fly in g a t 1 0 0 0 feet Indicated a b o v e th e s ta tio n l o w e r th a n In d ic a te d = 8 1 0 fe e t tru e .

A t - 2 2 ^ F ( - 3 0 ftC ) Y o u r tr u e a ltitu d e is a p p r o x im a te d 1 0 0 f e e t
fly in g a t 5 0 0 feet indicated a b o v e th e s ta tio n l o w e r th a n In d ic a te d = 4 0 0 fe e t tru e .

A t -2 2 °F {-3 0 °C ) Y o u r tr u e a ltitu d e is a p p r o x im a te d 4 0 feet

flv in a e l 2 0 0 feet indicated a b o v e th e s ta tio n l o w e r th a n in d ic a te d - 1 6 0 fe e t tru e .

W h e n v o u re a c h th e R U N W A Y a o e rfe c tlv s e t altimeter should b e E X A C T L Y C O R R E C T

HO M A T T E R W H A T T H E T E M P E R A T U R E
W O R S T C A S E S C EN A R IO
B e in ci 4 d f e e t lo w e r lhan Indicated at D H m a v nol seem lik e a b io deal — b u t if v o u Ih r o w ih a
p e rfe c tly le a a l a ltim e te r th a t re a d s 7 0 fe e t h io h e r th a n it s h o u ld f o u ltin o v o u 70 feet lo w e r ) , a
s lic ih t.lv misadiusted altimeter settinq a S lig h t m o m e n t u f wanderina attention a n d th is little
d e ta il c o u ld m u s h r o o m in to s o m e severely bent a lu m in u m .

C O N S ID ER A D D IN G a little A L T IT U D E C U S H IO N w hen C LO S E T O the G R O U N D

in E X TR E M E L Y COLD C O N D ITIO N S .
T h a t p o rtio n o f th e e r r o r th a t m ig h t o th e r w is e e x is t b e c a u s e o f th e h e ig h t o f th e s ta tio n a b o v e s e a le v e l
Is a c c o u n te d fo r in th e a lU m e ie r s e ttin g fo r th a t s ta tio n . T h is is w h y th e a ir c r a ft A L T IM E T E R
IN D IC A TE S FIE LO E L E V A T IO N UPON LA N D IN G - R E G A R D L E S S O F T E M P E R A T U R E , a irp o rt
e le v a tio n a n d n o n s ta n d a r d la p s e ra te s . C a n a d ia n A ir T ra ffic C o n tro l c o m p e n s a te s fo r e x tr e m e ly c o ld
le m p e r a lu r e s w h e n is s u in g a ilitu d e s . e s p e c ia lly M in im u m V e c to rin g A ltitu d e s , In th e U n ite d S ta le s . A T C
d o e s n 't c o n s id e r te m p e ra tu r e s a t all, it's u p to YO U to m a k e s u re y o u d o n ’t b o u n c e o ff th e r o o f o f th e
F o rd p la n i w h ile b e in g v e c to r e d fo r a p p r o a c h o n lh a i b e a u tifu lly b ris k -22gF e v e n in g In D e tro it.
S. O f c o u rs e o n a H O T D A T , y o u t t r u e a l t i t u d e w ill b e h ig h e r t h a n i n d ic a t e d , b u t n o rm a lly w h o c a r e s ?
9. The A L T I M E TE R and P IT O T / S T A T IC s y s te m m u s t be TESTED and R E -C E R TIF IE D e v e ry

Arpt A L T IT U D E TEMPERATURE C O R R E C T IO N CHART {a im t - z -3 )

Tem p INIDICATE:D Height A B O V E the Elevation of the Altimeter Source F Feet A G L b
*C 200 300 400 500 600 700 600 900 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000
O’ 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 90 120 170 1 230 28Ü
-10° 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 290 390 490
-20g 30 50 60 70 90 100 120 130 140 210 230 420 570 710
-30a 40 60 80 100 120 130 150 170 190 280 380 570 I 760 950
^I0g 50 30 100 120 150 170 190 220 240 360 430 720 970 1210
-5Qg 60 90 12Q 150 160 210 240 270 300 450 590 890 ' 1190 1500
M O T E : V a lu e s s h o u ld be ADDED to p u b lis h e d a ltitu d e s d u rin g an n s tr u m e n t a p p r o a c h
ï ï w w v Y ï w m it if a H ir io ia 'iiiiriiv iiiriin iiii'K iiii.

EXAMPLE: Airport tomporature -JO'C, and thv Aircraft altimotor rondlng 1,000 loot obovo tho airport olovatlon. Tho chart
shows that tbs current altimeter setting may place the aircraft as much as 190 Feet below the altitude indicated by the altimeter.
EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 11$
C h a p 4— S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t

HIGH to LOW Lookout BELOW

(IF Y O U D O N 'T R E S E T T H E A L T IM E T E R T O T H E C U R R E N T L O C A L S E T T IN G )

HIGH Temperature to LOW Temperature

Lookout BELOW

; True alliLude 3 ,5 0 0 ft ;

** => There is no adjustment on an altimeter V

=>
for tem perature.
In th is e x tr e m e e x a m p le , th e a ir c r a ft
... A ....
would actually be 1,500 ft L O W E R !|
than IN D IC A TE D
In e x tr e m e ly c o ld w e a th e r , c o n s id e r
adding a little A L T IT U D E C U SH IO N
d u rin g a circling approach to a n i!
a im e d surrounded by high terrain.
.................. ......................
=> When you reach the R U N W A Y , a ,* A ir p o rt te m p esra
ra tu
tu rre
e **
perfectly set altimeter should be | -50*0
E X A C T LY C O R R E C T NO M A T T E R
V W H A T TH E TEM P ER A TU R E

120 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 f c h a p~4'— S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t'l
TEM PERATURE and A LTIM E TR Y :[ ac w w
T h e re is r>o adjustment o n a n a ltim e te r for temperature L ik e m o s t s u b s ta n c e s , a ir e x p a n d s a s it
b e c o m e s w a rm e r a n d s h rin k s a s it c o o ls . T h e d ia g ra m b e lo w s h o w s ih re e c o lu m n s o f a ir — o n e c o ld e r th a n
s ta n d a r d , o n e a t s ta n d a r d te m p e ra tu r e , a n d o n e w a r m e r th a n s ta n d a r d . Pressure is equal at th e bottom o f
e a c h c o lu m n a n d equal at th e (an o f each colum n. T h e re fo r e , p re s s u re d e c r e a s e u p w a rd th ro u g h e a c h
c o lu m n is th e s a m e . V e rtic a l e x p a n s io n o f th e w a r m c o lu m n h a s m a d e it h ig h e r th a n th e c o lu m n a t s ta n d a r d
te m p e ra tu r e . S h r in k a g e o f t h e c o ld c o lu m n h a s m a d e it s h o rte r. S in c e p r e s s u r e d e c r e a s e is th e s a m e in
e a c h c o lu m n , th e ra te o f d e c r e a s e o f p re s s u r e w ith h e ig h t in w a r m a ir is le ss th a n s ta n d a r d ; Ih e ra le o f
d e c r e a s e o f p r e s s u r e w ith h e ig h t in c o ld a ir is g r e a t e r th a n s ta n d a rd .

T h re e c o lu m n s o f a ir s h o w in g h o w decrease of pressure with height varies with temperature. T h e le ft

Pressure is equal a i ih e bottom
c o lu m n is w a r m e r th e n a v e ra g e e n d ih e r ig h i c o lu m n c o ld e r th a t a v e ra g e .

IN D IC A TE D A L T IT U D E d e p e n d s o n AIR T E M P E R A T U R E B E LO W th e A .I R £ M E I S in c e pressure is coual

at th e bases a n d equal at th e tops of each colum n. IN D IC A TE D A L T IT U D E Is the SA M E a t th e T O P of each
C O L U M ff W h e n a ir is c o ld e r th a n s ta n d a r d {r ig h t}, ih e a ltim e te r re a d s h ig h e r th a n tru e a ltitu d e . W h e n a ir is
w a rm e r th a n s ta n d a r d {le ft}, th e a ltim e te r re a d s lo w e r th a n (ru e a ltitu d e .

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 121

Chap 4 — Speed, Altitude & Je t
DENSITY A LTITU D E and PERFORMANCE: (a i m 7 - ^ , a c oi} - s a . f m -h w - isj
1. on D E N S ITY A L T IT U D E (i.e ,, pressure altitude [2 9 .9 2 ] corrected for
A ir c r a ft p e rfo rm a n c e is b a s e d
non-standard temperature] D e n s ity a ltitu d e c a n also b e d e fin e d a s th e num ber of air molecules
p a c k e d In to a c e rta in volum e of space n o rm a lly e x p re s s e d a s k ilo g r a m s (m a s s ) p e r c u b ic m e te r
(v o lu m e ).
2. If th e a ir y o u 're fly in g in c o n ta in s a l o t o f m o le c u le s p e r c u b ic m e t e r (lo w d e n s ity a ltitu d e ), th e r e 'll b e
p le n ty o f a ir m o le c u le s a v a ila b le to g e n e r a t e l i f t a n d to m ix w ith th e fu e l to c r e a t e t h r u s t fo r ta k e o ff.
T h is d e n s e a ir w ill a ls o c r e a te a lo t o f d ra g , e s p e c ia lly a t h ig h a irs p e e d s .
3. A s d e n s ity a ltitu d e in c re a s e s (i.e . a ir d e n s it y d e c r e a s e s }, th e a irc ra ft w in g s a n d e n g in e s w ill b e c o m e
lo s s e f f ic i e n t , h o w e v e r le s s d e n s ity a ls o e q u a te s to lo s s d r a g , w h ic h is th e k e y to je t c ru is e
p e rfo rm a n c e a t h ig h a ltitu d e .
4. A s fa r a s takeoff performance is c o n c e r n e d , th e colder, th e denser (h ig h e r p re s s u r e ) a n d th e diver
the better fo r a ll a irc ra ft.
5. In o r d e r to d e a r th o s e p o w e r lin e s , density altitude is th e most Important d e te r m in in g fa c to r.

2 9 .9 2 2 9 .9 2

GOOD S TU FF for TAKEO FF PERFORMANCE:

1. HIGH a tm o s p h e ric pressure ( h ig h a ltim e te r s e ttin g ). * For e a c h 1°F i n c r e a s e , d e n s ity
2. L O W altitude a irp o rt (lo w d e n s ity a ltitu d e ). j a ltitu d e in c re a s e s b y 6D f e e t , o r
3. L O W te m p e r a tu r e .
; a b o u t 1 ,0 0 0 f e e t fo r e a c h 15°F
4 L O W humidity a b o v e s ta n d a rd ( 5 9 DF ).

BAD S TU FF for TAKEO FF PERFORMANCE — HO T — HIGH — HUMID:

1. h o t a ir is less dense th a n g o ld a ir w h e n m e a s u r e d a i ih e s a m e a tm o s p h e ric p r e s s u r e . T h e a ir
m o le c u le s a re fu r th e r a p a rt, b u t it a lw a y s la k e s th e s a m e n u m b e r o f m o le c u le s flo w in g o v e r a n d u n d e r
ih e w in g fo r th e a ir c r a f t to fly. T h e re fo r e , th e a ir c r a ft m u s t g o fa s te r (iru e a irs p e e d ) to a c c u m u la te th e
re q u ire d n u m b e r o f m o le c u le s n e c e s s a r y to fly (In d ic a te d a irs p e e d ). E n g in e h o r s e p o w e r is a ls o re d u c e d
A LO T o f RUNW AY.
b y th e la c k o f a ir m o le c u le s . T h is w ill c o n s u m e
2. HIGH a ltitu d e a irp o rts (h ig h d e n s ity a ltitu d e ) w ill o b v io u s ly h a v e Ia b b air molecules a v a ila b le to
g e n e ra te lift. O n c e a g a in — T h e a ir m o le c u le s a re fu r th e r a p a rt, b u t It a lw a y s ta k e s (h e s a m e n u m b e r o f
m o le c u le s flo w in g o v e r a n d u n d e r th e w in g fo r th e a ir c r a ft to fly. T h e re fo r e , th e a irc ra ft m u s t g o fa s te r
(tru e a irs p e e d ) to a c c u m u la te th e re q u ire d n u m b e r o f m o le c u le s n e c e s s a r y to fly. E n g in e h o r s e p o w e r is
a ls o re d u c e d b y t h e la c k o f a ir m o le c u le s . O n c e a g a in — T h is w ill c o n s u m e A LO T of RUNW AY
3. HUM ID a ir w ill a ls o h a v e a n a ffe c t o n p e rfo rm a n c e . Water molecules displace a ir molecules a n d
VYpter molecules have less mass th a n a ir m o le c u le s . T h is re s u lts in a d e c re a s e in to ta l m a s s in th e
c u b ic le o f a ir th a l th e a ir c r a ft is fly in g in a n d th u s a s o m e w h a t lo w e r a ir d e n s ity . N o rm a lly h u m id ity Is n o t
W IL L D E C R E A S E
c o n s id e r e d w h e n d e te r m in in g d e n s ity a ltitu d e ; h u t k e e p in m in d th a t h ig h h u m id ity
a irc ra ft performance. Y o u 'll n e e d more runway a n d y o u 'll g e t a decreased a n g le o f clim b.

122 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 C h a p 4— S p e e d , A ltitu d e A J e t

A L TITU D E . TE M PERATURE and H U M ID ITY: (a im t - m , a c o o &a . faa -h -b m j -is . sos3-25)

1. A L T IT U D E — T h e h ig h e r th e a ltitu d e , th e le s s d e n s e th e a ir. I Dansiiy Attitude calculator
2 T E M P E R A T U R E — T h e w a r m e r th e a ir, th e le s s d e n s e lit Is.
3. H U M ID IT Y - H u m id ity is n o t g e n e r a lly c o n s id e r e d a m a jo r fa c to r In d e n s ity a ltitu d e c o m p u l a ti on s
b e c a u s e th e e ff e c t o f h u m id ity is related more to engine power th a n aerodynamic efficiency. A t h ig h
a m b ie n t te m p e ra tu r e s , Ih e a tm o s p h e re c a n re ta in a h ig h w a le r v a p o r c o n te n t. F o r e x a m p le , a t 9 6 * F ,
th e w a te r v a p o r c o n te n t o f th e a ir c a n b e e ig h t (8 ) tim e s a s g r e a t a s a t 4 2 * F. H ig h d e n s ity a ltitu d e a n d
h ig h h u m id ity d o n o t o fte n g o h a n d in h a n d . H o w e v e r if e x tr e m e ly HIGH H UM ID ITY d o e s e x is t, it c a n
re d u c e e n g in e p o w e r b y a s m u c h a s 1 0 % , It w o u ld b e w is e to add a t le a s t 1 0 % to y o u r c o m p u te d
takeoff distance a n d a n tic ip a te a reduced clim b r a t e . A n o th e r ru le o f th u m b is — w h e n c o m p u tin g
d e n s ity a ltitu d e — ad_dJ_P_PJr_g_g_t (la th e c o m p u te d i for each lf l% relative humidity
(r e la tiv e h u m id ity is 1 0 0 % w h e n it’s raining). T h e re fo r e w h e n it's RAINING — add 1 0 0 0 f e e t to th e
c o m p u te d density altitude b e fo re c a lc u la tin g t a k e o f f a n d c lim b p e rfo rm a n c e .

W h e n th e temperature ris e s above th e standard te m p e r a tu r e fo r th e lo c a lity , th e density of Ih e a ir in th a t

reduced a n d th e density altitude increases. A ir c r a ft a e r o d y n a m ic p e r fo rm a n c e a n d e n g in e
lo c a lity is
h o r s e p o w e r o u tp u t b o th d e c re a s e . M a k e a p ra c tic e o f c h e c k in g a ir c r a f t p e rfo rm a n c e c h a rts e s p e c ia lly w h e n
te m p e r a tu r e s a re a b o v e n o rm a l re g a r d le s s o f a ir p o r t e le v a tio n .

Decompression Sickness After SCUBA DIVING: ia im b i -zi

1. A Dilator passenger who intends to ftv after scuba eivirg should allow the body sufficient time to rid itse lf
of excess NITROGEN absorbed durino divino. If not. docoiriDrossion sickness due to evolved oas can
occur during exposure to low altitude and create a serious in flig h t cm orticncv ioreven death!.
2. The mcommondod waiting time before going to flight altitudes of uo to S.ddO foot is at least 12 hours after
divina which has not required controlled ascent tnondecomDression stop divinal. and at least 24 hours
after diving which has required controlled ascent (decompression step diving). The wailing time before
going to flight altitudes above £.000 foot should be at least 24 hou rs after A N Y SCUBA dive. These
recommended altitudes are actual flight altitudes above mean sea level (AMSL) and not pressurized cabin
altitudes. This takes into consideration tho risk o f decom pression of the aircraft during fligh t. The
depressurization of an aircraft in flight can be DEADLY for someone who bas recently been scuba divinq.
X,

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 123

Chap 4 — Speed, A ltitude & J e t
Temperature Effects on Density Altitude; (a im 7-^. a c w a , f m - h -s d s m s , FAA-H-ecea-2 6 )

Outside A ir Tem poralture

S TA N D A R D
P R ES SU R E 80*F 90‘ F 10CTF 11Q‘ F 120‘ F 130‘F
TEM P ER A TU R E
A L T IT U D E 27°C 32°C 38 DC 43°C 49°C 54°C
{IS A )
59*F (15°C> Sea Level 1,200 1.900 2,500 3,200 3, B00 4,400
52aF (11flC) 2,000 3,aoo 4.400 5,000 5,600 6,200 6,800
45 *F (7DC) 4,000 6,300 6,900 7,500 8,100 8,700 9.400
38 “F (3°C) 6,000 6,600 9,200 9,600 10,400 11,000 11,600
32*F (D"C) 8,000 11,100 11,700 12,300 12,600 13,300 13.800
D E N S IT Y A L T IT U D E

An Increase in density altitude results In:

1 . increased takeoff distance.
2. Reduced rate of cl ¡mb.
Density Altitude Calculator
www w ahiduddin netfcalc/calC da.htm
**www********************************************** J
3. Increased true airspeed on approach and landing (Indicated airspeed remains the same).
4. Increased landing roll distance.

At airports of higher elevations, such as Ihose in the Western United States, high temperatures sometimes
have such an effect on density altitude that safe operations are impossible (most takeoff performance
charts for tots do not include figures for operations above 120°Fi In such conditions, operations during
mid-day can become extremely hazardous. Even at lower elevations, aircraft performance can become
marginal and il may be necessary to reduce aircraft takeoff weight for safe operations. It is advisable, when
performance is in question, to schedule operations during the cool hours of the day, early morning or
very late afternoon.

For every 1,000-foot increase in density altitude,

takeoff roll w ill Increase by A T L E A S T 10% .

HIGH HUM IDITY:

When computing density altitude (rule of thumb) add 100
feet to the computed density altitude for each 10%
relative humidity (relative humidity is 100% when it's
Cfliaina). Therefore when it's RAINING — add 10QQ feet
to the computed density altitude before calculating
takeoff and climb performance.
Extremely HLG.HJH_U_MJ.DJTY can reduce engine power by Goidarnitl
as much as 10% {for small non-turbocharged piston M ow I g o tta g o b a c k
aircraft). A good rule of thumb would be to add at least inside and
10% to your computed takeoff distance and anticipate a re c a lc u la te a ll m y
reduced climb rate performance data.
R E L A T IV E H U M ID IT Y % : I h o p e th e y h a v e
Formula: V^s o m e p o p c o r n l e f l y
(Dew point/Temp) x {-1 0 0 ) + 100 = Relative Hum tdity%
Example:
i9°Cn9°C) x M00I + 100 = 53%

124 EVERYTHING EX PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fit stanai Pilot

 C hap 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & Jet

P re s s u re
Density Altitude
A ltitu d e (Rounded to the nearest 1 DO feet) (FAA-K-40B3-25)
6000 5600 6200 6000 7400 7900 0400 9000 9500 10000
5000 4400 5000 5600 6200 6700 7200 7600 8400 8000
4000 3200 3000 4400 5000 5500 6000 6600 7100 7600
3000 1900 2600 3100 3700 4200 4600 5400 5900 6400
2000 +600 +1200 1900 2400 3000 3600 4200 4700 5200
1000 -600 0 +600 1200 1600 2400 3000 3400 4000
Sea Levai -1000 -1200 ■600 0 600 1200 1700 2200 2000
OAT X OX 5X 10X 15X 2ÜX 25X 30X 35X 4DX
OAT T 32T 41T 50T 59T GB°F 77T BGÙF 95QF 1D4T
Pressure A ltitu d e
Conversion D E N S ITY A L T IT U D E - pressure A irp o rt (aha Field]- Elevation: The highasl
ADD to or altitude [29.92] corrected for point an an airport's usable runway uxpnrssud In
non-standard temperature feel above mean sea leva! (MSL). (AC m j .'mul- ij
SUBTRACT
from FIELD
ALTIMETER
ELEVATION Density A ltitude C alculator
SETTING
boforo www.wahidiidcim.net/coic/calc da.titm
entering
ch a rt. PR ESSU R E A L T IT U D E is (he uncorrectod (for lom poratoro: altitude inducted by an
20.0 +1,024 ft altimeter when it is set to 29.91. In most situations FIELD ELEVATION may bo substituted
20.t +1,727 ft for PRESSURE ALTITUDE because pressure variations will seldom exceed 400 f&et
2(1.2 +1.530 ft However, to obtain a more exact pressure altitude for these computations, set your altimeter
20.3 +1,533 ft to 29.92 a ad note Ihe indicated (pressure) altitude before entering a density altitude chart
20. 4 +1,436ft
20.5 +1,340 ft
20.0 +1,244 ft Conversions & Rules of Thumb
20,7 +1.148ft Thu difference botwiwn 29.92 end
20.8 +1.053 ft P R ESSUR E Field elevation = BOO ft
the current altimeter settina changes
20.9 +057 ft Allimeter Setting = 29.75
A L T IT U D E PJWASUie l(l(1m.d£ ut the rate of JLQ_£t
25.0 +063 ft for uveiv .01 Inches of ciinnuo.
20.02 - 29.75 = .17"
20.1 +768 ft IF vnu must ADD Lhe difference to
.17* 1Di'per .01)= 170 ft
20,2 +073 ft eaual 29.92. then vou musl ADO to
£ O TIt* 170 ft -
20.3 +579 ft the {¡peld elevation to obLam the
970 It Pressure Altitude
20.4 +4E5 ft pressure altitude.
25.5 +392 ft P R ESSUR E Much atisier method. Plus you
20.6 +208 ft Set Lhe allimeter In 29.92 and read get Ihe added benefit el Lhal
20.7 +205 ft A L T IT U D E the Pressure Altitude from 1he dial. exercise waiting out to the
20.8 +112 ft ■Enroll n*.
20.9 +20 ft ISA (*C) IS A = 15"C @ sea level
Altitude = 6,000 ft
ISA decreases FC per i ,000 ft
29.93 0 ft lemperaturo Lapso Rato
increase in altitude.
)
(-2* x 8 ■*1 5 - 3°C
30.0 -73 ft (Rule of Thumb)
30.1 -165 ft (IntarnaLicnal Standard ISA @ 0 ,0 0 0 ft = 3°C
30.2 -257 It Atmosphere) (-2* x each 1090 ft MSL) + 15 - ISA
30.3 -348 ft ISA (°F) 15A = Sg’ F @ eea level Altitude =6,00011
304 -440 ft Tempfrratu.ro Lapsa Roto ISA decreases 3 .5 ^ per 1,000tt
(-3.5U x 6 )+ 59 - 38°F
30.5 -531ft (Rule of Thumb) increase In altitude.
30.6 -022 ft (Inle national Standard ISA @ 6 ,0 0 0 ft = 3B°F
30,7 ■712 ft Atmosphere) (-3 .5 x each 1000 ftM SLl + 5 9 = ISA
30.8 -003 ft Increases or decreases 120 ft for Pressure Altitude = t.DCO Ft
D E N S ITY
30.9 -093 ft each 1"C difference From ISA Outside £ir lam p = 13+C
31.0 -003 It A L T IT U D E ISA = 3“C (from rule ot Hiumb)
A LOW altimeter settina (Rule üí Thumb) (O A T - ISA] x 120 + Prees Altitude (1 3 -3 ) x. 120+ 6000 =
manns LESS air melee Liles = Density Altitude 7.200 ft Density Altitude
available l-j create lilt and Fahrenheit to 5 9 aF - 3 2 = 27
Ihrusl — IhereFc-ra field (°F - 3 2 ) 5/9 = X
elovBlion is eiraclively Celsius 27 H 5/9 = 1 5 X
increased whan the pressure
is be taw standard [20.92]
Celsius to
{X * 1 .0 ) + 3 2 = °F 16pC x 1 i + 32 = 5fPF
i ADD lo field a lM lIlH ) Fahrenheit
A HIGH altimeter settina
manns MORE afejnclecules
available — Eharelcra field For every .01 inches the altimeter setting chanaes.
elevation is effectively lowered
(iU e rflA fiT fro m Hold
sieve 1anl
pressure altitude changes by (approximately) 10 feet
’VWi j
E V E flY TH JN O E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 125
(c h a p 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t

LOW Altimeter Setting Mo si altimeters will not adjust

below 26.00 so flight is
N O T recommended when the

Restrictions pressure falls below 28.00, Of

course 28 Inches is already well
Into HURRICANE PRESSURE
so the altimeter setting would
L O W E S T U S A B L E F L IG H T L E V E L [ be the least of your concern s(
191.121. AIM 7-2-5} 1
A ltim e te r Low est
S e t t in g U s a b le A L T IM E T E R S E T T IN G
(Current Reported) F li g h t L e v e l i. Atm ospheric pressure — The force the
29.92 or higher 180 atmosphere everts on an area directly below It
29.91 to 29.42 185 due lo gravity (i.e., the weight of the s k v l.
29.41 to 28.92 190 2. An airport with a field elevation of 6000 fi; might
26 91 to 28.42 195 have an actual observed pressure of 26.82 in,
28.41 lo 27.92 200 The instrument at the airport automatically
adds approximately 3 Inches to that value to
give an estimate of what the pressure w ould be

HIGH Altimeter Setting

if the airport were located at sea level [29.82).
This is the value you dial into the Kollsman
window, If everything is working perfectly, you
should indicate field elevation upon touchdown
Restrictions
A L T IM E T E R S E T T IN G — A B O V E 3 1 IN C H E S — T e m p o r a r y R e s t r ic t io n o n
F l i g h t O p e r a t i o n s D u r i n g A b n o r m a l l y H IGH B a r o m e t r i c P r e s s u r e C o n d i t i o n s :
(91 144, AJM7V&4)
(a) When any information indicates that barometric pressure on the route of
S p e c ia l fligh t re s tric tio n s
flight currently exceeds or will e x c e e d 3 1 i n c h e s of mercury, no pe r s on may operate on
aircraft or initiate a flight c o n t r a r y to. the r e q u i r e m e n t s e s t a b l i s h e d b y the Administrator and
published in a N o t i c e T o A i r M e n issued under this section.
(b) W a iv e rs . The Administrator is authorized to waive any restriction issued under paragraph {a) of this
section to permit emergency supply, transport, or medical services to be delivered lo isolated
communities, where the operation can be conducted with an acceptable level of safety.
O ve rvie w
A “low” is characterized by rising air that
cools adiabatlcally. a primary cause of clouds
A “high'1is characterized1by descending air,
which normally results in warming and a
decrease in cloudiness.
W HAT POES ALL TH IS MEAN?
1 A large percentage of aircraft altimeters cannot be set above 31.00, and some older style ground
.

based barometers used by (he weather services cannot display a pressure higher than 31.00.
On the extremely rare day that the pressure may exceed 31", the FAA issues a NOTAM describing
how lo handle the event.
3 Basically the NOTAIW requires all aircraft below 16,000 feet to sM their altimeters to 31.QQ
4. Terrain clearance Js actually [Increased because you'll be flying higher than the altitude
Indicated on your altimeter.
5. The NOTAM may also require adding a cushion lo the visibility and minimum descent requirements
on an IFR approach.
6 Of course, most of this is a bit ludicrous. On the extremely uncommon day that the pressure goes
.

to 31+ Inches, every bit of water and moisture is compressed out of the atmosphere —

J
YOU CAN SEE FOREVER!

126 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 Chap 4 —Speed, Attitude & Jetj

7700
“S U H E - S Q U A W K 1' m the 4i a u |T r a n s p o n d e r C o m p a n y , |n t ,

T R A N S P O N D E R — A L T IT U D E R E P O R T IN G — M O PE C ( M o d e A & M o d e S):
(91.215. 91.217, 91.135. 91.411. 91.413. 99.13. 121.345. 135.143. AIM 3-2-3. 3-2-1,4-1-20. 6-2-2. 6-1-2. FAA-H-0693-15. 8Gfl3-2E>
1. R e q u i r e d at and above- 1 0 , 0 0 0 feet M S L (-excluding airspace hBlnw 2,500' AQL).
2 R e q u ire d In a ll C la s s A . B a n d C a irs p a c e a n d C la s s □ if it u n d e rlie s C la s s B.

3. R e q u ire d within 3 0 N M o f th e canter Of a ll C l a s s B a irs p a c e fro m surface to 10.000 fe e l M S L

(s e e a p p e n d ix D. s e c tio n 1 o f P a rt 91 — a t th e e n d o f P a rt 9 1 }.
■CODES:
4. R e q u ire d within and above a I C l a s s C a irs p a c e u p to 10.000 'e e l M S L . 11200 — VFR
■ 1202 — GlidBT
5. R e q u ire d w ith in 10 MM o f c e r ta in designatedairoarts. e x c lu d in g a irs p a c e
a 1255 — Fire Fighting
th a t is b o th o u ts id e th e C la s s D s u rfa c e a re a a n d b e lo w 1 .2 0 0 f e e l A G L (s e e j 1277 — EAR
a p p e n d ix D . s e c t io n 2 of P a r t 9 1 1. ■ 7700 — Emergency
6. R e q u ire d b y a il a ir c r a ft fly in g in to , w llh in , o r a c r o s s t h e c o n tig u o u s U S A D IZ * 7600 — Ij55( Com
< 7 5 M — Hijack
7. M ust a g r e e w it h th e b a r o m e t r ic a l t i m e t e r w ith in ' 7777 Military InLarcepbr

±125 f e e t *0000— MMiteryOperglions

(91.217b; ^ *****************4
T ra n s p o n d e r, in c lu d in g M o d e G , s h a ll b e o p e r a t e d a t a ll tim e s in all C O N TR O LLE D a ir s p a c e a n d all
a irs p a c e s p e c ifie d In 9 1 .2 1 5 ( b ) u n le s s o th e r w is e a u th o r iz e d o r d ire c te d b y A T C . T h e y s h o u ld a ls o be
tu rn e d "o n " in c lu d in g M o d e C p r i o r to m o v e m e n t o n th e a i r p o r t s u r f a c e , (a im 4-11-20)
9. An a irc ra ft w ith an IN O P E R A TIV E transponder may be flown to the a irp o rt o f u ltim a te destination,
in c lu d in g a n y In te rm e d ia te s to p s , or to p r o c e e d lo a p la c e w h e re s u ita b le repairs can be made or
both. T h e request to d o Ih is c a n be m a d e at any tim e. J91,215(d)]
10 A n aircraft th a t w a s not orioinallv certified with a n engine-driven electrical system a n d h a s not
subsequently b e e n certified w ith an engine-driven electrical system is E X E M P T fro m h a v in g a
tr a n s p o n d e r in s ta lle d . T h e s e a ir c r a ft may conduct operations within 30 NM o ' an airport listed in
Appendix D S e c 1 — P R O V ID E D th o s e operations a re conducted outside a n y Class A . E , o r C
a irs p a c e ; b e lo w th e a ltitu d e o f th e c e ilin g o f a C la s s B o r C a irs p a c e u p w a rd to 1 0 ,0 0 0 fe e l M S L ,
w h ic h e v e r is lo w e r; th e s e o p e r a tio n s a re n o t c o n d u c te d a b o v e th e c e ilin g a n d w ith in ih e la te ra l
b o u n d a r ie s o f a C la s s B o r C a irs p a c e a re a u p w a rd to 1 0 ,0 0 0 fe e t M S L ; a n d th e s e o p e ra tio n s a re
c o n d u c te d b e lo w 1 0 .0 0 0 f e e t M S L (e x c lu d in g th e a irs p a c e b e lo w 2 ,5 0 0 f e e t A G L ).
11. F o r o p e ra tio n in a n y a irs p a c e lis te d a b o v e fo r a n a irc ra ft N O T E Q U IP P E D w ith a transponder, th e
re q u e s t to o p e ra te m u s t b e m a d e a t le a s t one hour b e f o r e th e p r o p o s e d tim e . 191.215(d)]
12, m_q_d_e_c a ltitu d e tr a n s m is s io n s a re ItUtBEEMBEtH-ffit th e barometric altim eter T h e
tr a n s p o n d e r c a n g e l its in fo r m a lio n fr o m o n e o f tw o s o u rc e s . A n EN C O D IN G A L T IM E T E R — w h ic h
tr a n s m its a p r e s s u r e re a d in g to th e tr a n s p o n d e r .. . o r, m o re c o m m o n ly , a BLIND E N C O D E R —
e s s e n tia lly a n a ltim e te r w ith o u t n e e d le s o r a n a d ju s tm e n t k n o b . altimeter setting
In e ith e r c a s e th e
does not affect th e altitude th e transponder sends T h e tr a n s p o n d e r transmits th e altitude to A T C
in 100-foot Increments. A T C s c o m p u te r s a p p ly th e c u rr e n t a ltim e te r s e ttin g to th e a m b ie n t p re s s u r e
re a d in g s e n t b y th e tr a n s p o n d e r. T h e re fo r e , you cannot fool A T C by resetting you r a l t i m e t e r (o'
caurao you could ulwjys fly 1I10 airplane a iiLila hngliar or lawor - ihei'H foot 'emf). A T C w ill m o s t lik e ly a s k y o u to “Stop
altitude souaw k11if y o u r in d ic a te d a ltitu d e a n d th e a ltitu d e re c e iv e d b y A T C d iffe r b y 300 fe e t o r m o re .
encoders m u s t b e tested a n d re-certified e v e r y TWO c a le n d a r YEARS (fo r IF R o r V F R ).
13, A ltitu d e
14. Encoders ty p ic a lly u s e a s m u c h a s 200 watts o f p o w e r, c o n s id e r h i m in a off th e Mode C if y o u lo s e a n
alternator o r tw o .
15 MODE A — N o n a ltitu d e re p o rtin g .

16 M ODE S - R e q u ire d fo r T C A S II o p e ra tio n . M o d e S h a s th e s a m e c a p a b ilitie s a s M o d e A a n d

M o d e C a n d a ls o r e s p o n d s to tr a ffic a le r t a n d c o llis io n a v o id a n c e s y s te m (T C A S ¡- e q u ip p e d a irc ra ft.
P ro v id e s th e a ir - to - a ir d a ta link b e tw e e n T C A S II e q u ip p e d a irc ra ft to c o o r d in a te re s o lu tio n m a n e u v e rs .
T h is ensures th a t th e resolution advisory d is p la y e d in o n e T C A S II e q u ip p e d a ir c r a ft is compatible
with th e m a n e u v e r d is p la y e d in th e other T C A S II equipped aircraft.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 127

 C h a p 4 — S p a r i . A ltitu d e & J e t

IF R A L T I T U D E S — MINIMUM A LTITU D ES for IFR OPERATIONS:

(91.177. AIM +4-A, (U -A . 5-4-7, 5-4-5, 5-4-18. 5-4-19. PVC Glossary. FAA-H-8261■1. 8083-16)
1. M E A — M in im u m £ n r o u le filt it u d e — a s s u re s n a v ig a tio n a l c o v e r a g e & 1.0(H ) f e e t
o b s ta c le c le a ra n c e o v e r flat terrain — 2 ,0 0 0 feet o b s ta c le c le a r a n c e o v e r
mountainous te rra in .
2. M E A G a p — N a v ig a tio n s ig n a l w e a k . "G a p " In s ig n a l c o v e ra g e .
3. M O C A — M in im u m O b s ta c le C le a ra n c e A ltitu d e — A s s u r e s n a v ig a tio n a l c o v e ra g e
a n d o b s ta c le c le a ra n c e w h e n w ith in 2 2 N M o f a n a v a id .
4. M A A — M a x im u rn A u th o r iz e d A ltitu d e .
5. M C A — M in im u m C r o s s in g A ltitu d e — A ltitu d e y o u m u s t b e a t b e fo re c r o s s in g a n a v a id o r in te rs e c tio n .
6. M R A — M in im u m E x c e p tio n ¿ it it u d e — M in im u m a ltitu d e a t w h ic h o ff - a ir w a y n a v ig a tio n a l In fo rm a tio n
c a n b e re c e iv e d (e .g . a c r o s s - r a d ia l fr o m a n o th e r V O R ).
7. O R O C A — Q f f - g o u le O b s tru c tio n C le a ra n c e A lt it u d e — P r o v id e s 1 .0 0 0 f e e t o b s tr u c tio n c le a ra n c e in
n o n - m o u n t a ln o u s a re a s o r 2.QQ0 feet in mountainous a re a s w ith in th e U S . M a y n o t p ro v id e s ig n a l
c o v e ra g e fr o m g r o u n d - b a s e d n a v ig a tio n a l a id s , a ir tr a ffic c o n tro l ra d a r, o r c o m m u n ic a tio n s c o v e ra g e .

O l i d e S lo p e In te rc e pt A l titude (GSIA): (P ft G lo s s a ry , F A A -P -É 0 8 3 -2 6 , O rtfe r JO 7 1 1 0 .8 8 1 )

1. The minimum {a n d m axim um ] a ltitu d e a u th o r iz e d to in te rc e p t th e g lid e s lo p e o n a p re c is io n a p p ro a c h .

2. T h e in te rs e c tio n o f th e p u b lis h e d ILS w LOC APPROACH
in te r c e p t a ltitu d e w ith th e r i*
iTJel* «Hvd*
M-fiUHf
g lid e s lo p e ,'p a th . ¿ y w >wídí Jly ijpucW-d.iptnoiu;ta i
F V m rrJ u n -
T h e a lt it u d e a n d lo c a tio n o f th e 1/ * MF :r»t>ipfWi#Qn
“ lightning bolt“ s y m b o l { 'e n d o f ItíXi'Z ■IÍ71 <L _ Ml w v f A ffinarti ftani

(h e fe a th e r" o n J e p p s ) is th e C**SJlK»- — - C5 300* -■ Appr<**rh TmüIc

Ciùvjvj Hhgftt ■^
highest altitude gt w hich the [JkJt taipt Ivrh rtl Akffufftr
Atipie ftufilv
glide slope can be used for
p r i m a r y g u i d a n c e . W h e r e p o s s ib le , th is p o in t s h a ll b e c o in c id e n ta l w ith £
C U ì k ^ / c l u FV,th
d e s ig n a te d F A F . A t lo c a tio n s w h e re it is n o t p o s s ib le fo r th e p o in t o f end Unii hi
g lid e s lo p e in te rc e p t to c o in c id e w ith a d e s ig n a te d F A F . th e p o in t o f 2100 kn BMiSod apDfwdi
|MMb4 l
g lid e s lo p e in te rc e p tio n s h a ll b e lo c a te d P R IO R to th e F A F . 9 8 % o f th e
tim e y o u ’ll b e v e c to r e d to in te rc e p t th e lo c a liz e r a n d g lid e s lo p e s o a s to in te rc e p t th e g lid e s lo p e "fro m
b e lo w " a t th e G S IA p o s itio n .
W h e n th e a p p ro a c h c h a rt s h o w s a n a lte rn a tiv e lo w e r g lid e s lo p e in te r c e p t a ltitu d e , a n d A T C d ire c ts a
lo w e r a H ilu d e , th e re s u lta n i lo w e r In te rc e p t p o s itio n is th e n th e F A F ,
T ra c k in g th e g lid e s lo p e fr o m a n a ltitu d e h ig h e r th a n th e p u b lis h e d g lid e s lo p e in te rc e p t a ltitu d e a n d
tra c k in g it d o w n to G S IA w ill (7 S i7 A i.L V ' re s u lt In b e in g a i o r a b o v e th e m in im u m p u b lis h e d a ltitu d e s on
th e a p p ro a c h . H o w e v e r, y o u s h o u ld n e v e r c o m p le te ly tr u s t g lid e s lo p e in fo r m a tio n w h e n y o u 'r e a b o v e
G S IA . A lw a y s c r o s s c h e c k a g a in s t th e v a r io u s fix e s to d e te r m in e y o u r p ro g r e s s , u s e th e s e Fixes a s y o u r
p r im a r y in fo rm a tio n . T ra c k in g th e g lid e s lo p e fro m an a ltitu d e h ig h e r th a n th e p u b lis h e d g lid e s lo p e
in te r c e p t a ltitu d e c a n r e s u lt in th e (r a c k in g o f a “false glideslope ” S te p -d o w n fix e s (th e n o n - p r e c is io n
“dive and drive M m e th o d ) o r A T C v e c to r s a re n e c e s s a ry fo r p r o p e r g lid e s lo p e a ltitu d e in te rc e p tio n ,
T h e g lid e s lo p e s ig n a l is o n ly flig h t-c h e c k e d to a fix e d d is ta n c e , g e n e ra lly in th e ra n g e o f a b o u t 10 m i l e s .
G lid e s lo p e in te rc e p ts b e y o n d th is p o in t m a y b e a ffe c te d b y fa ls e g lid e s lo p e s ig n a ls .

MINIMUM. MAXIMUM & MANDA TO R Y ALTITU D E S ; (a im S-a-5. P/C Gtosiary)

1. M IN IM U M a lt it u d e w ill b e d e p ic te d w ilh th e a ltitu d e v a lu e U N D E R S C O R E D {e g . 4 4 0 Q ). A ir c ra ft a re
re q u ire d to m a in ta in a ltitu d e a l o r a b o v e th e d e p ic te d v a lu e .
^ 8 0 0 2. M A X IM U M a ltitu d e w ill be d e p ic te d w ith th e a ltitu d e v a lu e O V E R S C O R E D (e .g . 4 8 0 0 )■ A ir c ra ft a re
re q u ire d to m a in ta in a ltitu d e a l o r b e lo w th e d e p ic te d v a lu e ,
3. M A N D A T O R Y a ltitu d e w ill be d e p ic te d w ilh Ih e a ltitu d e v a lu e b o th U N D E R S C O R E D a n d
O V E R 5 C Q R E D (e .g . 5 5 C : ■' )■ A ir c r a ft a re re q u ire d to m a in ta in a ltilu d e a t th e d e p ic te d v a lu e .
4. On J E P F E S E N C H AR TS — All altitudes are minimum unless specifically labeled m axim um .
m andatory, o r recom m ended.

128 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot

 _______________________ |C ha p 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t

M IN IM U M SAFE A L T I T U D E S
E x c e p t f o r t a k e o f f o r l a n d i n g n o p e r $ O r t m a y o p e r a t e b e l o w ' ¡51.113. EH.515. 31.177. 135.203. AIM +4-8)
1. A N Y W H E R E — A n a ltitu d e a llo w in g , if an e n g in e fa ils , a n e m e r g e n c y la n d in g w ith o u t
u n d o h a z a rd to p e rs o n s o r p r o p e r ly o n th e s u rfa c e {9 1 .1 1 9 ). CAUTION
2. P a rt 135 - D A Y V F R - 5 0 0 f t A G L o r 5 0 0 f t h o r iz o n la lly fro m a n y o b s ta c le . P a r t 1 3 5
— N IG H T V F R — 1 ,0 0 0 ft, o r 2 ,0 0 0 f l in m o u n ta in o u s a re a a b o v e th e h ig h e s t o b s ta c le LOW
w ilh in a h o riz o n ta l d is ta n c e o f 5 m ile s fro m th e c o u rs e in te n d e d {1 3 5 .2 0 3 ),
3 L A R G E & T U R B I N E - c o w e r e d M U L T IE N G IN E a irc ra ft 6 u rin e D A Y L IG H T — 1 .0 0 0 f t FLYING
a b o v e th e s u rfa c e o r a n y o b s ta c le { 9 1 .6 1 6 ), N IG H T — th e m in im u m a ltitu d e s a s
d e s c rib e d in § 9 1 .1 7 7 {M in im u m a ltitu d e s f o r IF R o p e ra tio n s ). AIRCRAFT
4. C O N G E S T E D A r e a — 1 ,0 0 0 f l a b o v e h ig h e s t o b s ta c le w ilh in a h o riz o n ta l ra d iu s o f
2 ,0 0 0 ft. T h e d e fin itio n o f " c o n g e s te d a r e a ' h a s b e e n d e te r m in e d o n a c a s e - b y - c a s e b a s is (u s u a lly
d u rin g a n e n fo r c e m e n t in v e s tig a tio n ) . E x a m p le s in c lu d e : a c o lle g e c a m p u s : a n a re a c o n s is tin g o f 10
h o u s e s a n d a s c h o o l: a b e a c h a lo n g a b u s y h ig h w a y .
5. O T H E R t h a n C O N G E S T E D A r e a — 5 0 0 ft a b o v e s u rfa c e , 5 0 0 f l lin e a r fr o m (h e n e a re s t p e rs o n , v e s s e l,
o r S tru c tu re .
6. S P A R S E L Y P O P U L A T E D A r e a s o r O P E N W A T E R — N o c lo s e r th a n 5 0 0 ft to a n y p e rs o n , v e s s e l,
v e h ic le o r s tru c tu re . Y o u c a n g o a s lo w a s y o u w a n t a s lo n g a s y o u s ta y a t le a s t 5 0 0 ft a w a y fr o m a n y
p e rs o n o r m a n - m a d e e n tity .
7 operation is Conducted
H E L IC O P T E R S e re e x e m p te d fro m th e lim its a p p lie d to a ir p la n e s “ i f th e
without hazard to persons o r property on th e surface" [9 1 .1 1 9 (d )). H o w e v e r, 1 3 5 .2 0 3 ( b ) re q u ire s
lh a l n o p e rs o n m a y o p e ra te a h e lic o p te r o v e r a " c o n g e s t e d a r e a ’’ a t an a ltitu d e le s s th a n 3 0 0 f t A G L .

MINIMUM VECTORING A L TITU D E {MVA): piiulu*PtoOtouBy,EAAHsrta-is.attWi)

T h e lo w e s t M S L a ltitu d e a t w h ic h a n IF R a ir c r a ft w ill b e v e c to r e d b y a r a d a r c o n tr o lle r e x c e p t fo r ra d a r
a p p r o a c h e s {P A R ) . O n ly th e c o n tr o lle r k n o w s w h a t th e M V A is fo r y o u r a re a . T h is a ltitu d e m e e ts IF R
o b s ta c le c le a r a n c e c r ite r ia [ 1,000 fe e t o b s ta c le c le a r a n c e o v e r f l a t te rra in — 2.000 f e e t o b s ta c le c le a r a n c e
o v e r m o u n ta in o u s te rra in — c a n b e lo w e re d to 1 5 0 0 f e e l in e o m e e a s te r n m o u n ta in o u s a re a s ).

M IN IM U M S A F E / S E C T O R A L T I T U D E {M S A ): [97.3, WM 54-5. FM-H-00B3-16, 0003-26, 8261-1)

M in im u m S a fe /S e c to r A ltitu d e s (M S A ) {on a p p ro a c h c h a rts ) — M S A s p ro v id e 1,000 fe e t o f c le a ra n c e
o v e r a ll o b s tr u c tio n s b u t d o n o t n e c e s s a rily a s s u re a c c e p ta b le n a v ig a tio n s ig n a l c o v e ra g e ,

“ P I L O T TS D I S C R E T I O N ” — T h e c o n tr o lle r h a s o ffe re d y o u th e o p tio n o f s ta rtin g th e

d e s c e n t (orciim tp w h e n e v e r y o u w is h a n d a t any rate of descent (or climb) y o u w a n t. Y o u h a v e
th e fr e e d o m to te m p o r a r ily le v e l o f f a t a n y in te r m e d ia te a ltitu d e , b u t once you have vacated
a n altitude, y o u cannot go back u p (crdown). If y o u decidE to stay a t d ie previously
assigned altitude fo r a w h ile before starting th e descent, yo u should initiate a n additional
call to report leaving th e previously assigned altitude. E x a m p le : “ Falcon 123 is
descend ine now to 23Q.M T h e c o n tr o lle r w ill a p p re c ia te th is a s a courtesy call. It is p o s s ib le
fo r a c o n tr o lle r to fo r g e t t h a t h e h a s g iv e n y o u a lo w e r a ltitu d e a t p ito t's d is c re tio n , a n d m a y
h a v e in a d v e r te n tly a llo w e d tr a ffic to c ro s s th ro u g h y o u r a ltitu d e ‘ b lo c k " in th e tim e b e tw e e n y o u r
a c c e p ta n c e o f th e c le a r a n c e a n d th e b e g in n in g o f y o u r d e s c e n t ¡a i m 4 4 - 1 0 . 5- 3 -3 & pjc G lossary}.
T o p a r a p h ra s e A IM 5 -3 -3 — T h e pilot should report w ith o u t a s p e c ific re q u e s t “when
vacating a n y previously assigned altitude fo r a newly assigned attitude.'1

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 12$

I C h a u 4 — S n e e d , A ltitu d e & Jet I

T R A F F IC P A T T E R N — M IN IM U M A L T IT U D E S
G L ID E S L O P E
A IR P O R T Q Class B v C , or a i r s p a c e : (91.126. 9 1.127, 9 1.12 a. 01.1 aa, 91 ,ia i)

1. A LARGE (12,600 ib s o rm a ro i or TURBINE-POW ERED a irp la n e s h a ll, u n le s s o th e r w is e

re q u ire d b y d is ta n c e fr o m c lo u d c rite ria , e n te r th e TR AFFIC PATTER N a t a n a ltitu d e o f a t le a s t

1 . 5 0 0 f e e t A G L a n d m a in ta in 1 ,5 0 0 A Q I_ until further d e s c e n t is required fo r a s a fe landing.

[N o is e a b a te m e n t]
2 . N O T E : M a n y C la s s B , C a n d D a ir p o r ts h a v e non-standard tr a f f ic p a tte rn altitudes lis te d in th e
fiir p o r t /E a c ilit y d ir e c to r y .
3. A la r g e o r t u r b ine-powered a irp la n e a p p r o a c h in g 10 la n d o n a ru n w a y s e r v e d b y a n ILS s h a ll fly at
GLIDE SLOPE b e tw e e n th e O U T E R m a r k e r a n d th e M ID D L E m a r k e r .
o r a b o v e th e

4. Any aiirplano a p p r o a c h in g to la n d on a ru n w a y s e rv e d b y a VASI s h a ll m a in ta in at or above

the GLIDE SLOPE { a k a g lid e p a th } until a lower altitude is necessary fo r a s a fe landing.
*....................* ..............................* ...............* .................i
I “At or a b o v e t h e glide slope” d o e s n o t
| p ro h ib it norm al bracketing maneuvers above
; or below t h e glide slope fo r th e p u rp o s e o f
r e m a in in g o n th e g lid e s lo p e ,
* t r m r iT r iT r ir n r n r n r iT n r r
; ''H cn n il b rachiti na m w iu v irt
' are maneuvers which remain wirhin
! Une limite of the higher and lower
ì alide slope siuriuls.

♦ " ............. .......................................... ..............................

You must remain at or above the glide slope botwonn the
LA R G E or T J R B I N E - P o w e r e d
OUTER m arker the MIDDLE m arker.
aircraft m u s t m a in ta in at least 1,500
Once you pass tho middle marker all bels are off. \ 1 2' 1 1 I ,
Rem em ber— Runway behind you. altitude above you, \ f e e t A G L in th e t r a f f i c p a t t e r n in j
and air In the fuel tanks are totally worthless. C la s s B , C . o r D a irs p a c e .

LO W A L T IT U D E A L E R T : (JO 7110,65 pan S-l-fi)* 2

Threshold Crossing H e ight
— T h e th e o r e tic a l h e ig h t a b o v e
ih e r u n w a y th r e s h o ld a t w h ic h th e
a irc ra ft's g lid e s lo p e a n te n n a w o u ld
b e if th e a ir c r a f t m a in ta in s th e
tr a je c to ry e s ta b lis h e d b y th e m e a n
IL S g lid e s lo p e o r M L S g l i d e p a t l r ^
____________________ 0 ^
1
(Sea "Low Allrlude Ala rl System" and "Safety Alarf' — ft'C Glossary)
1. Controllers '/a 11Lbs-ub ¿in aLert to an aircraft if they (eel it is loo low
(Information racolved from Mode C ). It is lha nllaL'a prerogative in 11" ........
whal course of action to lake... if any.
2, At larger airports, an automated function called MS AW minimum Sale £JLibuds
Kiurnmg) also calculates your descent rate — II ll exceeds wtial Is considered
to be a safe closure rata with the terrain — a very annoying alarm sounds in.
Hie lowar and lha TRACQIM, Ip addition, ItlS loiters Lfi (L“ W filti(ude) flash in
your radar data tag. Normally lha call from the controller would sound like this:
"Low allilude alert. Eraiaht P o a JJ3 G Q . ctiaik-yaur aJliluda.immediately."
Again it's your prerogative as to (he course ol action, If you get one of U1050
calls {a.g., while executing a Screaming high-spead dive in order to recapture
the glides.cpci) an acceptable response might be ..
"W o'rogood. Just getlln' hack to the glida slope. thanks for tho calll"

130 EVERYTHING EK P LA JH ED for tho Professional Pilot

 [c h a p 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t

T R A F F IC P A T IrE R N A L T IT U D E at A IR P O R T S I
W IT H O U T an O P E R A T I N G C O I N T R O L T O W E R :
(91.125 Ihm 9-1.1 31,91.155, AIM -1-1-9, ¿1-3-3, 4-3-1, 4-3-5, AC 90-65A, FAA H-9QB3-3, BQB3-15 3033-25)
1. A l m o s t a irp o rts a n d m ilita r y a ir b a s e s , tra ffic p a tte rn a ltitu d e s For propeller-driven
aircraft g e n e ra lly
feet to a s h ig h a s 1 ,5 0 0 feet A G L . A ls o , tr a ffic p a tte rn a ltitu d e s f o r m i l i t a r y turbojet
e x te n d fr o m flflffl
aircraft sometimes extend up to 2.500 feet A G L . T h e r e fo r e , p ilo ts o f e n ro u te a ir c r a ft s h o u ld b e
c o n s ta n tly o n th e a le r t fo r o th e r a ir c r a f t in tr a ffic p a tte rn s a n d a v o id th e s e a re a s w h e n e v e r p o s s ib le .
T ra ffic p a tte rn a ltitu d e s s h o u ld b e m a in ta in e d u n le s s o th e r w is e r e q u ire d b y th e a p p lic a b le d is ta n c e fro m
c lo u d c r ite r ia (N O TE: the re Is d iffe re n t V F R d istance fro m cloud criteria for C lass G o r C lass E airspace).
2. 1 ,0 0 0 feet A G L is th e recom m ended pattern altitude unless established otherwise,,, ia im 4- 3-1 m i
3. T h e r e is a "RECOMMENDA TiO N " (in A C 9 G -6 6 A ) th a t lam e and t u r b in e powered a ir p la n e s s h o u ld
e n te r th e tra ffic p a tte rn a t 1,500 A G L o r 5 0 0 fe e l a b o v e th e e s ta b lis h e d p a tte rn a ltitu d e . A p p a re n tly
S o m e o n e a | Ih e F A A feels I t ’ s O K fo r a large aircraft to descend on top of a smaller aircraft (v e r y
p o s s ib ly m o v in g a t a s im ila r s p e e d ) d u r in g b a s e t o f i n a l W a k e t u r b u le n c e c o u ld a ls o b e a m a jo r
c o n c e rn if a V E R Y la rg e a ir c r a ft is Flying a ro u n d 5 0 0 fe e t a b o v e e v e r y o n e e ls e .
4. T ra ffic p a tte rn a ltitu d e s a re o c c a s io n a lly lis te d In th e Alrport/Facilitv Directory. In w h ic h c a s e th e
p u b lis h e d a ltitu d e s w o u ld b e s o m e w h a t re g u la to ry . In s o m e c a s e s th e s e a irp o rts a c tu a lly h a v e d iffe r e n t
a ltitu d e s fo r s m a ll a n d la rg e o r tu r b in e - p o w e r e d a irc ra ft. In o th e r c a s e s th e re Is o n ly one altitude
p u b lis h e d , a n d th a t w o u ld b e th e a ltitu d e for A LL aircraft (u n le s s y o u a c c e p t th e re c o m m e n d a tio n o f
A C 9 0 -& 6 A a n d fly y o u r la rg e a n d invincible turbine 500 feet above everybo d y else - u n til y o u tu rn
b a s e to fin a l — then descend on top of th e e th e r a ir c r a f t th a t w a s In th e p a tte rn b e lo w y o u th e w h o le
tim e fly in g a t ju s l a b o u t th e s a m e s p e e d !).
5. O th e r “ u n o f f i c i a l l y published11 s o u rc e s o f tr a ffic p a tte rn a ltitu d e a re th e “Flight Guide" p ro d u c e d b y
A ir g u id e P u b lic a tio n s fo r V F R p ilo ts ; a n d th e tw o d iffe r e n t " Airport Directories” p ro d u c e d b y J e p p e s e n
a n d A O P A . T h e s e c o m m e r c ia l p u b lic a tio n s lis t fa r m o re p a tte rn a ltitu d e s th a n th e A fF D , b u t v e r y o fte n
disagree as to what these altitudes actually ar&l
6. T h e majority of Class G or E airports do not have “officially published" (in th e A /F D ) pattern
altitudes. In w h ic h c a s e y o u h a v e y o u r c h o ic e o f th e 1,000 A G L (for A LL aircraft) a s re c o m m e n d e d
b y th e A IM — a n d /o r 1.500 A G L fo r large and turbine powered a s re c o m m e n d e d b y A C 9 0 - 6 6 A — o r
p e rs o n a lly c a llin g th e a ir p o r t m a n a g e r a n d a s k in g If h e h a s " e s ta b lis h e d " a '‘re c o m m e n d e d " a ltitu d e fo r
"h is " a ir p o r t (a n o b v io u s ly im p e r fe c t s y s te m ).
7. L a rg e a n d tu r b o je t a ir c r a f t a re a ls o g o v e rn e d b y 91.515 w h ic h s ta te s th e s e a ir c r a f t a re re q u ire d to
m a in ta in a l le a s t 1 ,0 0 0 f e e l A G L d u rin g Ih e d a y a n d Ih e a ltitu d e s p r e s c r ib e d in 91.177 a t n ig h t (IF R ).
H o w e v e r th is ru le d o e s n o t a p p ly d u rin g ta k e o f f o r la n d in g . T h e r e is a n o th e r re fe re n c e to m in im u m s a fe
a ltitu d e s in 91 119 th a t s la te s "Except when necessary for takeoff or landing... A tr a ffic p a tte rn
w o u ld c e r ta in ly b e c o n s id e r e d a necessary p a r t o f la n d in g .
e. A ir c r a ft remaining in th e tra ffic pattern s h o u .d not com m ence a turn to th e cross wind leg u n til
beyond th e departure end o f th e runway a n d w ith in 300 feet below traffic pattern altitude, w ith th e
p ilo t e n s u rin g th a t th e tu r n to d o w n w in d le g w ill be m a d e a t th e tr a ffic p a tte rn a ltitu d e , (a im fig 4-3-3)
9. "R e co m m e n d e d " trgffir p a tte rn , s p e e d l im i t is 2 0 0 Kts (AC 99-55A)

Boy a m I g la d I ran a c r o s s
that A d viso ry Circular so I
know it's "re com m ended“ O O
that I stay 500 feet higher 1,500 A G L
than those cheap little Descending
piston airplanes.
140 kts

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 131

(c h a p 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t

C R U IS IN G A L T IT U D E S ^ I {Í1 .1 S Í, 91 179. 91.1M . 91.185. AIM 3-1-fi) AM aircraft era \

isquBsted Lu
§ 91 .159 — VFR Cruising Altitude or Flight Level — rraintain a
E x c e p t w h ile h o ld in g in a h o ld in g p a tte rn o f 2 m in u te s o r le s s , o r w h ile tu rn in g , e a c h minimum alfahjtli?
of 2.000 fegt A GL
p e rs o n o p e ra tin g an a ir c r a f t u n d e r V F R In le v e l c r u is in g flig h t m o r e t h a n 3 .0 0 0 f e e t
w e r any U ,S.
a b o v e th e s u r f a c e s h a ll m a in ta in th e a p p ro p ria te a ltitu d e o r flig h t le v e l p re s c r ib e d Wildlifa hafufle.
b e lo w , u n le s s o th e r w is e a u th o r iz e d b y A T C : park or Fcnçst
(a ) W h e n o p e ra tin g B E L O W 18.000 fe e t M S L a n d -
(1 ) O n a m a g n e tic c o u rs e o f (T t h r o u g h 1 7 9 ” . a n y O O P t h o u s a n d f o o l M S L
a ltitu d e + 5 0 0 fe e t (S u c h a s 3 ,5 0 0 . 5 ,5 0 0 . o r 7 ,5 0 0 ): o r
(AIM 7-4-5)
J
(2 ) O n a m a g n e tic c o u rs e o f f f lO " t h r o u g h 3 5 9 *. a n y EVEN t h o u s a n d fo o t M S L a ltitu d e + 5 0 0 fe e t
(S u ch a s 4 , 5 0 0 . 6 ,5 0 0 . o r 8 , 5 0 0 ).
(b ) W h e n o p e ra tin g A B O V E 18,000 f e e l M S L , m a in ta in th e a l t it u d e o r flig h t le v e l a s s ig n e d b y A T C .
: "M aflnatic course' IS. rtefinnri as ^HQAAUUJS j
*............
§ 91.179 IFR Cruising Altitude or Flight Level —
(a ) In C O N TR O LLE R airspace, E a c h p e rs o n o p e r a iin g a n a ir c r a ft u n d e r IF R in le v e l c r u is in g flig h t in
c o n tr o lle d a irs p a c e s h a ll m a in ta in th e altitude o r flig h t le v e l assigned th a t a ir c r a ft by A T C . H o w e v e r , if
th e A T C c le a r a n c e a s s ig n s "V F R c o n d itio n s o n -to p ," th a t p e rs o n s h a ll m a in ta in a n a ltitu d e o r n ig h t le v e l
a s p re s c rib e d b y § 9 1 .1 5 9 ,
<b) In U N C O N TR O LLE D airspace. E x c e p t w h ile In a h o ld in g p a tte rn o f 2 m in u te s o r le s s o r w h ile tu rn in g ,
e a c h p e r s o n o p e ra tin g a n a irc ra ft u n d e r IF R in le v e l c r u is in g flig h t in u n c o n tr o lle d a irs p a c e s h a ll
m a in ta in a n a p p r o p r ia te a ltitu d e a s fo llo w s : ♦ ♦.
Essentially all a irs p a c e in the cent rmnlal US
(1) When operating B E L O W 18,000 feel MSL and— (with Hit* adaption cl a tew areas In Alaska) at
(I) O n a m a g n e tic c o u rs e o f z e r o d e g r e e s th ro u g h 1 7 9 and above 1,20C A G L and at and above 14.500
d e g r e e s , a n y f l f l f l f l i t t l i l i n d fo o t M S L a ltitu d e feet MSL is CdNTROLLED_aj 7.5fl.at1s As an
(s u c h a s 3 ,0 0 0 . 5 ,0 0 0 . o r 7 , 0 0 0 ): o r unwritten rule, Lhese U M C O M TR O IIF n
airapaca A L TITU D E S are usad by pilots when
(ii) O n a m a g n e tic c o u r s e o f 1 8 0 d e g r e e s th ro u g h 3 5 9
filing fliçhl plans end try A T C ter guidance when
d e g r e e s , a n y E V E N t h o u s a n d f o o l M S L a ltitu d e assigning altitudes in C O N T R P LLED airspaca.
(s u c h a s 2 ,0 0 0 . 4 ,0 0 0 . o r 6 , 0 0 0 ).
(2 ) W h e n o p e ra tin g A T or A B O V E 18.000 fe e t M S L b u t b e lo w f l i g h t le v e l 2 9 0 a n d —
(I) O n a m a g n e tic c o u rs e o f z e r o d e g r e e s th ro u g h 1 7 9 d e c r e e s , a n y ODD f l i g h t le v e l ( s u c h a s
1 9 0 2 1 0 . o r 2301: o r
(Ii) O n a m a g n e tic c o u r s e o f 1 8 0 d e g r e e s th ro u g h 3 5 9 d e g r e e s , a n y EVEN f l i g h t le v e j (s u c h a s
1 8 0 2 0 0 o r 2 2 0 1.
(3 ) W h e n o p e r a tin g a t flig h t le v e l 290 and a b o v e In NON-RVSM airspace, and—
(I) O n a m a g n o iic c o u r s e o f z e r o d e g r e e s th ro u g h 1 7 9 d e g r e e s , a n y flig h t le v e l, a t 4 , 0 0 0 - f o o t
i n t e r v a l s , b e g in n in g a t a n d in c lu d in g flig h t le v e l 2 9 0 (s u c h a s flig h t le v e l 2 9 0 . 3 3 0 . u r 3 7 0 ): o r
(Ii) O n a m a g n e tic c o u r s e o f 1 8 0 d e g r e e s th ro u g h 3 5 9 d e g r e e s , a n y flig h t le v e l, a t 4 . 0 0 0 - f o o t
in t e r v a ls b e g in n in g a t a n d in c lu d in g flig h t le v e l 3 1 0 (s u c h a s flig h t le v e l H f i . 3511 o r 3 9 0 1.
(4 ) W h e n o p e r a tin g a t flig h t le v e l 290 and a b o v e In a irs p a c e d e s ig n a te d a s R e d u c e d V e rtic a l
S e p a ra tio n M in im u m (RV$M> airspace a n d —
(I) O n a m a g n e tic c o u r s e o f z e r o d e g r e e s th ro u g h 1 7 9 d e g r e e s , a n y O D D f l i g h t l e v e l , a t 2 .0 0 0 -
fo O t I n t e r v a l * b e g i n n i n g a t a n d in c lu d in g flig h t le v e l 2 9 0 (S u ch a s flig h t le v e l 2 9 0 . 3 1 0 . 3 3 0 .
3 5 0 . 3 7 0 . 3 9 0 4 1 0 ): o r
(ii) O n a m a g n e tic c o u r s e o f 1 8 0 d e g r e e s th ro u g h 3 5 9 d e g r e e s , a n y EVEN f l i g h t le v e l , a t 2 0 0 0 -
f o o t in t e r v a ls b e g in n in g a t a rd ircludinq flight level 3 0 0 ( s u n as 3 0 0 . 3 2 0 . 3 4 0 . 3 6 0 . 3 8 0 . 4 0 0 '.

“ C A R D IN A L A L T IT U D E S "
" O d c T o r JJE y t n M t h o u s a n d - f o o t
a ltitu d e s o r fllg h t le v e ls : A l t i m e t e r S e t t in g L o w e s t U s a b le
e x a m p le s : (Cu rr*n t R »ported)
F lig h t L e v e l
5.000
2 9 .9 2 o r h ig h e r
6.000 180
7,000 2 9 .9 1 to 2 9 .4 2 165
F L 250 2 9 .4 1 to 2 8 .9 2 190
F L 260 2 6 .9 1 to 2 6 .4 2 195
F L 270 2 S .4 1 to 2 7 .9 2 200

132 EVERYTHING EK PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot

 C hap 4 — S p e e d , A lt Itti tie & J e t.

Me too!

R e d u c e d V e r t ic a l S e p a r a t i o n M in im u m s ( R V S M t. D o m e s t i c R V S M ( D R V S M )
(91.17$, 91.14$, 91.703. 91.706, Appendix G to Part $1. AIM -1-4-1 thru <1-6-11, OpSpatu 0CM4 & D0S2, AC 23-22. AC 91-70. A C M -M .
FAA-H-S261-1)
1. M o a t o f (h e w o r l d is n o w d e s ig n a te d a s R V S M a irs p a c e . E v e n ih e R u s s ia n F e d e ra tio n {w e lc o m e
V la d im ir!) , C h in a ; Ira q , a rid A fric a h a v e jo in e d th e p a r ly (y ip p e e !) .
2. D R V S M /R V S M m a k e s 6 a d d it io n a l f l i g h t levels a v a ila b le fo r o p e r a tio n s b e tw e e n 2 5 ,0 0 0 a n d 4 1 ,0 0 0 ft.
3. RVSM authorization a llo w s a p p ro v e d a irc ra fl, w ith dual digital air data commuters (tw o in d e p e n d e n t
a ltitu d e m e a s u r e m e n t s y s te m s ), a n a p p ro v e d autopilot c a p a b le o f h o ld in g altitude to precise
tolerances, a n d a n altitude alert system th a t signals an alert when th e altitude displayed to the
flig h t c re w deviates from th e selected altitude, to fly 1,000 feet apart b e tw e e n FL 250 a n d FL 41Q.
4. T h e FA A (or fo r fo r e ig n O p e ra to rs , th e a v ia tio n a u th o r ity O f th a t c o u n lr y ) must certify th e s e aircraft fo r
RVSM o p e r a tio n s , a com plicated, time co n su m in g, a n d VERY expensive p ro c e s s (e s p e c ia lly fo r
o ld e r a ir c r a ft) th a t m a y in v o lv e s e v e ra l tesl flight*.
5. T h e operator o f th e a ir c r a ft m u s t a ls o write a n d h a v e approved a n " RVSM Operations Manual" a n d
p ro v id e training a n d certification fo r th e p i l o t s a n d maintenance p e rs o n n e l
6 Part 121/135 or 91^jj.hJiAri_K operations require initial and recurrent RVSM plot trainina. Part 91
o p e ra to rs d o n o t n e c e s s a r ily re q u ire r e c u r r e n t tr a in in g , b u t th e y m u s t r e n e w th e ir f e t t e r O f
A u th o r iz a tio n ( L O A ) e v e r y t w o years.
7. height monitoring flight a t le a s t o n c e every two years o r
O p e r a to rs m u s t a ls o a c c o m p lis h a n R V S M
w ith in 1.000 flight hours w h ic h e v e r is lo n g e r.
S. Npn-com pliant aircraft a re N O T permitted to fly in RVSM airspace a n d th e c o n v e rs io n c o s t h a s
tu rn e d m a n y o ld e r a irc ra ft In to v e r y expensive boat anchors o r extremely short range gas hoes
lim ite d to flig h ts a t o r b e lo w F L 2 8 0 (e .g ., L e a r 20 s e rie s ).
9. W a iv e rs m a y be a v a ila b le fo r n o n -R V S M a p p ro v e d m ilita r y a n d c iv ilia n a irc ra ft to a llo w fo r c l i m b a n d
descent tr a n s itio n s th ro u g h th e R V S M a irs p a c e (don't hold your breath w a itin g o n T H A T c le a ra n c e ).
10 RVSM h a s U t t a a i i d J l a B f l f l L e f l B f l f i t t i t and re s u lte d in more fuel-efficient flights ( je t * a re a b le lo
s ta y a t h ig h e r a ltitu d e s lo n g e r ) — H O W E V E R — Retrofits a n d certification a re in th e t 150.QQQ to
S300.000 b r a c k e t to m a k e a n o ld e r a ir c r a ft RVSM c o m p lia n t. T H A T 'S A L O T O F G A S l
11, A lth o u g h fu e l s a v in g s h a v e c e r ta in ly b e e n a tta in e d , c r itic s m a in ta in th a t m a jo r c h o h e p o in t s c o n tin u e to
e x is t a t th e t e r m in a l a r e a . U n til m o r e c o n c re te is p o u re d , D R V S M w ill h a v e v e r y l i t t l e e f f e c t o n o v e r a ll
s y s te m c a p a c it y (IM H O ).

RVSM = Required Visual Separation [from your] Money

(If you happen lo own an oldsT aircraft)

§ 9 1 .1 8 0 O p e r a tio n s w ith in A ir s p a c e D e s ig n a te d a s
Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum Airspace —
(a) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this section, n o p e r s o n m a y o p e r a t e a civil
a irc ra ft in a irs p a c e d e s ig n a te d a s R e d u c e d V e r tic a l S e p a ra tio n M in im u m (R V S M ) a irs p a c e

(1 ) T h e o p e r a t o r a n d th e o p e ra to r's a i r c r a f t c o m p l y w ith th e m in im u m s ta n d a r d s o f a p p e n d ix G o f
and
th is p a rt;
(2 ) The operator is authorizegj b y th e Adm inistrator or th e country o f registry to conduct s u c h
o p e ra tio n s ,
{ b ) T h e A d m in is tr a to r m a y a u th o r iz e a d e v ia tio n fro m th e re q u ire m e n ts o f th is s e c tio n .

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 133

 =
C h a p 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t

A LTIM ETER S E TTIN G and the FLIG H T LEVELS ( U n i t e d S t a t e s A C a n a d a ! <91.1213

1, Below 1S.000 feet — th e a ltim e te r s h o u ld b e s e t to th e c u r r e n t reported altimeter setting o f a s ta tio n
a lo n g th e ro u te a n d w ith in 100 NM o f th e a ir c r a ft o r th e s e ttin g o f th e n e a r e s t a p p ro p ria te a v a ila b le
s ta tio n . T h is " T ra n s itio n L e v e l" c a n b e m u c h lo w e r (o r e v e n h ig h e r ) In s o m e c o u n tr ie s .
2, At or above 1$.000 feet; — th e a ltim e te r m u s t b e s e t to 29,92. Y o u 'll re a d “ pressure altitude" o n th e
a ltim e te r , w h ic h is y o u r a ltitu d e a b o v e th e “ S ta n d a r d Datum P la n e .” T h e Id e a is , g ro u n d o b s ta c le s a re
n o t m u c h o f a p ro b le m a b o v e 1 7 .9 9 9 fe e l ( e x c e p t fo r o n e little h ill in A la s k a ) , b u t v e rtic a l s e p a ra tio n o f
a irc ra ft b e c o m e s e v e n m o r e Im p o rta n t b e c a u s e o f th e h ig h e r s p e e d s o f m o s t tra ffic in th e F lig h t L e v e ls .
R e s e ttin g a ltim e te r s e v e r y 1 0 0 m ile s o r s o w o u ld k e e p je t p ilo ts a n d c o n tr o lle rs v e ry b u s y a n d c re a te
m a n y o p p o r tu n itie s fo r e r r o rs In s e p a ra tio n . T h e g r e a te s t ris k o f d a n g e r w o u ld In v o lv e tw o a ir c r a ft
a p p ro a c h in g e a c h o th e r fr o m o p p o s ite d ir e c tio n s th ro u g h a n a re a o f ra p id ly c h a n g in g a tm o s p h e r ic
p re s s u re . T h is " T ra n s itio n A ltitu d e " c a n b e m u c h lo w e r ( o r e v e n h ig h e r ) in s o m e c o u n tr ie s .
3. A n o th e r p ro b le m c o u ld a ris e if a n a irc ra ft is c r u is in g a t FL1S0 ( a ltim e te r 29.92) in a cold low-pressure
s y s te m and a n o th e r a irc ra ft is a t 17.000 f t u s in g th e local altimeter s e ttin g , th e y could a c tu a lly be fly in g
at th e same ( tr u e ; altitude.
4. It s h o u ld be n o te d th a t w h e n m a in ta in in g FL310 w it h th e a ltim e te r s e t a t 2 9 .9 2 , th e a irc ra ft is fly in g a t a
c o n s ta n t a ir p re s s u re (in d ic a te d a ltitu d e ) , w h ile th e a ir c r a ft’s actual a lt it u d e a b o v e M e a n S e a L e v e l
c o u ld v a r y a n y w h e r e fr o m 29,000 fe e t M SL to 33.000 fe e t MSL,

M OUNTAIN FLYING — The “VENTURI E F F E C T" ; (a i n h - m ,7 -m j

1. As winds b lo w o v e r a n d th r o u g h m o u n ta in p a s s e s , th e " v e n tu n e ffe c t" c a n re s u lt in a focal decrease in

barometric pressure th a t w ill c a u s e a n a ltim e te r to in d ic a te h ig h e r th a n th e a c tu a l (iru e ) a ltitu d e o f th e
a irc ra ft. T h a t is , th e a irc ra ft c o u ld a c tu a lly b e q u ite a b it lo w e r lh a n th e a ltitu d e in d ic a te d o n th e
a ltim e te r .
2. T h is venturi e ffe c l" m a y c a u s e th e a ltim e te r to re a d a s m u c h a s 1 ,0 0 0 f e e l h ig h , i f m y c a lc u la tio n s a re
c o rre c t, th a t w o u ld p u t you 1 ,0 0 0 f e e t LO W ER th a n y o u th in k y o u a re f

13 4 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED to r the Professional Pilot

 Chap 4 — Speed, Altitude & Je t
ALTIM ETER PITOT/STATIC CHECK:
(91.121, 91.144, 91.411.91.413, AIM 7-2-1 Ihru 7-2-5, FAA-H-M&3-3, B0&3-15, AC &1-74A)
The A L T IM E T E R and P IT O T jS T A T IC s y s te m must be — T E S T E D and R E -C E R TIF IE D every TW O
c a le n d a r Y E A R S fo r IFR operations (o n ly ). ^91411)

P IT O T -S T A T IC S Y S TE M M A L F U N C T IO N S
S IT U A T IO N A IR SP EED A L T IM E T E R VSl
B lo c k e d p i t o t t u b e w it h
D ro p s (o Z e r o N o rm a l N o rm a l
□ p e n d r a i n h o le
B lo c k e d p i t o t t u b e a n d H ig h in c lim b
N o rm a l N o rm a l
d r a in h o le L o w in d e s c e n t
B lo c k e d s t a t ic lin e , L o w in c lim b
F re e z e s F re e z e s a t z e ro
n o rm a l p ito t p re s s u re H ig h in d e s c e n t
U s in g a lt e r n a t e s t a t ic
R e a d s h ig h R e a d s h ig h M o m e n ta rily s h o w s c lim b
s o u rc e
B lo c k e d s t a t ic s o u r c e
w it h n o a lt e r n a t e s t a t ic R e a d s h ig h
s o u r c e . B r e a k th e V S l T&r IFR fllgm FAR 211325 R e a d s h ig h R e v e rs e d
iM q u Irfttriilw h u lid Malle n a b
g la s s (d o HOI break In ■or an alia marie ita lic source
pressurized aircraft)
B r o k e n s t a t ic lin e In
R e a d s lo w C a b in a ltitu d e F a ils
p r e s s u r iz e d a ir c r a f t

V ertical
Speed
A irs p e e d In d ic a to r

Pressure
Cham ber A lte rn ate S tatic S o urce

RADAR faha radio) A LTIM ETER

M e a s u re s a ltitu d e by t r a n s m i t t i n g a r a d io p u ls e
d o w n w a r d a n d d e te r m in in g th e t im e r e a u ir e d te r th e
tr a n s m itte d p u ls e to b o u n c e o f f th e a r o u n d a n d r e t u r n
to th e r e c e i v in g u n i t o n th e a irc ra ft.
2. T h e in s tru m e n t w ill in d ic a te th e A B S O L U T E A L T IT U D E
(a k a a c tu a l o r tru e a ltitu d e ) o f th e a ir c r a ft a b o v e t h e
e a r t h 's s u r f a c e (g ro u n d , w a te r o r b u ild in g s ). A ls o
k n o w n a s a t e r r a in - c le a r a n c e i n d i c a t o r .
R a d a r a ltim e te r a n t e n n a s n o rm a lly lo o k lik e e la t e s
a p p r o x im a te ly s ix in c h e s s q u a r e o n th e b o t t o m o f Ih e
aircraft. (a c &5-is a >
■ m .* .* .* .* * * *

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 135

 C h a p 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t

A L T I T U D E C R O S S -R E F E R E N C E
I --------------------------------------
ZERO — A dashed magenta line around an airport
means Class E airspacH bagins at the surface. ^ ^

35 fe e t A G L T he altitude at w hich the e n d o f B A L A N C E D F IE LD LE N G T H is m e a s u re d The

run w a y length (or runw ay plus clearw ay and/or stopway) w here, for the ta k e o ff w eight,
the eng in e-o ut a c c e le ra te -a o distance e a u a ls (he a c c e fe ra te -s to o distance. For let
aircraft, balanced field length s ta rts at b ra k e re le a s e and, assum ing failure Of the
critical enolne a t V ,. ends a l 35 fe e t A G L fd rv runw ay). Som e let a ircraft are certified
uslna 35 fe e t A G L as the start o f the F IR S T SEG M EN T climb, tn this case, first
se gm en t clim b B EG IN S at 35 fe e t a b o v e the ru n w a v w ith the g e a r still d o w n , the fla p s
still se t fo r ta k e o ff, and the re m a in in g e n o in e fs ) at m a x takeoff p o w e r Positive rale
o f clim b is established and the g ea r handle is raised. T h e first segm ent EN D S when the
G E A R Is F U LL Y R E T R A C T E D , w hich is (he beginning o f the SE C O N D SE G M E N T

±75 W hen set to the cu rre n t altim eter setting — a ltim eters should read w ithin ±75 fe e t o f
fie ld e le v a tio n and dual altim eters should a o ie e w ithin ±7 5 fe e t o f e ach o th e r.
(AIM 7-2-3)
±125 Transponder M ode C — M ust a g re e w ith (he b a ro m e tric a ltim e te r within ±125 fe e t.
(91.217b)
300 => No person m av o perate a h e lic o p te r u n d e r V F R o ver a c o n g e s te d a re a at an
altitude less than 300 fe a t AG L. lias 2Q3fb)i
=5 A ircraft re m a in in g in the tra ffic p a tte rn should n o t c o m m e n c e a tu rn to the
c r o s s w in d leq u n til b e v o n d the d e p a rtu re e n d o f the ru n w a v and w ith in 300 fe e t
b e lo w tra ffic o a tte rn a ltitu d e , with the pilot ensuring that the turn to dow nw ind leg
will be m ade at the traffic pattern altitude, (a im RG^-a-a, a c s o -bga, f a a h -s m 3-3aj

400 D e p a r t u r e P r o c e d u r e s ( D P ): (AIM 6-2-7. 5-5-14.136.367.136.379. Ons nee c&77. Te r p s i

-7 Standard com m ercial takeoff m inim urns [91.175(f)] with no restrictions, O nce you
have reached a t least 400 fe e t A G L on runwav heading, vou are free (o tu rn directlv
towards yo ur first enroute fix.
=> A m a n d a to ry “ E A R LY T U R N " ibe gin tu r n a t le s s th a n 400 fe e t A G L ) is reguired
for certain runw avs because of c lo s e -in o b s ta c le s . In such cases, the ta k e o ff
m in im u m s m u st be at lea st 400-1.
J E T T A K E O F F C lim b S e g m e n t s ;
=> SE C O N D S E G M E N T - BEGINS w hen the o e a r is fu lly re tra c te d V2 m uatJae
m a in ta in e d . By the rules, a je t m ust clim b fw ith one enoine inoperative), a t a 2 . 4 ^
g ra d ie n t (24 ft UP per 1.000 ft F O R W A R D jia o ijro x im a le lv 300 fp m ). a d ifficult iob
with a heavy airplane on a h o i day at a high elevation airport w ith only 50% of
norm al p o w e r available. Second segm ent ENDS at 400 fe e t AGL.
=> TH IR D S E G M E N T — BEGflVS a t 400 fe e t A G L A le v e l flig h t segm ent.
A c c e le ra tio n is m ade to Final S egm ent Sneed — iLVFS” — usually with the flaps ub.
or a t m o st favorable configuration: and be capable o f a 1.2% c lim b g ra d ie n t f 12 ft
!JE per 1,000 ft FORWARD: T hird segm eni E N D S w hen V fs is re a c h e d
500 U n c o n g e s te d area — b asic safe altitude above anv Derson. vessel, vehicle, or
struclure. ( i f .119)
=> Low est altitude allowed for P a rt 135 VFR d a v operations. (135.2-33)
700 Floor of C la s s E airspace “ tr a n s itio n a re a " for instru m e nt approach represented bv
shaded "m agenta" co lo r on V F R charts.

1,000 => M inim um IFR altitude in a n o n -m o u n ta in o u s area, rat 1771

=> C o n g e s te d a re a — m inim um altitude above h ia he st obstacle w ithin 2.000 ft radius.
(91 119)
=s VFR m inim um c e ilin g in C la s s B, C, D, & E airspace.
=> R ecom m ended tr a ffic p a tte rn a ltitu d e at non-tow ered airports for A L L aircraft
u n le s s e s ta b lis h e d o th e rw is e ... fin th e A im e d / Facility D irectory). iAIM 4-3-3)
=> Low est altitude during d a y lig h l; for jjir g e & J ^ b in e - p o w e r e d m m jtiengj£ie, (91 515)
=> Low est altitude allowed for P a rt 135 V F R n ia h t operations. (135.203)

136 EVERYTHING EK PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 Chap 4 — Speed, Altitude & J e t

A L T I T U D E C R O S S -R E F E R E N C E

AGL
1,200 feet A G L => A b o v e 1 ,2 0 0 fe e l — V F R c lo u d c le a r a n c e re q u ire m e n ts c h a n g e f o r C la s s G
( u n c o n tr o lle d ) a irs p a c e . ( i l. iu s )
=> F lo o r o f m o s t V ic t o r a irw a y s (u n le s s m a rk e d o th e r w is e ).
=> F lo o r o f C la s s E a irs p a c e E M R O U T E A R E A S th a t p r o v id e c o n t r o lle d a ir s p a c e f o r
IF R b u t a re N O T F e d e r a l a ir w a y s . T h is c o v e rs th e m a io ritv o f th e U n ite d S ta te s
w ith Ih e e x c e p tio n o f c e rta in C la s s G a re a s In th e w e s te rn U .S . ( s h a d e d o n IF R
c h a rts ). In th e s e C la s s G ( s h a d e d ) a re a s , C la s s E a irs p a c e s ta rts a t 1 4 ,5 0 0 ' M S L .
=> F lo o r o f C la s s E a irs p a c e — tr a n s itio n o r c o n tr o l a r e a — -‘ b lu e '' o n V F R c h a rts .
=> F lo o r o f C la s s C s h e lf a re a — b e tw e e n 5 a n d 10 M M fro m a irp o rt.

1,500 => T r a f f ic p a t t e r n a lt it u d e fo r la r g e o r tu r b in e - p o w e r e d a irc ra ft in C la s s B. C orD

a ir s p a c e u n le s s e s ta b lis h e d o th e r w is e o r r e a u ire d b v A T C . r a i . l 2 9 il in i f r l. l3 l t
=> It Is " re c o m m e n d e d " fin A C 9 0 -6 6 A b u t not in th e A I M t th a t la r o e a n d t u r b in e -
p o w e r e d a ir p la n e s s h o u ld e n te r th e tra ffic p a tte rn a t 1 .5 0 0 A G L o r 5 0 0 f e e t a b o v e
th e e s ta b lis h e d p a tte rn a ltitu d e a t a irp o rts w it h o u t a n o p e ra tin g c o n tro l to w e r.
A p p a r e n tly " s o m e o n e " a t th e F A A fe e ls it's O K fo r a la rg e a irc ra ft to d e s c e n d o n to p
o f a s m a lle r a ir c r a ft ( v e r y p o s s ib ly m o v in g a t a s im ila r s p e e d ) d u rin g b a s e to fin a l.
=> M in im u m a ltitu d e fo r a e r o b a tic flig h t,
=±- JE T TA K EO FF — F IN A L S E G M E N T " o f th e fo u r ta k e o f f s e o m e n ts e n d s F in a l
S e a m e n ! BEGINS w h e n V f i s p e e d a n d ccnfiqura tio n Is re a c h e d (4 0 0 ft). P o w e r is
u s u a lly re d u c e d to m a x im u m c o n t i n u o u s th ru s t. V fs m u s t be m a in ta in e d u n til
1 .5 0 0 A G L d u rln a w h ic h th e a ir c r a ft m u s t c lim b a t a 1 .2 % G ra d ie n t [1 2 f t UP per
1 .0 0 0 f t F O R W A R D !. F in a l s e g m e n t ENDS w h e n th e a ir c r a ft re a c h e s 1 ,5 0 0 A G L .

2,000 => M in im u m IF R a ltitu d e in a m o u n t a in o u s a re a fc o a d a d v ic e fo r V F R a ls o ). ¡91 1TT1

=> M in im u m a ltitu d e o v e r a n v w il d li f e r e f u a e . p a r k o r F o r e s t S e r v ic e A r e a . [AIM 7- 1-51
=i M in im u m P a r t 135 VFR a ltitu d e a t n i g h t in m o u n t a in o u s te rra in . ri3&.203>

2,500 => S p e e d l i m i t 2 0 0 k t s w it h in 4 NM o f th e p rim a ry a ir p o r t o f a C la s s C o r D a re a [a ls o

th e " r e c o m m e n d e d " lim it in th e ‘ tr a ffic p a tte rn " o f a n o n -to w e r e d a irp o rt), {d o e s A fO T
in c lu d e C la s s B a irp o rt).
=$ C o m m u n ic a t io n s r e a u ire d w ith t o w e r in C la s s G a irs p a c e w ith in 4 NM
=> C la s s D a irs p a c e — n o rm a l h e i o h t l im i t s .
=> T r a n s p o n d e r ( r e q u ir e d a b o v e 1 0 .0 0 0 ft M S L ) — n o t r e q u ir e d b e lo w 2 ,5 0 0 ft A G L

A bove 3,000 V F R c r u i s in o a l t i t u d e ru le s b e u in w h e n c ru is in a a b o v e 3 0 0 0 A G L . 131.1501

4,000 C la s s C a irs p a c e — n o rm a l h e ig h t lim it s .

A L T I T U D E C R O S S -R E F E R E N C E

MSL
6,000 feet MSL S p e e d l i m i t in H O L D IN G P A T T E R N 200 kta — 5 ,0 0 0 a n d b e lo w (1 m in u te le g s ),

6,001 — 14,000 S p e e d l i m i t in H O L D IN G P A T T E R N 2 3 0 kts (1 m in u te le g s )

10,000 => S o e e d l i m i t is 250 kts B E L O W 10,000 fe e t M S L f v o u m a y e x c e e d 2 5 0 k ts w h e n

aL o r a b o v e 1 0 ,0 0 0 fe e t w h ile In C la s s B a irs p a c e ).
=> V F R c lo u d c le a ra n c e &v is ib ility ru le s c h a n g e fo r C la s s G o r C la s s E a irs p a c e .
(81.155)
=> T ra n s p o n d e r w ith M o d e C r e a u ir e d a t a n d a b o v e — if a ls o a b o v e Z .5 0 0 A G L .

14,001 & above S n e e d l i m i t in H O L D IN G P A T T E R N 265 kts (1V? m in u te le g s )

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 137

 I
C h a p 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & Jet

A L T IT U D E C R O S S -R E F E R E N C E

| MSL |

121 & 135 A b o v e 1 0 .0 0 0 th ru 1 2 .0 0 0 fe r m o r e t h a n 30 m in u t e s — P IL O T S m u s t u s e O X Y G E N .

<121.327 thru 121.333,135.69)
1 0 , 0 0 0 — 1 2 ,0 0 0

A b o v e 1 2 ,0 0 0 A b o v e 1 2 .0 0 0 — P IL O T S m u s t u s e o x v a e n A L L th e T IM E (121.3Z7 thru 121.333, ii5 .e 9 )

A b o v e 1 0 ,0 0 0 A b o v e 1 0 .0 0 0 th ru 1 5 .0 0 0 fo r m o r e t h a n 30 m in u t e s — a t le a s t 1 0 % O f t h e o c c u p a n t s
thru 1 5 ,0 0 0 m u s t h a v e o x v iie n f3 Q % fr o m 1 4 .0 0 1 lid to 15 .0 0 0 1 , ( 1S1.327 thru 1 2 1 3 3 1 135.157}

A b o v e 1 5 ,0 0 0 A b o v e 1 5 .0 0 0 — A L L O C C U P A N T S m u s t h a v e o x v a c n A L L th e T IM E .M 2 1 329.135 1571

Part 91
A b o v e 1 2 .5 0 0 th ru 1 4 .0 0 0 fo r m o r e th a n 30 m i n u t e s — P IL O T S m u s t u s e O X Y G E N .
1 2 , 5 0 0 — 1 4 ,0 0 0 (e 1.211)

A b o v e 1 4 ,0 0 0 A b o v e 1 4 ,0 0 0 — P IL O T S m u s t u s e o x y g e n A L L th e T IM E — fo r P a r t 91 o p e ra tio n s .

A b o v e 1 5 ,0 0 0 A b o v e 1 5 ,0 0 0 — P A S S E N G E R S m ust a lso have o x v g e n A L L th e T IM E . (91.211j

1 4 , 5 0 0 — 1 8 ,0 0 0 C la s s E b e a m s a t 1 4 .5 0 0 a n d c o n tin u e s u p to b u t n o t in c lu d in g 1 6 ,0 0 0 — u n le s s
o th e r w is e d e s ig n a te d a t a lo w e r a ltitu d e — th a t is — a irp o rts , tr a n s itio n a re a s , a irw a y s ,
e n r o u te a re a s ( m o s t o f th e U S 1 .2 0 0 f e e t A G L a n d a b o v e ) t h a t p ro v id e c o n tr o lle d
a irs p a c e fo r IF R b u t a re n o t F e d e ra l a irw a y s , e tc . (C la s s E b e g in s a g a in a b o v e F L 6 0 0 )

1 8 ,0 0 0 => C e ilin o o f lo w a lt it u d e “ V i c t o r " a ir w a v e f u c to b u t n o t in c lu d in o 1 8 .0 0 0 ).

=> F lo o r o f J e t r o u t e s (F L 1 0 0 to F L 6 0 0 ),
=t C la s s A a irs p a c e b e g in s (F L 1 6 0 to F L 6 0 0 ) — n o V F R in C la s s A a irs p a c e .
=> A ltim e te r s e ttin g 29 9 2 (21.121}

FL 240 A t a n d a b o ve FL 240 — DME r e o u ir e d if V Q R n a v is u s e d ta n IF R c e rtifie d G P S w ith a

c u r r e n t d a ta b a s e c a n s u b s titu te f o r D M E ) (21235, 91.711. A im

A bove FL 250 => A 1 0 - m in u t e s l id b Iv o f o x y g e n m u s t b e a v a ila b le fo r e a c h o c c u p a n t (to a llo w fo r an

e m e r g e n c y d e s c e n t) . (91.211, 121.327 thru 121.333, i3 s .i5 7 )
=s W h e n o n ly 1 p i l o t is a t th e c o n t r o ls , th a t p ilo t m u s t w e a r e x v a e n m a s h a t all tim e s
e v e n w /q u ic k - d o n n in g m a s k s . (121.327 thru 121.333, 135.39}

FL 290 & Above R V S M A ir s p a c e b e g in s . C ru is in g a ltitu d e ru le s c h a n g e fo r n o n -R V S M a irs p a c e (81.179)

Above FL 350 - 1 o i l o t m u s t w e a r o x v q e n m a s k a t a ll tim e s u n le s s e q u ip p e d w . g u i c k - d o n n in a

m a s k s . (91.211 1
=$■ W h e n o n lv 1 o ilo t a t t h e c o n t r o ls , m u s t w e a r m a s k a t a ll tim e s e v e n w /g u ic k -
d o n n in g m a s k s . (91.211)
=> 1 o i l o t m u s t w e a r m a s k a t a ll t im e s e v e n w ith q u ic k d o n n in g m a s k s . fiae.BSi
1 p i l o t m u s t w e a r m a s k a t a ll t im e s e v e n if o u ic k d o n n in g m a s k s a re a v a ila b le
(a irc ra ft w ith le s s t h a n 31 s e a ts o r a p a y lo a d o f le s s th a n 7 .5 0 0 L b s ). ri2i.333(t)(Z)(i)(B }]

Above FL 410 => 1 p i l o t m u s t w e a r m a s k a t a ll t im e s e v e n w /a u ic k -d o n n in a m a s k s . f& i.a m

=s 1 o i l o t m u s t w e a r m a s k a t a ll t im e s e v e n w /q u ie k -d o n n ln a m a s k s ( a ir c r a ft w ith
m o r e th a n 3 0 s e a t s o r D a v lo a d m o r e th a n 7 .5 0 0 L b s ) . 1121 uajiyU KH inAii
=> NOTE F o r P a r t 121 ru le s It Is a s s u m e d th a t a la r o e r c a p a c it y a ir c r a f t w ill
d e p r e s s u r iz e m o r ? s l o w l y lh a n a s m a lle r a ir c r a f t s o It c a n b e f l 9 w ji a t h i g f t e r
a ltitu d e s p r i o r t o o n e o i lo t b e in g r e o u ir e d t o w e a r a m a s k .

Above FL 600 => C la & s_E a irs p a c e b e g in s a g a in

(D g n 't fo r g e t a b o u t th o s e V F R c lo u d c le a r a n c e re q u ire m e n ts !).

138 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 C hap 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t

O X Y G E N A L T IT U D E S : (31.211, 121.3-27 thru 121.333, 135.BS, 135.157)

AWüiLihJdos aro b’lo_erAft.^.u.r.e_ólí¿ío.c^>1

1. P a r t 91 U n p r e s s u r iz e d A ir c ra ft.
a Above 1 2 .5 0 0 ft thru 14.000 ft fo r more lh a n 30 minutes —
P ilo t s m u s t u s e o x y g e n .
b A b o v e 14.000 ft — Pilots m u s t u s e oxygen all th e time
c. A b o v e 1 5 .0 0 0 ft — e a c h o c c u p a n t m u s t be p ro v id e d w ith
s u p p le m e n ta l o x y g e n fo r th e e n t i r e t i m e .

2. Part 121(135 Unoressurited Aircraft:

a. A b o v e 1 0 ,0 0 0 ft th r.u _ 1 2 J .0 0 ft f o r m o re th a n 3.0 m i n u t e s -
P ilo t s m u s t u s e o x y g e n .
FYI — Survey:; havs shown ttiat
b. A b o v e 12.000 ft — Pilots m u s í u s e oxygen all th e tim e.
more than 60% of buairwai Jet pilots
c. A b o v e 1 0 .0 0 0 ft t h r u 1 5 .0 0 0 f t fo r m o re th a n 3 0 m i n u t e s — do not wear oiygerl masks whan
E n o u g h o x y g e n d is p e n s e r s a n d oxygen to s u p p ly a t le a s t required (° do sq fry regulation.
1Q% o f th e p a s s e n g e r s . ( 1 3 5 .1 5 7 )

w
d. A b o v e 1 0 .0 0 0 ft t h r u 1 4 .0 0 0 f l — E n o u g h o x y g e n d is p e n s e r s a n d
o x y g e n to s u p p ly at le a s t 1 0 % o f th e p a s s e n g e r s . ■:1 2 1 .3 Z 9 >
e. A b o v e 1 4 ,0 0 0 ft, u p to a n d In c lu d in g 1S.QQ0 ft, e n o u g h o x y g e n fo r
th a t p a rt o f th e flig h t a t th o s e a ltitu d e s fo r 3 0 % o f th e p a s s e n g e rs , [ 1 2 1 .3 2 9
f. A b o v e 1 5 .0 0 0 ft — e a c h o c c u p a n t m u s t be p ro v id e d w ith oxygen fo r Ih e entire tim e.

3. Part 91 Pressurized Aircraft: (si.211 , 135 .se, 135.157)

a. Above FL 250 — A 10-minute s u p p ly o f oxygen rn u & l be a v a ila b le fo r each occupant in Ih e
e v e n t a d e s c e n t is n e c e s s ita te d b y a lo s s o f c a b in p r e s s u r iz a tio n .
b. A b o v e F L 3 5 0 — A t le a s t one pilot aL th e c o n tr o ls m ust b e wearing an o x y g e n mask at
all times t m f e s s e q u ip p e d w ith quick-donning m a s k s .
c. A b o v e F L 350 — When o n ly one pilot is seated at th e controls h e must wear th e m a s k a t
all times e v e n w ith q u ic k - d o n n in g m a s k s ,
d. A b o v e F L 410 — One pilot must w e a r th e mask a t all times e v e n w ith q u ic k - d o n n in g m a s k s .

4. Part ~121/435 Pressurized Aircraft: (121.327thru 121.333, 135.00.135.157)

a. 1 3 5 ,1 5 7 — Above 1 5 .0 0 0 ft oxygen m u s t be available to each occupant o f th e a ir c r a f t fo r a t
le a s t one hour unless. a t all lim e s d u rin g flig h t a b o v e t h a t a ltitu d e , th e a ir c r a f t can s a fe ly
descend to 15,000 fl w ith in 4 m inutes, in w h ic h c a s e o n ly a 30-minute supply is re q u ire d .
b . 121.333 — P a s s e n g e rs — W h e n th e a ir c r a f t can descend a t anv point alcm^t th e route to an
a ltitu d e o f 14,000 f t o r le s s w ith in 4 m inutes, oxygen m u s t b e a v a ila b le fo r a 30-minute p e rio d
fo r a t le a s t 1Q% o f th e passengers. W h e n th e a ir c r a ft cannot descend to 14.000 ft w ith in £
minutes on w h e n th e a irp la n e is operated above FL 250. oxygen m u s t be a v a ila b le for a t
least 10% o f t h e passengers fo r the entire flight after c a b in depressurization.
c. Above F L 2 5 0 When o n ly one pilot is seated at th e controls he must wear th e mask a t
all times even with quick-dohhing masks, [ 121.333,136.39)
d. A b o v e FL 350 — Part 135 — One pilot must wear th e mask a t all times e v e n w ith quick-
d o n n lh g m a s k s , { i 36,39)
ft . A b o v e FL 350 — P a r t 121 {le s s lh a n 31 s e a ts o r 7 ,5 0 0 lb s o r le s s ) — O n e p i lo t must wear th e
mask a t all times even wilh q u ic k - d o n n in g masks. ( 121.333)
f. A b o v e F L 41Q — P a r t 121 { m o r e th a n 30 s e a ls o r m o re th a n 7 .5 0 0 lb s ) — O n e pilot m ust
w e a r th e m f la h a t a ll t im e s e v e n w ilh q u ic k - d o n n in g m a s k s . (121.333)

''Q u l c k-D onning M ty p e oxygen masks m u s t be a b le Id b e placed

on th e face fro m its re a d y p o s itio n , p ro p e r ly s e c u re d , s e a le d , a n d
s u p p ly in g o x y g e n u p o n d e m a n d , w ilh one hand a n d w ith in five
seconds, without disturbing eve glasses, without delaying
c re w m e m b e r em ergency duties u r prevent im m e d ia te
communications b e tw e e n all c re w m e m b e r s .
A L S O ...
P ilo ts m u s t be p ro v id e d a t le a s t a T W O -H O U R s u p p l y o f o x y g e n .

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 139

C h a p 4 — S p a r i , A ltitu d e & J e t

A L T IM E T R Y AR O UN D the W ORLD
DEFINITIONS: (AIM 7-2-2, AC 91-70. A C 120-29D. Order 7110.6ST)

1. Q — Q c o d e s are basic three-letter telecommunications codes

d e s ig n a te d b a c k in (h e e a rly 1 9 3 0 ’s to F acilitate th e tr a n s m is s io n a n d r e c e p tio n
o f c o m m o n q u e s tio n s a n d a n s w e rs h a c k w h e n M o rs e c o d e w a s s till ih e m o s t
p o p u la r fo rm o f lo n g d is ta n c e in fo r m a tio n e x c h a n g e .

2 QNH — T h e b a ro m e tric pressure a s reported by a particular station {lo c a l

a ltim e te r s e ttin g }. Q N H is th e a ltim e te r s e ttin g w ith w h ic h m o s t g e n e ra l
a v ia tio n p ilo ts a re fa m ilia r w h e n one rating In th e UnitEd States a n d C a n a d a
b e lo w 1 8 ,0 0 0 fe e t M S L . T h is s e ttin g causes th e altimeter to read field
e le v a t io n (a b o v e s e a le v e l)w hen th e a ir c r a ft is th e p rc u n d . M o s t
OVERSEAS AIRPORTS g iv e a ltim e te r s e ttin g s In hectopascals IhPai
(m illibars): th e r e fo re . It Is im p e ra tiv e th a t p ilo ts a r e a b le to convert in c h e s o f
m e r c u r y to hectopascab o r h e r t o p e s c a ls to in c h e s o f m ercury. O n e
millibar fm b f e q u a ls o n e hectopascal fhPat s o th e re Is e s s e n tia lly n o
d iffe r e n c e in th e tw o te r m s as fa r as Ihe p ilo t is c o n c e rn e d , T h e U n ite d
K in g d o m u s e s a n a d d itio n a l te r m c a lle d R e g io n a l QNH 11 w h ic h Is th e lo w e s t
fo r e c a s i Q N H in a n “altimeter setting region "

3 QHE aka “PRESSURE A L TITU D E ” — A ltim e te r s e ttin g re fe re n c e d

lo ISA standard pressure’’ — 1 0 1 3 .2 mb/hPa o r 2 9 .9 2 " T h e s ta n d a r d
a ltim e te r s e ttin g u s e d in c o n tr o lle d a irs p a c e at o r a b o v e th e “transition altitude" (1 3 .0 0 0 fe e t M S L in
Ih e U .S .). C o n tro lle r s In th e U n ile d K in g d o m re fe r to Q N E a s th e S ta n d a rd P r e s s u re S e llin g ( B P S ).
P r e s s u re a ltitu d e is a ls o th e fir s t s te p In c o m p u tin g d e n s ity a ltitu d e .

4. TRANSITION A L TITU D E (o r t r a n s it io n H E IG H T w h e n u s in g tJ F E ) Is th e a ltitu d e /h e ig h l

a b o v e w h ic h s ta n d a rd p r e s s u r e (Q N E ) Is s e t ( 2 9 .9 2 ” o r 1 0 1 3 .2 m b /h P a ) . T h e United S ta t e s a n d
Canada u s e 1 8 .0 0 0 f e e t M S L a s ih e tr a n s itio n a ttitu d e to s w itc h fr o m th e lo c a l a lllm e ie r s e ttin g (Q N H )
to P R E S S U R E A L T IT U D E " (Q N E ) 29.92" (1 9 1 3 .2 m b /h P a ) w h e n c lim b in g [th ro u g h 18 ;0 0 0 ft] — a n d
fro m 2 9 .9 2 " (1 0 1 3 .2 m b /h P a ) to th e lo c a l a ltim e te r s e ttin g w h e n d e s c e n d in g [ih r o u g h 1 8 ,0 0 0 ft].
vary fro m country to country a n d c a n v a ry fro m airport to airport w ith in a
T ra n s itio n a lt it u d e le v e ls
c o u n tr y . T h e y c a n b e fo u n d in th e “A L T IM E T E R S E T T IN G D A T A B O X ” on e n r o u te c h a rts , S T A R s ,
a p p ro a c h c h a rts , a n d D P s (a n d /o r b r o a d c a s t o n A T I 5 ). Transition altltudeflevels m a y b e d e s ig n a te d
a n y w h e r e f r o m 2 .0 0 0 fe e t M S L (N e th e r la n d s ) u p to 2 0 ,0 0 0 fe e t M S L d e p e n d in g o n th e c o u n tr y . T h e s e
a ltitu d e s c a n a ls o b e d iffe r e n t w h e n c lim b in g a w a y fr o m o r d e s c e n d in g d o w n to th e s a m e a irp o rt!

5 TR A N S ITION LEVEL is th e F lig h t L e v e l b e lo w w h ic h Q N H ( o r Q F E ) Is s e t (lo c a l a ltim e te r).

6 QFE — A lt im e te r S e ttin g re fe r e n c e d to a irp o rt fie ld e le v a tio n (w h e re fie ld e le v a tio n e q u a ls z e r o fe e t).
Q F E is th e actual surface pressure at th e airport. T h e a ir c r a ft’s altimeter w ill re a d Z E R O feet w h e n It
is on the gro u n d . W h e n Q F E is u s e d , a barometric pressure equivalent m u s t b e lis te d o n th e
a p p ro a c h c h a r t to establish a height re fe re n c e for la n d in g ( h e ig h t a b o v e Q F E le v e l).
T h e re a re two types o f Q F E :
a. A ir f i e ld Q F E — t h e h ig h e s t p o in t o n th e a irfie ld .
b. T o u c h d o w n Q F E — m e a s u r e d a t th e to u c h d o w n p o in t o f th e ru n w a y f o r p re c is io n a p p ro a c h e s
T h e U K a n d a fe w o th e r E u ro p e a n c o u n tr ie s u s e Q F E s p o ra d ic a lly , b u t fo r tu n a te ly o n ly C h in a . N o r t h
K o r e a a n d th e f o r m e r S o v ie t U n io n c o u n trie s a re still u s in g th is a n tiq u a te d m e th o d fo r all o p e ra tio n s ,
7. C h in a . N o rth K o re a a n d a fe w o f th e fo r m e r S o v ie t U n io n c o u n tr ie s a ls o h a v e a n a n n o y in g h a b it o f u s in g

“METERS" I n s te a d o f fe e t 'o r a ltitu d e a s s ig n m e n ts ln fy r in ;i[.o n a a :ic s on e n r o u te C h a rts c o n ta in

(h e f l i g h t l e v e ^ c o n v e r s lo n s fro m f e e t t o m e t e r s fo r y o u r c o n v e n ie n c e (7 ). B e s u re to a rm y o u r s e lf w ith
c o p io u s a m o u n ts o f lo c a l a ltim e te r k n o w le d g e (a n d /o r a "n a tio n a l n a v ig a t o r / ln le r p r e le r " ) b e fo r e v e n tu r in g
in to th is a ir s p a c e (d id I m e n tio n th e y d o n ’t s p e a k m u c h E n g lis h e ith e r? ) . R u m o r h a s It th e ir s u rfa c e -to -
a ir arid a ir - io - a ir m is s ile s s y s te m s a re c a p a b le o f o p e ra tin g in b o th fe e t Q£ m e te rs ! A ls o a g re a t id e a to
b rin g a lo n g a fe w w h e e lb a rr o w s fu ll o f c a s h to c o v e r th o s e a ll- im p o r ta n t " h a n d lin g fe e s .”

140 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fit stanai Pilot

 C hap 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & Jet

Converting Altimeter Setting I NCH.ES_pf_ME.RC U RY — MILLIBARS

1 Inch of m ercury = 33.663 hec to pa seals = 33.863 m illibars
IN C H E S | M ILLIB A R S (m b) or H E C T O P A S C A L S (hPa}
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
28.0 948 2 948.5 948.9 949.2 949.5 949.9 950.2 950.6 950.9 951.2
28.1 951.6 951.9 952.3 952.6 952.9 953.3 953.6 953.9 954.3 954.6
28.2 955.0 955.3 9556 956.0 956.3 956.7 957.0 957.3 957.7 956.0
28 3 953.3 953.7 959.0 959.4 959.7 960.0 960.4 960.7 961.1 961.4
28,4 961.7 9621 962.4 962.8 963 1 966.4 963.8 964 1 964.4 964.8
28.5 965.1 965.5 965.6 966.1 966.5 966.0 367.2 967.5 967.8 968.2
28.6 968-5 968-8 969,2 969,5 969,9 970.2 970,5 970.9 971.2 971.6
28.7 971.9 972.2 972.6 972.9 973.2 973.6 973.9 974.3 974.6 974.9
28.8 975.3 975.6 976,0 976,3 976.6 977,0 977,3 977,7 976.0 976.3
28.9 978.7 979.0 979.3 979.7 980.0 980.4 980.7 981.0 981.4 981.7
29.0 9821 982.4 982.7 963.1 963.4 968.7 964.1 964.4 964.8 965.1
29.1 935.4 985.6 936.1 986.5 986.8 987.1 987.5 987.0 988.2 988.5
29.2 988.8 989.2 989.5 969.8 990.2 990.5 990.9 991.2 991.5 991.9
29.3 992.2 992.6 992.9 993.2 993.6 993.9 994.2 994.6 994.9 995.3
29.4 995.6 995.9 996.3 996.6 997.0 997,3 997.6 996.0 996.3 998.6
29.5 999.0 999.3 999.7 1000.0 1000.4 1000.7 1001.0 1001.4 1001.7 1002.0
29.6 1002.4 1002.7 1003.1 1003.4 1003.7 1004.1 1004.4 1004.7 1005.1 1005.4
29.7 1005.3 1006.1 1006.4 1006.3 1007.1 1007.5 1007.8 1000.1 1000.5 1000.8
29.8 1009.1 1009.5 1009.8 1010.2 1010.5 1010.8 1011.2 1011.5 1011.9 1012.2
29.9 1012.5 1012 9 1013.2 1013 5 1013 9 1014.0 1014.6 1014.9 1015.2 1015.6
30.0 1015.9 1016 3 1016 6 1016 9 1017.3 1017.6 1018.0 1018.3 1018.6 1019.0
30.1 1019.3 1019.6 1020.0 1020.3 1020.7 1021.0 1021.3 1021.7 1022.0 1022.4
30.2 1022.7 1023.0 1023.4 1023.7 1024.0 1024.4 1024.7 1025.1 1025.4 1025.7
30.3 1026.1 1026.4 1026.3 1027.1 1027.4 1027.8 1020.1 1020.4 1020.8 1029,1
30.4 1029.5 1029.8 1030.4 1030.5 1030.3 1031.2 1031.5 1031.6 1032.2 1032.5
30.5 1032.9 1033.2 1033.5 1033.9 1034.2 1024.5 1034.9 1035.2 1035.6 1035.9
30.6 1036.2 1026.6 1036.9 1037.3 1037.6 1037.9 1038.3 1038.6 1038.9 1039.3
30.7 1039.6 1040.0 1040.3 1040.6 1041 0 1041.3 1041.7 1042.0 1042.3 1042.7
30.8 1043.0 1043.3 1043.7 1044.0 1044.4 1044.7 1045.0 1045.4 1045.7 1046.1
30.9 1046.4 1046.7 1047.1 1047.4 1047.3 1046.1 1Û4B.4 1040.8 1049.1 1049.4
EVERYTHING EX P LA IN ED for H ip Professional Pilot 141
C hap 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t.I
R A PID D E C O M P R E S S IO N — E X P L O S IV E D E C O M P R E S S IO N ;
1 RAPID DECOM PRESSION— Pressurized aircraft are usually
The lungs can decompress foster then the cabin, squippad with visual andfar aural
b. Survivability of an emergency descent after quickly donning w arn in g davits* (tldt activais Whan
cabin pressure allituds reaches
masks is normally assured.
10.000 feat
c. Wear oxygen masks at all limes at and above 35,000 feet,
EXPLOSIVE DECOMPRESSION —
a. Decompression thal occurs in less than 1/2 second. FV| — Surveys have shewn that
mere lhan 60% ol business jsl pilots
b. Change in cabin pressure occurs faster than :he do rot wear DiygEn masks when
lungs can decompress (can be very Injurious), joquirod to do so by rogulnllun.
c. Survivability can be questionable.
d. The c a b i n a i r m a y f i l l w i t h j f o g . dust, or flying debris, Fog occurs due to the rapid drop in
temperature and the change of relative humidity. Normally the ears clear automatically. Air will
rush from the moufh and nose due to the escapo of air from the lungs.
e. Wear oxygen masks at all limes at and above 35,000 feet.
f. An Oxygen mask will restrict release of air from the lungs and assure a supply of oxygen to
the body.
g. Another hazard is being tossed or blown out of the aircraft If not belted in.
N O T E — Not that you would ever wart to test this, but you might be Interested to know that a pilot's
blood will boil in un-pressurized flight at approximately 55.000 feet.
*■
T im e o f U sefu l i
H IG H A L T I T U D E C H A M B E R T R A IN IN G ■*
C o n sc io u sn e ss "Aerospace Physiology Training11 ie oHsred by the F A A C v il Aerospace Msdical
InBtllUte ICAM 1i in Oklahoma City and by the Air Force at these locaLuhs:
15,000 feel Indefinite Andrews AFB. MD Beale AFB. CA; Brooks AFB. TX : Columbus AF B ; MS
Fairchild AFB. IMA Fort Rucker (Army). AL Hoiwnan AFB, MU; Langley AFB, ¥A
20,000 10 minutes Laughlin AFB. TX. Lillie Rock AFB. DfluLL AFB, NE. PeLsrson AFB, CO:
22,000 6 minutes Randolph AFB, TJ£. Shaw AFB. £ £ ; Tyndall AFB. E L Vance AFB. QK
“ Contact CAM] ¡a 4 0 5 -^ -4 6 3 7 . (AIM 8-1-2)
24,000 3 minutes
25.000 2 minutes
flrr.p p ta n r.p of Par,sptl ge M P fù lie d M edic;; SiJM
28,000 1 minute C iu n jitB a B e iL S m ifiii Is considered IHAZMAT. "Regulalians do rat aliavi passengers (□
30,000 30 s e co n d s provida (hair own comprusiod oxygon for usu onboard [wmfnarclai| aircraft.'
Portable O n yje n Concentrators do noi contain HAZMAT. They separate oxygen from
35,000 20 seconds ambient air and dispense it in nnnnenlrated farm to Hie user. Air carrieiE may be
required by D O T to accept the use of approved POC*. (InFD 13005: J-22-15)
4 0 ,00 0 15 s e co n d s

PR E SSU R IZ E D A IR C R A F T — B A S IC C O M P O N E N T S : (F A A - h - b o s ì - z s , A c ss- i s a ;
1, C A B IN P R E S S U R E R E G U L A T O R — Controls cabin pressure to c selected value In the isobarlc
range {altitude) and limits cabin pressure to a preset differential value in the differential range {cabin
pressure vs. atmospheric pressure). Typically maintains a cabin pressure altitude of fl,QQ0 feel at the
maximum designed cruising altitude of the aircraft.
2, C A B I N A I R P R E S S U R E S A F E T Y V A L V E — A combination pressure relief, vacuum relief, and
dump valve.
a. P R ESSURE RELIEF VALVE — prevents cabin pressure from exceeding a predetermined
differential pressure above ambient pressure.
b. VACUUM RELIEF VALVE — prevents ambient pressure from exceeding cabin pressure by
allowing external air to enter the cabin when the ambient pressure exceeds cabin pressure.
c. DUMP VALVE — actuated by a cockpit control that will cause the cabin air to be dumped
overboard.

Ladles and gentlemen, this Is your captain

speaking. Our instruments have delected a
slight malfunction of Ihe pressuhietion
system but do not be alarmed. An oxygen
mask will drop down from the unit above your
seal automatically. Just breathe normally
and we will continue on to your destination.
Thank you for flying USVery Airways.

142 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Pleins Etcn.il Pilot

 C hap 4 — S p e e d , A lt Hu tie & J e t
O X Y G E N S Y S T E M S : (ac 43.1 a-i a. ac cs-sa. si.sii.ia i.327uiru 121.333.135.39.135.157)
1. The earth's atmosphere contains approximately 21% oxygen. At sea level
pressure, normal human blood oxygen saturation Is about 97%. As altitude
Increases, the percentage of oxygen In the atmosphere remains the same, but as
the pressure decreases, fewer molecules of oxygen are supplied to the lungs with
each breath. At 8,000 feet blood saturation decreases to about 93%.
2. At 10,000 feet, blood oxygen saturation decreases to 90% and the
insidious effects of hypoxia begin to appear. After 30 minutes, pilots
carrying passengers for hire must begin using supplemental oxygen.
3. At 1-5,000 feet, blood oxygen saturation decreases lo &Q% and sedentary
passengers will start lo experience the more serious effects of hypoxia.
4. At 1-9.0PQ feet, air pressure and densily are approximately half that at sea
level . The blood oxygen saturation decreases to 70%, and consciousness can be
lost in as little as 20 te 3Q minutes
5. Pure oxygen supplied by a “continuous flow" oxygen mask can maintain blood
oxygen levels near normal up to as high as 25,000 feet. Generally, above 25J3J3_0_feet
and certainly above 31,000 feet, " pressure-dem and" oxygen masks are necessary.
Pressure-demand masks are required for aircraft certified from 35,000 to 45,000
feet. These masks use a regulator that delivers oxygen under pressure when the
pilot inhales, but requires the pilot to exhale forcibly.
6. “ Pilutpr-dcmapcj" masks are oflen used for operations between 25,000 and 35.000 feet. These masks
can be set to dilute the oxygen with ambient air or to deliver 100% oxygen.
7. For Part 121f135 operations above FL 250 — When only one pilot is seated at the controls tie must
wear a mask at all times even with quick-donning masks,
8. For Part 135 operations above FL 350 (or Part 121 operations with less than 31 seats or 7,500 Lbs or
less) - one pilot must wear a mask at all times even with quick-donning masks. Part 91 pilots
above FL 350 must wear a mask at all times when only one pilot is at the controls.
9. Above FL 410 at leasl one pilot must be weanna a mask at all times for all operations Pressurized
oxygen must be supplied instantly in the event of rapid decompression at these altitudes. Even a quick-
donning mask would not be quick enough, <5ea "Oxygen Aiiinitlos1' in this chnpior lor ncsdiliorml information,)
10. Passengers are most often supplied with a continuous flow aka " Dixie c u p " mask consisting of a
flow re&lriclor, re-breelher bag and an oralfnasal cup. A continuous flow of oxygen collects in the re­
breather bag, providing enough gas for inhalation. A portion of the exhaled air mixes with the pure
oxygen in the re-breather bag. Considered effective up to about 25,000 feet.
11. When enough O X Y G E N is present, ce rta in m a te ria ls can S P O N T A N E O U S L Y I G N I T E even
though they may n o rm a lly be co n s id e re d non-combustible (oxygen is nnnxiciiinr which (Jram<riioaiiy
increases Lha flammability of other substances). EV&H Small am OunlS Of Contaminants SUCh as
G R E A S E a n d O I L c a n b e c o m e E X T R E M E L Y E X P L O S I V E w h e n s u b je c te d to h ig h p e rc e n ta g e s
and p re s s u re s o f o x y g e n . AM , c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e o x y g e n s y s t e m m u s t b e fre e o f
e v e n t r a c e a m o u n t s o f c o n t a m i n a n t s . T h is re q u ire s s p e c ia lly s t e r i l i z e d t o o l s
e q u ip m e n t a n d tra in in g fo r m a in te n a n c e p e rs o n n e l. I f a fire in th e p a s s e n g e r c o m p a r tm e n t is
s u s p e c te d , b e a w a re th a t a c tiv a tin g Ih e p a s s e n g e r o x y g e n s y s te m w ill a d d an e x tr e m e ly v o la tile o x id iz e r
th a t c a n m a k e a b a d s itu a tio n m u c h w o r s e in a m a tte r o f s e c o n d s .
12, ¿ v ia t o r s f i r e a th in g f lx y g e n “ or equivalent" m a y b s u s e d . In th e m o d e r n w o rld , A L L o x y g e n Is
m a n u fa c tu re d to th e e x a c t s a m e s ta n d a r d s o f p u rity , c le a n lin e s s a n d m o is tu r e c o n te n t. It is c o lle c te d
in to th e exact s a m e ta n k o f liq u id o x y g e n { L O X ) a t th e g a s p la n t. M e d ic a l, w e ld in g a n d a v ia lio n o x y g e n
a re a ll exactly th e s a m e . A b o ttle la b e le d " A B O " c o s t s more fo r th r e e r e a s o n s : it s a y s “ Aviator" o n it,
ih e c h a in o f c u s to d y o f ih e ta n k s , a n d th e in s u ra n c e liability.
13, A ir c r a ft s p e c ific d u ra tio n c h a rts a s s u m e flo w ra te s o f 2 lo 5 lite r s p e r m in u te fo r th e p ilo ts , a n d 1 lo 4
lite rs p e r m in u te fo r p a s s e n g e rs . A d d itio n a l c h a rts c o n v e rt p r e s s u r e to lite rs b a s e d o n s to r a g e c a p a c ity .
14, T h e s u p p le m e n ta l QXYaen_sumlv m u s t be ta k e n h t o conxldcratlon w h e n crossingjarae O C E A N IC
o r s p a r s e ly p o p u la te d areas. A loss of cabin pressure n e a r the h a lfw a y p o in t m a y necessitate a
descent a n d th e r e s u lta n t increase in fuel consum ption m a y c r e a te a s itu a tio n w h e re y o u d o naJ
h a v e enough fuel to m a k e it lo a s u ita b le airport, [f p o s s ib le , p la n o n c a r r y in g m o re fu e l, o r le v e l o ff a t
a higher a ltitu d e th a i m a y n o t b e a s c o m fo rta b le b u t w ill r e d u c e fu e l c o n s u m p tio n . For e x te n d e d
o v e r w a te r o p e r a tio n s , the more oxygen o n b o a rd , the more choices a re a v a ila b le in th e e v e n t o f a
p re s s u r iz e lio n fa ilu re . Swim m ino is AtOTla viable option

EVERYTHING EX P LA IN ED for H ip Professional Pilot 143

C h a p 4 — S p a r i , A ltitu d e & J e t
JET & TURBINE OPERATIONS — 101:
1. M a c h H u m b e r — R a tio o f tru e a irs p e e d (T A S ) to th e s p e e d o f s o u n d (M -1 ),
2. T u rb in e e n g in e s a re e x tr e m e ly s f i n s i l b i f i to h ig h t e m p e r a t u r e s d u rin g a t a f li n g . i a h s s f i a n d g l im h i n g
a t h ig h p o w e r s e ttin g s .
3. D u rin g S T A R T IN G it is v e ry im p o r ta n t to pull plenty of air through t h e e n g in e b y s p o o lin g up to
12% c o m p r e s s o r s p e e d before introducing fuel (a ls o make sure you don't have a 20 knot
ty p ic a lly
tailwind blowing up v n u r butt! A d d in g fu e l a t a lo w e r th a n re c o m m e n d e d R P M , b e fo r e e n o u g h a ir is
m o v in g th ro u g h th e e n g in e , a n d it c a n b u rn o u t o f c o n lr o l, e .g ,, " hot start " A n o v e r te m p d u rin g e n g in e
s ta rt h a p p e n s e x tr e m e ly fa s t a n d c a n be b re a th ta k in g ly e x p e n s iv e . E y e b lin k in g is N O T a llo w e d d u rin g
s ta r tin g . If a h o t s ta r t d o e s o c c u r n o rm a l p ro c e d u re is to Im m e d ia te ly c u t o ff Ih e fu e l s u p p ly a n d
c o n tin u e m o to rin g o v e r th e e n g in e w ith th e ig n ite rs o f f in o r d e r to d is s ip a te th e e x c e s s fu e l a n d h e a t. I f
y o u c a tc h it q u ic k e n o u g h , y o u might s till h a v e a jo b .
4. Takeoff a n d climb overtem ps c a n a ls o h a p p e n v e r y q u ic k ly , e s p e c ia lly a t h ig h a m b ie n t te m p e ra tu r e s
a n d h ig h d e n s ity a ltitu d e s . Available pow er w ill b e limited by ITT o r E G T te m p e ra tu r e u n d e r th e s e
c o n d itio n s , Y o u r jo b — A L W A Y S k e e p a c lo s e e y e o n th e " m o n e y (i.e. re s u m e ) g a u g e s *
5- T A K E O F F — D e c is io n s p e e d s (V 15 V 2), ro ta tio n s p e e d ( V R), a n d c lim b s p e e d s a re c a lc u la te d fo r e a c h
ta k e o ff a c c o rd in g to a irc ra ft w e ig h t, c o n fig u ra tio n , a ir p o r t e le v a tio n a n d te m p e ra tu r e .
6. High altitude airports in hot weather p o s e s p e c ia l p ro b le m s for je ts . T h e a ir m o le c u le s a re fu r th e r
a p a rt, b u t it a lw a y s la k e s th e s a m e n u m b e r o f m o le c u le s flo w in g o v e r a n d u n d e r th e w in g fo r Ih e a irc ra ft
to fly . T h e r e fo r e , th e a ir c r a ft m u s t go fa s te r (tru e a irs p e e d ) to a c c u m u la r "
m o le c u le s to fly (In d ic a te d a irs p e e d ). T h is will c o n s u m e j f g f o f runway
7. The higher a jet is flown.
a. Drag decreases — air molecules am much further apart.
b. Engine efficiency mereases — fuel burn is dramatically reduced.
c. Available thrust decreases — less air molecules are available to compress & burn.
8. Sweeping the wing — lets the aircraft go faster by delaying the onset of the airfoil's ''Critical Mach11 by
allowing the relative airflow over ils surface to move somewhat outward towards the wing tips so the air
encounters less apparent camber and does not accelerate as quickly over the lop of the wing. This
allows the aircraft to reach a higher speed before critical Mach is reached.
9, Critical Mach — Airflow over portions of the wing (starling at the wing root) reach the speed of sound
before (he aircraft itself does, signaled by the onset of " Mach Buffet.”
10 High Speed Buffet or “Mach Buffet” — AirfJpw over parts of ihe wing, beginning at the thicker wing
root, and progressing outward toward the wing tips, begin reaching the speed of sound — creating a
shock wave that causes turbulence, which disrupts laminar airflow aft of the shock wave. The
turbulence interferes with the lifting ability of the wing by causing some of the airflow to separate. If
acceleration is allowed to continue, center of lift moves aft as the airflow separation progresses
outward and rearward — the aircraft increasingly wants to drop its nose, Greater amounts of trim or
elevator are required to maintain level (light. Eventually “Mach Tu ck” will occur.
11. Mach Tuck — approaching Mach 1.0, the center of lift moves so far rearward thal Ihene’s nol enough
elevator control to maintain level flight and the arreraft could enter a steep, possibly unrecoverable dive.
12. Low Speed Buffet (stall buffet) — begins when the wings angle of attack approaches stall — will occur
at much higher indicated airspeeds in the upper flight levels.
13. “Coffin Corner” — The edge of an aircraft's high-altitude operating envelope — Marked by the speed
mam n belweeri the "high speed buffet“ (Mach buffet) and “ low speed buffet" (stall). At very high
alliludes this difference may be just a few knots and might disappear altogether for certain aircraft. A
small increase in bank angle or turbulence could induce a very exciting, adrenalin-producing stall that
may not be recoverable. Do N O T allow this to happen. DESCEND to a LOW ER FLIGHT L E V E L I
Fortunately most coffin corner encounters are improbable with modern jet designs and certification.
14. Super Stall (or deep stall) — Some jets are capable of entering a stall so deep recovery is not
possible. Certain aircraft have a tendency to pilch up substantially after a full stall or secondary stall
occurs. The stalled wing achieves a very high angle of attack. This blankets the tail with disturbed air
swirling off the wing, Elevator effectiveness is lost and there is no way to lower the nose for recovery
(the change d airflow col III also llame out boLh engines of a typical rear-engine jet). Aircraft Vulnerable to these
dangerous stalls normally have "stick pushers" that automatically prevent a fully stalled condition.
15. LANDING — — Swept wing jets are driven all the way to the runway at a speed calculated for
their landing weight, airport elevation and temperature. This target speed is normally referred to as
'V hff*— approximately 1.3 limes stall speed. Attempting to land significantly ABOVE this speed will
eat up a lot of runway (For each ki above, add iao ft of runway}. Approaching much B ELO W this speed can
result in a “sinker” that even copious amounts of thrust may nol be able to arrest (i.ft, lousy landing),

144 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot

 C hap 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & Jet
JET FUEL PO U N D S v s. A V G A S G A LLO N S?:
1. ALL engines burn fuel by Lhe pound (mass), however tanks hold fuel by volume (gallons).
2 . The weight of AN Y fuel Is a more direct measure of energy available to the aircraft.
3. The higher the temperature of the fuel — the more it expands — the result being less energy (and
weight) can be carried in the same size fuel tank — however the engine still needs the same number of
pounds (mass) to produce the same power output for a given amount of time.
4. On a hot dav— with "M l" tanks— there will be less total energy on board AN Y aircraft than on a cold
day. Top off in the cod of the very early morning, you can watch all that energy venting overboard
when the sun comes up and starts baking the aircraft.
5. At 15°C - Avgas @ 6.0 Ibs/aal has a lower density lhan Jot-A @ G,7 Ibsfoal.
6 . Avgas density {and weight) varies relatively little with temperature change — also the amount of fuel
carried on board and burned In a piston engine is small compared to a turbine or iet — so measuring
fuel burn in gallons/hour is certainly accurate enough for most piston aircraft. Measuring by volume
instead of the mere accurate mass is of less importance.
7. Jet fuel is slightly more susceptible lo thermo expansion lhan avgas, and even more importantly, the
F U E L TA N K S themselves are MUCH larger due to the im pressively HIGHER F U E L BURN rate —
therefore on a hot day — after fining the fuel tanks — there is measurably less energy available to the
engines.
e. In turbine aircraft — the fuel quantity measuring system— fuel gauges— compensate for the varying
density of fuel with temperature and indicates fuel available In pounds — Fuel flow gauges also
measure fuel flow in pounds pgr hflu r and total p q ppcja uegfl.
With turbine pilots — all discussions about fuel are in pounds — until it comes time to order fuel — Ihen
they must revert to gallons because f u e lls ju m p e d by the gallon.
10. Divide the pounds needed by 6.7 e.g.; 1000 lbs + 6,7 = 149.25 gals tfafiate
Rule of thumb:
[A M O C O
1000 lbs = 150 gals (14SJ25 gals)
2000 lbs = 300 gals (23b.5
3000 lbs = 450 gals {¿4?A ga&)
4000 lbs = 600 gals (597.0 gaisj
10,000 lbs ■ 1500 gals (H93 gels) etc

* Q UICKIE CQ NVER SIQ N; QUICKIE CO NVER SIO N:

POUNDS of J e t A into GALLONS POUNDS of J e t A into L IT E R S

Drop the zero then add 5 0 % Pounds needed

+ 10% ■ Liters
Examples:
4,000 lbs of Jet A needed
Examples;
400 + 200= 6Q0 gallons 4.000 lbs of Jet A needed
2000 + 200 = 2 ?QQ liters
ULflflfl lbs of Jet A needed
»JQQQ + 500 = 1500 gallons 10,000 lbs of Jet A needed

Jet fuel has an affinity for W A TE R . As a rule of thumb, water can dissolve In jet fuel at a rate of about 1 part
per million per degree Fahrenheit (fuel at 60°F can contain approximately 60 ppm of dissolved water).
Additional water can become suspended In jet fuel and can stay suspended up lo four times longer than in
avgas, AH this waier and hydrocarbon creale a wonderful home for A L G A E . The name brand "PRIST" ¡a
primarily used as an anti-icing fuel additive but also acts as an algaecide to help prevent accumulation of the
green slime thai can clog fuel fillers as completely as ice crystals. Add Prisi — min lo .15% max

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 145

C h a p 4 — S p a e d , A lt it u d e & J e t
J E T / T U R B I N E E N G I N E — 101 :
1. All aircraft engines push the airplane forward in the same manner. They lake in a volume of air at the
front, accelerate it, and then throw It out the back, The result (reaction) is — the airplane moves
forward.
2. Propellers, whether attached lo a turbine or plslon engine, take in a large amount of air, moderately
accelerate it, and then throw it out the back — the airplane moves forward moderately fast.
3. Jet engines take in a relatively small amount of air, accelerate it a great deal, and then throw it out the
back — Ihe airplane moves forward very fast (hopefully).
4. There are FOUR TY P E S of jet engines, but they all work the same:
a. Turbojet and Turbofan engines are more commonly called iet engines

5. T U R B O JE T engine (pure jet) — creates power by taking in a small amount of air ( SU CK ), compressing
it a lot (S Q U E E Z E ), adding fuel and igniting it (B A N G }. The resultant hot flow of gases turns a turbine
wheel, which keeps the front part (compressor section) of the engine turning, before exiting ihe tailpipe
(B LO W ). Once the "igniters" start the fire, ignition is normally self-sustaining. This type of engine is
still used on the Concorde and some military aircraft to achieve supersonic Flight, but because of Its
high noise level and relative inefficiency there are virtually no civilian aircraft using it anymore.

6. TU R B O FA N engine (combination jet) — merely a turbojet engine with a fixed-pilch propeller, that is,
“ducted fan" or “shrouded fan” at the rront of the engine (or sometimes in the rear, although much
less efficient in the rear). The fan ads like a propeller to give a moderate acceleration to a relatively
large volume of air, which then “bypasses” ground the (grbojet core of the engine. The turbojet
cone of this engine creates a large amount of acceleration to a relatively small amount of air, This
"combination" retains some of the low-altitude, low-speed efficiency and takeoff performance of a
propeller engine and combines it with turbojet-like cruise speed and high altitude ability. A turbofan is
also 30% to 40% more fuel efficient than a turbojet and much quieter because the lower-velocity
"bypass" air shrouds and mixes cool bypass air with the hot high-velocity jet core exhaust, which
insulates and muffles the sound. The relationship between the amount of air bypassing the jet core to
ihe amount of air passing Ihrough the jel core (or, ihrusi provided by fan lo ihrusi provided by jel core)
classifies the turbofan engine as to its BYPASS R A TIO :
a. LO W -BYPA SS — 1:1 ratio — the fan (bypass) and the compressor section (jet core) receive
and make use of approximately equal amounts of air. High fuel consumption but capable of
very fast, even supersonic speeds.
b. HIGH-BYPASS — In the vicinity of 5:1. The air being bypassed around Ihe jet core by Ihe
ducted fan produces 75% to more than S0%i of the total thrust. Most popular on the newer
airliners for reasons of fuel economy and relatively low noise,

146 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilaf

 C hap 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t

F R E E T U R B IN E
K in g A ir
P S W “ P T -B "

7 FR EE-TUR B IN E TURBOPR OP — The nrcoefler is not directfv connected in the iet core shaft
Exhaust gases from (he jet cone are used la drive a free spinning "power turbine" through a "gaseous
coupling" (like the automatic transmission Ih a car but using hoi gas instead of transmission fluid),
which in turn rotates a shafl that turns a propeller gearbox. The venerable P&VY P T-6 makes the best
use of this design by installing the jet core *backward!H. that is, intake air is ducted to the roar of the
engine to enter the rearward-mounted compressor stage, this arrangement puts the jet core exhaust
at the front of the engine just where it is needed to drive the "gaseous coupling" of the "power turbine"
which drives the propeller gearbox. After these hot gases spin the "power turbine" they are exhausted
rearward. When you turn ihe propeller of a fnee-turbine engine by hand you are turning just the 'power
turbine" not (he entire engine. These engines are extremely reliable but somewhat less powerful and
fuel-efficient by weight than a direct-drive. A free-lurbine is easy to spot on the ramp because Ihe
propellers will always be in the “feathered" position when the engines are not rurmlnfl and the
exhaust stacks are located near the front of the engine. The PT-6 is used on meet Beechcraft King
Airs, the Starship (now just a footnote in history] and BE-1900: Shorts 360. De Havilland Dash-7 .
Piaggio Avanti. some Cessna Conquests and Piper Cheyennes. Larger versions of the P&W free-
turbine design are used on the Embraer Brasilia EMB-120. ATR 42/72, Dornier 328 British Aerospace

6. DIRECT-DRIVE TU R B O P R O P JTU R B O S H A F T) — The propeller is driven directly bv the engine's

Jet core shaft through a reduction gearbox. When you turn the propeller by hand you are turning the
enlire engine. More immediate power response, more fuel efficient, more power per pound of engine
weight but extremely LOUD on the ground due to the much higher idle RPM of the propeller, The TPE
331 series, made by G A R R E T T , is one of the most popular models. Stan locks hold the blades of the
propeller at the 0° blade angle after shutdown During start the propeller must be turned with the
engine, this flat pitch angle serves to lower air resistance making it much easier for the starter to spin
the engine jet core to the proper light-air speed. A direct-drive (usually Garrett) engine is easy to
identify because of the exceptionally LOUD noise it makes while taxiing, the flat blade ancle of the
propellers after shutdown, and the exhaust located al the rear of the engine. The Garrell TP E 331
can be found on the Mitsubishi MU-2. Fairchild Merlin. Turbo-Commander series, Fairchild Metrollner.
British Aerospace Jetstream 31 & 41. Dornier 223, and some Cessna Conquests and Piper
Cheyennes, etc
EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 147
 C h a p 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e A J e t
J E T E N G IN E S T A R T IN G :
1 E N G IN E S T A R T O V E R V IE W — During STARTIN G it is very important to null nlenfv of air
through the angina by spooling up to typically 12% compressor speed before introducing fuel (also
make sure you don't have a 20 knot tailwind blowing up vour butt). Adding fuel at a lower than
recommended RPM, before enough air is moving through the engine, and it can bum out of conlrol,
e.g.; "hot start." An overtemp during engine start happens extremely fast and can t>e breathlaklngly
expensive. Eye blinking is N O T allowed during starting. If a hot start does occur, normal procedure is
to Immediately cut off the fuel supply and continue motoring over the engine with the igniters off in order
to dissipate the excess fuel and heat. If you catch It quick enough, you might still have a job. Once
again, do N O T attempt a start with a significant tail wind An electric Starter motor rotates smaller
engines while large engines use a pneumatic starter driven by high-pressure air from an APU or GPU .
2. NORM AL S TA R T PROCESS:
a. Start switch — QN — starts (he engine turning — sir is drawn through the com pressor
Section where it is compressed end introduced to the com bustion chamber
b. When enough compressed air Is contained in the combustion chamber usually at about 10% to
12% Ni (low-pressure compressor RPM), fuel is introduced and Ihe “ igniters'1“light off" the
mixture of compressed air and fuel.
c. After “ light off.” engine RPM accelerates dramatically as Ihe hot gases travel towards the
exhaust {tailpipe) section while driving the turbine section which turns the compressor section
even faster, which sucks in and compresses more and more air, which bums quicker (and
hotter), spinning the turbine (and compressor) section ever faster until the engine stabilizes at
normal Idle speed.
d. Once the “ igniters’' start the fire, ignition is normally self-sustaining like a blowtorch.
3 H O TLS TA R T:
a. Introducing too m uch fuel too early in the start process, before enough air is compressed in
the combustion chamber (RPM below 10% to 12%), causes the burning gas temperatures to
Eias exlremely rapidly Airflow through the engine may be iM U fflilM lIflJ M lQ iflilL E S I
temperatures within start limits.
b. For example, the Dassault Falcon 20 Fanjot with G E 700 engines uses the N , gauge for RPM
during start. At 10% to 12% Nr fuel is introduced with the power lever — if 20% Ni is reached
before 500” E G T — then you’ll probably have a normal start. However, if that 500° E G T is
reached before the 20% Nj RPM is reached — expect the classic L'H O T S T A R T ' to develop
within the next two nanosecondsl
c. As another indicator, these higher than normal E G T start temperatures can be expected to
follow a few nanoseconds after the observation of a higher than normal fuel flow.
d. Of course, attempting a start with a significant TAILW IND could ensure a ’hot start“ even if
everything else has been done perfectly.
a . if a hot atari does occur, normal procedure is to immediately (If noi sooner) C U T O FF the Fl>EL
supply and CO NTIN UE M OTORING over (turning) the engine with the igniters off in order to
dissipate the excess fuel and heat.
4 HUNG S TA R T!
a Ught-OfT occurs, but the engine stabilizes or "hangs" below starter cutoff speed usually at a
higher than normal temperature. Caused by insufficient airflow due to high altitude or hot day
low-density air: inefficient compression; or low starter rpms.
b. Higher than normal E G T temperatures result from a lack of cooling air.
c. Do NO T attempt to accelerate the engine by adding more fuel. More fuel will only result in
higher temperatures due to lack of airflow for cooling.
d SHUTDOW N ENGINE using Hung Start” procedures — G E T MECHANIC — GO TO LU N C H .
5. W ET STA R T:
a. Light-off does WOT occur within a reasonable amount of lime (a few seconds), and the pilot
continues turning ihe engine... copious amounts of fuel will collect in the burner can.
b. If light-off eventually does occur, a brief but very spectacular exhaust flame will get the attention
of everyone on the ramp, it’d be a real bummer if one of those people were your boss!
* • .............. .. ..................................... ................................................................................ ....................................
When available, it's always preferable to use the aircraft's onboard APU or a GPU lo supply electricity for
starting. Frequent “ Battery Starts" are bad for the engines, batteries, and the starter motors themselves.
A “C O O L S T A R T " requires batteries that are fully healthy and fully charged. ¡i
Batteries, especially weak batteries, do not supply as much RPM (for cooling air) an APU or £ E U '

148 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot

 C hap 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t
J e t ^ T u r b i n e E N G IN E T e r m in o lo g y :
1. Nj — Low-pressure compressor speed. The
low-pressure shaft rotates at several
thousand RPM. Gauges read in percent of
RPM. Under certain conditions, limitations
above tQ0% are permissible, which only
means that the indicated RPM is more than
required to attain full power, Connected
directly to the low-pressure turbine at rear of
engine. The M, gauge is the primary gauge
used to set power on a "Speed-Rated"
engine.
2. — High-pressure compressor RPM, The high-pressure compressor has ;
hollow shaft that turns freely around the Ni shaft. Connected directly only to
its high-pressure turbine near ihe rear of the engine. Read percent of RPM.
Called the intermediate-pres sure compressor on triple-spool engines.
3- H i — Some 'trip le spool engines’ will have an additional fl* gauge {high-
pressure compressor spool).
4 ERR — Engine Pressure Ratio — Displays the ratio of turbine discharge
pressure (exhaust) to engine inlet pressure (intake). EPR is one of the
primary gauges to measure thrust produced especially dunng takeoff for a
"Pressure-Rated" engine. Typical ERR settings are between 1.4 and 3,0,
EPR may also be used for additional information when monitoring a "Speed Rated' engine (which primarily
uses M, for setting power).
5. EGT Exhaust Gas Temperature - Usually the main engine temperature gauge used to prevent heat
damage to the turbine blades and other systems.
6. TQ T - Iu rb in e Outlet Iem p eratu re,
7. IT T — Inter-stage Turbine Temperature. Measured between the compressor and power turbrnes.
a. U X — lurbine Inlet temperature,
9. Igniters — Soark-plug-like (or glow-plug-like) devices (usually two) that light the fire during starting and are
normally used again only for takeoff, landing or cruising in heavy precipitation or icing conditions.
10. Burner Can Combustion chamber. Consists of a fuel injection system, starling ignition system (igniters),
an inner tiner and an outer casing. Once the igniters light the fire, the flame is normally self-sustaining.
Exactly like a blowtorch.
11. StartartGe iterator ■— Dual-purpose motor/generator used to sprn the engine fast enough for starting. Once
light-off occurs and the engine has accelerated to idle speed, the electric motor reverts to a generator for the
duration of the flight. Very popular on Corporate type lets due to the weight saved by using one unit for two
purposes.
12. Pneumatic Starter aka Air Turbine Starter — a kind of low-pressure air motor used on some larger
corporate aircraft and virtually all large commercial jets. Uses air obtained from the aircraft's onboard
Auxiliary Power Unit lA P U t or an external Ground Eower Unit (G PU) to spin a starter turbine, which transmits
power to the starter shaft through a reduction gear. On some aircraft a cross-feed pneumatic valve can be
used from an engine that is already running
13. Vibration Detector — Senses subtle engine vibrations that might indicate the beginning of fan blade icing or
an impending internal engine problem.
14. Bleed Air — normally tapped from the engine compressor section to be used for pressurization, heating, air
conditioning, anti ice and other systems.
15. Bteeds-Qff Take a» — Normally bleed air reduces engine power by stealing a small amount of compression.
If a "bleed valves off takeoff" is an option for your aircraft, it will add additional thrust potentially needed to
clear obstructions especially on that het/high day.
16. Enaine-Out Climb Gradient - [2AVa or about 300 fnm for second segment climb) — Many aircraft
manuals have a chart that shows the hl&bJLTLWjLi&bi the airplane can be at for tatfifilf at a specific
temperature .mu density altitude -o nulLui how lu-g ttiu iu"wuy Eimine-out climb gradient sets Uil
maximum takeoff weight. You can work back from that number to adjust for actual runway length, runway
slope, wind, tire speed limit, etc,
17. FIameout — Can occur as the result of "chopping" the thrust levers at high altitude, extremely heavy rain,
turbulent weather, unusual high-speed maneuvers, or the ever popular — running out of gas!
18. Compressor Stall - Can Occur if the engine's critical angle of attack is exceeded. This can be brief and
hardly noticeable, or may progress to a "hung stall11 — identified by very exciting loud, backfiring noises
during takeoff in extremely violent and rapidly shifting winds or because of an abrupt pilch-up and power
application after a balked landing. This condition can also be induced by an abrupt pitch-up following
recovery from an approach to stall maneuver during training,

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 14$

C h a p 4 — S p e n d , A ltitu d e & J e t
E L E C T R IC A L T e rm in o lo g y :
1. Hjgad (Nickel-Cadm ium) BATTERIES.
Advantages:
a. Capable of maintaining sustained voltage and delivering
large amounts of current until almost completely
discharged.
b. Very reliable and with proper care can have a long service
life.
c. Short recharge interval.
Disadyantaaes:
a. Ex trem el y expens ive.
b. Temperature sensitive and subject to “ THERMAL RUNAWAY1’ — an
uncontrollable rise in battery temperature. When operated above normal temperatures and at
high current loads (i.e., after several engine start attempts) — as battery temperature increases,
internal resistance decreases demanding a higher current draw from the charging source. The
higher current draw results in even higher temperatures, which demand even higher current
draw, resulting in even higher battery temperatures. If the cycle is not terminated, a very
expensive battery meltdown could send you to the motel tor a couple of days.
c. Battery "memory” is capable of preventing a full recharge under certain conditions.
2. LEAD-ACID BATTERIES — very much like the one in your ear. Very reliable
and cheap but voltage can be depleted relatively quickly under heavy load.
Rated in "amp hours”. One amp-hour equals one amp delivered for one hour.
3. INVERTERS — convert DC power to AC power for use by certain Instruments,
avionics or other accessories.
4. BUS BAR — connects power from the battery and/or generator to the electrical
components connected to the particular bus.
5. BUS TIE — a switch that connects two or more different electrical buses. A
means of isolating a failed bus from one desired to be powered.
6. HOT BATTERY BUS — a bus connected directly to the battery. Usually used for emergency items that
may be needed during a complete electrical failure {radio, emergency lighting, fire suppression).
7. DIODE — an electrical "check valve". Allows current to (ravel in one direction only.
s. RECTIFIER — transforms AC to DC.
9. TRANSFORMER — changes voltage.
10. SOLENOID — a switch operated electro magnetically with a moveable core.
11 KELAE- a remote control for circuits that carry heavy loads, Used so that the cables carrying the
heavy load can be as short as possible.
12. FUS^ — a strip of metal that will melt and open a circuit
when an excess of a predetermined amount of current
attempts lo flow through it.
13. CIRCUIT BREAKER — a switch that automatically opens
an electrical circuit when an excess of current attempts to
flow through it. Some may have an exposed control that
can function as a switch as well as a circuit breaker.
14. CURRENT LIMITER — reduces or removes voltage from
a voltage source {usually a generator) any time the source |
tries to pul out more than its rated current, Some current
limiters use a "slow blow fuse" lo remove a generator from
the system if its output becomes excessive.
15. APU (Auxiliary Power Unit) — a very small gas turbine
engine normally located in Ihe aft fuselage and isolated from the cabin by a firewall. An APU provides a
supplemental source of electrical power for ground operations including air conditioning, hydraulic
pressure, end mein engine sierting. Some APUs can also be used in-flight es a beck-up source of
electrical power for the main generalors.

Don’t forget to also checkout those

double Ds in your flashiighif

150 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 C hap 4 — S p e e d . A ltitu d e & J e t
F U E L T e rm in o lo g y :
1. FCU — Fuel Control Unit — automallcally Increases and decreases fuel flow according to demand. An
extremely expensive air/fuel weighing machine that meters fuel to the burner can based on weight to
produce a 1S:1 ratio between air and fuel ensuring proper combustion. Other variations. FADEC— Full
fiulhority digital Engine Control. E E C - Electronic Engine Control; E C U — Electronic Control Units; and
HMU— Hydro Mechanical Unit.
2 J E T P U M P - A fuel pump with no moving parts. Operates solely by the suction of a low-pressure area
created by a venturi effect within the pump, This "venturi effect" is created by passing high-pressure
fuel from an electric (or engine-driven) fuel pump through an orifice.
A jet pump can be used to;
a. Remove fuel vapor before fuel enters a fuel control unit;
b. Provide a constant flow to lhe main fuel pumps;
c. Maintain "collector" or "feeder" tanks at their appropriate levels;
d. Return unneeded (bypass) fuel to a fuel lank from an electric pump or Fuel Control Unit.
3. "X" HANDLE — For many aircraft the 'T ' handle is primary for engine fire control as it activates the
main fuelshuUoff valve to the affected engine. Some aircraft also use it to cut off the supply of
hydraulic fluid, close the bleed-air valve, activate a feathering mechanism, disconnect the generator,
and arm the fire extinguishing system. Quite a handy little handlef
4, Fuel TY P E S :
^ Jet A — Kerosene grade, by far the most common (in the U.S.)(more energy/gallon than Jet B).
♦ Jet B — Blend of gasoline and kerosene (although somewhat interchangeable with Jet A. may
require fuel control adjustments.
♦ Jet A^I (Avtar) — Developed for operations in extremely low temperatures. Interchangeable
and compatible with Jet A.

H YD R A U LIC T e r m in o lo g y :
1, A C C U M U LA TO R - A device that Stores hydraulic pressure usually Ihrough Ihe use or piston and
cylinder or sometimes with a rubber diaphragm . One side of the piston or diaphragm is pressurized
with compressed nitrogen and the other side with hydraulic pressure. When hydraulic Fluid is
pumped into its side of the accumulator, the partition moves over and acts to increase the preload
pressure of the nitrogen. The pressure of the nilrogen holds pressure ageinst the uncompressible
hydraulic fluid and acts as a shock absorber and a supplementary source of hydraulic power when
laroe demands are placed on the system.
2, Hydraulic Pump CA VITATIO N - Most often occurs because the hydraulic reservoir has been
allowed to get too low or sometimes can be due to foaming of the fluid. Air is sucked into the
hydraulic pump, and it becomes unable to pump the hydraulic fluid. If the pump continues lo operate
without the lubrication of the fluid, it will eventually overheat and fail.
3, Hydraulic FUSE — Aulomaiically cuts off the flovy ot hyjjfaiyjicjlujij if a line should break and the
flow of fluid becomes excessive. This device will prevent a catastrophic loss of all fluid.

A IR C O N D IT iO N IN G T e r m in o lo g y :
1, VCM (Vapor-Cycle Machine) — Uses similar operating principles to a home refrigeraior or automobile
air conditioner. Mostly used on aircraft with smaller engines and a limited supply of bleed air (VCMs are
dependent on electrical power for cooling). Very good cooling capacity in the air or on the ground.
2. ACM (¿ir-£ycle Machine) — Uses bleed air (from the engines or APU) through a system of heal
exchangers, cooling fans, turbines, impellers and a water separator to provide air-conditioned air to the
cabin. Used mostly on larger turbine aircraft. Ice blockage of the ACM can cause extremely hot bleed
air to bypass the ACM and be routed directly to the cabin. This condition is usually the result of a
clogged filter or the crew operating the system in manual mode in ah effort lo get more cold air into the
cabin and consequently bypassing the low-temperature limits of the automatic system. These Air-Cycle
Machines are called ‘ COOLING P A C K S" in air carrier-type aircraft,

F L IG H T L C O N T R O L T e r m in o lo g y :
1. PRIMARY — Rudder, elevator, and ailerons.
2. SECO N D AR Y - Trim tabs and servo tabs.
3. AUXILIARY — Wing flaps, leading edge flaps, slats, spoilers, speed brakes (aka "air brake" or simply
"the boards"),

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 151

Chap 4 — Speed, Altitude & Je t
AVI O H IC S T e r m in o lo g y :
1 FLIG H T D IR E C TO R — Computes and indicates on the altitude indicator with the use of ’‘Command
Bars” the aircraft altitude required lo eblain and/or maintain a pie-selected heading, altitude, route or
approach profile.
2 RNAV (AfiEA NAVIGATIONS — Includes IMS LORAN VOR/DME and S E S systems Some multi­
sensor systems can integrate one or more of the above systems to provide a more accurate and reliable
system. Most can compute distance, bearing, track, ground speed, nearest airport and virtually
anything else needed for navigation,
3. INS {¿nertial Navigation System) — Totally self-contained, regulring no information from external
references. Aligned with exact position information prior to departure. Provide aircraft position and
navigation information in response to signals resulting from inertial effects on components within the on
board system using accelerometers mounted on a avro-stabllized unit (and a liitiebii of magic!). (AC 6S-15A;
4. IRS (Inertial Reference System) — A modern INS that provides belter integration into the Plight
Management System (F M S ).
5. FMS (Flight Management System) — A computer system that uses a large database to allow routes to
be preprogrammed and fed into the system by means of a data loader. The system is constantly
updated with respect lo position accuracy by reference to conventional navigation aids (GPS, VOR.
DME, etc). The sophisticated program and its associated database insure that the most appropriate
aids are automatically selected during the information update cycle. Slave this baby to the autopilot, sit
back and watch the show (and hope you programmed it correctly!).
6. BE18 (Electronic E |]9^t In strum dilation System) — A digital information video display system using
CRTs or LCDs to present flight information that would normally be displayed on conventional electro­
mechanical instrumentation,
Additional EFIS terminology:
P F D — Primary Flight Display
MFD — MMd-Eunction Qisplay
ECAM — Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor
♦ EACH — Electronic Attitude Qireclion Indicator
^ E H S I— Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator
EICAS — Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System
AGARS (Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System) — A two-way communications
link between an aircraft in flight and Ihe aircraft company’s ground facility. Aircraft flight data is
transmitted to the ground facility and information from the ground can be transmitted to the aircraft and
printed out and/or displayed on an LED or LCD screen.
GFW S [ground fiyoximity ¡¡yarning System) — A system designed to alert pilots when they are in close
proximity to the ground. Visual and aural warnings are provided which advise the pilot of the
recommended action. Some of the most famous computer-generated words are “ SINK R A TE . SINK
R A T E .1’ “TE R R A IN . TER R AIN .” and the ever-popular ”W hoop! Who o p t PU LL U P ]"
Static w ick, static discharger, bonding strap — A device attached to an aircraft control surface to
discharge buill-up static electricity. Some dischargers use carbon-impregnated cotton wicks while
others use needle sharp points or flexible metal braid. Static eiectrlciiy can cause radio interference.

T r a f f i c a l e r t a n d C o l l i s i o n A v o i d a n c e S y s t e m — “ T C A S 1* (i.i. 9 1 .2 2 1 . us iso, 1 2 1 asej

Unless otherwise authorized by the Administrator, after December 31. 1995, no person may operate a
turbine powered airplane that has a passenger seal configuration, excluding any pilot seat, of TQ to 30
seats unless it is equipped with an approved Traffic alert and Collision Avoidance System.
Each PIC who
T C A S I means a TC A S that utilizes Interrogations of. and replies from , airborne radar deviates from a
clearance in
beacon transponders and provides traffic advisories to the pilot.
response ter a TC A S
T C A S II means a TC A S that utilizes interrogations of. and replies from airborne radar advisory shall notify
beacon transponders and pm vj.d.e.s^ and re_s.o M ^ in A T C an soon as
the vertical plane. possible. (91.1 T3)

MOTE: "M ode S” transponders are required.

T C A S III means a TCAS that utilizes interrogation of, and replies from, airborne radar beacon transponders
and provides traffic advisories and resolution advisories in Ihe vertical and horizontal planes to the
pilot N O TE: "Mode S " transponders are required_________________________________________________

152 EVERYTHING E H P L A JN E D fg r the Professional Pilot

 C hap 4 — S p e e d , A lt Hu tie & J e t
PR E SSU R IZ A T IO N : A ltitu d e
Soa Laval 14.70
1. PRESSURE VESSEL — The section of Ihe fuselage where the people sit — a strong,
lightweight air tank with a hole in the front used to port in "bleed air" from the engines — 1,000 14.17
and a hole or two in the back used to vent air out — controlled by the "outflow valves". 2,000 13.66
Several other holes for — control cables, electrical wires, hydraulic plumbing and fuel 3.000 13.17
lines create a number of small, uncontrolled leaks in the pressure tank. 4,000 12.69
2. BLEED AIR — from the compressor section o f the turbine engines (or the turbochargers 5.000 12.23
of piston engines: aka "upper dock air") enters the front of the cabin to provide pressuriza­ 6,000 11.78
tion. Some of this high-pressure air must be allowed to escape, otherwise the fuselage 7,000 11.34
would bo subjected to excessive pressure that could eventually result in structural failure. 6,000 10.92
3. O U TF LO W VALVES — usually located in the rear of the fuselage, provide a controlled 9,000 10.50
leak to allow some of the bleed air io escape. The valves automatically control the 10,000 10.11
pressure ^altitude* of the cabin by partially opening and d o sin g during flight. Small 11.000 9.72
aircraft {Leaijet) have one valve while larger ones can have two or more. Should a small 12,000 9-35
leak develop in the pressure vessel during flight (a few small bullet holes for example), 13.000 8.98
the outflow valves would automatically close a little more to compensate for the added 14,000 a.63
leak in order to maintain pressurization. 15,000 8.29
S A F E TY VALVE aka PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE aka OVER PRESSURE RELIEF 16,000 7.96
V A L V E — automatically opens to alleviate excess pressure should the outflow valves fail
17,000 7.65
in the closed position. Can also be used to manually 'dump" the cabin pressure.
18.000 7.34
5. V A C U U M RELIEF VALVE {negative pressure relief valve) — automatically opens in the
19,000 7.04
rare event that the airplane descends so rapidly that outside pressure becomes greater
20.000 5.75
than the pressure in the cabin.
21,000 6.48
6. MAXIMUM ALLO W A B LE PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL — Maximum difference (max dill)
between the outside pressure and inside pressure {in PSI) thal the aircraft Is certified for. 22.000 6.21
Example #1 — "MAPD" - 9.4 psi — Altitude - FL450 Using ihe chart: add the ambient 23,000 5.95
pressure @FL45Q Í2.14 p sli to the pressure differential 19.4 psii to find thal (he cabin 24,000 5.70
pressure is 11.54 p s i. Again using (he chart, you can interpólale a cabin altitude of 25,000 5.45
approximately 6,500 feet. 26.000 5.22
Example M2 — "MAPD" = 8,5 psi — You do hot want Ihe cabin altitude to exceed 4,000 27,000 4.99
feet {do you or the boss have a cold?). From the chart: pressure @4.000 feet is 12.69 28,000 4.78
psi Subtreci Ihe pressure differential [6.5 psi) from this lo obiain a result of 4.19 pat 29,000 4 57
which is the pressure normally found at FL310. Therefore, do not exceed FL310 lo 30,000 4.36
maintain a 4,000-fool cabin altitude. 3ÜIOO 4.17
HEAT EXCHAN GER — Bleed air entering the cabin from the engines is very hot due to 32,000 3.98
compression. The heal exchanger cools the air before If enters the cabin. This also 33.000 3.80
tends to dry out the cabin atmosphere inviting dehydration, Bring along some waler, 34,000 3.63
a. CABIN A LTIM ETER & CABIN Vertical Speed Indicator — dedicated lo displaying 35.000 3.46
pressure changes in the cabin. 36,000 3.30
RATE C O N T R O L — used to select the climb or descent rate of the cabin. Allowing Ihe 37,000 3.14
cabin lo climb @500 fpm and descend @300 fpm keeps passengers happy. 38,000 2.99
1Ü RAPID or EXPLOSIVE DECOM PRESSION — caused by a sudden gaping hole in the 39,000 2.85
pressure vessel. A cloud of condensation forms insiantly and temporarily in the cabin,
40,000 2.72
and it gets extremely cold extremely quick. You'll feel as if a giant weight just landed on 41,000 2.59
your chest as all the air in your lungs immediately gushes out. At high altitudes, you'll
42,000 2,47
have only seconds of useful consciousness to don oxygen masks. An emergency
descent is mandatory RIGHT NOW! A blown out passenger window would instantly 43,000 2.35
depressurize a small Learjel, but a larger jet may actually be able to maintain some 44,000 2,24
semblance of pressurization with a missing window {although you wouldn't want to be the one 45,000 2.14
sitting next to it when ¡I decides to exil the aircraft, it may choose lo take you along for ihe ride!), 46,000 2 04
11 DUMP VALVE — used to intenlionally depressurize an aircraft during an emergency 47,000 1.94
such as a cracked window, contaminated bleed air a cabin fire that can be coniroiied or 48,000 1.85
extinguished by starving it of oxygen, or (he need to clear (he cabin of smoke. 49,000 176
12, B E F O R E T A K E O F F — set pressurization 500 to J.OQQ feet above planned cruising 50,000 1.68
altitude (rule of (humb used lo limit wear and tear on the outflow valves).
13, C L IM B — Check for normal range 300-800 fpm cabin climb and differential pressure building.
14, NORMAL D E S C EN T for LANDING — set 300 to 500 feet above airport elevation on ihe pressurization
controller to ensure the airplane is fully depressurized before landing (dlfferenlial pressure should Indicate
zero at touchdown). The "safety valve" should also ensure the cabin is unpressurized while on Ihe ground,

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 153

C hap 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t
J E T T A K E O F F : (25.111. 135.379. 135,1(1, FAA-H-flilfla-25. OpSflBcCSS)
1 Every multi-engine jet takeoff is planned to adhere 10 a precise profile designed to prevent the aircraft
from falling out of the sky If the most critical engine fails at the worst possible moment. The planning
starts with calculation of the “ Balanced Field Length '1{B F L ); otherwise known as “Required Runway
Length/' “Takeoff Field Length.” or “Accelerate-Stop/Go distance ”
2. “Balanced Field Length" — Runway length {or runway plus clearway and/or stopway) needed to
accelerate to Vi decision speed and — if engine failure happens below V i — stop on the remaining
runway or — if engine failure happens at Vi — continue the takeoff and climb to 35 feet A G L .
Balanced field length is determined b y :.....................................................
a. T akeoff weigh! : "B L E E D S-O FF" TA K E O F E - "Blood air11it normally
t>. Elevation •tapped From 1he engine compressor For pressurization &
c. Temperature t air conditioning. A ".bleeds-alT takeolt will supply a
d. Wind 1 slight hit of additional thrust on (hut hol/hlgh day.
e. Runway slope or contamination such as water, ice or snow
“Vi decision speed1' — Vi is calculated using takeoff weight, elevation and temperature.
Before Vi or at Vi the decision to fly or not to Fly after an engine failure i_s_made:
a. Below Vi — abort the takeoff and come to a stop on the runway.
b. At or above Vi — continue the takeoff roll and rotate at the calculated V r speed. Once the
aircraft is airborne, maintain Vz — takeoff safety speed.
4. “V r " — Rotation speed.
5. “V2" — Best climb gradieni speed— altitude increase per mile— with the most critical engine inop.
6 “V fs 1' — Final Segment speed with engine inop.
7. “V ewr" — EH Route climb speed— accelerate to V ewr above 11,500 AGL.
B. A iet takeoff is divided into four segments (all assuming an engine failure at Vi with a twin engine jet):
a. First segment — Ends at a point after takeoff (more than 35 ft AGL) where the gear has fully
retracted and the speed is at ^ The aircraft is only required to demonstrate a positive rate
of climb after liftoff and during this segment.
b. Second segment - Begins when the geai; is fully retracted V l must be maintained By
the rules, a jet must climb at a 2.4% gradient i24 ft UP per l.fHHf ft FORW AR DIIapproximately
000 fpml. a difficult job with a heavy airplane on a hot day at a high elevation airport with only
50% of normal power available. Second segment ends at 400 feet AGL.
Third segment Begins at 400 feet AGL. A I e v e I flight segment. Acceleration is made tO
Final Segment speed — “V fs '1— usually with the flaps up, or at most favorable configuration;
and be capable of a 1.2% climb gradient. Third segment ends when V fs is reached.
d. Final segment — Begins when VFS speed and configuration is reached. Power is normally
reduced to maximum continuous Lhrusl. V fs must be maintained until 1,500 AGL during
which the aircraft must climb at a 1.2% gradient H Z ft UP per 1.POP ft FORW AR D!
Final segment ends at 1.500 AGL.

Engine Failure At or After V1 — Decision Speed

154 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 C hap 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t
B A L A N C E D F IE L D L E N G T H — The runway lengih (or runway plus clearway and/or slopway) whore,
for the takeoff weight the engine-out accelerate-oo distance equals the accelerate-ston distance. The
minimum runway length that can he used for takeoff, For Jet aircraft, balanced field length starts at brake
release and — assuming failure of the critical engine below Vi — STOP on the remaining runway and/or
stopway — If engine failure happens at Vi — continue the TAKEOFF and climb to 35 feet AGL (dry
runway). This altitude may be reduced to 15 feet AGL tor a wet runway. Essentially the same as
TAKEOFF DISTANCE. (25.113. AC 120-62}

C R I T I C A L F I E L D L E N G T H — The minimum runway length (or runway plus clearway and/or

stopway) required for a specific takeoff weight. This distance may be the longer of the balanced field
length, 115% of the all engine takeoff distance, or established by other limitations such as maintaining V, to
be less than or equal to V r. (AC 120-62j

S T O P W A Y — An area beyond the end of the runway, at least as wide as (he runway and centered along
the extended center line of the runway, able to support the airplane during an aborted takeoff without
causing structural damage to the airplane, and designated by Ihe authorities for use in decelerating (he
airplane during an aborted takeoff. (1.1)

C L E A R W A Y — For turbine-engine-powered airplanes certificated after August 29, 1959. a clearway is an

area beyond the runway, not less than 5t>0 feet w ide, centrally located about the extended centerline of
the runway and under the control of the airport authorities. The clearway is expressed In terms of a
clearway plane, extending from the end of the runway with an upward slope not exceeding 1.25%
f 12Vj feet UP per 1,000 feet FO R W AR D), above which no object nor any terrain protrudes. However,
threshold lights mav protrude above the plane if their height above the end of the runway is 26 inches or
less and If they are located to each side of the runway. (11, ac 25-7A)

F I R S T S E G M E N T De f i n i t i o n V a r i a t i o n s : (23.50, 25.111. 25.115, 25.121. AC 25-/AJ

1. First segment ENDS when the gear Is fu lly retracted, at some altitude higher than 35 feat al a
speed of V 2
2. The aircraft is only required to demonstrate a positive rate of climb after liftoff and during this segment,
3. F irst Segment OefI nitlon Va rl ation s:
a. Some Aircraft Flight JVIanuals show first segment BEGINNING at brake release and ENDING at
a point afler takeoff {more than 35 feet AGL) where the gear has fully retracted at V i speed.
b. Other Aircraft Flight Manuals show 35 feet AGL as the START of the first segment climb calling
this “ REFER EN CE Z E R O ." In (his case, first segment climb BEGINS at 35 feet above the
runway with the gsM still dow n for in transilion), the flaps still set for take o ff, and the
rem aining engineis) at max takeoff power Positive rate of climb is established and the gear
handle is raised. Using this criteria, first segment Is the time it takes for the gear to fully retract
and the gear doors lo close. First segment ENDS when the gear is fu lly retracted et V i speed.
c. AC 2S-7A — “ Flight Test Guide for Certification of Transoort Category A irplanes"
illustrates first segment BEGINNING at lifto ff and ENDING when gear retraction is com plete.
In this case ihe ground roll is called “ GROUND ROLL11 (what an Interesting concept!).
4. An aircraft manufacturer using the segmented method of presenting takeoff performance data for
certification purposes (most manufacturers) can S TAR T calling It FIRST segment pretty much
anywhere they like as long as i( ENDS with the gear fully retracted at some point at least 35 feet
A G L and at a speed normally called V i (start of SECOND segment).

S C R E E N H E I G H T — Minimum height that must be achieved before the end of the clearway should an
engine failure occur at V,. Screen height also defines the end of the takeoff distance. Required screen
height for turbine aircraft is 35 feet DRV or 15 feet WET The height of an imaginary screen which the
airplane would Just clear at the end of the runw ay, or runway and clearway, in an unbanked attitude with
the landing gear extended.

C R I T I C A L E N G I N E — The engine whose failure would most adversely affect the performance or
handling qualities of an aircraft.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 155

C h a p 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & Jet

T A K E O F F D I S T A N C E is (he G R E A T E R o_1 the two profiles depicted below:

{23.59, 25.111,25.113, AC 25-7A)
T A K E O F F D i s t a n c e — C r it i c a l E N G I N E F A I L U R E R e c o g n i z e d a t V ,

^ ^ ^ t
STA R T V, ' LOF 35 ft
" f e rt ili Haight”

I L
T A K E O F F Distance

- TA K EO FF Distance ernfe at 35 fee t a to w 1jhe laksoff sLjrface (o H S fact in lha easeof a W E T mri way [25.1 T3(bj| j

T A K E O F F D i s t a n c e — A L L E N G I N E S O p e r a t in g ^

S TA R T V L0F
^ " t
35 ft

L -
ALL ENGINE Distance

T A K E O F F Distance = 1.15 x A L L E N G IN E Distance to 35 ft

A C C E L E R A T E -ST O P D ista n ce :

Vi
STA R T (Wet* Vf

i I
A C C E L E R A T E S T O P Dota nee

A C C E L E R A T E -S T O P - Accelerato to l£i. ttier stop on the runway or stoowav. plus □ distance equivalent to
1 seconda of travel at Vy to account for pitot reaction time. A lower Vj is used to establish wet runway accelerate-
stop distance. Wet runway standards allow the use of reverse thrust when defining accelerate-stop distance.

A C C E L E R A T E -G O D ista n ce :

V lof 35 ft (Dry)
V,
STA R T (Wet)
15 ft ( Wet)

I i L - —
A C C E L E R A TE -G O Distance

DRY-Rumway A C C E L E R A TE -G O - Pi stance traveled to a point 35 feet above the runway or clearway.

W ET-Runway A C C E L E R A TE -G O — Distance traveled to a point 15 feet above the runway or clearway.
A lower V, is used when establishing wet-runway aceelerate-go distance. The lower V! and a 15 foot
“ screen height'* is a balance of nsks; (he risk of going off (he end of the runway is reduced,
however Ihe risk of scraping a rook or tree during the initial climb is increased.

156 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 C hap 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t

T A K E O F F R U N — A term used for the runway length when the takeoff distance includes a
C LEA R W A Y (i.e., where the accelerate-qp distance does not remain entirely over Ihe runway). When
using a clearway to determine the takeoff runr no more than one-half of (he air distance from V LQr to (he
35 foot point may be flown over the clearway. (AC 2 5 -7 A )

T A K E O F F R U N is the G R E A X E B ja f the two profiles depicted below:

TAKEOFF RUN — Critical ENGINE FAILURE Recognized at V,.

S TA R T V, v l0f
I
35 ft

I 1 ' MIDPOINT

Ground Roll
* 1 CLEARW AY
TA K E O FF RUN

TA K E O FF Distance

T A K E O F F R U N — A L L E N G I N E S O p e r a t in g

S TA R T V|_GF - t
35 ft
^ MIDPOINT
L - -
1.15 it Distance to MIDPOINT
CLEARW AY
TA K E O FF RUN — Required Runway

TA K E O FF Distance — 1.15 x ALL ENGIN E Distance to 35 ft

C h a p 4 — S p a e d , A ltitu d e & J e t
T A K E O F F P A T H [A C T U A L a k a G R O S S ) — E x te n d s fro m b r a k e r e l a a s a — a c c e le ra te to V . — lo s e
an engine at or above V i — accelerate to V R — accelerate to V LOr — liftoff — after liftoff retract the gear
and climb maintaining a minimum climb gradient of not less than 2.4% for two engine airplanes ( 24 feet
UP per 1.QQQ feet FORWARD j to 400 feet A G L (acceleration altitude) — accelerate to Vr* while cleaning
up for climb and maintaining an airaffabfe minimum climb gradient of not less than 1.2% for two engine
airplanes M2 feet UP per 1.000 feet F O R W A R D ) — then climb to 1.500 feet AGL.
(AC 25-7A, 25,107. 25.111,25.1 15. 25.121. 121.139}

N E T T A K E O F F F L I G H T P A T H — The actual tarosst takeoff flight path of an aircraft as

determined during certification trials and reduced by a factor of 0.8% (B feet UP per U_0_0_fe_e_t
FORW ARD) for twin-engine aircraft. This “fudge factor” is built In to assure that a crew with average flying
Skills and average aircraft performance will achieve at least the net takeoff flight path or betler. Net takeoff
flight path is used to determine regulatory compliance with required climb gradients. Actual (gross)
flight path is determined during certification. Net takeoff flight path is the aclual (gross) flighi path reduced
by 0.8%. Net takeoff flight path must also allow the aircraft to CLEAR ALL O B S TA C L E S by 35 feet
vertically, or by 200 feet horizontally within the airport boundaries or 300 feet horijonially after passing
the airport boundaries Tuhooff F L I G H T path" begins T. 3 5 foot above the sj'ldce.
“Takeoff path11 begins from a standing start and extends to at least 1500 feel above the surface. <25.111 >

A d d it i o nal M ISC E L L A N E O U S T E R M S fro m AR O U N D th e W ORLD:

(AIM 4-3-6. PfC Glossary. A/F D. AC 25-7A. AC 120-62. AC 150/530M 3. AC 150i53£5-sA)
* Accelerate Stop Distance Available — iASDA) — Runway plus slapway.
* Landing Qisiance ¿voiiabie i LDAj - The runway length declared
available and suitable for a landing airplane.
* TakoQff Run Available — fTORAj — The usable length of runway
available for takeoff. TORA will never be further than the halfway point
between the end o f the ground roll and the point at which the aircraft
achieves 35 feet when a clearway is used.
* TakeOff Run Required — iTQRRi — All engine takeoff roll required for
acceleration to liftoff speed plus one-third of the airborne distance
between liftoff and "screen height" plus a 15% safety margin.
* JakeOff Distance Available — f TODA) - TOD A includes the clearway and will always be equal to or greater than
TORA, All engine takeoff distance available (runway + clearway) within which the aircraft can achieve "screen
height' (35 feet) at not less than Va.
* la K e fiff Qi&tance B ^ i r e d — iTOPR) — AH engine takeoff distance required to accelerate to liftoff speed, climb to
35 feet at no less than V*. plus a total distance safety factor of 15%.
* V] Spaed - All engine takeaff climb spaed achieved at screen height (35 fe e t).
* Vj f i m f l - Alt en g ine ta ke o ff clim b s p e e d achieved at 400 fo o t A G L.
* TakeOff Go-Around switches — iTOGA sw itche s] — Engage the aula throttle and flight director in the takeoff or
go-a round m ode.

158 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot

 C hap 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t

“P R IF T D O W N ” — E N R O U T E P E R F O R M A N C E R E Q U IR E M E N T S for T ra n sp o rt
C a t e g ory T u rb in e -P o w e red A ir p la n e s :<121.191, m .isi, 135.103,0900.1, a c 25-7A.ac 12W2A)
En route O B S T A C L E C L E A R A N C E , with one engine inoperative, must be demonstrated to show EITHER-.
{a} The gradient of the net flight path is positive at 1r0QQ feet above the highest point of the terrain: QR
(b) The net flight path during “ D R IF TD Q W N 11 after an engine failure at the m ost critical point enroule
clears all terrain b y at least 2,000 feet, ...................................................................................................**-,
; MET FLIGHT PATH Ib ohcmnod by reducing the demonstratad single- ;
I engine enroute climb performafica by 1,1%- lor a twin-engine aircraft. \
O B S T A C L E -C L E A R A N C E C r ite r ia : .............................................................................
lost C R ITIC A L FOI N T Enraute

Minimum A L L -E N G IN E Cruising Altitude

■Or
: EUfcLJMWimfi 5
: permitted in tumplyirig
; with IhiE requirement.
'w m i lM lW IIIW M I B H I M l f

Minimum S IN G L E -E N G IN E Ceiling

ALSO:
t . It must be demonstrated that the net flight path will have a positive gradient at 1,500 feet above the
airport at which the aircraft is lo be landed after the engine failure; AND
2. Tw in-engine airplanes must operate within one hour’s flight time [threshold time) at single-engine
cruise speed from an adeouate airport unless specifically approved by the proper authority for an
increased threshold time. Basically that means E TO F S approval — Extended-range Iwin-engine
Operations (aka ER -O PS. aka Engines Turning Or Passengers Swimming). (121 .162)

T r a n s p o rt C a te g o ry T u rb in e A irp la n e L A N D IN G C r iteria:
* Certified [D E M O N S T R A T E D ) LA N D IN G Distance is the distance from where the aircraft is 50 feel
above the landing surface at an airspeed of 1.3 Vs. to the point on the runway where the aircraft is
*v brought to a full atop, without the use of reverse thrust
In order to quickly and completely understand
everything on thus page... Just press this button"

50 ft

D E M O N S T R A T E D Landing Distance

R E Q U IR E D Landing Distance (aka Land mg Field Length) D R Y =

D E M O N S TR A T E D Landing Distance + 0.6 (NDt e * 0.7 tar a lte r n a t e w ort)
-HI
II

R E Q U IR E D Landing Distance (aka Landing Field Length)

i

1.15 x R E Q U IR E D Landing Distance DRY

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 15$

C h a p 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t ___________________________________________________________________

TOLD CARD — Take-Off and Landing Data card. Provides a quick reference for precalculated
airspeeds based on weight, temperature, and aircraft cun figuration (flap/slal selling).

T A K E O F F S id e of a TO LD card provides spaces for:

1. ATIS
2. Takeoff wBiaht
3. Flap setting
4. Tima to 100 knots
5. Power settings — iakeOff and Max Continuous
6. Runway required — Balanced Field Lenglh (E?FL), aka Required Runway Lenglh, Takeoff Field
Length. Accelerate-Stop/Go distance or Critical Field Lenglh
7. Speeds (typical):
♦ *¿1 — Takeoff decision speed
♦ V r — Roiation speed
♦ V2 — Takeoff safety speed & besl single engine climb gradient
♦ V f r — Flap Retraction speed
+ V f $ — Final fogment climb speed
♦ V eimr— ENRoute climb speed
+ Return V ref — Emergency RETURN for landing R EFerence speed for final approach
8. Clearance

A P P R O A C H s i d e (landing side) of a TO LD card provides spaces for.

1 AHS
2. Landing weight
3. Flap setting
4. Power settings — TakeOff and Max Continuous (for missed approach)
5. Landing distance — from 50 feet AGL Lo a full stop
6. Landing Field Length — landing distance multiplied by 1.67
7. Speeds (typical):
♦ V ref — REFerence speed for final approach
+ V ap — Approach target speed— V r^ + configuration (flaps/slals setting) and wind factor.
Typically — add (to V befI ft the headwind component + ail the gust factor (to a max of 20 ktsl
♦ V a C — Missed Approach Climb speeds for flap configuration with the critical engine inop (2.1%
climb gradient)
♦ VFR — Flap Retraction speed — minimum speed required for flap retraction (after missed
approach)

You know you’ve become a genuine, bona fide '’Professional Pilot"

when you gel to wear this nifty lookin' outfit!

160 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilaf

 C hap 4— S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t

TOLD CARD
(Take-Off & Landing Data)
(Typical)

(front) (Back)

TOLD C ard C o m m en t»
TA K EO FF:
* When you're heavy and/or it's hoi you’ll need a little more speed before you try to lift off (duh!).
*■ Climb speeds are somewhat irrelevant unless you toast an engine taking off from Lake Tahoe.
The majority of Ihe lime you'll be more concerned with not exceeding 200 knots while still in Ihe
Class C or □ airspace or 250 knots below 10,000 feel.
* Power sellings are difficult to set precisely, so the eclual power set is lypicelly somewhat below max.
* FYI — in the simulator, expect a cul on EVER Y takeoff!
APPROACH & LANDING:
* When you're heavy and/or it's hot (and/or gusty) you'll need to keep your speed up a little higher
than when you’re light and/or the temperature is cooler.
* Missed approach procedures always begin exactly the same... CLIMB like a Mutha Fu©#£©!
* Once again, climb speeds are somewhat irrelevant... unless you lose one just as you power up for
the missed approach (what are the chances?).
*■ FYt — tn the simulator, EVER Y oo-around will be on one engine!

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 161

C h a p 4 — S p e e d . A ltitu d e & Jet

J E T E N G INE — W IN D M IL L S T A R T / A I R S T A R T :
1. Windmill starts are used to relight a jeL engine after a flameout has occurred while
airborne.
2. The starter is not needed because
the compressors are being
turned by the in-flight
airflow.
3. The Windmilling! Airstart "E N V E LO P E " {aka relight boundary) Is very type specific as to SP EE D .
A LTITU D E and compressor RPM Thai is. the aircraft must be within a specific speed range, allitude
range, and compressor RPM for a successful airstart. Windmilling compressor RPM must be at or
above normal {ground) starting RPM.
4. Windmilling / Airstart Instructions and SoeedfAltltudefRPM parameters will be included in the aircraft's
em ergency checklist.
5. A starter-assisted airstart is another option when sufficient windmill RPM cannot be maintained,

A L T IT U D E A LE R T IN G S Y S T E M — T U R B O J E T S :
1. Wo person may operate a turbojet-powered airplane unless it is equipped with an approved altitude
alerting system that Is In operable condition.
2. The altitude alerting system must be able to alert the pilot upon approaching a preselected altitude
in either ascent or descent, by a sequence of both aural and visual signals in sufficient lime to
establish level flight at lhal preselected altitude — or — alert the pilol upon approaching a preselected
altitude In either ascent or descent, by a sequence of both aural and visual signals in sufficient, time to
establish level flight at that preselected altitude — and — when deviating above and below that
preselected altitude, by an aural signal.
3. A flight may be continued it the system becomes inoperative, but the flight may not depart from a
place where repair or replacement can be m ade.
4. The system may be inoperative while ferrying the aircraft to a place where the system is to be
installed or repaired; conducting airworthiness flight tests; conducting a sales demonstration flight;
ferrying an airplane to a place outside the U.S. for the purpose of registering it In a foreign country: or
training a foreign flight crew for Ihe purpose of ferrying it to a place outside the U.S. for the purpose of
registering It In a foreign country.

FIR E D E T E C T IO N a n d P R O T E C T IO N :
1, Eleme nts req uIred for a fire;
a. Oxygen (NOTE: the most practical way to eliminate a fire is to remove ils oxygen supply);
b. Fuel {combustible material):
c. Heat Monition source/
2, A typical jet aircraft will have fire detection and protection systems for at least.
a. Each engine;
b. Auxiliary Power Units (APU);
c. Wheel wells (not all aircraft).
3, There are usually a minimum of two extinguisher bottles that can be discharged into either engine SO
as to provide a second chance of dousino an engine lire.
4, Sight " disks1' are normally found on the side of Ihe fuselage the color of which will Indicate
extinguisher! release due to either thermal expansion and/or indicate use.
5, Color and location of the sight "disks" are type specific — however jj they are intact — they indicate
that the extinguishing agent is still present in the fire bottle.

W IN G L E T S :
Restrict airflow (tip vortex) around the wing tips, therefore improving lift, fuel economy, and aircraft
performance especially at high altitudes. Acts as a dam which helps to restrict a portion of the normal tip
vortex (wake turtulence) from forming,

162 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 C h a p 4 — S p e e d . A ltitu d e & J e t,
W IN D SH IE LD H EAT:
1. Aside from the obvious benefits of preventing tee. many iet aircraft use
windshield heat at all tint55 during flight to help prevent them from brew ing as
the result of a bird strike.
2. A heated window is more flexible and consequently more able to absorb a bird
strike. Results may vary depending on aircraft speed and the size of the bird!

T IR E S & W H E E L S :
1. CHINED tires — Usually a nose wheel tire with a special sidewall construclion that O
forms a ridae which diverts water to the side of the aircraft, decreasing the
amount of water sprayed up into the intakes of rear-mounted iet engines
during takeoff or landing,
2. Tire CREEP — The tendency of a tire to slowly rotate {creep} around a wheel
due to the sudden rotation that occurs during landing. Usually caused by low
tire pressure. Creep can be detected by placing a small dot on the wheel and
a second dot adjacent to il of Ihe tire. Excessive creep can cause a tire to tear
out its inflation valve and cause a blowout during touchdown.
3. FUSIBLE PLUGS — Installed in some large aircraft wheels to prevent a
sudden tire blowout in the event of extremely high temperature buildup due to
the use of maximum breaking after landing or during an aborted takeoff. The
core of Ihe 'fusible plug" melts, letting air escape at a slower rate and possibly
preventing a tire from exploding.

S W E P T W IN G A D V A N T A G E :
Jet aircraft with swept wings generally have higher cruising speeds due to a
higher critical Mach number.

S W E P T W IN G D IS A D V A N T A G E S :
1. Reduced lift requiring the need for high lift flaps and leading edge devices
(slats).
2. At low airspeed Ihe winqtips tend to stall first, resulting in a loss
of aileron effectiveness. These bad stall characteristics make
airspeed control during takeoff and landing extremely critical.
3. Most swept wing jets have poor yaw tendencies {especially In turbulence)
and will develop an advanced “ Dutch roll’' if not handled with perfect
coordination. If a yaw is induced, the advancing wing presents more wing
area {span} and a higher angle of attack lo the airstream, this causes a roll
In the direction of Ihe yaw. The drag caused by the lifting wing then causes the aircraft to
yaw and roll back the other way. In turbulence, this oscillation of yaw and roll can continue indefinitely.
Most all modern jets have a "yaw damper" to cancel out this propensity for Dutch roll.

D U T C H R O L L - a coupled oscillation in roll and yaw that becomes objectionable when roll, or lateral
stability is reduced. During cerlification, aircraft with objectionable Dutch roll tendencies that affect control
stability are required to install a stability augmentation system (yaw damper}. Swept wing iet aircraft are
especially prone to Dutch roll and thus are almost always equipped with “yaw dampers." (This delinilion is
pinrun nir-iij to nwn|)l wint) .nrr.r.bil .w : ■. I ik. n Jn,m AC iV "RTA Op. r.ilirms Aircrnfl :il Alliliirlns Alien, u Zfi 0R0 Fruit , ")
(N O TE — Other definitions appear in FAA-H-0083-3, FAA-H-80H3-Z5, A C 23-8B, A C 25-7A. and Aerodynamics lor Naval Aviators. "A
combination of rolling and yawing oscillations. Ihal normally occurs whan the dihedral effects of an airoralt are more powerful than the
dlracllonal stBbilily Usually dynamically stabl* but objectionable In an airplano bacauu of th* oscillatory natura.")

Y A W D A M P E R - a gyro operated Stability augmentation Butocontroi system installed to automatically

provide immediate rudder input when necessary te aid in canceling out yaw tendencies such as (hose of
“ Dutch roll." Basically an autopilot for the rudder that automatically cancels out yaw so you can keep your
feet on the floor. Early type (Parallel) yaw dampers are reauired to be gif during takeoff and landing
because they deflect Ihe pedals, increase pedal force and can make matters worse in case of engine failure.
More modem (Series} dampers do not deflect the pedals, pedal forces do not change, and are normally
safe to use for takeoff landing, crosswind landings, as well as engine out scenarios.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 163

( S A T ) Static A ir T e m perature vs. ( O A T ) Outside A ir Temperature vs.
( R A T ) R a m A i r Temperature vs. ( T A T ) To ta l A ir Temperature: ìacìi^ ai
1. S A T — Static Air Temparature {sometimes called true air temperature) is the temperature of
undisturbed air, that is the temperature that you would read if you could suspend a thermometer out in
the air without having the effects {temperature rise) of an airplane moving through the air nearby. While
in an aircraft, SAT (aka OAT) Is determined by applying the appropriate correction facior to the T A T (or
RAT) probe data. Most large jet aircraft have this function incorporated into the Air Data Computer
(ADC). SAT is the A C TU A L air temperature (OAT). NOTE: A 'Rosemont Probe" corrects for ram
rise and shows Static Air Temperature (actual P A T Ì.
2. O A T — Qutside Air Temperature is essentially the same as S A T . Above 200 knots a "normal" O A T
probe can't give an accurate reading because air friction and compressibility cause the indicated
temperature to rise.
3. RAT — Earn fijr lemperalure is normally interchangeable with T A T . It is the temperature lhat the ram
air temperature probe senses. Think of it as “ Ram Rise” (RR) and TA T. Ram rise occurs to a small
degree at all airspeeds but it really only starts becoming a factor above 200 knots, At typical jet speeds.
RAT may be 15BC to 3 0 ^ higher than the actual Outside Air Temperature.
4. T A T — Total ¿ir Temperature is the SAT (actual O A T) PL,US the TEM P E R A TU R E RISE associated
with HIGH-SPEED F L IG H T. This temperature rise is called "ram rise", and is the result of HEATING
of the air due to COM PRESSION. From a practical standpoint, T A T (or RAT) is the temperature the
aircraft's skin feels, and SAT is the free air temperature (O AT). T A T is greater than S A T due to the
ram rise in temperalure that occurs because of dynamic heating. Ram air temperature rise is
proportional to the speed of the aircraft (Mach number). At 0.&0 Mach or higher, a ram rise of 30°C can
be expected. This rise in temperature may be enough to prevent ice from forming.
5. Example — if Ihe SAT (O A T) is at FL350, the T A T may only be -2 Q X due lo ~ram rise" effect.
The “ram rise" Is 3Q°C.
6. Iptal ¿ft lemperalure (or RAT) is the important number when considering the formation of ICE on the
airframe, engine nacelles, inside the fuel tanks and can even have an effect on EPR settings. in the
extremely cold air of the far North, there may be a need to Increase the aircraft s speed (and/or usa a
kjwi:i u'Liludoj h i order to increase the TuLil A r Tu n u fu lu iu w uu to increase If:>j temperature nsde
the fuel tanks to PREVENT the FUEL from FRFF7INfi An actual fuel temperature gauge can be an
important safety item when flying in these harsh conditions,
7. Total Air Temperature (or RAT) is used when deciding to switch on the engine anil-Ice. S A T (O A T) may
be below freezing but the aircraft is experiencing T A T (O A T + ram rise). Most aircraft manufacturers
require engine anti-ice when the T A T {or RAT) falls below +10DC.
e. The official Aircraft Elight Manual should have a chart showing Ihe expected ram rise al various Mach
numbers. The term RAT is most often interchangeable with T A T in flight manual charts.
9. The airplane may have any combination of RAT, TA T, SAT, or O A T gauges. Be sure to refer to the
proper ones when mak:---------*L J — 1-1— “

164 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

___________________________________________________________________ | C hap 4-— S p e e d , A ll I tild e & J e t

N O I S E S T A N D A R D S :(a c 36-4C.fahpitnm .i , si .sen.si.asi,$1.«3)

1. S T A G E 1 — EXTREM ELY LO U D !!! Not acceptable at most airports.
2. S T A G E 2 — Pretty damn LO U D !! Not acceptable al many noise sensitive airports.
3. B u lle tin — The long-term FAA bill signed into law by Obama in February of 2012
requires operators of Stage 2 jets to modify their aircraft to meet Stage 3 noise limits
by the end of 2015. Section 506 {also 91.661) prohibits, after December 31. 2015.
the operation within the 48 contiguous slates of jets (other than experimental) weighing
75,000 pounds or less that do not comply with Stage 3 noise standards. Some exceptions are made
for temporary operations related to moving aircraft for modification or sale. Propeller driven aircraft are
not affected by the new law even though some can be as loud as Stage 2 jets.
4. S T A G E 3 — Still a little too LOUD lor many people living in close proximity to an airport. All jet-
powered transports and business aircraft that are currently In production meet Stage 3 standards.
5. S T A G E 4 — I guess that's O K . but it's still a little LOUD A certification standard that will result in a
10-decibel decrease from Stage 3 standards but will apply only to newly certified production aircraft.
Most all current production Stage 3 aircraft win be able to meet the Stage 4 requirements, Stage 4 is
the best technology has to offer at this time. It's the best we can do to satisfy those people who got a
bargain on that house next to the airport ... Ihen realized there was an airport near their house... then
decided the sound of jets taking off and landing was annoying... except when they wanna fly
somewhere!
6. “ H U S h L K IT S ” for older (Stage 2) jets attempt to cool off and slow down the hot exhaust gas as it
roars oul Ihe tailpipe. Normally this involves injecting or mixing cold air with the hoi exhaust in an
attempt to reduce its velocity (shear affect) and shield the noise in order lo reach Stage 3 compliance.
These hush kits can run anywhere from 3200.000 to $3,000 000 per airplane and are usually
detrimental lo aircraft performance and of course add weight.
But WHO CA R ES as long as we can keep this guv H A PPY1

Y o u r f r i e n d ly a ir p o r t “ N E I G H B O R ’1 ( w h o j u s t b o u g h t a h o u s e n e a r th e a ir p o r t )
d is c u s s in g y o u r la s t t a k e o f f w i t h t h e a ir p o r t m a n a g e r .

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 165

C h a p 4 — S p e e d , A ltitu d e & J e t)

Whai ihe Kell you lookin’ et Ivann?

I TOLD you... the PTS says no more than
30° of bank during a circling approach!

166 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilaf

 i**«n>iwiiflf ¿ur**c*
Chapter 5

Pilot Certificates,
Logging,
Medical & Drugs
P IL O T LO G
T h e P a p e rw o rk
Pilot C e rtific a te — C a te g o ry / C la ss i T y p e ......................................
A irc ra ft — C a te g o ry l C la ss t T y p e ...................................................... ............ 1GB
Flight Review (BFR1: Basic “CU R R EN CY' Requirements............................. ..............169
IFR R e c e n c y — P IC In s tru m e n t C u rre n c y (6 m o n t h )................... ............170
Safety Pilot.......................................................................................................... ..............171
Recent Flight Experience P IC {3 b o u n c e s ) . ............................................. ..... 172, 173
A irp la n e Flig h t M an ual / L im ita tio n s ! M a rk in gs and P la cards
D o cu m e n ts On B e a rd A ir c r a f t ................................................................ ............ 175
Certificates Required in Pilot's Possession..................................................... ..............175
Lo gb o o ks i Le g g in g T i m e ......................................................................... .. 176, 177
Logging Right Seat Navajo, King Air, Citation under Part 91 ........................ ..... 178, 179
Change of Address......... .............................. ................. ............................... ..............1&0
Replacement of Airman Certificates................................................................. ..............130
Falsification of Logbooks or Records............................................................... ..............181
Le st o r S to le n L o g b o o k .............................................................................
S IC Q u a lif ic a t io n !..................................................................... ............162
S tu d e n t P ilo t...................................................................................................
Sport Pilot............................................................................................................ ..............183
Recreational Pilot............................................................................................... ..............134
Private Pilot.............”..............”....... ”.......,........................,.............. ,........,...... ..............185
Instrument Rating: Instrument Currency.......................................................... ..............136
Commercial Pilot................................................................................................. ..............187
A i r l i n e T r a n s p o r t P i l o t ............................................................................... .. 1 8 6 , 1 8 9
Flight Instructor................................................................................................... ..... 190.191
Examiner....................................... ............................ ....................................... . ..............192
C r e s s - C o u n t r y T im a ] T e m p o r a r y C e r t i f i c a t e ................................... ............ 1 9 3
Type Rating....... .............. ............................................................. ..............194
Complex & High Performance Endorsements................................................. ..............194
H ig h A lt it u d e & T a i l w h e e l E n d o r s e m e n t s ........................................

Zig-Zag PIC Proficiency Check aka Maintaining Currency for a Type Rating........... ..............196
M E D I C A L C e r t i f i c a t e ................................................................................... ............ 1 3 7
Prohibitions on Operations During Medical Deficiency................................... ..............193
D u r a t io n o f a M e d ic a l C e r t i f i c a t e .........................................................
SODA; Lasik Eye Surgery; Contact Lenses; Eye (required vision).............. ..............209
Ear. Nose, Throat, Equilibrium: Mental: Neurologic: Cardiovascular........... ..............291
Diabetes Mellitus; Kidney Stones; Hypertension: Special Issuance............ ..............201
D r u g s o r A l c o h o l ; M o t o r V e h ic l e A c t i o n ; S p e e d in g T i c k e t s .....
Over-The-Counter Medications......................................................................... ..............204

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 167

EPChap S — C ertificates, Logging, M edical & Drugs
IL O T C E R T IF IC A T E — C A T E G O R Y / C LA S S :
1. Category — Broad classification:
■* Airplane. Glider, Rotorcraft, etc.
2. C la ss— Similar operating characteristics:
* single engine, multiengine: land; water;
3. Type — Specific make & model of aircraft:
* D C -3 , D C -9 . B -7 3 7 .
1l5i >,
....................
AL yuur faqueSL. 1l“ia FAA Will assign a uni qua m in lip i (ulllar
than youir SS numbai) to your c-ardficata. Vau will need Id
submil ¡in " Airman1a Request tor Change of Certificate
Wumbar" io-fm (o the Ea A Airman Csrlifltalran Branch.
See www.faa.gov for (he Form.

RICHIE 'FLYA N YTH IN G 1' LENGEL 435S7S932

Plastic certificarles ara new
XII RATINGS required for ell pi ots
All new certificates Nave ihs
AIRLINE TR A N SP O R T PILOT Errai sh Profra enl endorsement.
(Category] AIRPLANE M ULTIENGINE LAND
R O TO R C R A FT H ELICOPTER; GYROPLANE
— ►B-737 B-747 BH-206 CE-5Ü0 DA-20 DC-3 DC-6 SPACE S H U TTLE siSL.
COMM ERCIAL PRIVILEGES
AIRPLANE SINGLE ENGINE LAND
XIII LIM ITATIONS
ENGLISH PROFICIENT.

Category]

In their infinite wisdom, Congress has

decreed your picture will soon be
required here. Ain't they smart? Now One fruitcake we
we won't have to worry about some don’t have to
fruitcake terrorist impersonating a pilot. worry about
A IR C R A F T — C A T E G O R Y I C L A S S : n i as a. anymore!
1. Category (1.1) — As used with respect to the certification of aircraft, means a grouping of aircraft based upon
Intended use or operating limitations. Examples include:
a. Transport — If an airplane cannot qualify under Normal, Utility. Aerobatic. Commuter. Primary, or under a
Special FAR such as SFAR41; then it is certified in the Transport category,
Rule of thumb — if it's over 12,500 Lbs and is a turbojet, it will be certified in the Transport category (CE-550.
CE-560), if it's a turbojet that requires two pilots it's Transport category (usua|ly)(CE-500). A single-pilot
turbojet is normally certified In the Normal category (CE.-501, CE-551). Turboprops weighing 19.000 Lbs or
less, or having 19 or fewer seats can be certified under EFAR 41 (over 12.500 Lbs), Transport category, or in
the Commuter category. You must check the typo certificate data shoot to bo certain. Generally, southing ever
19.000 Lbs is going to be certified in the Transport category.
b. Largo N cmtransport — Large airplanes (over 12.500 Lbs MTQW) certified before the establishment of the
Transport category {July 1, 1942) and not modified and recertified in the Transport category. Only three of
these airplanes are still in active service — Lockheed IS (Lodestar), Curtis C^t6, and DC-3. These airplanes
may only be operated in passenger carrying service If they have been recertified in the Transport category.
c. Commuter - 19 seats or less (excluding pitot seats). 19,000 Lbs or less. Limited to multiengine airplanes,
(stalls, stoop turns, bank angle not more than 60“)
d. Normal - 9 seats or less (excluding pitot seats), 12.500 Lbs or less.
A single-pilot turbojet (e.q. CE-5D1, CE-551) will also bo certified in ih.e normal category, {normal non-aarobatic
operations including stalls, steep turns, angle of bank not more than 601, +3.AGs to -1.52Gs)
e. U tility — 9 seals or less {excluding pilot seats), 12,500 Lbs or toss, intended for limited aerobatics, (spins if
approved, angle of bank noi more than 90“. M A G s to •1.76Ga)
f. Acrobatic — 9 seats or less (excluding pilot seats), 12.590 Lbs or less, (+6.0Gs to -3.0OGs)
9- Primary — Single engine or unpowered, Vso under 61 kts, 4 seats or less. (21.24)
h. Lim ited — Generally surplus YYYVII military aircraft (no persons or property for hire)(21.1S9.91.315)
i. Restricted Agricultural, pipeline patrol, aerial advertising. e1c.{no persons or property for hire)(21.25)
j. Experimental — Amateur built or military surplus, (no persons or property for hiro)(21.191)
k. Provisional (Provisionally certificated) — Aircraft in the process of receiving a type certificate or an
amendment to an existing type certificate, (no persons or property for hire)(21 -213. 91.317)
2. Class (1.1) — As used with respect to the certification of aircraft, means a broad grouping of aircraft having similar
characteristics of propulsion, flight, or landing. Examples include:
Airplane Rotor craft G lide r. B a llo o n . Landplano. and Soap lane

16& EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D fqr the Professional Pilot

 [ c h a p 5 — C e r t i f i c a t e s , L o g g in g , M e d ic a l & D r u g s
F L I G H T R E V I E W — F o r m e r l y K n o w n A s — B i e n n ia l F l i g h t R e v i e w (B F R ):
§ 6 1 . 5 6 F l i g h t r e v i e w , (also A c g i -9bb )
(a} Excapt as provided in paragraphs (b) and ([) of this section, a flight review consists o f a
minimum of 1 hour or flig h t training and 1 hour of around training. The review must inclu de :
{1) A roviaw of tho curront goneral operating and flight rules of part 91 of this chapter; and
(2) A review Of those manouvara and procedures (hat- at the discretion of (he person Hiving
the review, are necessary for the pilot to demonstrate the safe exercise of the privileges of
the pilot certificate
(b) G lider p ilo ts may substitute a minimum of three instructional flights in a glider, each of which
includes a flight to traffic pattern attitude, in lieu of the 1 hour of flight training required in paragraph (a) of this section.
(c) Excapt as providod in paragraphs (d). (.ft), and (g) of this section, no parson may act as P ilot In Command of an
aircraft unless, since the beginning oMhe 24th calendar m onth before the m onth in which that pilot acts as p ilo t in
com m and lhat person has -
(1 ] A ccom plished a f ig h t review given in on aircraft for which that p ilo t is rated by an authorized instructor: and
(2) A lo o tiM k endorsed from an authorized instructor who gave the review certifying that the person has satisfactorily
completed (he review.
(d) A person who has. within the period specified in paragraph (c) of this section, passed any of the fo llo w in g no ad N O T
accom plish tho flig h t rovlow required by (his section;
(1) A p ilo t p roficiency check or practical te s t conducted by an exam iner, an approved pilot check airm an, or a U.5.
Amnod Force, fo r a pilot ce rtifica te , ra tin g , or operating p rivile g e .
(2) A practical test conducted by an examiner lo r the issuance of a flig h t in s tru c to r certificate an additional rating
on a flig h t in stru cto r certificate, renewal of a flig h t instru ctor ccrtifica:e, or reinstatem ent of a flig h t in stru cto r
certificate,
jo) A person who has. within the period specified in paragraph (c) of this section, salisfactorily accom plished one or more
phases of nn TAA-sponsored piloi proficiency award program mood WOT accom plish tho flig h t review required by
this section.
(f> A person who holds a flig h t in stru cto r certificate and who has, within the period specified in paragraph fc) of this
section, satisfactorily com pleted a renewal of a flight instructor certificate under the provisions in § 61.197 need NOT
accom plish the one hour of ground tra in in g specified in paragraph (a) of this section.
(g) A student p ilo t need n o t accomplish the flighi review required by this section provided the student pilot is undergoing
training for a certificate and has a current solo flight endorsement as required under § 61.87 of this part.
(h) The requirements of this section may be accomplished in combination with the requirements of § 61.57 and. other
applicable recent experience requirements at the discretion of tho authorized instructor conducting the flight review.
(i) A flight sim ulator or flight training device may b» used to meet the flight review requirements of this -section subject to
the following conditions:
{1) The flight simulator or flight training device must be used in accordance with an approved course conducted by a
training center certificated under part 142 of this chapter.
(2) Unless the flight review is undertaken m a Flight sim ulator that is approved for lan din gs, the applicant mu3t
meet the takeoff and landing reguirejnents of § 61.57(a1 or § 61.57fbl of this part.
(3) The flight sim ulator or flight training dovice used mus.ttoJ.msjim.t nn aircraft or set of aircraft tor w liic h tho p ilo t is
rated.

N O T E #1 — The flight review may be accom plished in com bination with 61.57 (Instrument Proficiency Check) or other
recent experience reguirements at the discretion of the instructor, however 2 separata logbook endorsem ents will be
req uired . One endorsemenl for tho IR C ' and a separate endorsement for tho Flight Roview. [61.56(b)]
N O T E # Z — Part 91K . Part 1 2 t. or 135 pilots — your PIC or SIC chcckridc w ill cover 1his. The S IC would need to be
"lypo rated’ in lhat aircraft for ihoirchecitride to count as a Flight Review (FAA opinion), [61.56(d)(1)]
(c) (1) Accom plished a flig h t review given in an a ircraft for which that p ilo t is “ RATED..
(d) A person who has [within the previous 24 calendar months] passed any o f ihe follow ing need not accomplish ibo
flight review required by this section: (1) .. .a practical tost. .. for on op orating privilege
N O T E # 3 — 'The phrase 'pilot competency ch eck' and the phrase 'p ilo t proficiency chock' are norm ally used
Intqrcha.ng.ca.b.1 y to mcrao Ihe $AtoO_tbi)0fl (FAA FAQ).

Potpourri of Basic “CURRENCY" Requirements: “Practical test" means a

fasten LIhj srsaicl
+ A "FNffhl Review" (or -equivalent! wilhin fhe previous 21 calendar months. operations 'or an airman
+ F or tha carnage gf P A £ $EN G E R $ 1hn must have made and LO G G ED 3 takeoffs and ä certificate, raling. or
la n d in g s in Lht? previous 90 d a ys In the sam e C A TE G O R Y (ainclane. olider. ro to rtra ft. ate.!. authorization Lhal is
C LA S S isinale enema, m ullienaina. land. sea. ate.) and TY P E 1DC-3. B-777)(if a lypa ralino is conducted by having tha
reauim dl — these landings mus1 be made to b full Mo d if in .i taitwheel airciBU or ¡it night hind applicant respond to
the pilot must be 'sola m anipulator' e l th e controls). questions and
+ F or IFR night — F or anv particular (liqhl. the pilot m ust be able to court b a c k w a r d s 6 months demonslfate maneuvers
— lo bu sure he o r she has accomplished (and L O G G E D t as "sole m anipulator' of tha controls at in flighi. in a flight
least 6 a p p ro a ch e s snd holding during that Lime period. NOTE: For comm ercial Flights. IFR simulator, o r in a flight
currency is covered by ih s Pitot (n £prnm and's S-month inslrem ent proficiency check- training device, (61.1)

EVERYTHING EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 16$

Chap 5 — C ertificates, Logging, M edical & Drugs
IF R R E C E N C Y — I n s tr u m e n t E x p e r i e n c e — P I C I N S T R U M E N T C U R R E N C Y :
(51.57. 91.109, 91.1069,121.401,121.439, 121.441, 125.291, 135.245,135.247, 135.293, 135.297}
1. A “ Biennial" “ Flight Review” within the last 24 calendar months [Your 91.1 069, 125.291, 135.293 anchor
135,297 and/or 121.441 checkride will cover lhi$ — see 61.56(d)],
2. To carry PASSENGERS the PIC must have made and lagged 3 takeoffs and 3 landings in the past 90
days in the same category, class and type (if a type rating is required) — these landings must be made to a
full stop if in a tail wheel aircraft or at night (may be accomplished in an approved simulator).
3. In order lo fite and Qï on an IFR flight plan — wilhin the preceding 6 calendar months — a pilot must
have performed (in an aircraft, simulator or flight training device) and L O G G E D :
a. At least S instrument approaches - f a a opinion slates that ihe approach must be FLOWN 10
minimums, but does not state any requirement that the aircraft must remain in instrument conditions
until reaching MDA/DA(DH), It is generally accepted that you must be in actual or simulated instrument
conditions until passing the FAF/GSlA — but once past that — if you break out before MDA/DA(DH)r
you can still “counl" the approach as long as you continue to track ihe approach to minimums ( faa legal
opinion. January 25. 1992}; The pilot must maintain instrument \
b. Holding procedures; and recency experience in whatever category 1,
c. lntercej.tinjLandJr_ackinji_cours.es — Redundant — You must of nlrcraft. he it airsh ip. rolorcrall or !;
'intercept and track’ courses in order to complete any instrument airplane that the pilot wishes to exercise
the privileges af the inslrument rating. ,
approach whether you are vectored to an instrument final or fly the (FAA IntwiprelBlion June 4, 2612) ;>
full approach.
d. N O T E : Your six-month 125.23.1.. 135.297 PIC check or 121,441 Proficiency Check will satisfy Plot In
Command instrument currency for up to 7 months while flying under P art 9 1.12 1.12 5 or 135 for
that air carrier (see below). However, all commercial Second In Commands are required to maintain
Ihe 'instrument currency" requirements of 61.57 — 135.245(a) SIC qualifications: ... For flight under
IFR, that person must meet the recent instrument experience requirements of part 61 of this chapter."

■ For any particular flight, you must be able to count backwards — 6 months — to be
I sure you’ve accomplished at least 6 approaches and hclding during that time period.

:*If a Part 91 pilot has NO_T_accompllshed Ihe 6_app.r_oach&s holding, etc., within the first 6 months, the ;
; pilot is no longer legal ta file IFR To become legal again, Ihe rules allow a second 6-month “grace
; period." during which a pilot may gel currenl by flying with an appropriately rated “safety pilot." and in
j simulated IFR conditions only, acquire (he 6 approaches, etc. If the second 6-month period also passes j
■ without Lhe minimum, the pilot can only get current by accomplishing an “ instrument proficiency check'1
; given by an exam iner, an authorized Instructor, or a person FAA-approved to conduct instrument
Î practical tests (designated pilot exam iner! fet.si. 6'.57, si.'cs)
***...*.......... ......................................... ....................................................... .................................................

The INSTRUM ENT experience C U R R EN CY requirements of 61.57(c) (i.e., 6 months: 6 approaches \

holding: and intercepting and tracking courses). DO N O T APPL Y to a Pilot In Command who is
employed by a Part 121 or Part 135 air carrier while flying under Part 91. 121. or 135 for that air
carrier [61.57(e)(2), 121.401, 121.441, 135.361(a)],

IN OTHER WORDS — A PIC for a Part 121 or Part 135 air carrier, who has a current PIC check, and
while flying under Part 91,121, or 135 for that air carrier, is legal ll.e.. Instrument current) for
7 m u i f l t t (under the “ grace month” provisions of 121.401 and 135.301) even if he or she has not
done a single instrument procedure (aside from the checkride) during that 7-monlh period. Please
note once again that this person is only legal during that 7’" month while flying under Part 91. T2T, or
135 FOR TH AT AIR CARRIER

GRACE M O N TH :
From an FAA Legal Opinion dated October 29,1992 — "The FAA has consistently interpreted the grace
month provisions for Part 121 and Part 135 [and 61,53(i)] to aflow crewmembers to fly for up to one month
following (he calendar month in which a cheek is required." ", .a pilot would NOT Ija held in violation for
ootirations in which he served during the grace month should he fail to comply with the proficiency check
requiremant during (hat grace month." "The fact that your company w ilI purposely allow your currency
requirement to lapse does NOT prevent the grace month provision of 135.301(a) from applvlno.’'
IN OTHER WORDS The regulatory effect is the same as if the check is accom plished [or not
accom plished! Ifl the m onth duo (sks hasp month),
\ J
170 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot
 Chap 5 — C ertificates, Logging, M edical & Drugs
..........................................................................................................................................................
A pilot's 121 or 135 Proficiency Check does not automatically count as an Instrument Proficiency
Check unless the company’s check airman (or the examiner) endorses it as such in the pilot’s
logbook or pilot records. Part 91. 121 or 135 flying performed for the air carrier does nol require
the pilot to have an Instrument Proficiency Check. However, if that person flies a Part 91 flight
outside of the company, that person cannot use his 121 or 135 Proficiency Check in lieu of an
Instrument Proficiency Check. All approaches, holding or intercepting and tracking of courses
performed while flying for ihe company do howavenraun ^ ^

S A F E T Y P I L O T : p M O t y b ), 61.51.61.56, F A A Lagal Interpretations June 24. 1991 6 January 23, 2913)

1. Must be at least a Private Pilot with category (i.e., airplane, rotorcraft, glider, lighler-lhan-air, or
powered-lift) & class (i.e.. single-engine land, single-engine sea, multi-engine land, multi-engine sea)
ratings appropriate for the aircraft and have a current medical. NO TE — The rotorcraft category has
two classes; helicopter and gyroplane.
2 A current flight review is necessary only if the safety pilot has agreed to be the ACTING PIC.
3. Throe takeoffs and landings in Ihe past 30 days would only be necessary if the safely pilot has agreed
to be the ACTING PIC and passengers will be onboard.
A ‘'com plex” “ high performance.” “ high altitude." or ‘tailwhEel” endorsement is N O T necessary
unless the safety pilot has agreed to be the ACTING PIC.
An instrument rating is not necessary unless the flight is conducted under IFR and the safety pilot
agrees to be the ACTING PIC (the safely pilot's name would have to be on tine flight plan).
6. U the safety pilot has the necessary endorsements and aorees to be the ACTING PIC. both pilots
may log PIC time while the flying pilot is "under-the-hood" and is Ihe "sole manipulator of the controls"
(FAA legal opinion).
7. In anolher truly Stunning display of bureauCralic double-lalk — FAA legal interpretation dated January
23, 2013 states: “ ...Because (he aircraft is type certificated for a single pilot, and because the operation
does not require a designated SIC (e.g. an operation conducted under 14 C,F,R, § 135,101 which
requires an SIC under IFR), [Pilot B] is a safety pilot and not an SIC. [*1| This does not preclude the
safely pilot from fogging time as SIC, however. See Legal Interpretation to Ted Louis Glenn, from
Rebecca B, MacPherson, Assistant Chief Counsel for Regulations (December 1. 2009) (stating a pilot
may log SJC time for the portion of the flight during which she was acting as safety pilot because the
pilot was a required flight crewmember for that portion of the flight under §91.109(b).)11
If the pilot under the hood is logging the lime for instrument currency, the NAME of the safety pilot
must be noted in lhat pilot’s logbook

l T h i s is t h e w a y I w o u l d 1« w r o t e th e r e g , J
L1*“ ................. ........................................... * *

safety
FIRST
! i

A lw a ys take along at least a Private Pilot

(that w ould almo&i be legal to fly the airplane if you dropped dead)

to look out the w in d o w for ya w hen

you ain’t gonna look out the w in d o w .

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 171

(c h a p 5 — C e r t if ic a te s , L o g g in g , M e d ic a l & D ru g s]
R e c e n t F l i g h t E x p e r i e n c e — P i lo t In C o m m a n d : <»1.57. 121.439. i3s.z47i
(a) GENERAL em ericncQ .
(1) Eiic9Bi as provided in paragraph (o) of this section, no person may act as a P ilot In Command of an aircraft
tarrying PASSENGERS — O ft - of an aircraft certificated for m ore than one p ilo t flig h t crewm em ber unless
that person has made at least THREE takeoffs and THREE landings within the preceding 9Q days, and -
(i) The- person actod as the sole manipulator of the flight controls; and
(ill The required takeoffs and landings were performed in an aircraft or the same category, class, and type (if a
type rating is required}, and. if the aircraft to be flown is an airplane with a TAILWHEEL. the takeoffs and
landings must have been made to a FULL STOP in an airplane with a lailwheel.
(2) For 1he purpose of meeting the requirem ents of paragraph (a)(1) of this section, a person may act as a Pilot In
Command of an aircraft under day VFR or day IFR, provided no person & or property are carried on board the
aircraft, other than those necessary for the conduct oMhe flig h t.
(3) The takeoffs and landings required by paragraph {a){1) of this section may be accom plished in a f light sim ulator
or flight framing device that is —
(i) Apprayed by the Administrator for landings: and
(ii} Used in accordance with an approved course conducted by a training center certificated under part 142 of this
chapter.
0 0 NIGHT takeoff and landing experience
(1) Except as provided in paragraph (o| of this sectron. no person may act as BI.loLln_C.om it and of an aircraft
carrying passengers during the period beginning 1 hour after sunset and ending 1 h o u r before s u n rise , unless
within the preceding 90 dava that person has made at least THREE takeoffs and THREE landings to a FULL
STOF during the period beginning 1 hour after sunset and ending 1 hour before sunrise, and -
(i) That person acted as sola manipulator of (he flight controlis; and
(ii] The required takeoffs and landings hivere performed in an aircraft of the same category, class, and type (if a
type rating is required}.
(2) The takeoffs and landings required by paragraph (b)(1) of this section m aybe accom plished in a flig h t sim ulator
that is —
(i) Approved by (he Administrator for takeoffs and landings, if the visual system is adjusted to represent the period
described in paragraph (b)(1) of this section; and
(ii) Used in accordance with an approved course conducted by a training center certificated under part 142 of this
chapter.
(c) INSTRUMENT experience Except as provided in paragraph (e) of this section, no person may act as P ilot In
Command under E E or in weather conditions loss than the minimums proscribed for VFR. unless within tho preceding
6 calendar m o n th s , lhat person has:
(1) For the purpose of obtaining instrument experience in an aircraft (other than a glider), performed and logged under
actual or simulated instrument conditions, allhar In (light In the appropriate category of aircraft for the instrument
privileges sought or in a flight simulator or flight training device that is representative of the aircraft category for the
instrument privileges sought —
(i) At Teast SIX instrum ent approaches:
(ii) HOLDING orocodur&s: and
(iii) INTERCEPTING and TRACKING courses through the use of navigation systems.
{2) For the purpose of obtaining instrument experience in a glider, performed and logged under actual or simulated
instrument conditions —
(i) At least 3 hours of instrument time in flight, of which 1 M2 hours may be acquired in an airplane o ra glider if no
passengers are to be carried: or
(ii] 3 hours of instrument time in (light in a glider if a passenger is to be carried.
(d) INSTRUMENT PROFICIENCY CHECK. Except as provided in paragraph (e) of this section, a person who docs ro t
moat the ¡D H tm m utt experience requirem ents of paragraph (c) of this section within tho prescribed time, or w ith in 6
calendar m onths after tho prescribed time n ay not serve as pilot in command under IFR or in weather conditions
less than the minimums prescribed tor VFR until that person passes an instrument proficiency check consisting o f a
representative number of tasks required by the instrument rating practical test.
(1) The instrument proficiency check must be —
(i) In an ai rcraft that, is appropriate to t he aircraft category.
(ii) For other than a glider, in a flight simulator or flight irairing device that is representative of the aircraft category;
or
(iii) For a glider, In a single-engine airplane dr a glider.
(2 ) The in&trumontJEr.&fi.cjonojLC.Uooli roust bo aivon f a —
(I) An examiner.
(ii] A person authorized by the U.S, Arm ed Forcos to conduct instrument flight tests, provided the person being
tested is a member of tho U-5. Armod Forces:
(in] A Company check p ilo t who is iu th o rlu td to conduct instrument flight tests under part 121, 125, or 135 of this
chapter or subpart K o f part 91 of this chapter, and provided that both the check pilot and the pilot being
tested are employees of that operator or fractional ownership program manager, as applicable;
(ivj An authorized in s tru c to r: or
(v) A person approved by the Administrator tq_cqn.d_uct instrument practical taste.

172 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r tho PiofnsEton.nl Pilot

 [c h a p 5 — C e r tific a te s . L o g g in g , M e d ic a l & D ru g s
(a) EXCEPTIONS-
(1) Paragraphs (a) and (b) of this section |3 takeoffs &. landings within 90 days) do not apply lo a Pilot In Command
who is employed by a certificate holder under part 125 and engaged in a flight operation for that certificate holder if
the pilot is in compliance with §§ 125,281 and 125.285 of this chapter
(2) This section docs rot apply to a Pilot In Command who is employed by an air carrier certificated under part 121
□ r 13S and is enqagod in a flight operation under part 91. 121. or 135 for that air carrier if the pilot is in
compliance with §§ 121.437 and 121.433, or §§ 135.243 and 135.247 of (bis chapter, as appropriate.
(3) Paragraph (b) of 1hi& section [NIGHT takeoffs & landings! does not aooly to a pitot in command of a TURBINE-
powered airplane that is typo certificated for more than one pilot crewmember, provided that pilol has
complied with the requinements of paragraph <■^1(11 or till of this section:
(i) The pilot in command must bold at toast a commercial pilot certificate with (be appropriate category, class,
and type rating for each airplane that is type certificated for more (ban one pilot crewmember that Ibe pilot
seeks to operate under Ibis alternative, and:
(A) That pilot must have logged at least 1.500 hours of aeronautical experience as a pilot;
(B) In cacti airplane that is type certificated for m ore than one p ilo t crewmember that the pilot seeks to
operate under this alternative, that pilot m u st have accom pli shed and logged the DAYTIME takeoff and
landing recert llight experience of paragraph (a) of this section, as the sole manipulator of the flight
controls;
(C) Within the preceding 90 days prior to the operation of that airplane that is typo certificated for more than
one pilot crewmember, the pilot must have accomplished and logged at least 15 hours of flight lime in the
type of airplane that the pitot seeks to operate under this alternative; and
(D) That pilot has accomplished and logged at least 3 takeoffs and 3 landings to a full s to p , as the sole
Tin.i'| pulator of the fl cj.t controls, in a turbine-cow ered airplane that requires more than one pilot
crewmember. The pilot must have performed the takeoffs and landings during the period beginning labour
after sunset and ending 1 hour before sunrise withir. the preceding 6 rg p rth s prior to the month of the
flight.
(¡if The pilot in command must hold at least a commercial pilot certificate with the appropriate category, class,
and typo rating for each airplane that is type certificated for more than one pilot crewmember that the pilot
seeks lo operate under (bis alternative, and:
¡A) That pilot must have logged at least 1,500 hours of aeronautical experience as a pitot;
(B) In each airplane that is type certificated for more than one pilot crewmember that the pilot seeks to
operate under this alternative, that pilot must have accomplished and legged the DAYTIME takeoff and
landing recent llight experience of paragraph (a) of this section, as the sole manipulator of the flight
controls;
(C) Within the preceding 9P days prior to the operation of that airplane [hat is type certificated for more than
one pilot crewmember, the pilot must have accomplished and logged at least 15 hours o f night time Jjn the
type of airplane that the pilot seeks to operate under this alternative; and
(D) Within the preceding 12 months prior to the month of the flight, the pilot must have completed a training
program that is approved under part 142 of tbia chapter. The approved training program must have
required and the pilot must have performed, at least 6 takeoffs and 6 landings to a full stop as the sole
manipulator of the controls in a flight simulator that is representative of a turbine-powered airplane that
requires more than one pilot crewmember. The flight simulator's visual system must have been
adjusted to represent ihe period beginning 1 hour after sunset and ending 1 hour before sunrise.

ALTER N A TE W A Y o f ST A Y IN G CU RREN T

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 173

Chap 5 — C ertificates, Logging, M edical & Drugs.

Airplane Flight Manual — A F M —

A p p ro v e d A irc ra ft F lig h t M a n u a l — A A F M —
P ilo t O p e r ating H a n d b o o k — P O H —
L IM IT A T IO N S -
M A R K I N G S and P L A C A R D S :
[21.5, 23.10ft 1, 23.1583. 23.1505.23.15B7. 23,1589. Ü J . 135.81.121 .H I, AC 60-6BÍ
1. operated in compliance
F A R 9 1 .9 p ro v id e s th a t a n a irp la n e m u s t b e
a ilil th e operating L IM ITA TIO N S a s s e t fo rth in th e “A IRPLA N E
F L IG H T MANUAL " A P P R O V E D M A N U A L M A T E R IA L S . M ARKING S
a n d PLACARDS fo r th e p a rtic u la r a ir p la n e ty p e . T h e s e d o c u m e n ts , o r
a n y r e q u ire d c o m b in a tio n , m u s t b e CURRENT a n d AVAILABLE in th e
a ir p la n e d u rin g o p e ra tio n .
2. A F M s a re required fo r all airplanes certificated in th e Transport
c a t e g o r y . N o p r o v is io n e x is ts fo r a p p ro v a l o f a n A F M fo r a ir p la n e s ty p e
c e rtific a te d in th e n o rm a l o r a c ro b a tic c a te g o r ie s u n d e r C A R 04,
3. A F M s a re a ls o re q u ire d fo r a irp la n e s ty p e c e rtific a te d u n d e r C A R 3 a n d
FAR P a r i 23 at g r o s s w e ig h ts over G.000 p ou n d s, h o w e v e r, all aircraft
th a t w e re manufactured after March 1 .1 9 7 9 . must have an A F M . T h e r e q u ire d in fo rm a tio n fo r
a irp la n e s , ty p e c e r tific a te d a i g ro s s w e ig h ts o f 6 ,0 0 0 p o u n d s o r u n d e r, w h ic h a re n o t r e q u ire d to h a v e a n
A F M , m a y b e fu r n is h e d in a n a ir p la n e flig h t m a n u a l o r in a n y c o m b in a tio n o f a p p ro v e d m a n u a l m a te ria l,
m a r k in g s , a n d p la c a rd s .
4. A F M s m a y b e re q u ire d fo r c e r ta in o th e r a irp la n e ty p e s w h ic h h a v e b e e n is s u e d s u p p le m e n ta r y ty p e
c e rtific a te s c h a n g in g th e o r ig in a l ty p e c e rtific a tio n . N o ta b le e x a m p le s a re n u m e r o u s D C -3 s . w h ic h h a v e
b e e n a p p ro v e d fo r o p e r a tio n s in th e T r a n s p o r t c a te g o r y u n d e r a s u p p le m e n ta l ty p e c e rtific a te ,
5. S u p p le m e n ta l o p e ra tin g in fo rm a tio n , w h ic h h a s n o t b e e n fo r m a lly a p p ro v e d b y th e F A A , is u s u a lly
p ro v id e d in a n “Ow ner's H andbook." “ Ow ner's M anual." “Pilot's Operating H andbook" {P O H ) or
s u p p le m e n ta l p a g e s in a n A F M . T h e P O H is s im ila r to th e A F M , b u t in c lu d e s m o r e g e n e ra l in fo rm a tio n .
6. T h e p r i n c ip a l s o u r e r o f I n f o r m a t io n fo r i d e n t i f y i n g r e q u ir e d a irp la n e flig h t m a n u a ls , a p p ro v e d
m a n u a l m a te ria ls , m a r k in g s , a n d p la c a rd s is th e F A A “T Y P E C E R T IF IC A T E D A T A S H E E T " o r A ir c r a ft
S p e c ific a tio n is s u e d fo r e a c h a irp la n e . T h is in fo r m a tio n m a y b e o b ta in e d fro m th e F A A , F A A a p p ro v e d
re p a ir s ta tio n s , a n d c e rtifie d m e c h a n ic s h o ld in g In s p e c tio n A u th o r iz a tio n s .
7. P r i o r t o o p e r a t in g an a irc ra ft, p ilo ts m u s t a s s u r e th a t th e re is a v a ila b le in t h a t a ir p la n e e ith e r a
c u rre n t A FM o r a p p ro v e d m a n u a l m a te ria ls , if re q u ire d , a lo n g w ith n e c e s s a ry m a r k in g s a n d p l a c a r d s .
8. No person may operate a civil aircraft without com plying with the operating L IM ITA TIO N S specified
jn the approved Airplane (or Ro tore raft) Flight Manual, markings, and placards.
3. N o p e rs o n m a y o p e r a te a c iv il a ir c r a f t u n le s s th e r e Is available in th e a ir c r a f t a C U R R E N T a p p ro v e d
Airplane [o r R o to r c r a fl) Flight Manual, m a r k in g s , a n d p la c a rd s , o r a n y c o m b in a tio n th e re o f,

174 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot

 Chap 5 — C ertificates, Logging, M edical & Drugs
D O C U M E N T S O N B O A R D A IR C R A F T ! rai:ac3fom ai.aafrvaiFCC.fli-Btbv a-i-ioa.AmanFmhMia n
" A -R -R -Q -W "
1. A ir w o r t h in e s s C e rtif ic a te — 9 1 .¿ Q 3 (a )(1 ) ijmuïl ba displayed at cabin gr cockpil entrance eq it is leq bie In passengarE
and craw)(Tha Airwartliinas.^ Gartifieate remains valid as long as Lht* aircraft Is maintained and uperated as. required by Et>e f-AKs;
2. B e g fc s tra tfo n p a p e rs — 91 .¿ 0 3 (A T E M P O R A R Y re g is tra tio n is NOT a c c e p ta b le fo r in te rn a tio n a l tra ve l)
3. R a d io S ta tio n L ic e n s e — F C C F o rm 6 0 5 (HOT ro o u lro tt w ithin (he U .S . — IS ro g u iro d outside the U .S .)
T h is a ir c r a ft ra d io s ta tio n lic e n s e is g o o d fo r 10 y e a rs b u t is n o t tr a n s fe ra b le if th e a irc ra ft is s o ld .
4. O p e r a tin g L im ita tio n s — 9 1 .9 ( b ) a n d ¿ Ir e r a ft F lig h t M a n u a l. (1 4 C F R 2 3 .1 5 6 1 )
5. h e i g h t & B a la n c e d a ta — 9 1 .1 0 3 , 1 3 5 .1 8 5 a n d f i i r c r a f l f l i g h t M a n u a l. (1 4 C F R 2 3 .1 5 8 1 )

□ C P A Jm K H r Of m f t U W l H T .« 1 K t i- F E D E M I. A M A TO ti AZM M STOATi>4 ^ede-rai Co mm uri cab c m Cannirlsiian

STANDARD AIRWORT HINES CERTIFICATE FCC Wireless TeteDornmurTicatjars Hurcau
i L -L -y -ii.-u e J U.LUJ ■L, ruU P ._£.lU £J. 1« M i l > »b L eJLlEBffi'
R A D .□ S T A T I O N . A U T H O R I S A T I O N
N IÎJF U D A-20F 311 TR A N S P O R T
l EHOC l W M L D A B LI
b r i m — ---------------------------- Ì Ì U ft iU E H DS D ftHE
E H A Ü LÜ TIC MC J l J l *

■t J ■— pH - »b

NONE

F C C GD5-
Q3-W-74 RONALD MCDONALD SOFSDO J.Ï
oved
FAAApPr°
REGISTRATION NQT TRANSFERABLE
Operating Limitations
& A ir c r a ft
j i.ijii I *>■-i u i ì m . ko
___ mi jfchlu______________________________ I AriI.________________ W e ig h t & B a la n c e d a t a

fli9ht
K GklluM.lKlhia *W:W*r
Miuiar da-jm
Kaamamm safc luim____________________
I L U j LL WLMI II A .K . hLL.
li'i'IIII.UlUi-LIIH.L
LüMtLirrrEHcaizM
A ir c r a ft re g is tra tio n m u s t b e Man«?!
re n e w e d e v e r y 3 y e a rs . (47.40J,

C E R T I F I C A T E S R E Q U IR E D IN P IL O T 'S P O S S E S S IO N : [si.i]
“ R -P -M "
1. R a d io p e rm it (FCC licanse) — F C C F o rm 6 0 5 — N O T r e q u ir e d f o r o p e ra tio n s WITHIN th e U .S . b u t JS
required for o p e ra tio n s O U TS ID E th e U_._S. (IC A O ru le s ). A R e s tric te d R a d io te le p h o n e o p e r a t o r P e r m it
is g o o d f o r l i f e . C a th e F C C a t 8 3 3 - 2 2 5 - 5 3 2 2 (w w w .fc c .g o v ) fo r a c o p y o f th e fo rm a n d th e c u r r e n t fe e .
2. P ilo ts c e r tific a te — in y o u r p e rs o n a l p o s s e s s io n o r re a d ily a c c e s s ib le in th e a irc ra ft — th e o rig in a l c n ly
driver's license. Governm ent o r
— a c o p y w ill n o t d o — a n d a P H O T O ID E N T IF IC A T IO N s u c h a s
State ID c a rd , U .S . Arm ed Forces JD. Passport. Airport Security B ad ge , ox "other form o f
id e n tific a tio n th a t th e Administrator finds acceptable. ' (o i g
3. M e d ic a l — in y o u r p e rs o n a l p o s s e s s io n o r r e a d ily a c c e s s ib le in th e a irc ra ft — th e o rig in a l o n ly . (6 i.a j

uNirec s tails of æieriûa

¡-ederd iJnmmiinicaqcrii Connus sun
Ke-slricled Kadowiaphone Qponucir Parnu!

Rlcltanf Flyanything Lwigol k aulhcfijed tn

□parale any radio flancn -rfiicti may to mpcralcc by
b pflr&ùn n f l n p f u elDi-t el team * Tino p im i« n
issued n corría inf ty wfln Paragraphs ÎI464 and 11945
□I lire Rado Regulator«, ûaneua 19719, and is vaiti
l.ir H i d láolimo cf ï i d hoJccr unless siispui'nod by Ihe
FCC.
Etc.

IN S P E C T IO N of C E R T IF IC A T E — P R E S E N T A T IO N of D O C U M E N T S : pi s, atsi(l)]
E a c h p e rs o n w h o h o ld s an A IR M A N C E R T IF IC A T E M E D IC A L c e rtific a te , L f l s a f t O K a u lh o r iz a tio n , o r lic e n s e
re q u ire d b y th is p a r t m u s t p re s e n t it f o r in s p e c tio n u p o n a re q u e s t fr o m :
1. T h e A d m in is tra to r ;
2. A n a u th o r iz e d re p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e N T 5 B ;
3. A n y F e d e ra l, S la te , o r lo c a l la w e n fo r c e m e n t o f f ic e r o r
4. A n a u th o r iz e d re p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e T ra n s p o r ta tio n S e c u rity A d m in is tra tio n .
E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for th e P ro fe ssio n a l P ilot 175
 C h a o 5 — C e rtific a te s , L o d g in g , M e d ic a l & D ru g s
§6 1.51 P ilo t lo g b o o k s: LE NO EL’ 5
{a) B lt t t t f lJ flnt ¿rttf a.erjinauXicaL^penence E.ach^r^J.ii.m.^.Lifa^um-e.riA and record the EXCRtìCtàTtNGLY DETAILED
lollowing lime in a manner acceptable to the Administrator:
(1} Training and aeronautical experience usod to moot tho requie ornanti Ibf n certificate P IL O T L O G B O O K
rating or flight review of this pari.
¡2} Tho aeronautica I experience reco ¡red for meeting Inc recant flip ht experience rep ui remen is oi Ihis pari
(b) Logbook entries. Fur Lhe purposes o< mealing Ihe requirements of paragraph (a) etlhrs section, each parson musi enter lha fcNawtrg
informal ion far each flight or lesson logged.
(1} General—
(if Dale.
(ii) Talal 11:ghi lima or lesson time.
(in) Location where Ihe aircraft departed end arrived, or for lessane in a flight simulator or High! 1reining devica, tho location
where the lesson occurred.
i.vf Type and idenlilioation u' airoraFt, ‘lietil simulalo/, 'light training device, or aviation training device. as appropriate
(v| The name or a sofety pilot, if required by §31.109fbf til Ihis chapter,
(2) Type of pilot experience or training— Flight time (1.1) means: pilol time
(i; Solo. that commences when an aircraft
(ii) Pilot In command, moves under its own power for the
(¡ii) Second n command. purpose of flight and ends when tha
nvf Flight and ground Iraining reoarved from an authorized instructor aircralt comes to rest alter landing:
(it) Training received in a flight simulator, flight training device, w aviation training anu block-to-bloch.
device from an authorized in stru cto r ..................................................................
Of Conditions of flight— ; Day, night, or instrument are conditions of flight. They may be logged by both
(I) Day or night.
(ii) Actual instrum ent.
; the PlC and SlC regardless ol who is actually manipulating tha controls.
'^UWUWhWWhWMVWMWWVWVrMMAMMMMMMAMMMWUWWWhWhWUMWW 1
(iii) Simulated inslrumsnt conditions in Nighl. e fligh1 simulator. fligM training device, or avialion Usining device.
(ivf Lice of night vision goggles in ah aircraft ih flight, in a flight Sim ulator, or in a flight training device.
(c | L o g g in g o f p ilo t lim e . The pilot lim a described in (his section may be used to:
(1) Apply for a carlificata or rnLing issued under tins part or a privilege authorised under this part: or
{2} Satisfy the recent flight experience requirements of this pad.
(dl Logging o f s o lo flight time. Except fo r a student pilot perform ing the duties, of pilot in com m and of an airship requiring m are than one
pilot flight crewmember, a pilot m ay log as solo flight lime only that flight lima when Ihe prlot Is the sole occupant of tha aircraft.
{e I L o ggin g P ito t -t n -G o m m a n d Hiffiti time.
■; 1:■ A ii v : rL rncnvLl ■ :■ 1.1 . i t i : im■. i :il n r l ir . i' m. mi-i: ■ I pile: :iin y lor; ;n ot in cor II i|'il r im Jnr I ¡rints-
(i; W h e n the pilot is the so la m a n ip u la to r o f th e c o n tro ls of an aircralt for which lha pilot is ralod. w has spod pilol privileges
fo r that category and class of aincirad, if Ihe aircraft class rating is appropriate;
(ii) W h e n f he pilot is lha sola o c c u p a n t In Ihe aircraft;
(iii) W h e n Ihe plloL, except for a holder of a sport trf recreational pilol certificate, a cts as p ilo t in c o m m a n d o l an aircraft for
which m ore th a n o r e p ilo t is re q u ire d under the ty p e c e rtific a tio n of the aircralt o r the re g u la tio n s under which the Nig hi
is conducted: a t
(iv) W h e n the pilot p e rfo rm s Lhe d u tie s ol P iC whi u u n d e r Ltis s u p e rv is io n of a Q u a lifie d p ilo t in co m m a n d provided—
(A) The pilot perform ing (he duties of pilot in comm and holds a com m ercial o r airline transport pilot certificate and aircraft
rating that is appropriate to tho CErtogory and class of aircraft baing flown, if a da»« rellng is appropnala;
(B) The pilot perform ing the duLies of pilot in comm and is u n tfe r a p im an a c jr p v e t f p ilo t in co m m a n d tra in in g p ro g ra m
that includes ground and High! training on Ihe following areas c' operation— ■; 1 j Rieflight preparation; ( 2 S Prefligh!
procedures, ( 5 ) TakeofT and departure, ( 4 ) In-flight m aneuvers: ( 5 >Instrum ent procedure«: ( 5 ) Lendings and
approaches lo landings; ( 7 f Normal arid abnorm al procedures; ( S ) Em ergency procedures; arid ( 5 ) Postllight
procedures;
(C ) The su p ervising pilot in com m and h o lds—
[ 1 ) A c o m m e rc ia l p ilo t c e rtific a te and flig h l in s tru c to r c e rtific a te , and aircraft rating lh a l is appropriate lo the
category, class, and lyp e o l aircraft being flown, il b class or type rating is required: a r
( 2 ) An a irlin e tra n s p o rt p ilo t c e rtific a te and aircraft rating lhaL is appropriate lo the category, class, and type o)
aircrah being flown, if a class or type rating is required; and
;l 51 11 '■ s u p e rv is in g , p ilo t m co m m a n d foas I v ml'i; i " ' > i ............... . in I ' m- p ilo t's lo g b o o k . ........ . d ir in
comm and training in the pilot's logbook and a tte s ts In th a t c a rtific a tio n wi1h his or tier s ig n a tu re , and flig h t
in s tru c to r c e rtific a te nu m b e r.
(2 ) Il ratud to act as prtol in command of the aircraft, an airline transport pilot may log all fliglu time while acting os pilol in command of
an operation requiring an airline transport pilot certilicata.
0> A certificated nighl instructor may Ion pilot in command flight lima lor all flighl lime while serving as ihe authorized
Instructor in an operation if the Instructor Is raled to act as pilol In command of that aircraft.
>A) A student pilot may loo oiloi-in-co-mmand time only when the stud an I pilol—
(i| Is the iole occupant of Ihe aircraft or is performing the duties of pilol of command of an airship requiring mono than one pilot
Ihghraewmember „1 , , L- | Under appropriale drciMTistanceS. butti tlie
(ii) Has a solo flight endorsement as required under $61.07 of this part; and CFI and n student p m m ay lea PIC firm
(ii i) Is u ndorgoing (rain mg for a pi rei csrtificBH) or rating
(FJ Logging Second-In-Command ttight time. A person may log Sl-C time only for that flighl time during which lhal person:
(1) Is qualified in accordance with the seccnd-m-command requirements of 561.55 or this part, and occupies a crewmember station
in an aircraft that reclaims more Plan ana pilot by the aircrafts type certificate: or
■|2) Helds Ihe appropriate category, class, and instrument rating (if an mstnmenE rating is required ‘or the flight) for Ihe aircraft being
flown, and more lhan one pilot is required under the type certification c( the aircraft ar the regulations under which the flighl
Is being conducted.

176 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

 [chap 5 — C e rtificates, Logg ina, M edical & Drugs]
(0) ¿ Qflflr'na .fpstm rnflJTJ time.
(1) A person may log insttumant limo only lor that (light lima whan the person " a im u U t d " Insiruirvont conditions occuj
operates Ihe aircraft solely by reference to instruments under actual or when the pilot's vision is intentionally
simulated instrument flight conditions. restricted, :vu l h be by a hood or goggleE (a
(2) Ah authorized Instructor may log instrument time when conducting Inslrumsnt safety pilot would be (squired). (31.109)
flight instmclian in actual instrument flight conditions. ' Actual" instrument flight conditions occur
(3) For the purposes of logging instrument time to meet 1hn recent ipsbum erH when seme outside conditions make it
experience nroui rements or §61.57(C) of this part, tile following information rteooMMy for the pilot to usa the ai reran
must he recorded in the person's logbook.— instruments in order to maintain adequate
(i) The location and type nt nnoh instrumenl approach accomplished; and control, This may « c u r in the cese of e
(ii) The dame of the safety pilot, if reouired. "moonless night over the ocean with no
(4) A person car use time in a high', simulator, flight training device, oraviaLicn discernible horizon."
trammg device for acquiring instrument aeronautical oxperianco for □ pilot (FAA logal opinion — November 7. 1Sfl4>
certificate, rating, or instrument recency experience, provided an authorized **W W W W ( W W W W
instructor is present to observe that time and signs the person's looboch or training record to verily the time and the content
of I I » training session. ...................................................
(h) Logging Training lima. In a two pilot operation. Lhe SIC is
i 1; A . ......... . h i Irvi ri 'in Imm wtnui Mud person rnca ves (rain ng trem an authorized ■fran U m T the aircraft at soma level
Instructor in an aircraft, flight simulator, or flight training device. even when the PlC (m Lhe aulnpiLal: is
(2) The (raining time must be logged in a logbook and must: fIvino It is proper a nd legat for BOTH
(i) Be endorsed in b legible manner by the sulhcrired instructor; and pllom to tog IrmrurTmnt time for nil tlma
(ii) Include a description of the (raining grven. the length ol the training lesson, and Spent "operating" the aircraft in actual or
the authorized instructor's signature, carliflcaLe number, and certificate
expiration data.
sinmlalssLiostrumBjDLwjDiljiitJDtfi.
M f f l j j g l ol who Is actually
(1) Präsentation of required ¡fomJTTWTlg. manijiulatinn lhe control?. However it is
(1) Persons must present their pilot certificate, medical-certificate logbook, or any other
dftljm ijm uto Jsfl an instrument mtCMCil
record roquirod by this part for inspection upon a reasonable raqu-ast by— unless Mil- person logging (lie approach
(t) Ttie Administrator; also performs lhe approach.
(ii) An authorized representative from lhe National Transportation Safety Board; or
(iilj Any Federal. SLate, or local law enforcement officer.
(2) A student pilot must carry the following items in 1he aircraft on all solo cross-country flights as evidence of the requred
authorised instructor clearances and endorsements— . ................................................................................................................ .
(I) Pitof tojbook. ‘ L o g g in g F lC T im e
(ii) Student pilot certificate and • Being PIC doesn't always mean you can leg Lhe time as PJC.
(iii) Any other racord raqu ired by 1his sedioli. 1 If v&u’rt PIC of an aircraft requiring more than one crewmember
0> A sport pilot must r jf f y his or her Inghook or other you can loo all (ha time as Pl-C evan il you nevar touch the contrails.
evidence of required authorized mslnjctor 2. If you're PIC of a Navajo (that doesn't require a second pilot) end
andoraomonts on att flights. you allow another pitot to be solo manipulator of 1hu controls. Lhen
W A recreatipnal pilot must carry his or her logbook you may not log that time as PIC (howevar tha other pilot can if he
wilh the required authorized inslruclcr endorsements Is appropriately feted).
cm all solo flight*— 3. If you're PIC of that same Navajo operating Part 115 without or
(f t ThaL exceed 50 n autical miles from the airport autopilot (which would reeuire an 5IC by re-a illation!. then you gel
a( which training was. received; 1o tog all ihe liens ns BIG.-even if you never touch the controls.
Wilhlri airspace that requires com mu ni calti ori 4. It you're PIC of a Lea je t and yeut SIC is also type rated in lhe
with air traffic control aircraft, during the lime lhe SIC is " sole manipulator." both of you
(¡,¡) Conducted between s tin s e ; ;ind s u n r is e , or mayLtefl the time ns time. j
(iv) In an aircraft lor which the pilot does not hold an
appropriate category or class rating.
(5) A flight instructor with a sport pitot ralmg mu si carry his or her logbook or othor evidence of iaquirad authorized instructor
endorsements on all flights when providing 11ight training.
(ft A i r c r a f t r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r l o o p i n g flight time. For a person lo tog flight time, Ihe Lime must be acquired in an aircraft (hat is identified
as an aircraft under § 6 1.5(b). and Is—
(1) An aincraFt of J.S . registry with either a standard or special airworthiness certificate;
(2) An aircraft of foreign registry with an airworihinsss certificate that is approved by the aviation authority of a foreign country that is a
Member StaLe to the Convention on international Civil Aviation Organization.
O ) A mililary aircraft under the direct operational cantío! of the U.S. Armed Forces; or
(4) A public aircraft under the direct operational control of h Federal. Slate, county, or municipal law enforcement agency, if the light
time was acquired by the pilot while engaged on an olficial law enforcement flight for a Federal, State. County, □< Municipal law
e nforcBriis nt agency.
(h i L o a d in g n i g h t v i s i o n B B flf lJ i fJ|™ >.
(1) A person may log night vision goggle time only tor Ihe time the person uses night vision goggles as the primary visual reference of
the eurfaceand operates:
(i) An abcrafl during a night vlllon goggle oporatxyn: or
(ii) A flight simulator or flight training device wilh the lighting system adjusted to represent the period beginning 1 hour after
sunset and ending 1 hour before sunrise.
(2) An authorized Instructor may log nigtiL vision goggle lime when LliaL person conducts training using night vision goggles as the
primary visual reference of the surface and operates:
(i) An aircraft during n night goggle operation; or
(ii) A flight simulator or flight training device wilh the lighting system adjusted to represent the penod beginning 1 hour alter
sunsel and ending 1 hour before sunrise.
(3) To log nigN vision goggle hme to meet lhe recent night vision goggi« exponenco requirements under §61 a person must tog
the information required under §61.51(b).

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 177

L O G G IN G R IG H T S E A T N a v a jo , K in g A ir, o r C ita tio n T IM E :
(61 .61, 61.56. 61.5B, f A A Lagal IntsrprelSlion April 2, 2009)
F A Q Q u e s t io n : I h a v e a c o m m e r c ia l ! m u lti-e n g in e ra tin g a n d I’v e b e e n h ire d to fly rig h t s e a t
o r a p riv a te c o m p a n y 's N a v a jo , K in g A ir C 9 0 , a n d C ita lio n ( S P ) b e c a u s e th e CO M PANY
requires tw o p ilo ts .
I c a n lo g it a s S e c o n d - ln - C g m m a n d tim e rig h t?
A n s w e r: W RON G!
1. T h e N a v a jo d o e s n o l re q u ire tw o p ilo ts b y re g u la tio n fo r m o s t { P a r i 9 1 ) a p p lic a tio n s . T h e K in g A ir 90
s e rie s (a n d m o s t o th e r K in g A ir s e x c e p t th e K in g A ir 3 0 0 o r th e K in g A ir 3 5 0 w ith m o r e th a n 9 s e a ts ) a n d
(h e C it a lio n { 5 P ) ( S in g le p ilo t ) je t d o not R EQ U IR E more th a n one p i lo t u n d e r th e TYP E C E R TIFIC A TE
o f th e a irc ra ft O R th e R E G U LA TIO N S (P a rt 9 1 ) u n d e r w h ic h m o s t flig h ts w ill b e c o n d u c te d [6 1 .5 1 (f)].
2. You canAfOTlop it as S IC tim e, b u t y o u can log a t least s o m e o f if (In N a v a jo s iz e a ir c r a f t a n d m o s t
K in g A irs , b u t n o l Ih e je t) a s PlC time if Ih e p ilo t w h o is A C TIN G a s PlC a llo w s y o u to b e th e "»ole
m anipulator of t h e controls1’ [6 1 .5 1 (e )(1 ) ( lj] fo r a p o rtio n o f a flig h t (a s lo n g as th e flig h t is b e in g
o p e ra te d u n d e r P a r i 91 ru le s ). It d o e s n 't m a tte r if p a s s e n g e r s a re o n b o a rd o r n o t. T r a in in g w o u ld be
d e s ira b le b u t n o t le g a lly r e q u ire d in o r d e r to L O G PIC tim e. T h e re 's n o need to have ever flown a
King A ir before: o r to b e e n d o rs e d fo r c o m p le x , h ig h p e r fo rm a n c e , o r h ig h a ltitu d e .. . o r e v e n to b e
c u rr e n t {3 b o u n c e s in 9 0 d a y s o r b ie n n ia l). R e q u ir e m e n ts fo r e n d o r s e m e n ts a n d c u rr e n c y o n ly p e rta in
to th e p ilo t w h o is A C TIN G a s P IC , In th is s c e n a rio th e acting PIC w o u ld oal n e c e s s a r ily be '"legal" tfl
log any p ilo t time while you are th e "so le m a n ip u la to r" b e c a u s e m o re th a n o n e p ilo t Is n o t re q u ire d b y
N O TE #1 b e lo w .
ih e ty p e c e rtific a tio n o r th e re g u la tio n s ( 6 1 - 5 t( e ) ( 1 ) ( ili) ] . See
3. sole manipulator o f (h e
If y o u a re ra te d In th e a irp la n e (c a te g o ry , c la s s , a n d ty p e ), a n d y o u a re th e
c o n tro ls , th e n you may log t h a t t im e a s PIC It Is p o s s ib le fo r more than one person to le g a lly L O G
PIC d u rin g th e s a m e flig h t b u t o n ly If more than one pilot Is required u n d e r th e type certification o f
th e a ir c r a ft or th e regulations u n d e r w h ic h th e Flight is c o n d u c te d [6 1 ,5 1 {e )(1 )(iii)]. O n ly one person
m a y a c tu a lly le g a lly BE th e P [£ a n d A C T a s th e official PIC r e s p o n s ib le fo r Ih e Might,
4. Y o u c a n W O T L O G P IG tim e in a n a ir c r a ft lh a t re q u ir e s a ty p e ra tin g IF Y O U D O N ’T H A V E a T Y P E
R A T IN G {h o w e v e r y o u m a y b e a b le to lo g it a s S IC tim e — s e e N O T E # 2 b e lo w ).
5. If th e flig h t is b e in g operated u n d e r Part 1 35
ru le s , a n d o n a P a rt 1 35 'le g " ( p a s s e n g e r s o r fr e ig h t o n
b o a rd ), y o u a r e not allowed to “manipulate the controls" a t a ll, a n d y o u cannot log a n y o f th e tim e
a s P IC (o r S IC ) UNLESS y o u a re com pany trained flight checked a n d " R E Q U IR E D rr b y FAA
“ r e m ila t io n S " lU U tlllM M I U I lU a ilU I M I IlU I IU U t lt lM M U . II IU U t llll

178 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot

 [chap 5 — C ertificates, Logging, M edical & Drugs]

Just sit over there, keep your mouth shut, and D O N 'T T O U C H N U TH IN '.
A s far aa the F A A 'a concerned, you're Just an overpaid sack of meat!

“S o le M a n ip u la to r 11 T im e
If you bring along your orivatu pilot buddy (in our
hypothetical Navajo,1King Air} who doa-sn't hava a
multi ongino [class] rating and you let him bo "sole
manipulator of the controls' for a portion of the
flight, hn can't log that time because he's not
rated; and [surprise!] technically you can't LQ6 it
either because you're not manipulating the
controls... therefore* you no longer fit any of the
conditions for fogging flight time under 61.51 even
though you're acting as E l i and rasponsiblo for
the operation for the duration of the flight.
FYI — SgJjtLrxiaiiiiiulaMt PIELUmo. while
perfectly legal, is not especially valued for the
purposes of job interviews. They're far more
interested in ACTING as P]£ time.

S IC Tiime? \
W o u ld th e P IC b e l e g a l ( u n d e r th e
FARs) to m a k e (h is flig h t I f I o o t
Sick a n d d i d n 't s h o w u p ?

If th e a n s w e r is Y E S — th e n y o u
m a y W O T l o p S IC Lime.

“S IC P r iv ile g e s O nly"
*% J MM A p ilo t w h o h o ld s a ty p e ra tin g
lim ite d to S IC p riv ile g e s m a y n o t lo g
s o le m a n ip u la to r tim e a s P IC tim e .

EVERYTHING EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 17$

Chap S — C ertificates, Logging, Medical & Drugs
C H A N G E of A D D R E S S : m m
1. A p ilo t w h o h a s m a d e a c h a n g e in p e r m a n e n t m a ilin g a d d r e s s m a y n o t, a fte r 30 d a y s fr o m th a t d a le ,
e x e rc is e Ih e p r iv ile g e s o f h is o r h e r certificate unless th e h o ld e r has n o tifie d in w ritin g the:
FAA
Airm an Certification Branch
T?\ i P.O. Bex 25082
1 A ** Oklahom a C ity, O K 73125
2. C h a n g e o f a d d r e s s fo r m s a re a v a ila b le fro m th e F S D O — F o rm BO6 0 - 5 5 .
3. N o r m a lly t h e F A A w in n o t s e n d a n e w c e rtific a te w ith a c h a n g e o f a d d re s s ,
I f y o u w a n t a n e w c e rtific a te w ith th e n e w a d d re s s , y o u m u s t s e n d a $ 2 .0 0 c h e c k
m a d e o u t to th e “ T re a s_u ryjn/JheJJ n itedjStates ' ’

R E P L A C E M E N T of a L O S T or D E S T R O Y E D A IR M A N or M E D IC A L
C E R T I F I C A T E : (si.aaj
1 A re q u e s t fo r lo s t o r d e s tr o y e d A IR M A N C e r t if ic a t e o r k n o w le d g e t e s t r e p o r t m u s t

b e m a d e b y le tte r to th e A B O V E A D D R E S S ^
A re q u e s t fo r lo s t o r d e s tr o y e d M E D IC A L C e r t if ic a t e m u s t be m a d e b y le tte r to th e :
D epartm ent of Transpo rtatio n
FAA Y o u m a y a c c e s s f o r m s to re p la c e y o u r l o s t
Aerom edical Certification Branch c e r t if ic a t e s : g e t a c o p y o f y o u r a ir m a n
P.O. Bax 25032 r e c o r d s ; u p d a te y o u r a d d r e s s : g e t a c o p y o f
y o u r k n o w le d g e t e s t re p o rt; r e p o r t a n a m e
Oklahom a C ity, O K 73125
c h a n g e , c h a n g e y o u r a ir m a n c e r t if ic a t e
A ll r e q u e s ts m u s t be a c c o m p a n ie d b y a c h e c k fo r
n u m b e r : a n d e v e n fill o u t an 8 7 1 0 -1 A ir m a n
ih e 'a p p r o p r ia te fe e " [$ 2 .0 Q ] p a y a b le to th e F A A .
C e rtific a te a n d /o r R a tin g A p p lic a tio n fo rm a t:
R e q u e s is m u s t in c lu d e :
w w w .fa a .g o v
a. N a m e ;
b. P e r m a n e n t m a ilin g a d d re s s ;
J
c. S o c ia l S e c u rity n u m b e r ;
d. D a te a n d P L A C E o f B irth ;
e. G r a d e , n u m b e r, d a te o f is s u a n c e a n d ra tin g s if a p p lic a b le .
f. D a te o f m e d ic a l o r k n o w le d g e te a t if a p p lic a b le .
Y o u m a y o b ta in a F A C S IM I L E fr o m th e F A A A e r o m e d ic a l -**
* (61.29) 1
C e rtific a tio n B ra n c h o r th e A ir m a n C e rtific a tio n B ra n c h *
A n e m e r g e n c y F A C S IM IL E fro m
c o n flrn n in g th e c e rtific a te o r le s t re p o rt w a s is s u e d a n d c a r r y
(h e F A A c o n firm in g th e e x is te n c e o f
it fo r up to 6D d a y s p e n d in g th e re c e ip t o f a d u p lic a te .
y o u r l o s t A ir m a n o r M e d ic a l
C er t i f i c a te m a y be o b ta in e d b y
c o n ta c tin g th e F A A th r o u g h y o u r
lo c a l F S D O o r b y c a llin g
Fan Mail Address: \ O k la h o m a C it y d ir e c lly @
1
Directly to the Desk of the Head
: :
Adm inistrator of the FAA. 1il ■:
8 0 0 -3 5 0 -5 2 8 6
*» i
[i *
':. P re s s 3 fo r lo s t a irm a n c e rtific a te .
T h e H o n o r a b le [ h is o r h e r n a m e ] 1, ■
A d m i n is t r a t o r
*, m
«. • P re s s 5 fo r lo s l m e d ic a l.
4. m
F e d e r a l A v ia t io n A d m i n is t r a t i o n ■*
■u ■ R e m e m b e r, y o u M U S T h a v e y o u r
8 0 0 In d e p e n d e n c e A v e n u e S W 1¡
W a s h in g t o n , D C 2 0 5 9 0
* ORIGINAL A IR M A N a n d M E D IC A L
C E R T IF IC A T E S o r Ih is e m e r g e n c y
J \
m FACSIM ILE in y o u r “ p e r s o n a l
V
■ p o s s e s s i o n rr in o rd e r to le g a lly a c t
*
as a pilot crewmember, (aijj

180 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

 C h a p S — C e r t i f i c a t e s , L o g g in g , M e d ic a l & D ru g s

F A L S IF IC A T IO N , R E P R O D U C T IO N or A L T E R A T IO N of A P P L IC A T IO N S ,
C E R T I F I C A T E S . L O G B O O K S . R E P O R T S , or R E C O R D S : < 6 1 .5 9 )
(a ) N o p e r s o n m a y m a k e o r c a u s e to b e m a d e ;
(1) A n y fraudulent or intentionally false statement on a n y application for a certificate, rating.
authorization, or duplicate thereof, issued u n d e r this part;
(2 ) A n y fr a u d u le n t o r in te n tio n a lly fa ls e e n tr y in a n y l o g b o o k , r e c o r d , o i r e p o r t th a t is re q u ire d to
b e k e p i, m a d e , o r u s e d to s h o w c o m p lia n c e w ith a n y r e q u ir e m e n t fo r th e is s u a n c e o r e x e rc is e o f
th e p r iv ile g e s o f a n y c e rtific a te , ra tin g , o r a u th o r iz a tio n u n d e r th is p a ri;
(3 ) A n y r e p r o d u c tio n fo r fr a u d u le n t p u rp o s e o f a n y c e rtific a te , ra tin g , o r a u th o r iz a tio n , o r
(4 ) A n y a l t e r a t io n o f a n v c e r t i f i c a t e , ra tin g , o r a u th o r iz a tio n u n d e r th is p a rt.
(b) T h e c o m m is s io n o f a n a c t p r o h ib ite d u n d e r p a r a g r a p h { a ) o f th is s e c tio n is a b a s i s f o r S U S P E N D IN G o r
R E V O K IN G a n y AIRM AN C E R T IF IC A T E , ra tin g , o r a u th o r iz a tio n h e ld b y (h a t p e rs o n .

Whoever in any matter wifhin lha jurisdiction or any ' L *

cfepartment or agency cl the United Slates knowingly
and willfully falsifies, conceals or covers up by any
kick, scliome or davica a malarial fact, or ftho miikoi
any false, fictitious or Iraudulent statements or
representations, pr entry, may tie fined up to
¿250.000 — or — im prisoned not more than
five years — or both <ia UJ.C, giOQi)
An E R R O R in y o u r L O G B O O K c a n be c o n s o le d
w ith a s in g le lin e s tr ik e o u t o n th e la s t p a g e a n d a
b rie f e x p la n a tio n lh a t d e s c r ib e s th e e r r o r a n d
w h e n th e e rr o r o c c u rre d .
Or... if y o u 'v e m a d e a to ta l m e s s o f y o u r o rig in a l
lo g b o o k , y o u c a n tr a n s fe r a ll th e e n trie s w /d a te s
fr o m th e o ld b o o k to a n e w o n e a n d k e e p th e
o r ig in a l lo g b o o k fo r th e e n d o rs e m e n ts .

75 A A A * 1»
|+.................................................................................................%
If th e F A A w e re try in g to p ro v e f a l s i f i c a t i o n o r 1
f r a u d u le n t e n trie s , th e F A A w o u ld h a v e to
s h o w e v id e n c e . If th e a lle g e d ly fa ls e e n tr ie s
P IL O T LO G
a r e in a lo s t o r s to le n lo g b o o k , th e y h a v e n o
e v id e n c e , u n le s s th e y h a v e p r o o f fr o m o th e r
s o u rc e s s u c h a s c o p ie s o f th e lo g b o o k . If th e
F A A is a s k in g to m a k e c o p ie s o f y o u r lo g b o o k ,
th e y a re p ro b a b ly n o t a s k in g b e c a u s e th e y
w a n t to o ffe r y o u a jo b . G e t a n a tto rn e y . j

^jki

L O S T or S T O L E N L O G B O O K
T h e fir s t c o n s id e r a tio n is y o u 'll n e e d to s h o w DO CUM ENTA TtON o f compliance with th e recency \
o f e x p e rie n c e re q u ire m e n ts u n d e r F A R 6 1 .5 1 ( a ) s u c h a s B F R . ta k e o ffs a n d la n d in g s d u rin g th e
la s t 90 d ays. Instrument cu rre n cy, e tc . Y o u w ill a ls o n e e d d o c u m e n ta tio n fo r endorsements
s u c h a s h ig h p e r fo rm a n c e , com plex, tallwheel a n d pressurized aircraft [6 1 ,3 1 ), If u n a b le to
lo c a te th e In s tru c to rs w h o g a v e th e in itia l e n d o r s e m e n ts , y o u m a y n e e d to a c q u ir e th e m a g a in .
2. T h is is p r o b a b ly th e s a fe s t w a y to re p la c e lo s t lo g b o o k re c o rd s ;
a. W r ite a le tte r d ir e c tly to th e FAA r e q u e s tin g y o u r " C O M P L E T E AIRM EN F IL E '* a n d
"M E D IC A L FILE .” In c lu d e y o u r n a m e , a d d r e s s , d a le a n d p la c e o f b irth , s o c ia l s e c u rity a n d /o r
a irm a n n u m b e r a n d s ig n a tu re . E n c lo s e a c h e c k to r p a y a b le to Ihe U.S. Tre asury M a il
th e c h e c k a n d in fo r m a tio n to ; FA A Airm an Certification B ranch, A FS -7 6 0 . P.O. Box ¿5082,
Oklahoma C i t v . Oklahom a 73125 [p h o n e n u m b e r s — (4 0 5 ) 9 5 4 -0 9 9 0 Or (4 0 5 ) 9 5 4 -3 2 6 1 ].
T h e s e re c o rd s w ill s h o w y o u r p ilo t lim e in a ll c a te g o r ie s th r o u g h th e la s t p ilo t c e r tific a te o r
ra tin g o b ta in e d a n d a ls o th e a m o u n i o f p ilo t tim e n o te d o n y o u r la s t m e d ic a l a p p lic a tio n .
b. T r y to re c r e a te y o u r a d d itio n a l tim e fro m o th e r r e c o r d s s u c h a s re n ta l re c e ip ts , F B O re c o rd s ,
a ir c a r r ie r re c o rd s , e tc . B u y a n e w lo g b o o k a n d to th e b e s t o f y o u r k n o w le d g e fill in th e lim e s
a n d a d d a s ta te m e n t a tte s tin g to th e a c c u ra c y o f th e e n tr ie s . T h e n h a v e it n o ta r iz e d — o r—
y o u m ig h t b e a b le to h a v e it s ig n e d b y o n e o f th o s e frie n d ly , h e lp fu l a n d c o u r te o u s F A A
A v ia tio n S a fe ty In s p e c to rs a t y o u r lo c a l F S D O .
c. N o n e o f th e lim e lo g g e d in y o u r re c r e a te d lo g b o o k c a n b e k n o w in g ly fa ls e .. . so b e
C o n s e rv a tiv e . Y o u d o h o t w a n t o n e o f th o s e fr ie n d ly , h e lp fu l a n d C O urleouS F A A A v ia tio n
S a fe ty in s p e c to rs a t y o u r lo c a l F S D O to c h a lle n g e a n y o f y o u r e n trie s .

9 m #
EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the- Professional Pilot
J 181
 Chap 5 — C ertificates, L o g g in g Medical & Drugs
j'.v :
I For alrcr.ari.1haL farcire mora than CTe plot, 1ha SIC now
§ 6 1 , 5 5 S e c o n d -In -C o m m a n d Q u a lific a tio n s : » d u U » » a TYPE RATING 13-IC m ilrri tor richte
■ OUTSIDE Lriirtod Statua Jirgpsce ir-"::n u Jmt? U. üOOii.
ta) A petaon ma if genre M a Second-hr-C om m and of dii airc ra lt tone certificated tor m ora Ü
Ilian ana repaired p ila l llm lil demnre.-iibt;- or in op atalinn a BEQtWHWG a B ecand-m -C oininaud pilul Highl c ie w n t n U f only if Ih a t petaon Im lito.
(1) A l i m t a Currant w l r t l a Pilot c e rtin tils with me aoprcnrlale category aivJ o i l * * taboo *ftd
i L i A- Instrum onl rating w rxwllepe lliar apokea I d ma aUcraft balna Itawn If Ilia f l l t d l l la. gprie r IFR ant;
(3) A l toast d pilol m r a t i n e for the a ire re ll b e lu o ffo w n UNLESS I ie lllglrl w l be con ducte d aa COME5T|C lllghL operallon-L WITKINI me United
a ta ie t a.rgpace.
Except M provided In paragraph la I oMIila geCllon. no peraon m a r genre art a 5 o c o rn l-lh -C o m m jiitl or an slrcrah lypa cenillcalod tor more Ilian one
requred plot n gilt crewnremher or m operabona requlnng a aeiond-omonrmand unleaa llia l person has w ithin The previous i z a fc m fa i m o n th s.
■ 1) a e ra n te lam inar w ith ihu 1-jlie.t<jiriy in Forma lion Tor Ilia spedito type airaran tor which MOOfld-irt-command pdyllaqea a-« re quetitid—
C> O perational procedures aodcm ue lo ilia po w e rola in p q u lp m e tit. j n d ^ i l t i j i i .
(rr) Performance m g f f lm f r ju and llmHatlmiw [1 a peraon charterlng an a -arali requeels a c o i et avari 1liuug-i Dia
(in} Menarli. ahrtormal. and artwratAtv operating procedure*.
raiiulaliiji ih or type pertinente or Ipih amorali ito noi tequile qua moregiilqlqey
(■v5 FUghl manual requXBTiBillg lor SIC muel ba ir a i ai rxder La log SIC lime, (m e Page 174)
Fiaearda and marklntia
« I Ex Capi à i p ln u id c d in paraiiiae.|i ta l Ol mia aadiOil, oeHPYrtied i i d Inmaed p i i : t ir ili in 1110 lypa ur airol-all Or : » II iti li! al irlo la lo r t-iil
topmanrus ih» type of alterati tor which iccond-ln-ccnunaod paylIegM ora re a u iile d . tr illa li Includo»
ir) Thraa takeoTTa and three Ian din ila lu a Tuli ateo aa Llia atrio m anipulator or Dia Ulani conlrolg.
(u) Enfine-QUI procedures a iri J U m m i l f l j with an engine QUI P illile eXec-uMfig Ilio d uNga Ol P ilo! In C om m and. and
i I Cifisv Reo pur lo Mai idswmùi i l tra inim i
M If a me raon c-om m iei with Iha requirements In paragraph )&) of lilla seebon In Die calenda- m o n ili before or Ihe calendar m onlh urtar ma nvm tli In which
oemp.anca * it - thla aaclion la roquirad. man m at pwaon ia oo-naiiJer'ird lo- nane aaooinuliahad ma Ira ini nu and praebea In 1ht p a f t il ia Ju a .
id) A p e n o n i r j i j j t t f l i l f l ■' 31£ p et IvOe rallrtfl tor an aircrafl n tu fa llu la o lo rlly e a m p lr iiw il..- SIC laiih llla rL a tlcn train ina r u U k U O U t l onOif
paragraph |P) or l'ila, gacllon In 1haL1yp«o1 alrcrall pmvldad ina Ira liw g maa comptaLed rellhln Hie j j calendar m n n lh i b a ia « me m n m h tri application
re n ila Eie pllpl lupe ratino. Tha peraon m ust com ply whh Iha fo llo w in g applioaM oii and oilotcartUtoaUon procaduraet
(1) TUO p a ragli w h j a ro v ld e ii llifc trrin in p m i l l t ilg n Mia ip p lic a n t'o Ioa boo li ui l r a'ninsj record nller aacli li:^ ip n Ih aoCùriUpep wnlll ^ t l. il( li] ( 2 1
ol lina btnt. In Hwr oF pie Ira ln w 11 la p a rm lm tb la let ti am lW ad iru n a g a m e n t o f f ic ili wllW n Ilio o ro a n lia tte n te altm tini .ipp itanl'a h’altilrm
lecorda ar rodbooK and ntaka Ihe requiro-J endoroerrtent Tha qu alllie d rrtanagaiheiit fallici¿1 iiiLrat ho-ld tha peeillon ef C lile l P ilot O lroaloi ol
Trainino D ira d a r o f O pa ralion a. er anetlier LùiT'jjàrablo mahagomant poallei i w ith in Ilio o rgan lia lia n lliat proaidod 1ho Ira ln im j ami m ual So
In a p o a llio n to v a rllv ho uppllbHiiL'u [ra u iljm jo c o rd ir and timi tha Irjiinn u waa glyen
(2) The Ira in a r or tfualiriad m anagaiiiant ottlelal rim a i imam w o n d o tie n to n l i Iha a p p lic a n t lo g h o o ltllia t staloa "A pp lio a n l1^ Marne and Firm
C p rlifieate N uinbor] Itati d illL E IL a lia ltjl ttl« Ohlll and kilnw ladga ro q u lta d ref 1110 palo OparallOrt orm o (Typa e1 Alrcrafl], relevant le ma lutisi
ioni re ip tnm -lh lin le j ■' i S oooiid In C ta m irjiid
(3) || ino anulioanira II ig n i a ip e n o n e o andier Trai nino ro cortlo aro In an alooTronle fo rm , tha aupllcaril m uot prona ut a paper etm v tu those
raenrda t p il l i l r i irtg Lia Oi^iiatUia Ol Ilio trainar' Or quali had in a napelli ent orheial le ài', F AA Flin tit BÌOildarde Diet rie! O llk e e - E l i iriirter
i.'-t.i 'In - ip ^lL c m n m unì c o m p ia ti nnd «Ign .m A lnrm n C srdlrcoie i v.\iv B illn ti J u m lk a b o n I AA Form W 1 H -I and a m i i i t Ina A D Bliattlon to an
FAA F lld h l Slam i arti è P tatrtol q n te e or t : an E la m in a r.
(S) .no perOon w tie providod ilio ground and 1Unti! tra ining lo 1ho applicar,: iriu o lu lg n :l .o luvolruolor'a RaemnrrtartrJalien" a a d k iri or mo Airman
O ilib c n ln nridiTv Fini i*j A|)|H:t:hliijn, I AA Form B-710—1 In limi t;1 Ih» pallini li k oermiaviblm Far $ g ij flj-riotl m nnnrom ent cm<=l ni WRhln pi«
wganlzallwi to lio n me apqliCBiill'g FAA Form 47 1 0 -1 .
(S) Tiro app lica rti rn iia l appear m PERSON ai a FAA F ligh t B laiidarde □ ie tiie t O ffice m 1o an Ebramlnar w ilrt . i l i or her loqboafcJLraUtUtg n e o M i
and wltn Iha e u tip ltln d apri tlu rto d FAA Forn i 87111-1
(7) Thera la 6(0 >iJ9/VC.nOA(-jreti7 W E A trifijE ator me lagnane* D rillo " SIC Prlvllatfag Q n l]f mloL t>pe rallnu.
W A oaraon man raeoiea a A rm o n tH n Ja n ve u m d c lin it u n * ra tino Ferma type a i alrcrall a lia r gabatoclorlly M im a lU lm an m a r m w l Sooond-lin-
c o m nnflrtdfra m in g ptradram, ttro B iito tK y c h e c k , o r c c n iM iB iv tT c h » c h under-m t c a r i K o F u r t a i , a i r t i z i . p a r i i i 5 . o r M r t i a a . oaappropriala, m
th-dt type of alrcralt prtnndatf Ilio tm ln lrm wav etnnplotm j w ith in tin? l ì caiendur iro-ntha bnFore h e m -dilh ol ap pllentltm lor Ihe SIC UHM type rabng
Theperaori muo1 comply wim 1ho fctlew iig ape i-aliun and pilot cerblicaben precedise li
(1) Tlio peronii w hó prnvlded ilio tra ining muot algn Ilio applicante tonbonlt nr tra in in H roct.rd a lia r each h a a tn t ,.1 acctH dtlK» wilh i)B t.5 1 ih ir2 )
PI lh lt part. In Hau n i Ulo tra lnpj il r. peNniaaible lui .i qimJIlLPtl inatLiigpjnejit ottLCJal m t'i -i Iha asoanliahan-tp e lj n ma appllcaflC'a tra in in g
teporda or lagbooh and rmahe me requited etidorgement. The qualined management ohlclal moat hold me poetion o1 c n ie l F ilo t D lreelot ol
T raining D itaclw r o f c p e ra lio n a . or another coinparablo managament poaibon *Hnui Ihe arganizatop mal provided Iha ira ri i>g a id must be m a
pcnlllon co wailfy ili» É p p lltin l'o lntlnlng ricorda and Ih tt Iha training waa glvan.
P) 'Ho Ira in e r ur qg a |lflad n m ia a e m e nt oFflelal m uel ilia c a an eh tlotsen ie ht n the applicant's. log.botHi n e t gate a " Applica n t 'i Name end Pilot
C artiricat» Hath boti b n demon jlra fe d h e i k j j a id knpwlQduo roanitpd tor mo apro Q gatallon orm o rn riio or A irtra rtl, retavan 1o me doUaa
uriti m-.pnn-ii|?i linn pi a Socpnd In Cornmnnd "
(3) IF me eppllcant'e Ihght experienceend.'or Ire in in tt reearda era m an e lae lron lo fo n n . me applnanLmugt provide e paper copy ul Ihoee records
ccuilalniiig the oipnoture o1 me Ira in e r or ttualiFied nianaganient oFFiolal to an FAA FBDQ ail E n a iiiin e r. or a-i A jrtre w Pm urani D is m r u r
(4) Till? ap p lic h ili m u ti p o n ip to lf and aiilU 'in Arm ari Cnrllltoal« IWdror Flaring A ppa titicn, FAA Fprin ^711] 1 and prpxpnt the iip p lic a lk 'll [q .11
FAA Flight 5lapdattta DLgfrtol o n ic e or to an E xam iner or to an au thorised A ircrew Fragrarli Dea ignee
(5) .lie peroaii w ho provided me ground and n ght P a in in g lo me applicant m uel sign ihe " in s lr u p itir 'i R ecm rnriendatipii" secllon or Ihe Amman
Carllltoala andi'ti- Flabng ApfdtoallPh, FAA Form 3T11F-1 In Bau a rttio tra in n r. ,i la paimtoaJMo h x a qualtiud m a rtm iijn s itl oflid a l ollhiti lho
prgenlzallDn In eJgn me appiiCBill'g l-AA Form 47 1 0 -1 .
(6) 'lie apjjlioa nt mu i t a m i r M PEFTSOW a: an FAA F ljflh l atam faE Jl D idtrlel g ilic a or to an Exam iner or 1o an authorised A ircrew P tW Ittiin
Paolprt»» w ith hlB or her logbOOUbraitllAg ro o o rd i and Wilh the c c m rio to d and t l j n r i FAA F W ti 8 7 1 IM .
(7) There la ne praottoal teal regulrad 1or me «guance ol lho " SIC P rlxtlfda e -Only" pi ul lypo relbig.
Ifl The la m llia tija llo n train Inn re o u rre m e n li o f n e redtapli [1» or Unii section da nut apply tu a pem-oii -nhu to.
O' Dagignalud and q u alllia d a t P ila! In C om m and under iu b p a rt K or p a ri ^1 part 121. 12 5 or 135 of this ctiaptes In 1lia1 epodllp type nr arcrali.
(a) D eelgjiutitd an pie S aepinl In C pinm iuid under gubm ut K o l pert a t . a m i 121. U l . ur U S oF Ihli Chapter m that ÉBaollC lyC**1 ilF W ilt
(3) D e il^ iia lid É6 me Beeond In co m m a n d ii Dial gpecrllc type ol errarall For Ihe p u rp e ie ol re oeixlii^ TTi^j in tra ining reputed by mie eecPan. and
no- pasoengero or cargo ara c a rried up Hie aircralt, ot
(*) a m ^ U l a d i't .1 gn itty pitot lo t o u ro tB u x r»qttJrtnl by M 1.1 IK) lb ) of ml» ctiatmir
lu ì t l i e holder o f a COJHMfflCFAi. at AIRLINE TRANSPORT frH_qToerlrfbabe wim Ihe eppropoele celeoo-y and piago ialino Is W O T H fO UlKED la meet
me require inerita ol Baiaurabh. ib liZ i of mLa aeeUcui. wrayldod the p ilo t:
[1 ) toe un-ducting • FEJ7F! Y F U G H X ie FCF»H (lla h t lu o t. Or »yaluHllun Ibght 0r an a IrC tth'i dluIpnMPt; « Id
(Z) Ie NOT c Jir'rih u any FEW'S ON or PWOPEWTr on board the aircralt. other then neeaaearv to r c o n d u c i o f the Ulti IH
(it) For Hie purpose o f meeting tlie teg ul lemen t i ul paragraph f t ) onhia eecbon. e pet io n may ie rv e a i BIC m Ural epe^llto type alrcrafl p ro v id e d .
(1) TIim rtghl la canducled under day VFR ox day IFR m p
(Z) Hu pel aon Of property lx earned on to e rd 1lie alrcraFL oilier than neceeeary for conduct of me mom
The tra ining under peregraplig ;b) and (d) ul mis aecllon and the training, peoFIcleiicy check, and campetency check unde' paragraph |e) of mia aacllon
m ay be a rc o m p llih p d ul a FLIGHT SIMULATE) tj mai la useil ul ftcudrd.aiiijti nlm an appipyed t ' i 'liiiq pensee pPridiiLied by a bramlng coni or cerllllcaiòd
unde' part 1AZ ol lhle ohapler arunder eubpen K o1 pert 81, pert 1Ì1 or pert 135 of Hue chapter.
(J) W lto iltiil appi n ie lli IMF an initial 3 K 0n tH P -C a hlhM U d Cyjellbcauon tor a particular type of ascralt [tf e lT M all me traiilliria In a n.glit a lih u la ia i, mal
appbcanl in u xt iatieFaclorlly ccmplete g n e l^keoFF and onp land Inn in an a lrc ra fl ut me Bacia 1ypa tor wt8ch me quA.IlLalldri ie Bought. F illi lequlreipant
do»g no t a iw ly to an enolliUnF who compiala» a n r o ld p m v e h te lt under mart 11 I oi o o m p u tin c y check .i-idui subpert K. part D1 pert 126. u' pert
115 tor Die particular type of aircralt.

182 EVERYTHING EK PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s s io n i Pilaf

 Chap 5 — C ertificates, Logging, M edical A Drugs
S T U D E N T P IL O T : [6 1 .1 9 .6 i.s a thru 6i.S5)
1. T o b e e lig ib le fo r a s tu d e n t p ilo t c e rtific a te , a n a p p lic a n t m o s t:
a B e a t le a s t 1 6 y e a r s o f a g e fo r o t h e r t h a n o p e ra tio n oF a g l i d e r o r b a llo o n
b. B e a t le a s t 14 years of age for th e o p e ra tio n o f a glider or balloon.
c. B e a b le to re a d , s p e a k . w rite , a n d u n d e r s ta n d th e E n g lis h la n g u a g e .
2. G e n e ra l lim ita tio n s — A s tu d e n t p ilo t m a y n o t a c t a s p ilo t in c o m m a n d o f an a irc ra ft:
a. T h a t is c a r r y in g a p a s s e n g e r:
b. T h a t is c a r r y in g p r o p e r ty f o r c o m p e n s a tio n o r h ire :
c. F o r c o m p e n s a tio n o r h ire ;
d In fu r th e ra n c e o f a b u s in e s s ;
e. O n a n in te rn a tio n a l flig h t:
r. W ilh flig h t o r s u rfa c e v is ib ility o f le s s th a n 3 S M d u rin g d a y lig h t o r 5 S M a t n ig h t;
g. W h e n th e flig h t c a n n o t be m a d e w ith v is u a l re fe re n c e to th e s u rfa c e ; o r
h. In a m a n n e r c o n tr a r y to a n y lim ita tio n s p la c e d in th e p ilo t's lo g b o o k b y a n a u th o r iz e d in s t r u c t o r
I. O n a n y s o lo flig h t, c ro s s - c o u n try flig h t, o r a n y flig h t in to C la s s B a irs p a c e w ith o u t a s p e c ific
lo g b o o k e n d o r s e m e n t b y a n .a u th o riz e d in s tru c to r.

The duration o f student pitot certificates m a tches t h e duration o f y o u r th ird -cla s s m e d ica l.
u n d e r 40 y e a r s o f a g e on th e data y o u r m edical c e r t if ic a t e w a s is s u e d , y o u r
F o r s t u d e n t p ilo t s
student pilot certificate is valid f o r five years, iust like v o u r m edical
i f y o u w e r e 40 or more years old o n th e d l l £ o f y o u r m edical e x a m , y o u r student pilot certificate
is valid f o r tw o years, iust like v o u r th ir d c la s s m edical, •si.23. e i . i s j

T r a in ing O p tio n s
Part 61 v>. Part 141 Schools
(61.61 thru 61.217. Appendi* A ihnj L Id Part 141}
1. P a ri 141 s c h o o ls S u p p ly a m o r e S tru c tu re d le a rn in g e n v ir o n m e n t
w ith s e t s c h e d u le s , d e d ic a te d c la s s r o o m s , a n d a re d ire c tly
s u p e rv is e d b y th e F A A , T h e b e n e fit is th a t s tu d e n is c a n o b ta in
c e rtific a te s w ith le s s r e q u ire d h o u rs .
2 T h e P a rt 61 a p p ro a c h a llo w s th e s tu d e n t a n d in s tru c to r th e
fr e e d o m to a rr a n g e th e tr a in in g a c c o rd in g to th e n e e d s a n d
s c h e d u le o f th e s tu d e n t.
3. P R IV A T E c e rtific a te :
a . P a rt 61 r e q u ire s 40 hours o f tr a in in g : vs.
b. 141 r e q u ir e s 35 hours
P a rt
IN S TR U M E N T c e rtific a te
a . P a rt 61 r e q u ire s 40 hours o f tr a in in g : vs.
Every flight Instructor's fantasy.
b . P a rt 141 r e g u ir e s 35 hours
5. C O M M E R C I A L c e rtific a te :
a. P a rt 61 re g u ire s a to ta l o f 2 5 0 h o u r s : vs.
b. P a rt 141 r e q u ir e s a to ta l o f o n ly 190 hours

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 183

C hap 5 — C e r tific a te s , L o n g in g , M e d ic a l & D ru g s
S P O R T P IL O T — A B rie f O v e r v ie w ; (Lightsport Aircraft 1.1. e u s , f i t . 93,(1.301 th r u e i,427)
T h e P ilo t m u s t —
Fndfir.ii I R eg iste r Prr.im hln-
1. B e a t le a s t 17 y e a r s o l d (1 6 y e a r s o ld fo r a g lid e r o r b a llo o n }. "T h e d o ta rm in a tio n ns lo
2. B e a b le to re a d , s p e a k , w rite , a n d u n d e r s ta n d E n g lis h . whether a pifot has a medical
3. P o s s e s s e i t h e r a 3 rd c la s s F A A m e d ic a l c e rtific a te o r a c u r r e n t a n d v a lid condition that would make
U .S . d r i v e r 's lic e n s e (p ro v id e d y o u r m o s t re c e n t a p p lic a tio n f o r an F A A him or her u n a b le to o p e ra te
m e d ic a l o r s p e c ia l is s u a n c e w a s n o t d e n ie d , re v o k e d , s u s p e n d e d o r the aircraft In a safe manner
w ith d ra w n ) . In a d d itio n . 6 1 ,5 3 r e q u ir e s e v e r y p ilo t {S p o rt P ilo t th ru A T P ) Is the s o lo re s p o n s ib ility of
to d e t e r m in e b e f o r e e a c h f l i g h t th a t h e o r s h e is m e d i c a ll y f i t to o p e r a te the p ilo t. The ability to certify
no known medical conditions
(heir aircraft In a safe manner. It is your responsibility to ensure that your
that would prohibit the safe
c u rr e n t m e d ic a l h e a lt h in n o w a y je o p a r d iz e s th e s a f e t y o f a f l i g h t .
operation of an aircraft is a
4. [F o r a ir p la n e ] L o g a t le a s t 2 0 h o u r s or night tim e o f w h ic h a i le a s t — 1 5 matter aboul which a pilot
h o u r s m u s t b e d u a l In s tru c tio n w ith a q u a lifie d flig h t In s tru c to r — 5 h o u r s should consult his or her
s o le - 1 0 t a k e o f f s & l a n d i n o s m - O n e s o lo c r o s s - c o u n t r y o f a t le a s t p e rs o n at p h y s ic ia n 11
7 5 N M . w ith a f u l l s t o p la n d in g a t a m in im u m o f t w o p o i n t s , lb 1.313)
5. P a s s th e F A A w ritte n a n d flig h t te s ts .
A i r c r a f t C a t e g o r y / C la s s e s a v a ila b le - ( 6 1 ,3 1 4 ) So, , as long as you don't
A ir p la n e [c a te g o ry ] s in g le - e n g in e la n d o r s e a c la s s ; G lid e r : L i q h t e r - t h a n - a l rhave a medical condition that
would prohibit you from
A ir s h ip c la s s o r B a ll o o n c la s s : R o t o r c r a f t — G y r o p la n e c la s s o n ly ;
driving a car, and you have a
P o w e r e d p a r a c h u t e la n d o r s e a c la s s : W e i g h t - s h i f t c o n t r o l la n d o r s e a c la s s .
personal physician that ihinksj
L ig h t S o o r t A i r c r a f t m o a n s - { 1 ,1 ) you're safe to fly, and you
1. M a x g ro s s ta k e o f f w e ig h t — 1 .3 2 0 L b s , o r 1 .4 3 0 L b s fo r s e a p la n e s . feel like you're safe to fly...
2 . Max s t a ll s p e e d — 4 5 _ k ts (C A S ), then you're legal to fly LSA
3. V h — M a x s p e e d n le v e l f l i g h t w ith m a x c o n tin u o u s p o w e r 1 2 0 k t s . a %%%%%* %%%%%% » » % % % *!1
4. S in g le o r t w o - s e a t a ir c r a f t o n l y .
5. S in g l e , r e c ip r o c a t in iL e n ju n . e {if p o w e r e d ) w ith a fix e d o r g ro u n d - If you are already a Private
a d ju s ta b le p ro p e lle r .
Pilot (or higher) you do not
nood to notify anyone if you
6. N o n p r e s s u r iz e d c a b in if e q u ip p e d w ith a c a b in .
wish to transition to Sport
7. F ix e d la n d in g g e a r , e x c e p t fo r a n a ir c r a ft in t e n d e d fo r o p e ra tio n o n
Pilot after your current 3rd
w a te r or a g lid e r , class medical expires. You
L i m it a t i o n s — Y o u m a y N O T a c t a s P IC o f a lig h t-s p o rt a irc ra ft: (Bi .a is j may also continue to operate
1 . T h a t is c a n y in g a p a s s e n g e r o r p ro p e r ty fo r c o m p e n s a t io n o r h i r e o r In Class 6. C. or D airspace.
fu r th e ra n c e o f a b u s in e s s ( a llh o u g h y o u m a y s h a re e x p e n s e s w ith a All you need lo do is
p a s s e n g e r p r o v id e d y o u p a y a t le a s t h a lt). maintain currency, flight
2. W h ile c a rr y in g nTC_re_fb.an_c_nejo.ass_er:jier. reviews, and comply with the
3. A t night or in C lass A airspace. limitations found in 1.1.
61.315 A 61.303 If you are
4. In C la s s B . C . a n d D a irs p a c e u n i f i e s h a v in g o ro p e r t r a in in g
ramp checked1, air you will
a n d lo g b o o k e n d o r s e m e n t .
need to produce is your
5. O u t s id e th e U .S . u n le s s y o u h a v e p rio r a u th o r lz a lio n fr o m th e c o u n try . pilot's liconso and
6. T o d e m o n s t r a t e th e a irc ra ft to a p r o s p e c t iv e b u y e r ] f y o u a re a n ■ driver's license. r
a irc ra ft salesperson. A * * * * * * I * * * * * *
7. In a p a s s e n g e r - c a r r y in g a i r l i f t s p o n s o re d b y a c h a r it a b le o r g a n i z a t i o n .
6, A t a n a ltitu d e O f m o r e t h a n 1 0 ,0 0 0 f t M S L o r 2 ,0 0 0 ft A G L , w h ic h e v e r Is h ig h e r.
9. W h e n th e flig h t o r s u rfa c e v i s i b i l i t y is le s s t h a n 3 S M
10 . w i t h p u t v is u a l r e f e r e n c e to »he s m i a s f i
11 , If th e a ir c r a ft h a s a V h g r e a t e r t h a n 87 k t s u n le s s yo u h a v e m e t th e re q u ire m e n ts o f 6 1 .3 2 7 ( b ) ,
112. I f th e a ir c r a ft h a s a le s s t h a n o r e q u a l to B7 k ts u n le s s y o u h a v e m e t (h e r e q u ir e m e n ts o f 6 1 ,3 2 7 1 a ).
13. W h ile t o w i n g a n y O b je c t
_ - ~ —- — - —— —— - —- — —~~ ~ ”
Vinlaoe aircia'ü elqiülii tor LSA ¿srt! tive Pipar Cu b. Aaroric a Ch amp, mo-si |Lusca-mbas.
and soma EreoupEH Mona of (ha aider Cessna h » place modela quality because lhay 1,
are just toe heavy. However Ihe- new Cessna 163 SkvCatcher dees; qualify.
M l l l i i l M l l i l l l l l l i l l l l l i l l l i l l l l l l l l l l M I l l l l M V
R E C R E A T IO N A L P IL O T : (si .96 thru 61.101, Appendix A to Part 141)
V e ry s im ila r to a S p o rt P ilo t b u t requires a 3rd class medical a n d a
m in im u m o f 30 h o u r s o f tr a in in g . A R e c re a tio n a l p ilo t m a y fly a
single-engine a irc ra ft o f u p to 1 SO hp fixed la n d in g p e a r a n d
4 s e a ts { b u t s till r e s t r i c t e d to a m a x im u m o f o n e p a s s e n g e r) , in d a y t im e V F R . 1 0 .0 0 0 f t o r b e lo w fo r
p le a s u r e f l i g h t s o n ly . A d d itio n a l tra in in g is re q u ire d fo r flig h ts m o re lh a n 50 N M a n d to a ir p o r ts w ilh a n
o p e ra tin g c o n tro l to w e r,

1S4 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D fqr the PicfnsEtcn.il Pilot

 C hap 5 — C e rtific a te s ^ L o g g in g , M e d ic a l & D ru g s .

P R IV A T E P IL O T : (61.39, 61.102 thru 61.117, Appendix B to Pari 141)

1. To be e lig ib le fo r a P riv a te P ilo l c e rtific a te , a p e rs o n m u s t:
a. B e a l le a s t 17 years of age fo r a ra tin g In other than a glider or balloon.
b. Be a l le a s t 16 years of aae for a ra tin g In a glider or balloon
c. B e a b le to r e a d s p e a k , w rite , a n d u n d e r s ta n d th e E n g lis h la n g u a g e .
d. Pass the written, a ia l and flight teat
2. M u s t re c e iv e a n d lo g a t le a s t 4Q hours of flig h t tim e <35 hours to ta l a t a Part 141 s c h o o l) th a t in c lu d e s
a t le a s t £ 0 hours o f flight training fro m a n a u th o r iz e d in s tru c to r a n d 1 0 hours of solo flig h t tra in in g in
th e a re a s o f o p e r a tio n s lis te d in 6 l.l0 7 (b )(1 ); a n d th e tr a in in g m u s t in c lu d e a t le a s t—
a. 3 h o u r s o f c r o s s - c o u n t r y flig h t tr a in in g in a s in g le - e n g in e a irp la n e ;
b. 3 h o u r s o f n i g h t flig h t tr a in in g in a s in g le - e n g in e a irp la n e ( e x c e p t as
S e e 6 1 .1 0 9 ( b ) fo r
p ro v id e d In 6 1 .1 1 0 ) th a t in c lu d e s — P riv a te P ilo l a irp la n e
* flig h t o f o v e r l f l Q J M M . a n d
M u lt ie n a in e R a tin e
* 10 takeoffs and 10 landings to a fu ll s to p at n ight (w ith e a c h r e q u ire m e n ts .
la n d in g In v o lv in g a flig h t in th e tr a ffic p a tte rn ) a t a n a irp o rt
3. 3 h o u r s o f l i g h t tr a in in g s o le ly b y re fe re n c e to i n s t r u m e n t s .
4. 3 h o u r s o f 1 iq tit lr i. r i. n q m p r e p a r a t io n f o r th e p r a c t ic a l t e s t w ith in th e p re c e d in g 2 c a le n d a r m o n th s
fro m th e m o n th o f th e te s t; a n d
5. 1 0 hours o f solo flig h t lim e c o n s is tin g o f a t le a s t—
a S h o u r s o f s o t e ^ r o s s ^ c o j j n l r y tim e :
b. One solo cross-country flig h t o f a t le a s t 1 5 0 NM to ta l d is ta n c e , w ith fu ll- s lo p la n d in g s a l a
m in im u m o f t h r e e p o i n t s , a n d o n e s e g m e n t o f th e flig h t c o n si s lin g o f a s tr a ig h t- lin e d is ta n c e o f
a t le a s t 5 0 NM b e tw e e n th e ta k e o ff a n d la n d in g lo c a tio n s ; a n d
c, Three takeoffs a n d three landings lo a fu ll s to p (w ith e a c h la n d in g in v o lv in g a flig h t in th e
tr a ffic p a tte rn ) a l a n a i r p o r t w it h an o p e rat I no control t o w e r .
6. N o p e r s o n w h o h o ld s a p riv a te p ilo t c e r tific a te m a y a c t a s p i lo t in c o m m a n d o f a n a ir c r a ft th a t is
c a r r y in g p a s s e n g e r s o r p r o p e r t y f o r c o m p e n s a t io n o r h i r e , n o 1 m a y th a t p e rs o n , f o r c o m p e n s a tio n
o r h ire , a c t a s p ilo t in c o m m a n d o f a n a irc ra ft.
7. A E L rj_ v ^ te _ P U o L M /lX 3 C Las^iLoJ_in_c_om .m .and^ o f a n a irc ra ft
in c o n n e c t io n w it h a n y b u s in e s s o r e m p lo y m e n t IF :
a. T h e flig h t is o n ly in c id e n t a l t o t h a t b u s in e s s o r e m p lo y m e n t: a n d
b T h e a ir c r a ft d o e s N O T c a r r y p a s s e n g e r s o r p r o p e r t y f o r c o m p e n s a t io n o r h ir e
8. A p riv a te p ilo t may N O T pay less than the pro rata share of the operating expenses o f a flight w ith
p a s s e n g e rs , p ro v id e d th e e x p e n s e s in v o lv e o n ly fu e l, o il, a ir p o r t e x p e n d itu re s , o r re n ta l fe e s .
+* **,
# S H A R IN G E X P E N S E S : p1.113(ej) %
I 1 A P riv a te P ilo t m u s t n o t re c e iv e a n y c o m p e n s a tio n a t all e v e n if it is just a la x d e d u c tio n
I (e .g . d o n a tio n to a c h a rily ) .
\2 The reason fo r a flig h t is very im p o rta n t, It m u s t b e 3 “ j o in t venture” fo r n common purpose w ith |
e x p e n s e s d e fra y e d by all passengers and the pilot. If th e r e a s o n fo r a flig h t Is to tr a n s p o r t a p e rs o n , |
t h a t is, if a flig h t w o u ld n o t h a v e ta k e n p la c e a t all if it w e re n o t to tr a n s p o rt th a t p e rs o n , th e n it
\ would be in v io la tio n o f 5 1 .1 1 3 .
\ 3. If th e o rig in a l intent o f a flig h t is to transport another person, th e n th e o n ly reason fo r th e (lig h t is
to c a r r y a passenger. T h e r e fo r e s h a r in g expenses w o u ld b e c o n s id e r e d illegal c o m p e n s a tio n . 9 0
1

9. A p riv a te p ilo t m a y a c t a s p ilo t in c o m m a n d o f a n a irc ra ft u s e d in a p a s s e n g e r - c a r r y in g a ir lift s p o n s o re d

b y a “C H A R IT A B L E O R G A N IZ A T IO N .” a n d fo r w h ic h th e p a s s e n g e rs m a k e a d o n a tio n to th e
o rg a n iz a tio n , w h e n th e e x lr e m e iy s p e c ific re q u ire m e n ts o f 6 1 ,1 1 3 ( d ) a re m e t [s e e 6 1 .1 1 3 (d )),
10. A p riv a te p ilo t w h o Is a n a i r c r a f t s a le s m a n a n d w h o h a s a t le a s t 2 0 0 h o u r s o f lo g g e d flig h t lim e M AY
d e m o n s t r a t e a n a i r c r a f t In flig h t lo a p ro s p e c tiv e b u y e r,
11. A p riv a te p ilo t w h o m e e ts th e r e q u ire m e n ts o f 6 1 .6 9 M A Y act as pilot in com m and of an aircraft
to w in g a g lid e r

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 185

C hap S — C e r tific a te s , L o g g in g , M e d ic a l A D ru g s

IN S T R U M E N T R A T IN G : (61.65, Appendix C (0 Pari 1^1)

1. A p e rs o n w h o a p p lie s fo r a n in s tru m e n t ra tin g m u s t:
a. H o ld a t le a s t a c u ffa n t_ P rjy _ 3 .tg _ P i.lo .t c e r tific a te w it h a n
h e lic o p te r , o r p o w e r e d - lift a p p ro p ria te to th e in s tr u m e n t ra tin g s o u g h t®
b. B e a b le 10 re a d , s p e a k , w rite , a n d u n d e r s ta n d th e E n g li s h la n g u a g e .
c. P a s s th e w r i t t e n , o r a l , a n d f l i g h t t e s t .
2. M u s t h a v e lo g g e d a t le a s t 5 0 h o u r s o f c r o s s - c o u n t r y flig h t tim e a s p i l o t In
c o m m a n d , o f w h ic h a t le a s t 10 h o u rs m u s t be in a irp la n e s fo r an in s lr u m e n t-
a irp la n e ra tin g : a n d
3. M u s t h a v e lo g g e d a to ta l o f 4 0 hours (3 5 hours at a Part 141 s c h o o l) o f actual or
s im u la t e d in s t r u m e n t t im e o n ih e a re a s o f o p e r a tio n o f th is s e c tio n , lo in c lu d e —
a. A t le a s t 15 h o u r s o f in s tr u m e n t flig h t tr a in in g fro m a n a u t h o r iz e d
i n s t r u c t o r in th e a ir c r a f t c a te g o r y fo r w h ic h th e in s tr u m e n t ra tin g is s o u g h t;
b. A t le a s t 3 h o u r s fro m a n a u th o r is e d in s tr u c to r in p r e p a r a t io n f o r th e p r a c t ic a l t e s t w i t h i n th e
p r e c e d in g 2 c a le n d a r m o n t h s fr o m th e m o n th o f th e te s t,
C. F o r a n in s tr u m e n t- a ir p la n e ra tin g , In s tru m e n t tr a in in g o n c r o s s - c o u n tr y flig h t p ro c e d u re s s p e c ific
lo a irp la n e s th a t in c lu d e s a t le a s t O N E c r o s s - c o u n t r y flig h t in an a irp la n e th a t is p e rfo rm e d
u n d e r IF R . a n d c o n s is ts o f —
* A d is ta n c e o f a t le a s t 2 5 0 N M a lo n g a irw a y s o r A T C - d ir e c te d ro u tin g :
* A n in s tr u m e n t a p p r o a c h a t e a c h a i r p o r t : a n d
* T h r e e d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f a p p r o a c h e s w ith th e u s e o f n a v ig a tio n s y s te m s .
4. U s e o f F L IG H T S IM U L A T O R S o r flig h t tr a in in g d e v ic e s . If th e in s tr u m e n t tr a in in g w a s p ro v id e d b y a n
a u th o r iz e d in s ir u c t o r in a flig h t s im u la to r o r training d e v ic e —
a. A m a x im u m o f 30 h o u r s m a y b e p e rfo rm e d in th a t flig h t s im u la to r o r flig h t tr a in in g d e v ic e if th e
tr a in in g w a s a c c o m p lis h e d in a c c o r d a n c e w ith P a r t 1 4 2 o f th is c h a p te r ; o r
b. A m a x im u m o f £ 0 h o u r s m a y b e p e rfo rm e d in th a t flig h t s im u la to r o r flig h t tr a in in g d e v ic e if th e
tr a in in g w a s N O T a c c o m p lis h e d w ith P a r t 1 4 2 o f th is c h a p te r.
c. A m a x im u m o f IQ h o u r s o f in s tr u m e n t tim e re c e iv e d in a n a p p ro v e d a v ia t io n t r a in i n g d e v ic e

IN S T R U M E N T E X P E R IE N C E — C U R R E N C Y : [61,57{c)&{d)]
1. E x c e p t a s p ro v id e d in 6 1 .5 7 (e ), n o p e rs o n m a y a c t as p ilo t in c o m m a n d u n d e r IF R o r in w e a th e r
c o n d itio n s le s s th a n V F R , u n le s s w ilh in th e p r e c e d in g 6 c a le n d a r m o n t h s , th a t p e rs o n h a s:
a. P e r f o r m e d a n d lo g g e d u n d e r a c tu a l o r s im u la te d in s tru m e n ts c o n d itio n s , e ith e r in flig h t in (h e
a p p ro p ria te c a te g o r y o f a ir c r a ft o r in a flig h t s im u la to r th a t is re p r e s e n ta tiv e o f ih e a irc ra ft
c a te g o r y fo r th e in s tru m e n t p riv ile g e s s o u g h t—
* A l le a s t s ix i n s t r u m e n t a p p r o a c h e s :
* H o ld in g p ro c e d u re s ; a n d
* I n t e r c e p t in g a n d t r a c k in g c o u r s e s th ro u g h th e u s e o f n a v ig a tio n s y s te m s
2. IN S T R U M E N T P R O F IC IE N C Y C H E C K — E x c e p t a s p r o v id e d in 61 5 7 (e ), a p e r s o n w h o d o e s n o t m e e t
(h e in s tr u m e n t e x p e rie n c e re q u ir e m e n ts o f 6 1 .5 7 (c ) w ith in th e p r e s c r ib e d lim e , o r w ith in 6 c a le n d a r
m o n th s a ft e r th e p re s c r ib e d lim e , m a y n o t s e rv e a s p ilo t in c o m m a n d u n d e r IF R o r in w e a th e r c o n d itio n s
le s s th a n V F R u n til th a t p e rs o n p a s s e s a n " I n s t r u m e n t p r o f i c i e n c y c h e c k 11 [6 1 .5 7 (d ) ! c o n s is tin g o f a
re p r e s e n ta tiv e n u m b e r o f ta s k s re q u ire d b y th e In s tru m e n t r a tin g p ra c tic a l te s t in a n a p p r o p r ia te
c a te g o r y o r a p p ro p ria te (lig h t s im u la to r o r f lig h t (ra in in g d e v ic e .
3. T h e “ I n s t r u m e n t p r o f ic i e n c y c h e c k " m u s t b e g iv e n b y —
a. A n e x a m in e r .
b. A p e r s o n a u t h o r iz e d b y t h e ITS. A r m e d f o r c e s , p r o v id e d Ih e p e rs o n b e in g te s te d is a
m e m b e r o f th e U .S . A rm e d fo r c e s ;
c. A c o m p a n y c h e c k p i lo t w h o is a u th o riz e d to c o n d u c t in s tr u m e n t flig h t te s ts u n d e r P a r t 1 2 1 ,
1 2 5 . o r 1 3 5 , a n d p r o v id e d t h a t b o t h t h e c h o c k p i lo t a n d t h e p i lo t b e in g t e s t e d a re
e m p lo y e e s o f t h a t o p e r a t o r :
d. A n a u t h o r e d i n s t r u c t o r ; o r
e . A p e r s o n a p p r o v e d b y t h e A d m i n i s t r a t o r to c o n d u c t in s tr u m e n t p ra c tic a l te s ts .
4. T h is s e c tio n d o e s n o t a p p ly to a p ilo t in c o m m a n d w h o is e m p lo y e d b y a n a ir c a r r ie r c e rtific a te d u n d e r
P a rt 121 o r 135 a n d is e n g a g e d in a flig h t o p e ra tio n u n d e r P a rt 91, 121, o r 135 fo r th a t a ir e a rn e r If th e p ilo t is
in c o m p lia n c e w ith 1 2 1 .4 3 7 a n d 1 2 1 .4 3 9 , o r 1 3 5 .2 4 3 a n d 1 3 5 .2 4 7 , as a p p ro p ria te . [61.57(e)]

186 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the PiofnsEion.il Pilot

 Chap 5 — C ertificates, Logging, M edical & Drugs
COM M E R C I A L P IL O T ; (61.39. *1.121 thru 31.133. Appendi* □ Lc Pfirl 141.
1. T o b e e lig ib le fo r a c o m m e rc ia l p ilo t c e rtific a te , a p e rs o n m o s t:
a B e a t le a $t 1 3 y e a r s o f & g g :
b. B e a b le to re a d , s p e a k , w rite , a n d u n d e r s ta n d th e E n g lis h la n g u a g e .
c. P a s s th e written, o r a l a n d flight test
2. E x c e p t a s p r o v id e d in 6 1 .1 2 9 (i) [c r e d it fo r u s e o f a flig h t s im u la to r o r F lig h t T ra in in g
D e v ic e ], a p e rs o n w h o a p p lie s For a c o m m e rc ia l p ilo t c e r tific a te w ith a n a irp la n e c a te g o r y
a n d s in g le - e n g in e c la s s ra tin g m u s t lo g a t le a s t 2 5 0 h o u r s o f flig h t tim e 11 9 0 h o u r s to ta l
a t a P a r t 141 s c h o o l) a s a p ilo t th a t c o n s is ts o f a t le a s t:
a. J M J b f l u n in c o w e r e d a i r c r a f t o f w h ic h 5 f l- h a m a m u s t b e in a ir p la n e s
b. 1 0 0 h o u r s o f o llo M n - c o m m a n d flig h t tim e , w h ic h in c lu d e s a t le a s t—
* SO h o u r s in a i r p la n e s : a n d _______________
* 50 h o u r s in c r o s s - c o u n t r y flig h t o f w h ic h a t le a s t 1 0 h o u r s m u s t b e in a i r p la n e s .
: to apptoam ior c . 2Q h o u r s o f t r a in i n g o n Ih e a r e a s o f o p e ra tio n lis te d in 6 1 .1 2 7 ( b ) ( 1 ) t h a t i n c lu d e s a t le a s t —
a Cwnmsrc-al * 10 h o u r s o f I n s t r u m e n t t r a in i n g o f w h ic h a t le a s t 5 h o u rs m u s t be in a s in g le -e n g in e
fifo.1Oertflcale
naade onlya a ir p la n e ; ' ..................................................
S e e 6 1 .1 2 9 (b ) fo r
THIRD CLASS * 10 h o u r s o f tr a in in g in a n a irp la n e th a t h a s a r e t r a c t a b le
nwdlal to C o m m e rc ia l P ilo l a irp la n e
l a n d in g g e a r , f l a p s , a n d c o n t r o ll a b le p it c h p r o p e l l e r , o r Is
takanianiaiii M u l t i e n p in e R a tin g
MU and tu r b in e p o w e re d , o r fo r a n a p p lic a n t s e e k in g a s in g le - e n g in e
r e q u ire m e n ts ,
receive a s e a p la n e ra tin g , 10 h o u rs o f tr a in in g in a s e a p la n e th a t h a s .............. .
Cornrwrial
cenincaiB. fla p s a n d a c o n tr o lla b le p ilc h p ro p e lle r :
Whenlamia * O ne cross-country f lig h t o f a t le a s t 2 h o u r s in a s in g le - e n g in e a ir p la n e in daytime
the leal in c o n d itio n s [V F R o r IF R ], c o n s is tin g o f a to ta l s tr a ig h t- lin e d is ta n c e o f m o r e th a n 1 0 0 N M
a (IfljalilHE he
would rlL-t fr o m th e o rig in a l p o in t o f d e p a rtu re :
m d ANY * O n e c r o s s - c o u n t r y flig h t o f a t le a s t 2 h o u rs in a s in g le - e n g in e a ir p la n e in n ig h t t i m e
mf l;lt all.
d tC H

Hewould c o n d itio n s [V F R o r IF R j, c o n s is tin g o f a to ta l s tr a ig h t- lin e d is ta n c e o f m o r e th a n 10.0 JNM

however need fro m th e o rig in a l p o in t o f d e p a rtu re ; a n d
aGuivarlt
SECOND * 3_hours in a single-engine a irp la n e ip _ p r e j^ ratio q j o r th e practical test w i t h in the
CLASS preceding 2 calendar months fro m th e m o n th o f th e te s t.
medical to d. 10 h o u r s o f s o l o flig h t to r p erform ing ihe d u tlo i of PIC wRh an suthoriMd In tim o io r onboard! In a S in g le -
exertiselha e n g in e a ir p la n e o n ih e a re a s o f o p e r a tio n in 6 1 .1 2 7 ( b ) { 1 ), w h ic h In c lu d e s a t le a s t—
PRIVILEGES
of a * O n e c r o s s - c o u n t r y flig h t o f n o i le s s th a n 3 0 0 N M to ta l d is ta n c e , w ith la n d in g s a t a
Commercial m in im u m o f t h r e e p o i n t s , o n e o f w h ic h Is a s tr a ig h t-lin e d is ta n c e o f a t le a s t 25Q N M fro m
Pilot. (61.23} th e o r ig in a l d e p a r tu r e p o in t [in H a w a ii, th e lo n g e s t s e g m e n t n e e d o n ly be 1 5 0 N M ); a n d
S— — i
* 5 h o u r s in n i g h t V F R c o n d itio n s w ith TQ t a k e o f f s a n d la n d in g s [w ith e a c h la n d in g
in v o lv in g a Flight in th e tra ffic p a tte rn ) a t a n a i r p o r t w it h an o p e r a t in g c o n t r o l t o w e r .
3. PRIVILEGES [61.1 3 3 (a )] — A p e rs o n w h o h o ld s a c o m m e rc ia l p ilo t c e rtific a te may act as pilot in command
o f a n a irc ra ft—
a. Carrying persons or property for compensation or h ir e , p ro v id e d th e p e rs o n is q u a lifie d in
a c c o rd a n c e w ith this p a rt a n d w ith the a p p lic a b le p a rts o f th is c h a p te r th a t a p p ly to the o p e ra tio n : a n d
b. For compensation or hire p ro v id e d th e p e rs o n is q u a lifie d in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th is p a rt and w ith the
a p p lic a b le p a rts o f th is c h a p te r (h a t a p p ly to 1hat o p e ra tio n .
C. C o m m e rc ia l p ilo ts w ith lig h le r-th a m a ir c a te g o ry ra tin g s m a y g iv e g ro u n d a n d flig h t tra in in g in an
a irs h ip o r b a llo o n .
4. L IM IT A T IO N S f 6 1 . 1 3 3 f b ) l-
a, A p e rs o n w h o a p p lie s fo r a c o m m e rc ia l p ilo t c e rtific a te w ith an a irp la n e o r p o w e re d -lift c a te g o ry ra tin g
a n d d o e s W O T h o ld an INSTRUMENT-RATING n the s a n e c a te g o ry a n d c la s s witl be issu e d a
c o m m e rc ia l p ilo t c e rtific a te th a t c o n ta in s th e lim ita tio n s , "T h e carriage of p a s s e n g e r s for hire in
(a irp la n e s ) (p o w e re d -lifts ) on c ro s s -c o u n try flig h ts in e x c e s s o f 59 NM o r a t n ig h t is P r o h ib it e d ."
b. A c o m m e rc ia l p ilo t c a n n o t ju s t ru n out, b u y a n a irp la n e , and s ta rt fly in g c a rg o o r p a s s e n g e rs fo r hire
a ro u n d the c o u n try . C o m m e rc ia l p ilo ts a re lim ite d to the o p e ra tio n s liste d In P a rt 119,1 i e ) (e.g..
s tu d e n t In s t r u c t io n n o n s to p s ig h ts e e in g f l i g h t s , c r o p d u s t in g , b a n n e r t o w in g etc.) u n .e s s r e
p ilo t is w o rk in g fo r a P a rt 1 2 1 ,1 2 5 , o r 135 c o m p a n y .
C. A c o m m e rc ia l p ilo t m a y fly as a P a rt 91 " C o r p o r a te p i lo t r> — fly in g a c o m p a n y a irp la n e c a rry in g
c o m p a n y p ro p e rty and p a s s e n g e rs . Y o u ca n also p ro v id e P a rt 91 " pilot service1' — w h e re a s a
c o m m e rc ia l p ilo t is p a id b y an a irp la n e o w n e r to fly th e a irp la n e fo r th e o w n e r. H o w e v e r, yo u
c a n N O T ‘ hold out” to th e p u b lic o r o ffe r “common carriage 11 u n le s s o p e ra tin g u n d e r th e m o re
s trin g e n t ru le s o f P a rt 135 w ith th e b le s s in g o f th e F A A . "C a rria g e in a ir c o m m e rc e o f p e rs o n s o r
p ro p e rty fo r c o m p e n s a tio n c r h ire 1' re q u ire s an a ir ta x ¡/c o m m e rc ia l o p e ra to r c e rtific a te .

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 187

(c h a p 5 — C e r tific a te s , L o g g in g , M e d ic a l & D ru g s

A irline T ransport P ilot :

161.36. 81-1 5 t thru 61.167. 91.108(c), AC 6 1 -I3 B . Appendix E to P ari 141]
To l a i l l f l i m tor an Aiiflino Transport Pilot certificate, a por&on m m l:
1. Be at least 23 years of age (or 21 years of age For "ff&srrictatf »TP" 6 1 .153):
2. Bo able to read, speak, write and undorstand the English language:
3. Be of good moral character (drug smuggling shows a "lack of good moral Character"):
4. Hold at least a Commercial pilot certificate and an Instrument rating;
5. Have completed the " airlino transport pilot certification training program" (61.153, 61 156):
6. Have 10 hours training in a simulator that represents a m ultienoire turbine airplane with a
maximum takeoff weight of 40,000 pounds or grealer (61 156): and
7. Have at least 1,500 hours of total time ;not more than 100 hours of which in a Part 142 flight
si mutator) as a pilot that includes at least: 164.1591
a. 500 hours of cross-country flight time (more than 50 IMM per leg... landing N O T required!):
b. 10-0 hours of night flight time:
c. 50 hours multi-engine flight time;
d. Z5 hours of instrument flight lime, in actual or simulated (no more than 25 hours in a Flight simulator or no more
than 50 hours in a Part 142 flight simulator): and
e. 250 hours of Flight time in an airplane as fiilot Jn Command, Q S ns Second [n Command performing the duties of
ESIot [r Command while under the supervision of a fiilo-t In-Gommand o n any combination thereof (Student pilot
sob time does not count), which includes at least:
i. 190 hours of cross-country flight lime as PIC (or as SJC performing the duties of PIC while under the
supervision of a PlC)(Student pilot solo time does not count toward PIC time),
ii. £5 hours of night flight as £1£ (or as SIC performing the duties of PIC while under the supervision of a PIC).
N O T E #1 [61.159] — A person who has performed at least 20 night takeoffs & landings to a full stop may substitute each
additional night takeorf & landing for 1 hour of night flight time to satisfy the required 100 hours or night Night, however,
not more than 25 hours of night flight lime may be cresiled in this manner.
NOTE #2 [61.159] — A Commercial pilot may credit the following Second-In-Command flight time or Flight-Engineer flight
time toward the 1.500 hours of total time:
1. Second-In-Command timo - provided the time is acquired In an airplane that is:
a. Required to have more than one pilot by the airplane's flight manual, type certificate, or the regulations under
which the flight is being conducted (61,51):
b. Engaged in operations under Part 91K. 1211 or 135 for which a SIC is reouired: or
C. That is required by the oporaüng rules to hpvo more than one pitot flight crewmember [o.g., "safoty pilot’ 61.54].
2. Flight-Engineer time — provided the time:
a. Is acquired in. an airplane required to have a flight engineer by the airplane's flight manual or type certificate:
b. is acquired while engaged in operations under Part 121 fer which a flight engineer is required:
C. Is acquired while participating in a Part 121 pilot training program: and
d. Does not exceed more than 1 hour for oach 3 hours of flio h t engineer time for a total credited time of no more
than 500 hours.
n o t e #3 [61,159] — An applicant may be issued an Airline Transport Pilot certificate with the endorsement,
“ H o ld e r d o c s n o t m e e t th e w fol in command a e r o n a u tic a l e x p e r ie n c e r e q u ir e m e n ts o f I C A O . " as prescribed by
Article 39 of the Convention of International Civil Aviation [ICAO], if the applicant:
1. Credits second-in-command or flight-engineer time toward the 1.500 hours total time requirement:
2. Docs not have at least 1.209 hours of flight lime as a pilot, including no more than 50% of his or her 5ECOND-IN-
C O M M A N O tfo ie and NONE o f his o r h e r F L IG H T -E N G IN E E R tim o : and
3. Otherwise meets the experience requirements for ATP (500 hrs x-country. 100 hrs night, etc.) [61.159fa)J.
NOTE #4 [61.159(e)] — When the applicant specified in NOTE #3 presents evidence of the accumulation of 1,200 hours of
flight time as a pilot including no more than 50% of their SIC time and none of his or her flight-engineer time, the
applicant is entitled to an ATP -certificate without ihe endorsement prescribed in NOTE #3 [61.159fd}1.________________
EXAM PLE A p lot with 1,500 hours total time includirg 1,900 hours cl sccond-in-coniniand tire would orly have
1.009 tipilrs to connt towards the 1.200 hours required by NOTE #3 — after deducting 50% of the pilot's SIC time -
This pilot could aot th e ATP if the pilot meets all other requirements, but would h a v e the RESTRICTION of the ICAO
endorsement in NOTE #3. fsee 61.159(d)&(e)]
N O T E #5 — Remember in order to take the knowledge test you will also need a graduation certificate from an authorized
training provider certifying completion of the ''Airline Transport Pilot Certification Training Program1,1specified in
Sec 61.156 and as much as 51 OK to pay for 19 hours of simulator time in s m p.llLenjlinA lu tb jn q nirplane with a
maximum takeoFf weight of 40,090 pounds or greater.
NOTE #6 — To actas PIC in Pari 121 operations you will also nqod a minimum of 1,009flioht hours in ‘'air carrier
operations" (SIC in Part 121 operations. P]C in operations under either I35.243(ai(1 tor S91.l053faH2>fi >: or any
combination thereof].

188 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot

 Chap 5 — C ertificates, Logging, Medical & Drugs

A D D IT IO N A L E X A M P L E S f o r A T P :[ bi i s«<d>]
All the examples below assume that the pilot also otherwise meets the experience requirements of 61.159fal (500
hours cross-country, 100 hours night, 75 hours instrument, etc,, etc.).
¡1) A pilot wi1h 1.500 hours total time including 850 hours of Pilot-ln-Command time. 50 hours of “dual
received " rind 600 hours of Second-In-Command time could got th.o ATP Lvifhoiut the restriction of ino
endorsement ¡61.159(d}&(e)]. This pilot would immediately be able to exercise the privileges or an Airline
Transport Pilot.
050 + 50 + 600 - 300 (50% of 600) = 1.200 hours [meets the requirements o f 61.159(d)]
(2) Apilolwilh ' .500 hours total time ncluding 250 hours of PIC time. 50 hours of ''dual received. 'r and 1.200
hours of 5]C limn could gol the ATP but w o u ld have the ICAO restriction ' Holder does not meet fAe p ilo t
in c o m m a n d a e ro n a u tica l e x p e rie n ce re q u ire m e n ts o f I C A O 1*[61.150(d)] because he or she does not have
at least 1.200 hours o-f flight time as a pilot including no more than 50% of their SIC time.
(3) A pilot with only 250 hours of Pilot-In-Comma nd time, 50 hours cf "dual received/' and the rest Second-In-
Command time would need a total of 2.100 hours of total time to meet the requirements of 61.159{d} without
(he ICAO restriction.
* m i i n i n n r
SUM M ARY:
1. An A T P w it h o u t r e s tr ic tio n @ 1 ,5 0 0 h o u r s r e q u ir e s approximately 8 5 0 h o u r s P IC time.
2. A p ilo t w ith o n ly 2 5 0 h o u r s P IC lim e w o u ld n e e d a p p r o x im a te ly 2 . TOO h o u r s o f t o t a l t im e to h o ld a n
A T P w i t h o u t (h e IC A O r e s t r i c t i o n .

R e q u ire d to Q u a lify for th e A T P W ritten (Acsi-ns)

61.153(e) After July 31. 2014. fflE an ¿ IE certificate ffiilh an airplane category multiengine class rating M a n ¿ IE
certificate * with an airplane type rating — must receive a araduation certificate from an
authorized training provider certifying completion of the ‘'airline transport pilot certification training program"
specified in Sec. 61.156 before applying tortho knowledge tost required by paragraph (g) of this section: * * 4
61.156(b) F5TD Iraimng. The applicant for the knowledge test must receive al least TO hours of training in a flight
simulation training device qualified under part 60 of this chapter that represents a mult ¡engine turbine airplane
with a maximum takeoff weight cf 40.OOP pounds or greater. Must include at least 6 hours in a Level C or higher
simulator and the remaining 4 hours in a Level 4 or higher FSTD. FVI: You'll need to save up somewhere in the
neighborhood of $iOK to play with these toys for 10 hours. But think of how much FUN you'll bo havinglio)

“R estricted A T P " (aka R -A TP ) c e rtificate tor Part 121 S IC s: (61.160,61.167, 121.436)

1 2 1 .4 3 6 s la te s th a t a n S IC m u s t h a v e a n A T P o r a “" R e s tric te d A T P " (aka "ATP certificate wilh R asIrictB dPrivileges"). In
a d d itio n to th e r e q u ir e m e n ts o f 6 1 .1 5 3 ( e ) a n d 6 1 .1 5 6 (b ) (a b o v e ]... R e s tric te d A T P r e q u i r e m e n t s :
1. 21 y e a rs o f a g e (61.153): a n d
2. 7 5 0 h o u r s T o ta l T im e if m i li t a r y tr a in e d a n d q u a lifie d ; o r
3. 1 ,0 0 0 h o u rs T T if an aviation degree g r a d u a te o f a 4 y e a r ‘Institution o f Higher Education1" ( f t i . i j; o r
4. 1 .2 5 0 h o u rs T T w ith a n a v ia lio n a s s o c i a t e d d e g r e e fro m a 2 y e a r in s titu lio n o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n ; o r
5. 1 ,5 0 0 h o u rs T T w ith n o a v ia tio n d e g r e e ; AND In o r d e r t o a c tu a lly FLY as a c o p i l o t ;
6. A type r a t in g for the a ir c r a f t to b e flown |n Part 121 service (those pilots employed as SIC in Part 121
operations or July 31. 2013 are n o ! re q u ire d to have a type rating until January 1.2016) (121.435); and
7. A 2ni c la s s m e d ic a l (fo r o p e r a tio n s re q u irin g o n ly 2 p ilo ts . A 1 I[ C la s s m e d ic a l is re q u ire d fo r a 3 o r
m o r e p ilo t c r e w o r if a g e 6 0 o r o ld e r. (61.23,61.167)

■An applicant fqr an Airline Transport Pil-gl Certificate neafllE only a THIRP C LA S S CHS4ipajt to teha the practical tasl CtUahUflti) in I
;an aircraft and receive an ATP CediUcata Wtten taking the flight test In a simulator ha would not need ANY medical 431all.
; He w ould o l ccurse need a. currenl FIRST C L A 5 5 m e d ica l I d exercise Ihe PRIVILEGES uf art ATP PIC. (61.23}
.................................................................................................................. ...................................................... MJMUMhMWWhMWMUWtflWW M W J#
A ir l in e T r a n s p o r t P il o t P R IV IL E G E S :
(61.167, 121 410. 121 412. 121414. 121.434. 136.243. 135.244.135.336. 136.340)
1. A n |unresinned b y 61.J go c r 6 j .j GT] A T P is e n title d lo fly a s P ilo t jn C o m m a n d c a rr y in g P A S S E N G E R S in a
T L f f f B O J E r . a n a ir p la n e h a v in g 10 or more p a s s e n g e r s e a t s . OR n M U L T IE N G IN E a ir p la n e in a
CO M M UTER o p e ra tio n (1 3 5 ,2 4 3 ), A P IC o r S IC m u s t a ls o h a v e th e in itia l O p e r a tin g E x p e r ie n c e
re q u ire d b y 1 3 5 ,2 4 4 o r 1 2 1 ,4 3 4
2. A n A T P may i n s t r u c t o i l i e r pilots in a i r transportation s e r v ic e :n an a ir c r a f t fo r w h ic h th e A T P is ra te d
(61.167) as lo n g a s th e A T P h a s r e c e iv e d th e F li g h t I n s t r u c t o r t r a in i n g s p e c ifie d in 1 3 5 .3 3 8 , 1 3 5 .3 4 0 .
o r 1 2 1 .4 1 2 . O f c o u rs e a n y P a rt 1 3 5 Com m ercial pilot could do (h e exact same t h i n g a s lo n g a s h e
o r s h e h a s re c e iv e d th e F lig h t In s tru c to r tra in in g s p e c ifie d in 1 3 5 .3 3 8 a n d 1 3 5 .3 4 0 (re q u ire d e x c e p t fo r
holders o f a flight i n s t r u c t o r c e r t if ic a t e )

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 18$

 C hap S — C e r tific a te s , L o g g in g , M e d ic a l & D ru g s
F L I G H T J N S T R U C T O R : (ei.iaithnj§1.i9B. R e m e m b e r c la s s ;
Appendix F In P 3 fl 141) NEVER d-oscend b e lo w
th e a ir p o r t e le v a tio n
T o b e e lig ib le fo r a flig h t in s tru c to r c e r tific a te o r ra tin g
d u rin g a p p ro a c h
a p e rs o n m u s t:
1. B e a t le a s t 18 y e a r s o f a p e :
2. B e a b le to re a d , s p e a k , w r ite a n d u n d e r s t a n d Ih e E n g lis h
la n g u a g e :
3. H o ld e ilh e r a C o m m e r c ia l P il o t c e rtific a te o r A ir li n e T r a n s p o r t
P il o t c e r tific a te w ith :
a. A n a irc ra ft c a te g o r y a n d c la s s ra tin g th a t is a p p ro p ria te to
th e flig h t in s tr u c to r ra tin g s o u g h t: a n d
b A n I n s t r u m e n t r a t in g o r p r i v il e g e s th a t a r e a p p r o p r ia te to
th e flig h t in s tr u c to r ra tin g s o u g h t,
i f a p p ly in g f o r a f l i g h t i n s t r u c t o r c e r t if ic a t e w i t h —
* A n a ir p la n e c a te g o r y a n d s in g le -e n g in e c la s s ra tin g ;
* A n a ir p la n e c a te g o r y a n d m u ltie n g in e c la s s ra tin g ;
#■ A p o w e r e d - lifl ra tin g ; o r
* A n In s tru m e n t ra tin g .
4. logbook endorsement fro m a n a u th o r iz e d in s tru c to r o n Ih c
R e c e iv e a
fundamentals of instructing lis te d in 6 1 .1 8 5 .
5. P a s s a k n o w le d g e t e s t o n th e f u n d a m e n t a ls o f i n s t r u c t io n a re a s lis te d
6 1 .1 8 5 ( a )(1 ). u n le s s th e a p p l i c a n t :
a. H o ld s a flig h t in s tr u c to r o r g ro u n d in s tr u c to r c e rtific a te ;
b. H o ld s a c u rr e n t te a c h e r ’s c e rtific a te is s u e d b y a S ta te , c o u n ty , city, o r m u n ic ip a lit y th a t
a u th o r iz e s th e p e rs o n to le a c h a t an e d u c a tio n a l le v e l o f th e 7 :| g ra d e o r h ig h e r ; o r
c. Is e m p lo y e d a s a te a c h e r a t a n a c c re d ite d c o lle g e o r u n iv e rs ity .
6. P a s s a knowledge test o n th e aeronautical knowledge lis te d in 6 1 .1 8 5 (a ) (2 ) a n d (a )(3 ) a p p ro p ria te to
Ih e flig h t in s tru c to r ra tin g s o u g h t;
7. R e c e iv e a logbook endorsement fr o m a n a u th o r iz e d in s tru c to r o n th e areas of operation lis te d in
6 1 .1 8 7 (b ), a p p r o p r ia te to th e flig h t in s tr u c to r ra tin g s o u g h t;
8. P a s s th e re q u ire d p r a c t ic a l l e s t th a t is a p p r o p r ia te to th e flig h t in s tru c to r ra tin g b e in g s o u g h t.
9. A c c o m p lis h th e fo llo w in g fo r a flig h t in s tr u c to r c e r tific a te w ith a n a ir p la n e o r a g lid e r ra iin g :
a. R e c e iv e a logbook endorsement fro m an a u th o r iz e d in s tr u c to r in d ic a tin g th a t th e a p p lic a n t is
c o m p e te n t a n d p o s s e s s e s i n s t r u c t io n a l p r o f ic i e n c y in s t a ll a w a r e n e s s , s p in e n t r y . S p in s .
a n d s a i n r e c o v e r y p ro c e d u re s a fte r p ro v id in g th e a p p lic a n t w ith flig h t tr a in in g in th o s e tr a in in g
a re a s in a n a irp la n e o r g lid e r, a s a p p ro p ria te , th a t is c e rtific a te d lo r s p in s : a n d
D e m o n s t r a t e i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o f ic i e n c y In s t a lls a n d s p i n s — h o w e v e r — u p o n p re s e n ta tio n
o f th e e n d o r s e m e n t s p e c ifie d a b o v e , a n e x a m in e r m a y a c c e p t th a t e n d o r s e m e n t a s
s a tis fa c to r y evidence of Instructional proficiency In stalls and spins, p r o v id e d th a t th e
p ra c tic a l le s t is n o t a re te s t a s a re s u lt o f th e a p p lic a n t fa ilin g th e p re v io u s te s t fo r d e fic ie n c ie s in
th e k n o w le d g e o r s k ill o f s ta lls o r s p in s .
10. L o o a t le a s t 15 hours a s pilot in com m and in th e category a n d class o f a irc ra ft th a t is a acro ariate to
ih e Flight in s tr u c to r ra tin g s o u g h t.

A E R O N A U T IC A L K N O W L E D G E req u ired for F L IG H T IN S T R U C T O R S : ic isa.

U n le s s yo u a re a lre a d y a flig h t in s tru c to r, g ro u n d in s tru c to r o r a n a c c re d ite d te a c h e r o f th e 7 ,h g ra d e o r h ig h e r —
a n a p p lic a n t f o r flig h t in s tr u c to r m u s t re c e iv e a n d lo g g ro u n d tr a in in g fro m a n a u th o r iz e d in s tru c to r o n :
1. T h e f u n d a m e n t a ls o f i n s t r u c t i n g , in c lu d in g :
a. T h e le a rn in g p ro c e s s ;
b. E le m e n ts o f e ffe c tiv e te a c h in g ;
c. S tu d e n t e v a lu a t io n a n d te s tin g :
d. C o u rs e d e v e lo p m e n t;
e. L e s s o n p la n n in g : a n d
f. C la s s ro o m tra in in g te c h n ig u e s.
2. T h e a e ro n a u tic a l k n o w le d g e a re a s fo r a re c r e a tio n a l, p riv a te , a n d c o m m e rc ia l p ilo t c e rtific a te a p p lic a b le
io th e a ir c r a ft c a te g o r y fo r w h ic h flig h t in s tru c to r p riv ile g e s a re s o u g h t; a n d
3. T h e a e ro n a u tic a l k n o w le d g e a re a s fo r th e in s tr u m e n t ra tin g a p p lic a b le to th e c a te g o r y f o r w h ic h
in s tr u m e n t (lig h t in s tru c to r p riv ile g e s a re s o u g h t.

190 EVERYTHING EX PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 C hap 5 — C e r tific a te s , L o g g in g , M e d ic a l A D ru g s ]
F L IG H T IN S T R U C T O R R E C O R P S s (M.in a i
{a ) A flig h t in s tr u c to r m u s t s ig n th e l o g b o o k o f e a c h p e r s o n to w h o m th a t in s tru c to r h a s g iv e n flig h t
tra in in g o r g ro u n d tr a in in g .
( b ) A flig h t in s tru c to r m u s t m a in t a in a r e c o r d in a lo g b o o k o r a s e p a ra te d o c u m e n t th a t c o n ta in s th e
fo llo w in g :
(1 ) T h e n a m e o f e a c h p e r s o n w h o s e lo g b o o k o r s tu d e n t p ilo t c e r tific a te th a t in s tr u c to r h a s
e n d o r s e d f o r s o l o f l i g h t p riv ile g e s , a n d th e d a te o f th e e n d o r s e m e n t; a n d
(2 ) T h e n a m e o f e a c h p e r s o n th a t in s tr u c to r h a s e n d o r s e d fo r a k n o w le d g e te s t o r p r a c t ic a l t e s t ,
a n d th e r e c o r d s h a ll a ls o in d ic a te th e k in d o f te s t, th e d a te , a n d th e re s u lts .
( c ) E a c h flig h l in s lr u c lo r m u s t r e t a in th e r e c o r d s re q u ire d b y th is s e c tio n fo r a t le a s t 3 y e a r s .

F L IG H T IN S T R U C T O R — H O U R S O F T R A IN IN G : (61.195)
In a n y 2 4 - c o n s e c u t iv e - h o u r p e r io d a flig h t in s tr u c to r m a y n o t c o n d u c t m o re th a n 8 h o u r s o f flig h t tra in in g .

T R A IN IN G R E C E IV E D in — M U L T IE N G IN E a irp la n e — H E L IC O P T E R — or a
R O W E R E P -L IF T : [61.129, 81.193(f)]
A flig h t in s tr u c to r m a y n o t g iv e t r a in i n g r e q u ire d fo r th e is s u a n c e o f a c e r tific a te o r ra tin g in a m u ltie n g in e
a irp la n e , a h e lic o p te r , o r a p o w e r e d - lift u n le s s th a t flig h t in s tr u c to r h a s a t le a s t 5 f l i g h t h o u r s o f c i l o t - i n -
c o m m a n d lim e in th e s p e c i f i c m a k e a n d m o d e l o f m u ltie n g in e a irp la n e , h e lic o p te r , o r p o w e re d -lift, a s
a p p ro p ria te .

Q U A L IF IC A T IO N S of th e F L IG H T IN S T R U C T O R for tra in in g F IR S T -T IM E
F L IG H T IN S T R U C T O R A P P L IC A N T S : pi ■195(h)|
T h e s e q u a lific a tio n s a re v e ry s p e c ific . P le a s e c o n s u lt 6 1 .1 9 5 ( h )
Mo- m e d ica l cartificalB is
B U M lB d for a jjilcl to cftJOLfiai his
R E N E W A L o f .F L IG H T IN S T R U C T O R C E R T IF IC A T E S : (fli.iST) or har fliglit inslruclor tartifitale.

(a ) A p e rs o n w h o h o ld s 0 f l i g h t i n s t r u c t o r c e r t if ic a t e th a t he& n o t e x p ir e d m a v r e n e w th a t c e rtific a te
( 1 ) P a s s in g a p r a c t ic a l t e s t fo r -
[i) O ils of the stin g s listed on the current fllaftt Instructor certificate: or
(ii) An additional flight instructor rating: o r
(2 ) P r e s e n t in g to a n a u th o r iz e d F A A F lig h t S ta n d a rd s I n s p e c t o r -
( l) A r e c o r d o f t r a in i n g s tu d e n ts s h o w in g th a t, d u rin g th e p re c e d in g 24 c a le n d a r m o n t h s , th e
flig h t in s tr u c to r h a s e n d o rs e d a t le a s t f i v e s t u d e n t s fo r a p ra c tic a l te s t fo r a c e r tific a te o r ra tin g
a n d a t le a s t 8 0 p e r c e n t o f th o s e s tu d e n ts p a s s e d th a t te s t o n th e f i r s t a t t e m p t :
(ii) A r e c o r d s h o w in g th a t, w ith in th e p r e c e d in g 2 4 c a le n d a r m o n t h s , th e flig h t in s tru c to r h a s
s e rv e d a s a c o m p a n y c h e c k p ilo t , c h i e f f l i g h t i n s t r u c t o r , c o m p a n y c h o c k a ir m a n , o r f l i g h t
I n s t r u c t o r in a p a r t 121 o r p a r t 1 3 5 o p e ra tio n , o r in a p o s i t i o n I n v o l v i n g th e r e g u l a r
e v a lu a t io n g f p i lo t s ; o r
(m) A g r a d u a t io n c e r t if ic a t e s h o w in g th a t, w ith in th e p r e c e d in g 3 c a le n d a r m o n t h s , th e p e rs o n
h a s s u c c e s s fu lly c o m p le t e d a n a p p r o v e d f l i g h t instructor re fre s h e r course c o n s is lin g o f
g ro u n d tr a in in g o r flig h t tr a in in g , o r a c o m b in a tio n o f b o th .
( b ) T h e e x p ira tio n m o n th o f a re n e w e d flig h t in s tr u c to r c e r tific a te s h a ll be 2 4 c a le n d a r m o n th s fr o m -
(1 ) T h e m o n th th e re n e w a l r e q u ir e m e n ts o f p a ra g r a p h (a ) o f th is s e c tio n a re a c c o m p lis h e d : o r
(2 ) T h e m o n th o f e x p ira tio n o f th e c u r r e n t flig h t in s tr u c to r c e rtific a te p ro v id e d -
(I) T h e re n e w a l r e q u ir e m e n ts o f p a ra g r a p h (a ) o f th is s e c tio n a re a c c o m p lis h e d w ith in th e 3
c a le n d a r m o n th s p r e c e d in g th e e x p ira tio n m o n th o f th e c u rr e n t flig h t in s tr u c to r c e rtific a te , a n d
(ii) If Ih e re n e w a l is a c c o m p lis h e d u n d e r p a ra g r a p h (a ) (2 )(lil) o f th is s e c tio n , th e a p p ro v e d flig h i
in s tr u c to r r e fr e s h e r c o u rs e m u s t bo c o m p le te d w ith in th e 3 c a le n d a r m o n th s p r e c e d in g th e
e x p ira tio n m o n th o f th e c u rr e n t flig h t In s tru c to r c e rtific a te .
( c ) T h e p ra c tic a l le s t re q u ire d b y p a ra g r a p h (a )(1 ) o f th is s e c tio n m a y b e a c c o m p lis h e d In a flig h t s im u la to r
o r flig h t tra in in g d e v ic e if th e te s t is a c c o m p lis h e d p u rs u a n t to a n a p p ro v e d c o u rs e c o n d u c te d b y a
tr a in in g c e n te r c e r tific a te d u n d e r p a rt 1 4 2 o f (h is c h a p te r. *

* In m o s t s itu a tio n s , a t h i r d c l a s s m e d ic a l is a ll th a t is r e q u ire d to In s tru c t. [61.23;

* A flig h t in s tr u c to r is n o t r e q u ir e d to h o ld a n y m e d ic a l c e r tific a te if h e o r s h e Is In s tru c tin g in
a lid o r s : o r n o t a c t in g a s p i lo t in c o m m a n d o r n o t s e r v in g a s a r e q u ir e d f l i g h t c r o w m o m b c r .

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 191

C hap 5 — C e r tific a te s , L o g g in g , M e d ic a l & D ru g s

E X A M IN E R [Flight E xam ine r] m eans: (*1 .1 )

A n y p e r s o n w h o is a u t h o r iz e d b v t h e A d m i n is t r a t o r t o c o n d u c t a p i l o t p r o f ic i e n c y t e s t o r a p r a c t ic a l
t e s t t o r a n a ir m a n c e r t if ic a t e o r r a t in g is s u e d u n d e r th is p a rt, o r a p e rs o n w h o is a u th o r iz e d to c o n d u c t a
k n o w le d g e te s t u n d e r th is p a rt.

1If yo u a re In te re s te d In b e c o m in g a D e s ig n a t e d P ilo t E x a m in e r :
: w w w .fa a .a o v

S T A T U S of an E X A M IN E R w ho is a u thorized by the Adm inistrator to

conduct P R A C T IC A L T E S T S : (61.47)
( a } A n e x a m in e r re p r e s e n ts th e A d m in is lr a to r fo r th e p u r p o s e o f c o n d u c tin g p ra c tic a l te s ts f o r c e rtific a te s
a n d r a tin g s is s u e d u n d e r th is p a r t a n d to o b s e rv e a n a p p lic a n t's a b ility to p e rfo rm th e a re a s o f o p e ra tio n
o n th e p ra c tic a l te a l,
(b> T h e e x a m in e r is N O T t h e P il o t In C o m m a n d o f Ih e a irc ra ft d u rin g th e p ra c tic a l le s t u n le s s th e
examiner agrees to act in that capacity fo r th e flig h t o r fo r a p o rtio n o f the flig h l b y p rio r arrangement
w ith :
(1 ) T h e a p p lic a n t; o r
(2 ) A p e rs o n w h o w o u ld o th e r w is e a ct a s P ilo t In C o m m a n d o f th e flig h t o r fo r a p o rtio n o f th e flig h t,
( e ) N o t w ith s ta n d in g th e ty p e o f a ir c r a ft u s e d d u rin g th e p ra c tic a l te s t, (h e a p p lic a n t a n d th e e x a m in e r (a n d
a n y o th e r o c c u p a n ts a u th o r iz e d to b e o n b o a rd b y th e e x a m in e r ) a re n o t s u b je c t to th e r e q u ir e m e n ts o r
lim ita tio n s fo r th e c a r r ia g e o f p a s s e n g e rs th a t a re s p e c ifie d in th is c h a p te r. *I

-----^
B g y a m I s t u p id .
I w is h s o m e o n e w o u ld
w r it e a b o o k t h a t
e x p la in s t h i s c r a p in
PLAIN EN G LISH !

192 EVERYTHING EX PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 C hap 5 — C e r tific a te s , L o g g in g , M e d ic a l A D ru g s ]

C R O S S -C O U N T R Y T I M E m e a n s : <ei.i)
1. E X C E P T for m e e t in g t h e a e r o n a u t ic a l e x p e r ie n c e r e o u ir e m s n is f o r a P r iv a t e . C o m m e r c ia l.
I n s t r u m e n t . R o t o r c r a f t . o r A ir li n e T r a n s p o r t P il o t c e r t if ic a t e — C R O S S - C O U N T R Y T IM E m e a n s —
lim e a c q u ire d d u r in g a flig h t:
a. C o n d u c te d b y a p e r s o n w h o h o ld s a p ilo t c e rtific a te , in a n a irc ra ft;
b. T h a i In c lu d e s a l a n d in g a t a p a i n t o t h e r t h a n t h e p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e : a n d .
c. In v o lv e s th e u s e o f d e a d re c k o n in g , p ilo ta g e , e le c tr o n ic n a v ig a tio n a id s , ra d io a id s , o r o th e r
n a v ig a tio n s y s te m s to n a v ig a te to th e la n d in g p o in t.
2. E f l i th e p u r p o s e o f m e e t in g th e a e r o n a u t ic a l e x p e r ie n c e r e q u ir e m e n t s ( e x c e p t fo r ro lO rc ra ft) fo r a
P R IV A T E p ilo t c e r tific a te C O M M E R C I A L p ilo t c e rtific a te , o r an IN S T R U M E N T R A T IN G o r fo r th e
p u rp o s e o f e x e r c is in g R e c re a tio n a l p ilo t p r iv ile g e s [ 6 1 , 1 0 1 (c )] — T im e a c q u ire d d u rin g a flig h t:
a. C o n d u c te d in a n a p p ro p ria te a irc ra ft;
b. T h a t in c lu d e s a p o in t o f l a n d in g th a t w a s a t le a s t a s t r a ig h t - l in e d is t a n c e o f m o re th a n 50 N M
fro m th e o r ig in a l p o in t o f d e p a r t u r e , a n d :
c. In v o lv e s th e u s e o f d e a d re c k o n in g , p ilo ta g e , e le c tr o n ic n a v ig a tio n a id s , r a d io a id s , o r o th e r
n a v ig a tio n s y s te m s to n a v ig a te to th e la n d in g p o in t.
3. F o r th e p u r p o s e o f m e e t in g th e a e r o n a u t ic a l e x p e r ie n c e
r e q u ir e m e n t s fo r a n y p ilo t c e r tific a te w ith a R0_T_0_R_C RAF_T
“Original paint af departure” \
is th e p o i n t f r o m w h ic h th e
c a te g o r y ra tin g o r a n IN S T R U M E N T - H E L IC O P T E R ra tin g , o r
f l i g h t ( o r a s e rie s o f le g s )
fo r th e p u rp o s e o f e x e r c is in g R e c re a tio n a l p ilo t p r iv ile g e s . In a
b e g in s E A C H L E G d o e s n o t
r o to rc ra ft (6 1 .1 0 1 c } — T im e a c q u ire d d u rin g a flig h t:
h a v e t o b e m o r e th a n 5 0 N M
a. C o n d u c te d in a n a irc ra ft;
(o r 2 5 N M fo r ro to rc ra ft). A ll th a t
b. T h a t in c lu d e s a p o in t o f l a n d in g th a t w a s a t le a s t a
Is r e q u ire d Is th a t a t s o m e p o in t
s t r a ig h t - l in e d is t a n c e o f m o re th a n 25 N M fr o m th e
th e a irc ra ft e n d s up m o r e th a n
o r i ja . in a l j. o i n t_ o f _ d e p a r tu r e a n d ;
5 0 N M fro m th e " o rig in a l p o in t o f
c. In v o lv e s th e u s e o f d e a d re c k o n in g , p ilo ta g e , e le c tro n ic
d e p a rtu re ." It w o u ld b e p e rfe c tly
n a v ig a tio n a id s , r a d io a id s , o r o th e r n a v ig a tio n s y s te m s
le g a l to fly a s e rie s o f 4 o r 5
to n a v ig a te to (h e la n d in g p o in t.
le g s — e n d u p a t a p o in t m o re
4. F o r th e p u r p o s e o f m e e t in g th e a e r o n a u t ic a l e x p e r ie n c e
th a n 50 N M fro m (h e ’’o rig in a l
r e q u ir e m e n t s fo r a n
p o in t o f d e p a r tu r e " — a n d c o u n t
A IR L J N E T R A N S P O R T P J L Q T c e r tific a te ( e x c e p t r o to r c r a ft) —
th e e n tire flig h t (a lt 4 o r 5 o le gy s ); ■.
T im e a c q u ire d d u rin g a flig h t:
a s c r o s s - c o u n tr y limi ee . «
a. C o n d u c te d in a n a irc ra ft;
b T h a t is a t le a s t a s t r a ig h t - l in e d i s t a n c e o f m o r e th a n V ____ y
N M fr o m th e o r ig in a l i& o ln t o f d e p a r t u r e (b u t c u rio u s ly , y o u d o N O T h a v e t o L A N D t h e r e in
and
c. In v o lv e s th e u s e o f d e a d re c k o n in g , p ilo ta g e , e le c tr o n ic n a v ig a tio n a id s , r a d io a id s , o r o th e r
n a v ig a tio n s y s te m s to n a v ig a te 10 th e la n d in g p o in t.

TE M P O R A R Y C E R T IF IC A T E : ( e i . i 7 )
1. A te m p o ra ry p ilo t, flig h t in s tru c to r, o r g ro u n d in s tru c to r c e rtific a te o r ra tin g is is s u e d fo r u p to 1 2 0 d a y s , at
w h ic h tim e □ p e rm a n e n t c e rtific a te w ill [s h o u ld ] be is s u e d to a p e rs o n w h o m th e A d m in is tra to r fin d s q u a lifie d .
2. A t e m p o r a r y p ilo t, Flight in s tru c to r, o r g ro u n d in s tr u c to r c e r tific a te o r ra tin g e x p i r e s :
a. O n th e e x p i r a t i o n d a te s h o w n o n th e c e r t i f i c a t e :
b. U p o n r e c e ip t o f th e p e r m a n e n t c e rtific a te ; o r
c. U p o n r e c e ip t o f a n o t ic e th a t th e c e r tific a te o r ra tin g s o u g h t is d e n ie d o r r e v o k e d .

* -*
P ilo ts n e e d to b e a c u te ly a w a re o f th e expiration date o n th e ir tem porary c e rtific a te .
B e lie v e It o r n o t, e v e n th e F A A c a n s o m e tim e s s c re w u p e n d fa il to g e t th e p e r m a n e n i c e r tific a te o u t c n
tim e . If y o u 'r e g e ttin g c lo s e to th e e x p ir a tio n d a te o n th e te m p o ra ry , it’s tim e to g e l in c o n ta c t w ith th e lo c a l
F S D O s o th e y c a n Find o u t w h a t's g o in g o n a n d /o r is s u e you another tem porary.
T h e D e s ig n a te d E x a m in e r th a t g a v e y o u y o u r n e w c e r tific a te c a n a ls o Issu e a n e w te m p o ra ry .
’V W H H H M H W W H W W W H H W N W W H H W IM M M H W H W H W W H W M H H M H W I lW H fH H lr

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 193

Chap S — C ertificates, Logging, M edical & Drugs
T Y P E R A TIN G R E Q U IR E M E N TS — C A T E G O R Y } C L A S S R A T IN G : t6i.31. 6i n-i>
1. A p e rs o n w h o a c ts a s a P IC { o r 5 1 £ in P a rt 121 o p e r a t io n s ) o f a la r g e
aircraft ( m o r e th a n 1 2 ,5 0 0 lb s g r o s s ta k e o ff w e ig h t), a t u r b o j e t -
p o w e re d a irp la n e , o r o t h e r a ir c r a f t s p e c ifie d b y th e A d m in is tr a to r
m u s t h o ld a t y p e r a t in g to r t h a t a i r c r a f t .
2. T h e p ilo t m u s t a ls o b * CURRENT in th a t a irc ra ft — s e e 6 1 .5 8 —
P IC P r o f i c i e n c y C h e c k . O p e r a tio n o f a n a ir c r a ft th a t re q u ire s m o r e
th a n o n e p ilo t flig h t c r e w m e m b e r o r is tu r b o je t- p o w e r e d { P a g e 1 % ) .
3. A p e rs o n may b e authorized to operate without a type rating fo r u p to 60 d a y s a t a tim e p r o v id e d th e
A r i m l n l l l i a l f l L l i a a - a U i l l f l l J a ^ th e flig h t o r s e rie s o f flig h ts fo r th e p u r p o s e o f a — ferry flig h t, training
flig h t, test flig h t, o r practical test fo r c e r tific a te o r ra tin g a n d a s lo n g a s it in v o lv e s o n ly th e c a rr ia g e o f
flig h t c r e w m e m b e r s e s s e n tia l fo r th e flig h t a n d d o e s n o t in v o lv e c o m p e n s a tio n o r h ire . T h e F S D O m a y
is s u e a L e tte r O f A u th o r iz a tio n i L O A i in lie u o f th e ty p e ra tin g o r in lie u o f a c u r r e n t 6 1 .5 6 c h e c k .
4. A n a p p lic a n t fo r a ty p e ra tin g n e e d s o n ly a T H I R D C L A S S medical lo ta k e ih e p ra c tic a l le s t i f light t e s t )
|n th e aircraft a n d re c e iv e Ih e ty p e ra tin g . W h e n ta k in g th e flig h t te s t in a simulator he w o u ld not need
A N Y medical a t a ll [6 1 .2 3 (b )( 3 )]. H e w o u ld h o w e v e r n e e d th e a p p r o p r ia te c la s s m e d ic a l (d e p e n d in g o n
Ih e ty p e o f o p e ra tio n ) lo a c tu a lly s e rv e a s a r e q u ire d (lig h t c re w m e m b e r in th e a ir c r a ft (d u h !).
5. I f y o u h a v e n o p r io r je t ty p e ra tin g s a n d l i t t l e p r i o r ie t o r t u r b in e t i m e , a fte r y o u p a s s y o u r ty p e rid e in a
s im u la to r y o u w ill n e e d to lo g 2 5 h o u r s o f S u p p le m e n ta l O p e r a tin g E x p e r ie n c e in th e a ir c r a ft w ith
s o m e o n e w h o is ty p e ra te d w ith o u t r e s tric tio n b e fo r e y o u c a n a c t a s p ilo t in c o m m a n d , ts i G4;
6. T o serve a s Pilot In Com m and o f a n aircraft, a p e rs o n must hold th e a p p r o p r ia te category, class
a n d t y p e r a t in g ( if r e q u ire d ) — o r — b e r e c e iv in g tr a in in g fo r th a t ra tin g u n d e r th e s u p e rv is io n o f a n
a u th o r iz e d in s t r u c t o r — o r — h a v e re c e iv e d a n e n d o r s e m e n t fo r s o lo flig h t in th a t a irc ra ft.

C O M P LE X A IR P LA N E S — E N D O R S E M E N T: [st 31(e)]
1 N o p e r s o n m a y a c t a s P ilo t In C o m m a n d o f a c o m p le x a irp la n e [ r e t r a c t a b le g e a r
f l a p s , a n d a c o n t r o ll a b le p it c h p r o p e l l e r : o r , in th e c a s e o f a s e a p la n e , fla p s a n d
a c o n tr o lla b le p itc h p ro p e lle r ), u n le s s th a t p e rs o n h a s r e c e iv e d a n d lo g g e d
g ro u n d a n d flig h t t r a in i n g fr o m a n a u t h o r iz e d I n s t r u c t o r in a c o m p le x a irp la n e
o r s im u la to r — h a s b e e n fo u n d p r o f ic ie n t — a n d h a s r e c e iv e d a o n e -tim e
e n d o r s e m e n t in th e p ilo t’s lo g b o o k fr o m (h e in s tr u c to r w h o c e rtifie s th e p e rs o n is
p ro fic ie n t.
2. T h is tr a in in g a n d e n d o r s e m e n t is n o t r e o u ir e d if th e p e rs o n h a s lo g g e d flig h t
lim e a s P ilo t In C o m m a n d o f a c o m p le x a irp la n e o r s im u la to r p r i o r t o A u g u s t
4 .1 9 9 7

* A pilo( may LOG PIC lime The FAA has determined that
in a c omfllex or hijfljn airplanes equipped with
in fo rm a n ts aircraft retractabl* landing near, flap*.
without the appropriate and e F l II &julhori1y Digital
ondorseimanla if hs in (he Enqinn £an(nol (FA D E £ j meet
" sole rr^QipulatarcfthB the datlnltlon of being a
H is to ry
controls of an aircraft for complex airplane and may be
The 1iiEt Space Shu Kin launched
w h ljfl (he p ilo t ¡9 ruted" uaad i<?r sanmwttlal pilot pn April, 12. 1981. There-were a
(category, class, end (vpe) n ig h t in s t r u c t o r r e r t if ic a t in n
total of 135 orbital missions.
and the ACTING PIC is Currently the only aircraft (hat
meals (Iioso iaqpirom<tnls is Over act years laler (he Iasi one
appropnaloly rated end
the Diamond DA42. landed on July 21. 2011.
dees have Ihe appropriate
endcjEBmentE. (61.51) (FAA Notice N 0000.331)
V
H IG H -P E R FO R M A N C E A IR P LA N E S — E N D O R S E M E N T: p i 31(f)]
1. N o p e r s o n m a y a c t a s P ilo t In C o m m a n d o f a h ig h - p e r fo r m a n c e a irp la n e { m o r e t h a n 2 0 0 h a
p r o d u c e d b y o n e o f th e e n g i n e s ), u n le s s t h a t p e rs o n h a s r e c e iv e d a n d lo g g e d g ro u n d a n d flig h t
t r a in i n g fr o m a n a u t h o r iz e d i n s t r u c t o r in a h ig h - p e r fo r m a n c e a irp la n e o r s im u la to r — h a s b e e n fo u n d
p ro fic ie n t — a n d h a s r e c e iv e d a o n e -tim e e n d o r s e m e n t in th e p ilo t’s lo g b o o k fro m th e In s tru c to r w h o
c e rtifie s th e p e rs o n is p ro fic ie n t. N O T E : A s m a ll t w i n w ith 2QQ h o o r le s s p e r s id e w o u ld n o t c o u n t a s
a h i g h p e r f o r m a n c e a irc ra ft. T h e tr a in in g c a n b e a c c o m p lis h e d In a tw in w ith m o re th a n 2 0 0 hp p e r
s id e e v e n If Ih e tr a in e e d o e s n o t h a v e a m u lti-e n g in e ra tin g . (FAA legal ini*rpreiatl&n Mar 13.2013)
2. not required if th e p e rs o n h a s logged flig h t lim e a s Pilot In
T h is tr a in in g a n d e n d o r s e m e n t is
Com m and o f a h ig h p e r f o r m a n c e airplane or s im u la to r prior to A ug ust 4 ,1 9 9 7 .

194 E V E R Y T H IN G E XPL AI NED fqr the Professional Pilot

 C hap S — C e r tific a te s , L o g g in g , M e d ic a l A D ru g s

A n A L T IT U D E jC H A M B E R
“ F L IG H T ' 1 c a n b e e x p e rie n c e d
by attending a ‘ Physiological
T r a in in g P ro g r a m 11 a t o n e o f
m a n y m ilita r y fa c ilitie s a c ro s s th e
U .S . {A IM 8 -1 - 2 ). C o n ta c t th e
C iv il A e r o s p a c e M e d ic a l In s titu te
■:C A M I i &> 4 0 5 - 9 5 4 - 6 2 1 2 c r
th ro u g h y o u r lo c a l F S D O .
www.faa.gov

P R E S S U R IZ E D A IR C R A F T — H IG H A L T IT U D E E N D O R S E M E N T — PIC
R E Q U IR E M E N TS : [61.31(g). AIM fl-1-2. AC 61-107]
1. H o p e rs o n m a y a c t a s P IC o f a p re s s u r iz e d a irc ra ft (capable of right operations above 25,oeo feat) u n le s s th a t
p e rs o n h a s re c e iv e d a n d lo g g e d t r a in i n g fro m a n a u t h o r iz e d i n s t r u c t o r a n d o b ta in e d a n
e n d o r s e m e n t in th a t p e r s o n ’s lo g b o o k o r tr a in in g r e c o r d fr o m a n a u th o r iz e d in s tru c to r.
a. G round t r a in i n g — H ig h - a ltitu d e a e r o d y n a m ic s a n d m e te o ro lo g y , r e s p ir a tio n , h y p o x ia , d u ra tio n
o f c o n s c io u s n e s s w ith o u t s u p p le m e n ta l o x y g e n , e tc .
b. F lig h t t r a in i n g — to a p r e s s u r iz e d a i r c r a f t , o r a n a p p ro v e d flig h t s i m u la t o r th a t is
re p r e s e n ta tiv e o f a p r e s s u r iz e d a irc ra ft, m u s t in c lu d e a t le a s t:
i. N o rm a l c ru is e flig h t o p e ra tio n s w h ile o p e ra tin g a b o v e 2 5 .0 0 0 fe e t M S L
il. P ro p e r e m e r g e n c y p r o c e d u r e s fo r s im u la te d r a p id d e c o m p r e s s io n w ith o u t a c tu a lly
d e p r e s s u r iz in g th e a irc ra ft; a n d
ilii. E m e rg e n c y d e s c e n t p ro c e d u re s ,
2. T h e a b o v e tra in in g is H O T r e a u ir e d if th a t p e rs o n c a n d o c u m e n t a n y o f th e f o l l o w i n g in a p r e s s u r iz e d
a ir c r a ft o r s im u la t o r :
a. S e rv in g a s P IC b e fo r e A p ril 15. 1 3 3 1 .
b. C o m p le tin g a p ilo t p r o fic ie n c y c h e c k fo r a p i l o t c e r t if ic a t e o r r a t in g b e f o r e A p ril 15, 1 0 9 1
c. C o m p le tin g a P IC c h e c k c o n d u c te d b y th e m i l i t a r y s e rv ic e s o f th e U .S .
d. C o m p le tin g a P IC p ro fic ie n c y c h e c k u n d e r P a rt 1 2 1 . 1 2 5 o r 1 3 5 c o n d u c te d b y th e a d m in is tr a to r
o r b y an a p p ro v e d p ilo t c h e c k a irm a n ,

T A IL W H E E L E N D O R S E M E N T : h i
1. N o p e rs o n m a y a c t a s P IC o f a ta ilw h e e l a irc ra ft u n le s s th a t p e r s o n h a s re c e iv e d & lo g g e d Flight tra in in g
fro m an " a u th o riz e d in s tru c to r" m a ta ilw h e e l a ir c r a f t a n d re c e iv e d a n e n d o r s e m e n t in th e p e rs o n 's
lo g b o o k fro m a n a u th o r iz e d in s tru c to r w h o fo u n d (h e p e rs o n p r o fic ie n l in th e o p e ra tio n o f a ta ilw h e e l
a irp la n e . T h e flig h t tr a in in g m u s t in c lu d e :
a. N o rm a l a n d c r o s s w in d ta k e o ffs a n d la n d in g s .
b. Wheel landings (unless the manufacturer has recommended against such landings)
c. G o - a ro u n d p ro c e d u re s .
2, T h is tr a in in g a n d e n d o r s e m e n t is n o t re q u ire d iT th e p e r s o n lo g g e d P IC lim e in a ta ilw h e e l a irp la n e
b e fo re A p ril 1 5 ,1 9 9 1 ,
T h e p e rs o n r e c e iv in g th e ta ilw h e e l
e n d o rs e m e n t n e e d n o t be q u a lifie d
to a c t a s P IC in th e a irc ra ft in
w h ic h th e tr a in in g is re c e iv e d .

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 195

C h a p 5 — C e r tific a te s , L o g g in g , M e d ic a l A D ru g s
§ 6 1 . S B P i l o t In C o m m a n d P r o f i c i e n c y C h e c k : O p e r a t i o n o f a n a i r c r a f t t h a t r e q u i r e * m o r e
than one pilot flight crew m em b er or I* turbojet-pow ered (M a in ta in in g C u rre n c y fo r a T y p e R a tin g )
{a| Except be otherwise provided in this secticn. to serve as Pi loll n Command of an aircraft 1hat is lypa certificated far more than ona
required pilot Night crewmember nr is turbojet-powered, a person must—
(1) Within 1hc creceding 12 calendar m onths, complete a Pilot-1 n-Command Proficie n cv C h eck in AN aircraft lhal is type
CBTtiticatfld h:r nuujLllMlILaiQfl required pilot (lighl crewmember ai is luibojal-bowerec:..
(2) Within (ha preceding 24 calendar m onths, complete a PilOt-fn-Command Proficiency Check m the PA R TIC U LAR TYPE of
aircraft in which that person will serve ns pilot in command, that Is type carl heated far more than one required piloL 11ghi
crawmembar or is turbojet-powared.
[b) This section J o b e not apply to parsons conducting operations under s u b part K of part i l l . part 121 125. 133. 1 35. or 137 el Lhis
chapter, or poisons maintaining continuing qualification under an Advanced Qualification Program approved under sub-part Y of
port 121 of this -ch-aptar.
{cj The Pilol-ln-Command Proficiency Check given in accordance wiLh the provisicis of subpart K o' part 31. part 121. 125. or 1 35 of
this chapter may ue used to satisfy the reouiiemants at ihia section.
(dj The Pilot-lrvCommand Proficiency Check required by paragraph (a) of tins section may be accomplished by satisfactory complulion
oi ONE of the following
(1) AejQol-Jfl-Coininand PrqfitiancK.Cjttflek co n d u cte d ^ :i person authorized ny i he Administrator, consoling oMha aeronautical
knowledge areas, areas of operations, and tasks required loi A time rating. In AN airerall ttiat Is type certificated far more
than ona pilot (light crewmamher ar is turbojel-powered:
(2) Thn practical to«t required lor A tittp rttiiHi. in 1hn1 is type certificated fr:r D H 1 ttiin on* njquired Bilal (light
crewmember fit is turbojet-pci Wered:
(3) The initial or periodic practical fast required for the issuance cl a pilot examiner or check airman designation, in AN aircraft
that is type cTtW cautd far more than on* raqu nod pilot Night crowmambor at is lurfaejet-powarod:
(4) A pilot proficiency check administered by u U.S. Armed Force ttiat qualifies Ihe military pilot far pilot-in-command designation
with instrument privileges, and was performed in a military aincralt that Ihe military requires to he eporated by mora than ona
pilol flight crewmember or is. turbojet-powered:
(5) For a pilot authorized by the Administrator to operate A N experimenLai turbojet-cowered aircraft that possesses, by original
design or through modification, morfiJttefl a ynalft-SAai- the required BJCOjUjaflJOKyitlSfib ^ r f i l l . pi (ha «¡JtAimeniaUMtbalflJ-
powarad aircraft lor whiefi the pilot fields an authorization may be accomplished by completing any O N E of the followina.
(i; A single proficiency check, conducted by an eiraminer authorized by the AcminisLrator, in any one oF the experimental
turboiet-oo wared aircraft for which tha airman holds an authorization fa operate ir conducted within me prior 12 m on th »:
(li: A single proficiency check, conducted by an examiner authorized by the Administrator, in ANY e x p e rim e n t turbojat-
powered aircraft (e.-g.. iF a pilot acquires a new authorization lo operate an addilional experimental lurbojet-powered aircraft,
the check Tor Ihat new authorization will meal the intent), if conducted wilhin 1ha prior 11 m on th «:
liiij Current qualiticalion under an Advance d Dual ification Program (AQP) under Sdbpart Y at pari 121 of Lhis chapter;
{iv) AW Y proficiancv check conducted under subpart K oi part 91 part 121. or pari 1£5 ol this chapter within the prior 12
months II conducted In a turn&|ot-ucwurad aircraft; or
(v) A N Y other 561.53 proficiency check conducted within the prior 12 months it conducted in a turbo jet-powered aircraft.
I : The pilot pi a nmUi-saal experimental turboiel-oowarad aircraft who has nol received a proficiency chBok within tha Prior 12
months In accordance with this section may continue to operate such aircraft in accordance with (ho plot's authorizations. However,
the pilot is prohibited from carriage of any persons in any experimental turbojet-powered aircraft with the exception oF those
ittfivldiilfll authorized by the AdmiriHfralw to conduct Uaining, conduct flight checks, or perform pilot certification functions in such
aircraft, and only during flights specifically related lo framing, flight checks, or certification in such aircraft.
{f} This section will not apply to a pilot authorized by the Administrator lo serve as pilol in command in experimental turbojet-cowered
aircraft lhal possesses, by original design, a l l n gla seat, when operating such single-seat aircraft.
(g) A check or lest described in paragraphs (d)(1) through (5) of lhis Section may be accomplished m a flight simulator under part 142
oF this chapter subject to the following.
(1) Except as provided Iw in paragraphs (g)(2) and (3) or this section, if an otherwise qualified and approved flight simulator used for
a pilot-in-command proficiency check, is not qualified and approved for a Specific required maneuver—
(i) The training center must annotate, in the applicant^ training record, Ihe maneuver or maneuvers omitted; end
ilii Prior to achng as pilot m command, the pilot must demonstrate proficiency m each omiLled maneuver In an aircraft or flight
simulator qualified end approved far each omitted maneuver.
(2) If Ihe Flighl simulator used pursuant to paragraph (g) of this section is not qualified and approved for circling approaches—
(I) The applicant's record must Include ihe statement, ^Proficiency in circling approaches, not demonstrated1". and
Hi;- Trie applicant may not pedorm circling approaches as pilo! in commend when weather conditions ere less than the basic
VFR conditions described in §91,155 ol this chapter, unfll proficiency in circling approaches has been successfully
demonstrated m a (light simulalor qualified end approved lor circling approaches or In an aircraft fo a person adfhohZed by
the Administrator Lo ocnducl the check required by this section.
(3) If the flighl simulator used pursuant to paragraph (g) of tins section is not Qualified and epprovud lor Landings. Ihe applicant
must—
(i) Hold e type rating in trie airplane represented by the simulator; and
(Iif Have completed within the preceding 90 days ul lejnuhroo takeoffs end throe landing:: iono to a full stem ati fae sole
manipulator ol the flight controls in the type airplane Fot Which the pital-in-command proficiency check is sought.
{h } For |he purpose of meeting the pilot-in-command proficiency check require men Is oi paragraph (a) of this suction, a person may act as
pilot in command of a flight under day VFR conditions or day IFR conditions If no person or propony Is earned, other than as necessary
lo demonstrate compliance with lhis pad.
(i) ft a pilol tekes the pilqt-in-cgmmand proFiciency check requited by lhis secfion in Ihe calendar month before cr Itin calendar month
after Lhe month in which il Is due, the pilot is considered lo have taken It In the month in which it was due far Ihe purpose of
computing when the next pitol-in-cammand proficiency check is due.
(Jt A piicft-in-command ol .i lurbajol poworocl nircratt that is type certificated for orm pitot ■:loo-, not Jiavo lo- comely with tho ploMlY-
command proficiency check requirements in paragraphs (a)(1) and (a)(2) of fhis Section until October 31. 2012.
fk) Unless required by the aircraft's operating Jimilaficns, a PIC of an experi menial turbojet-powered aircraft does nol have lo comply
with tttepitol-in-command proficiency chock requifamants m paragraphs (a)(1) and (a)(2) of this section until October 31j 2012.

196 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Pro fuss tonni Pilot

 C hap 5 — C e r tific a te s , L o g g in g , M e d ic a l & D ru g s ]

O P E R A T IO N S R E Q U IR IN G A M E D IC A L C E R T IF IC A T E : (&1 .3,&1.S3.tt.ni)
A p e rs o n m u s t h o ld :

1. A First-Class m e d ic a l c e rtific a te w h e n e x e r c is in g th e p riv ile g e s o f a n A T P c e rtific a te fo r P IC

p riv ile g e s . Tor S IC p riv ile g e s in a f la g o r s u p p le m e n ta l o p e ra tio n In P a rt 121 r e q u i r i n g th r e e o r m o re
p i l o t s , o r fo r a p i l o t M ia h tc r e w m e m b e r in p a r t 121 o p e ra tio n s w h o h a s r e a c h e d h is o r h e r 6 0 th
b i r t h d a y . R e q u ire d fo r P a r t 1 3 5 F A S S E N G E R - c a r r y in q o p e r a t io n s o n l y — N o p e rs o n m a y s e rv e a s
P IC o f a t u r b o j e t ( c a r ry in g p a s s e n g e rs ), o r an a ir p la n e h a v in g 1Q o r m o r e p a s s e n g e r s e a t s . O f f a
m u lt i e n g in e a irp la n e in a c o m m u t e r o p e r a t io n u n le s s h e h o ld s a n A ir lin e T r a n s p o r t P il o t c e rtific a te
a n d a c u rr e n t 1 s t C la s s M e d ic a l ; i 35.243}
2. Alt le a s t a S e c o n d -C la s s m e d ic a l c e r tific a te w h e n e x e r c is in g th e p riv ile g e s o f a n A T P c e r tific a te fo r
S IC p riv ile g e s ( o th e r th a n p a n 121 re q u irin g th r e e o r m o re p i lo t s w h ic h re g u ire s a F ir s t-C la s s ) , a
c o m m e r c ia l p ilo t c e rtific a te , o r a n a ir tra ffic c o n tro l lo w e r o p e r a to r c e rtific a te . R e q u ire d fo r all
c o m m e r c ia l fly in g e x c e p t th a t w h ic h r e q u ire s a n (u n r e s tr ic te d ) A T P ( n o " E K G " re q u ire d ).

3. A t le a s t a T h ird -C la s s m e d ic a l c e rtific a te w h e n e x e r c is in g th e p riv ile g e s o f a P r iv a t e P i l o t .

R e c r e a t io n a l P i l o t . S tu d e n t. P i l o t , o r F li g h t I n s t r u c t o r (exceptions — giiders, balloons a S port Pilots).

C F Is n e e d o n ly a T h ir d - C la s s m e d ic a l t o g iv e i n s t r u c t i o n (a n d g e t p a id fo r it)
: I f th e y a c t a s P IC n r a r e q u ir e d c r e w m e m b e r , out n o m e d ic a l a t all U th e y
i d on 't act as a required crew member (and they can still gel paid for It),

O P E R A TIO N S N O T R EQ U IR IN G A M ED IC A Li i t -
A person is not required to hold a medical certificate:
1. When exercising the privileges of a student pilot for, or privileges of, a pilot certificate for a
g lid e r . b a llo o n , o r s p o rt p ilo t .
2. When exercising the privileges of a flight in s tr u c to r with a glider category rating;
3. W hen e xe rcisin g the privileges o f a f lig h t in s tr u c t o r certificate if the person is n o t a c tin g as
pilot in command ql serving as a required pilot flig h t crowmombar:
4. When exercising the privileges of a ground instructor certificate;
5. W hen serving as an e x a m in e r o r c h e c k a irm a n d u rin g the adm in istra tio n o f a test o r ch e ck fo r a ce rtifica te , rating,
or a u th o riza tio n conducted in q flight simulator or flig h t training device;
6. W hen ta k in g a te s t or chock fo r a co rtifica le , rating, o r a u lh o ria a tio n co n ducted In a flight s im u la to r o r flig h t
training device ; o r
7. When exercising the priviteges of a s o o rt p ilo t when using a valid U.S. driver's license to meet the requirements
w h o has been fo u n d eligible for (ho issuance of a t least a th ird -cla ss a irm a n m edical certificate a t the tim e o f h is o r
her most recent application (if the person has applied far a medical certificate) and does not know of any medical
condition (hat w o u ld m ake that p a rso n un a b le to o p e ra te a lig h t-sp o rt a ircra ft in a safe m anner.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 197

C hap 5 — C e r tific a te s , L o g g in g , M e d ic a l & D ru g s

P R O H IB IT IO N O N O P E R A T IO N S P U R IN G M E D IC A L D E F IC IE N C Y : [61.53. S iz a fb )]
fa ) Q p ^ r ^ i g n s t h g t R E Q U IR E g m e d i a l c e r t i f i é e - E x c e p t a s p ro v id e d fo r in p a ra g r a p h ( b ) o r th is s e c lio n .
a p e rs o n w h o h o ld s a c u rr e n t m e d ic a l shall not act as Pilot In Com m and, or In any other capacity as a
r e q u ir e d p i lo t flig h t c re w m e m b e r , w h ile th a t p e rs o n :
{1} K now s o r h a s r e a s o n to k n o w of any medical condition th a t w o u ld make the person unable to meet
th e requirements f o r th e medical certificate n e c e s s a ry fo r th e p ilo t o p e ra tio n : o r
{2 ) Is ta k in g medication o r re c e iv in g o th e r tr e a tm e n t f o r a m e d ic a l c o n d itio n th a t re s u lts in th e p e rs o n being
u n a b le to m e e t th e r e q u ir e m e n ts fo r th e m e d ic a l c e r tific a te n e c e s s a ry fo r th e p ilo t o p e ra tio n .
fb) Operations that do N O T R EQ U IR E a medical certificate - F o r o p e r a tio n s p ro v id e d fo r in 61.23(b)
{i.e ., g lid e rs a n d b a llo o n s ), a p e rs o n shall not act a s Pilot In C om m a nd , or in any other capacity as a
required pilot flig h t c re w m e m b e r , w h ile th a t p e rs o n knows or h a s re a s o n \o k n o w o f a n y medical
condition th a t w o u ld m a k e th e p e rs o n unable to operate th e a irc ra ft in a safe m anner.

* T h is r e g u la tio n p r e v e n ts a p ilo t fro m fly in g s h o u ld h e o r s h e d e v e lo p a \

m e d ic a l c o n d itio n o r b e g in s u s in g a m e d ic a tio n th a t w o u ld d is q u a lify
th e p e rs o n fro m m e e tin g th e re q u ire m e n ts o f th e m e d ic a l c e rtific a te .

* T h e re Is n o re g u la tio n s p e c ific a lly r e q u ir in g th e p ilo t to r e p o r t th e

d e fic ie n c y , a s lo n g a s h e o r s h e d o e s n o t c o n tin u e to fly.. T h e re fo re ,
s h o u ld (h e p e rs o n b e c o m e c u re d , th e m e d ic a l c e r tific a te is s till v a lid .

* Ilf th e re is a n y q u e s tio n a s to th e c u re , th e b e s t c o u r s e o f a c tio n is to

s im p ly a p p ly fo r a n e w m e d ic a l, d is c lo s in g (h e in fo rm a tio n .

* In a n y e v e n t, (h e p e rs o n w o u ld b e r e q u ire d (o r e p o r t th e m e d ic a l
is s u e c n th e ir n e x t m e d ic a l a p p lic a tio n .

A n y c h a n g e in a p ilo t’s m e d ic a l c o n d itio n s h o u ld ra is e a q u e s tio n th a t th e p e rs o n m a y no lo n g e r be

m e d ic a lly q u a lifie d . A p e rs o n w h o tr ie s to hide a change In th e ir medical condition, a n d continues to
f|y. c o u ld be fo u n d In violation of 61.53. A n d If th a t p e rs o n c o n tin u e s th e c h a ra d e a n d does not
mention the problem d u rin g h is o r h e r n e x t re q u ire d m e d ic a l, th e y c o u ld a ls o b e fo u n d in violation of
61.59: Falsification of Application fo r a C e rtific a te T h is c a n b e c a u s e fo r suspension o r revocation.

N O T IC E Printed O n E V E R Y Medical Application Form ( 3 5 0 0 - B j

W hoever in any matter w iLhin th e ju ris d ic tio n o f a n y d e p a r tm e n t o r a g e n c y o f th e U n ite d S ta le s kn ow in gly
a n d w illfu lly falsifies, conceals o r covers up b y a n y tr ic k , s c h e m e o r d e v ic e a material fact, o r w h o m a k e s
a n y false, fictitious o r fraudulent statements o r re p r e s e n ta tio n s , o r e n try , m a y he fin e d up Lo
$ 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 — or — Im p ris o n e d n o t m o r e th a n fiv e y e a r s — o r b oth.
(IS U.S.CodH Sacs. 1001; S571)

Cf you can't afford a doctor,

w> to an airport - you'll get a
free x -r a y and a breast exam
if you mention A I Qaeda,
II get a free colonoscopy.

198 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot


D U R A T IO N OF A M E D IC A L C E R T IF IC A T E :
I f y o u h o ld a
F ir s t C la s s
Aqe 40 or older;
Reverts lo 2 "J Class alter
G manltis then reverts to
3rt Class
S e c o n d C la s s
Reverts I g 3 11Class after
the 12” monih
T h ir d C la s s
N O T E : A 1* C la s s m e d ic a l r e q u ire s an
e le c t r o c a r d lo g r a m — a k a “ E K G 1' — e x a m in a tio n
a t th e f i r s t a p p l ic a t i o n a f t e r r e a c h in g th e
p e r s o n a l3 5 " ' b i r t h d a y a n d o n an a n n u a l b a s is
a f t e r r e a c h in g th e p e r s o n 's 4 0
20120
T h e fir s t 2 0 o f th e
2 0 /2 0 re fe rs la 2 0
f e e l a w a y fro m th e
S no I Ion e v e c h a rt
If Ihe smallest line
you can read is (he
20/60 lina, yw r eya?
are seeing [hai lina ss
if-a person with 2CV20
drsicr were- y.a riding SO lesi
fa« \mqrwl inMCfrf it tit
................................. *
Im portant N O T E
IC A O ru le s re q u ire
p ilo ts to c a rr y a s p a r e
s e t o f g la s s e s w h ile
fly in g in I n t e r n a t io n a l
o r fo r e ig n a i r s p a c e .
A n d o n th e d a te o f
e x a m in a tio n f o r y o u r
m o s t r e c e n t m e d ic a l
^ e r t if iC a t ^ ^ O i^ w e r ^
U n d e r ag e 40
A g e 4 0 o r o ld e r
A ny age
U n d e r ag e 40
(NOTE: The doration of a
student pilot certificate
matches the duration of a
third class medical
certificate,)
A g e 4 0 o r o ld e r
"O n the p lu s side, you ce rta in ly have a
fa n ta stic m e m o ry c a p ta in . Now let's turn
a ro u n d and try it again. W e m oved the ch a rt
to the o p p o s ite w all since your la st v isit."
EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot
Chap 5 — Certificates, Longing. Medical & Drugs
(ei .23. 61.15. ICAO Annex 1 (o 1hH Chicago Convenliqin)
T h e n y o u r m e d ic a l
A n d y o u a re c o n d u c t i n g a n c e r t if ic a t e e x p ir e s , f o r
o p e r a t io n r e q u i r i n g t h a t o p e r a t io n , a t t h e e n d
Of t h e j a s ^ a ^ n h ^ ^
■ ir
□n A TP c e rtifica te fo r F lC p rivileges, 12 m o n t h alter the mortiti of
or fo r SIC p rivile g e s in a fla g or the dale c' ex am.iwbt.cn shown on
supp lem e n ta l opera tio n in p a rt 121 the medical certificate.
req u irin g three or m o re pilots.
an ATP c e rtifica te for E l£ p rivile g e s, G m o n t h uflor tho month or
fo r SIC p rivile g e s in a flag o r the date of exam ination shown on
supp lem e n ta l opera tio n in p a rt 121 the medical certificali;.
req u irin g throe or m o re pilots, o r fo r
a pilot fllahtcrow m e m b e r in p a il
121 o p e ra tio n s who has re a c h e d Ms
an A T P c e rtifica te for S IC privileges 12 m o n t h niter the month or
(o th e r than p a ri 121 requiring th re e the date c‘ examination shown on
□r m ore p ilo t s ) a c o m m e rc ia l pilot the medical certificale.
ce rtificate, o r an air tra ffic contror
to w e r o p e ra to r certificate.____________
a re c re a tio n a l pilot c e rtifica te , a 60 ' m o n t h alter Lliu month of
private pilot certificate, a flight the date u‘ examination shown on
instructor certificato (w hen acting ihe medical certificate.
as P IC o r a required pilot flight
cre w m e m b e r in o p e ra tio n s other
than g lid e r or balloon), a u n d e n t
pilot ce rtificate, o r a sport pilot
ce rtificate (when not using a U.S.
driver's license as medical
q u a lifica tio n ].
S a m e as a b o ve 2 4 1>l m o n t h ulter the moniti of
the dale of examination shown on
ihe medical certificale,
Y o u m u s t r e p o r t a ll v is its to a n y h e a lth p ro fe s s io n a l
w ith in ih e Ia s i 3 y e a r s in c lu d in g n a m e s a n d a d d re s s e s .
E v e n a n a n n u a l p h y s ic a l e x a m fro m y o u r f a m ily
d o c t o r s h o u l d b e r e p o r t e d , b u t r o u t in e d e n t a l o r e y e
e x a m in a tio n s n e e d n o t b e r e p o r t e d . M o re s e rio u s
m e d ic a l p ro b le m s m a y re q u ire a d d itio n a l d o c u m e n ta tio n .
For e a c h eye
s e p a ra te ly .
V I S I O N R E Q U IR E M E N T S
1« & 2ni 3rd
S D is t a n c e
C la s s
20/20
C la s s
20/40
V is i o n corrected corrected
?\tiLb.,
N ear 20/40 20/40
V is i o n corrected corrected
N o lim itation on how badly you see
w ith o u t oornaction.
19$
C hap 5 — C e r tific a te s , L o g g in g , M e d ic a l & D ru g s]

S O D A — Statement O f Demonstrated Ability:

{B7.11B, 67.215, 57.315, B7.401)
1* A " W A IV E R " 1s s u e d fo r a s ia lic o r s ta b le m e d ic a l d e le c t th a t w o u ld n o r m a lly
n o t a llo w a n a p p lic a n t lo m e e t re q u ire d m e d ic a l s ta n d a rd s .
2. O n e o f Ih e m o s t c o m m o n is a “ c o l o r b l i n d ” d e fic ie n c y . F a ilu re o f a c o lo r v is io n
te s t c o u ld p u l a r e s t r i c t i o n o n y o u r m e d ic a l th a t p ro h ib its y o u fr o m f l y i n g a t
n i g h t o r w ith c o l o r s ig n a l c o n t r o l ( lig h t g u n s ig n a ls fr o m ih e to w e r).
3. T h e re a re s e v e ra l s u b s t i t u t e c o l o r e la t e t e s t s a c c e p te d b y th e F A A th a t c a n
b e u s e d in s te a d o f th e n o rm a l ‘ Is h ih a ra p s e u d o is o c h r o m a llc c o lo r p la te ’ t e s l lo
d e m o n s t r a t e y o u r a b i l i t y to d is tin g u is h c o lo r. Y o u s h o u ld a lw a y s t r y th e
a lt e r n a t iv e c o l o r p la te t e s t s a s th e f i r s t o p t i o n .
4. T h e s e c o n d o p lio h (la s t re s o r t fo r a 3 1'1 C la s s m e d ic a l) is a n " O p e r a t io n a l
C o lo r V is io n T e s t *' ( O C V T ) a k a c o lo r s ig n a l lig h t te s t a d m in is te r e d b y a n F A A
in s p e c to r a i a n a ir p o r t w ith a c o n tro l lo w e r It's a g o o d id e a to p ra c tic e th is le s t
firs t w ith c o o p e r a tiv e c o n tr o l to w e r s p e c ia lis t (a n d a fr ie n d w ith n o rm a l c o lo r v is io n ). E a rly m o r n in g , la te
a fte rn o o n o r a c l o u d y d a y w ill o ff e r Lhe b e s t c o n d i t i o n s fo r c o r r e c tly id e n tify in g th e c o lo rs . Y o u w ill
a ls o n e e d to p ro v e y o u c a n d is tin g u is h o b je c ts on a s e c tio n a l c h a rt s u c h a s m o u n ta in s , lo w la n d s , e tc .
5. 1 51 a n d 2 nd C la s s m e d ic a l a p p lic a n ts w ill a ls o n e e d to d e m o n s tr a te d u rin g a f l i g h t t e s t m a n y th in g s
s u c h a s c o r r e c tly in te r p r e tin g all In s tru m e n ts o r d is p la y s in th e c o c k p it, s e le c t s e v e ra l e m e r g e n c y la n d in g
s ite s a n d d e s c rib e lh e s u rfa c e ; c o lo r a n d s ig n ific a n c e o f a p p r o a c h lig h ts ; V A S I, ru n w a y lig h ts , a irp o rt
b e a c o n lig h ts , ta x iw a y lig h tin g a n d lig h ts o n o th e r a irp la n e s , a m o n g s t m a n y o th e r th in g s .
6. O th e r c o m m o n d e fic ie n c ie s re q u irin g a S O D A a re v is u a l a c u ity th a t c a n n o t b e c o r r e c te d lo a t le a s t
2 0 /4 0 , o r th e a m p u ta tio n o f a n e n U e m ity ,
7. M o s t c o n d itio n s re q u ire th e a p p lic a n t to d e m o n s tr a te a b ility th ro u g h a m e d ic a l flig h t te s t, h o w e v e r
s o m e tim e s w a iv e rs a r e is s u e d o n th e b a s is o f p re v io u s flig h t e a p e rie n c e .
B. A S O D A is is s u e d a s a p e r m a n e n t w a iv e r a s lo n g a s th e c o n d itio n d o e s n o t c h a n g e .
9. W a iv e rs fo r conditions s u c h a s h e a r t d is e a s e o r c a n c e r th a t a re s u b j e c t t o c h a n g e m a y b e is s u e d b y
a “S P E C IA L IS S U A N C E A U T H O R IZ A T IO N 11b a s e d o n p e rio d ic re p e a te d te s tin g (&7 J d i)

L A S IK E ve S u r a e r v :
1 C u r r e n tly a c c e p t a b le fo r a ll c la s s e s o f m e d ic a l c e r t if ic a iio n [P h o to R e fr a c iiv e K e r a te c to m y i P R K ), o r
E a d la l £ e r a lo t o m y
2. O n c e v is u a l a c u ity h a s s ta b iliz e d , th e p ilo t m u s t s u b m i t a b rie f r e p o r t fr o m th e o p h t h a l m o l o g is t to th e
A e r o m e d ic a l C e r t if ic a t io n D iv is io n In O k la h o m a C ity . W h e n th e n e x t s c h e d u le d m e d ic a l is d u e . F A A
fo rm 0 5 0 0 -7 m u s t be s u b m itte d w ith th e m e d ic a l a p p lic a tio n . If th e r e a re no p e r s is te n t c o m p lic a tio n s ,
s u c h a s g la re o r c o m p r o m is e d r i g h t v is io n , a n d u n c o r r e c te d ( o r c o rr e c te d ) v is u a l a c u ity m e e ts th e
s ta n d a r d fo r lh e c la s s o f m e d ic a l a p p lie d fo r, th e c e r tific a te m a y be is s u e d a t th e tim e o f th e
e x a m in a tio n .

C O N TAC T LEN SES:

1. C o n ta c t le n s e s th a t c o r r e c t fo r D IS T A N T V IS IO N O N LY a re a c c e p t a b le fo r a ll c la s s e s o f m e d ic a l
c e rtific a iio n .
2. B if o c a l c o n t a c t le n s e s a re NOT a c c e p t a b le .
3, C o n t a c t le n s e s th a t re q u ire o n e le n s lo r N E A R v is io n a n d th e o t h e r le n s fo r D IS T A N T v is io n
■m o n o v i s io n c o n ta c ts ) a re N O T a c c e p t a b le .
4, S in g le v is io n , b ifo c a l, trifo c a l, o r "lln e le s s " b ifo c a l E Y E G L A S S E S a r e a c c e p t a b le fo r a ll c la s s e s o f
m e d ic a l c e r tific a tio n .

E Y E : r67.103, 67.203, B7.303)

1, 1 51 and 2 nd class m e d ic a ls re q u ire 20120 o r b e tte r in Each e v e separately w ith o r w ith o u t c o r r e c tio n fo r
D IS T A N C E v i s i o n . T h e N E A R v i s i o n s ta n d a rd is 2 0 /4 0 a t 16 in c h e s fo r e a c h e y e s e p a ra te ly , a n d if
a g e 5 0 o r o ld e r, 2 0 /4 0 f o r e a c h e y e s e p a r a te ly a t b o th 16 in c h e s a n c f 32 i n c h e s .
2, 3 r^ c la s s m e d ic a ls re q u ire 2 0 /4 0 o r b e tte r fo r e a c h e y e s e p a r a te ly w ith o r w ith o u t c o r r e c tio n fo r
d is t a n c e a n d n e a r v is io n
3, T h e re is n o u n c o r r e c t e d v i s io n r e q u i r e m e n t , a lth o u g h th e e x a m in e r m a y c h e c k u n c o rr e c te d v is io n
ju s t to s e e if th e r e h a v e b e e n a n y m a jo r c h a n g e s s in c e th e p re v io u s e x a m .

200 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 C hap S — C e r tific a te s , L o g g in g , M e d ic a l & Dru g s )
E AR . NOSE. TH R O A T, and
E Q U IL IB R IU M : (57.105. 57.205, 67.305)
1. Y o u m u s t be a b le to h e a r a c o n v e r s a t io n a l
v o ic e a t 6 f e e t , w ith y o u r b a c k
tu rn e d lo th e e x a m in e r
2. H e a rin g a id s m a y b e a llo w e d b u t
w ill re q u ire a w a iv e r t h a t re q u ire s th e
u s e o f " h e a r in g a m p l if ic a t io n ."
3. V e r t ig o o r a n y ty p e o f
ettuiljbrinm-pr.oblerns a re
d is q u a lify in g .

M EN TAL: [67.107, 67.2D7 57.307)

1. A p e r s o n a lit y d i s o r d e r th a t is
s e v e re e n o u g h to h a v e r e p e a te d ly
m a n ife s te d its e lf b y o v e r t a c t s a lo n g
w ith m a n y o th e r m e n ta l c o n d itio n s a re
d is q u a lify in g .
2. S u b s t a n c e d e p e n d e n c e o r a b u s e is
al& o d i s q u a l i f y i n g , a s w o u ld be a
p o s itiv e d ru g te s t re s u lt.

N E U R O L O G IC : (57.10S, 67.209, 57.300)

1. A n y h is to ry o f E p ile p s y o r d is tu rb a n c e
o f c o n s c io u s n e s s is d i s q u a l i f y i n g .
2. A n y o th e r seizure tVOO d is o rd e r Is disqualifying

C A R D IO V A S C U L A R : [67,111, 67,211,67.311
1. M o s t a n y fo rm o f h e a r t d is e a s e o r re la te d v a s c u la r p r o b le m s a re d i s q u a l i f y i n g .
2. A 1 *‘ c la s s m e d ic a l re q u ire s a n E K G a f t e r a g o 3 5 a n d a n n u a ll y a ft e r a g e 4 0 .
3. P ilo ts th a t h a v e u n d e r g o n e b y p a s s s u r g e r y , a n g i o p l a s t y . 3 t e n t p la c e m e n t o r s im ila r c o r o n a r y a rte ry
d is e a s e d ia g n o s is a n d tr e a tm e n t w ill b e c o n s id e r e d fo r a m e d ic a l c o d ific a te u n d e r a “ S p e c ia l I s s u a n c e
A u t h o r i z a t i o n " — a fte r a S IX -M O N T H R E C O V E R Y P E R IO D — a n d a fte r a n e x te n s iv e b a tte ry o f te s ts
a n d e v a lu a tio n s .

G E N E R A L M E D IC A L C O N D IT IO N — D IA B E T E S M E L L IT U S : (e7n a , & 7.213. e7.3ia>

1. A n e s ta b lis h e d m e d ic a l h is to ry o r c lin ic a l d ia g n o s is o f d ia b e te s m e llitu s th a t r e q u ir e s in s u lin o r a n v
o t h e r h y p o g ly c e m ic d r u g fo r c o n tro l Is d i s q u a l i f y i n g fo r a n v c la s s o f m e d ic a l c e rtific a te .
2. D ia b e te s M e llitu s c o n t r o ll e d e x c lu s iv e ly w it h d i e t , is n o rm a lly n o t a p ro b le m a n d is N O T d i s q u a l i f y i n g
fo r a n y c la s s o f m e d ic a l c e rtific a tio n .
N O T E : It m a y b e p o s s ib le fo r a d r u g d e p e n d e n t I
d i a b e t ic lu re c e iv e a S p e c ia l I s s u a n c e m e dfic
ic a i.
l I
K lPNEY S TONES: ( s i .5 3 )
1. A k id n e y s to n e is c o n s id e r e d 0 d i s q u a l i f i c a t i o n u n d e r 6 1 .5 3 (“ m e d ic a l d e f i c i e n c y " ) . W h e n th e s to n e
p a s s e s o r is re m o v e d b y s o m e o th e r m e a n s ; a n d th e d o c to r c le a rs yo u lo re s u m e n o rm a l a c tiv itie s , y o u
m a y re s u m e fly in g .
Tha " Pilot's Bill ejI Rights'1
2. D o n 't fo r g e t lo r e p o r t th e p r o b le m o n y o u r n e x t F A A m e d ic a l a p p lic a tio n . signeU into law August 2012
cJirocts 1ha FAA lo im prova 1hg
meditai tarüticallon process.
H Y P E R T E N S IO N : ■v..................................................... 1
1. M a x im u m a llo w a b le b l o o d p r e s s u r e is 1 S 5 o v e r 9 5 . M o s t F D A -a p p r o v e d a n t l - h y p e r t e n s io n
m e d ic a t io n s A R E a llo w e d a n d a re N O T d i s q u a l i f y i n g fo r a n y c la s s o f m e d ic a l c e r tific a tio n .
2. C h e c k w ith y o u r A v ia tio n M e d ic a l E x a m in e r. O f c o u rs e it's a lw a y s a g o a d Id e a to c h e c k w ith th e A O P A
firs t. Y o u a re a m e m b e r a re n 't y o u ? For m ora information on 5 s e ria l Is s u a n c e , you cali
n call 1he
EAflJlaillialJÌM llficalllULD ÌidlllUl directly at this number 105-051^1(121 I

SPECIAL IS S U A N C E - D I S C R E T I O N A R Y I S S U A N C E : 157. i t s .6 7 . 2 1 5 . 5 7 . 3 1 5 . 5 7 .1 0 1 1
A p e rs o n w h o d o e s n o t m e e t th e [m e d ic a li p r o v i s io n s o f §§ 6 7 .1 0 3 th ro u g h 6 7 ,3 1 3 m a v a p p ly f o r th e
d i s c r e t i o n a r y I s s u a n c e o f a [m e d ic a l] c e rtific a te u n d e r § 6 7 .4 0 1 .
E V E R Y T H t N G E X P L A IN E D for the P ro fe ssio n a l P ilo t 201
C h a p 5 — C e r tific a te s , L o g g in g . M e d ic a l & D ru g s
DRUGS o r ALC O H O L: (61.15. 61.16. 91.17. 91.19.91.1047, 120.1 thru 120.227 135.1, 135.41, A lM M -1 )
1. N o p ilo t m a y a llo w a p e rs o n "w h o ¿ a u e a r's to be in to x ic a te d " o n b o a rd th e a ir c r a ft (91.17). T h e F A A
w o u ld noL h a v e to a c tu a lly prove In to x ic a tio n o f a p a s s e n g e r to u p h o ld a v io la tio n .
2. N o p e r s o n m a y o p e r a te a n a irc ra ft w ith knowledge (h a t ille g a l d ru g s a r e o r b o a rd (91. 19]^
3. N o p e r s o n m a y a tte m p t to o p e r a te a n a irc ra ft: (91.17)
a. W ith in 8 h o u r s a fte r c o n s u m in g a n a lc o h o lic b e v e ra g e .
b. W h ile u n d e r th e in flu e n c e o f a lc o h o l.
c. W h ile h a v in g ,0 4 % b y w e ig h t o r m o re a lc o h o l in th e b lo o d ,
d. W h ile u s in g a n y d r u g t h a t a ffe c ts th e p ilo t’s fa c u ltie s in a n y w a y c o n tr a ry to s a fe ty .
4. A l l c o m m e rc ia l p ilo ts a re s u b je c t to th e ir c o m p a n y ’s r a n d o m d r u g t e s t in g p r o g r a m , D u rin g e a c h y e a r
a m in im u m o f 2 5 % o f p ilo ts m u s t be r a n d o m ly te s te d fo r d r u g s a n d 1 0 % fo r a l c o h o l .
5. A n y p o s i t i v e r e s u l j o n a d r u g / a lc c h o l t e s t — w h ile w o rd in g fo r a c o m m e rc ia l o p e r a t o r — w ill n o r m a lly
r e s u lt in th e im m e d ia te r e v o c a t io n o f th a t p ilo t's m e d ic a l c e r t i f i c a t e u n til th a t p ilo t c a n e s ta b lis h c lin ic a l
e v id e n c e o f re c o v e ry , in c lu d in g s u s ta in e d a n d to ta l a b s tin e n c e , fo r a t le a s t t w o y e a r s .
6. If re q u e s te d , d u e to an a c c id e n t fo r e x a m p le , d ru g a n d a lc o h o l te s tin g m u s t ta k e p la c e w ith in 4 h o u r s o f
flig h t
7. A n y ‘LM O TO R -V EH LC l E_A C TJP N '' related in A N Y w w to C a v in g U n d e r th e In flu e n c e o f alcohol or
d ru gs, in c lu d in g s u s p e n s io n , re v o c a tio n , c a n c e lla tio n a n d d e n ia l, must be reported d ire c tly to th e F A A
w it h in 60 davs o f th e conviction date [o r d a te o f s u s p e n s io n if a " c o n v ic tio n " w a s n o t in v o lv e d ) — o r
yo u w ill c e r ta in ly h a v e y o u r Pilot’s Certificate S U S P E N D E D o r R E V O K E D IN D E F IN ITE L Y :
a. J u s t r e p o r t in g I t o n a n F A A m e d ic a l a p p lic a tio n fo r m d o e s N O T s a t i s f y Ih o r e q u i r e m e n t .
b. T h e p ilo t must file a written report — p e r F A R 6 1 .1 5 f e l — In c lu d in g th e p ilo t's n a m e , a d d re s s ,
d a le o f b irth , c e r tific a te n u m b e r , a n d d e ta ils o f Ih e c o n v ic tio n — within 6 0 days a fte r t h £
conviction date (o r d a te o f s u s p e n s io n if .a " c o n v ic tio n " w a s n o t in v o lv e d ) to:

•'Prsj-sjii'iul'Qvmuiil
tg s tin g '* m ust
\ Federal Aviation Adm inistration
K «u r before an A v ia t io n S e c u r ity D iv is io n ( A M C - 7 QD)
individual Is usud tu PO Bex 25810
perform a safety-
senMive function, Oklahom a City, Oklahom a 73125

D u rin g y o u r n e x t F A A m e d ic a l e x a m yo u m u s t r e p o r t th e c o n v i c t i o n o r a c tio n a g a i n . A n d
c o n t i n u e to r e p o r t It on e v e r y m e d ic a l a p p lic a tio n [ & : th e r e s t o f y o u r c a r e e r
d. A p ilo t m u s t r e p o r t e a c h a c tio n o v e n if it a r is e s o u t o f th e s a m e , p re v io u s ly re p o rte d , in c id e n t o r
c irc u m s ta n c e s , a lth o u g h th e y w ill c o u n t o n ly a s o n e m o to r v e h ic le a c tio n .
e. F ir s t t im e D U I o ffe n d e rs — A n y o n e w h o s e b lo o d - a lc o h o l h a s m e a s u r e d g r e a te r th a n .1 5 % . o r
w h o re fu s e d to p ro v id e a s a m p le w ill a u to m a tic a lly b e re fe rre d to F A A h e a d q u a r te r s a n d a lm o s t
c e r ta in ly b e re q u ire d to u n d e rg o a s u b s ta n c e a b u s e a s s e s s m e n t.
f. Tw o or morg a lc o h o l o r d r u g re la te d m o to r v e h ic le convictions w ith in a three-year period
will— result in y o u r p ilo t's certificate b e in g suspended or revoked indefinitely
u n d o u b te d ly
T h re e c o n v ic tio n s w ill p ro b a b ly fin is h y o u r fly in g c a r e e r fo r e v e r.
g. I f yo u a re i n i t i a l l y c h a r g e d w ith a D U I b u t e v e n t u a lly a re c o n v ic te d o f re c k le s s d riv in g a n d th e
a lc o h o l c h a r g e is d r o p p e d o r n o t p ro v e d , it s t i l l m e e t s th e d e f i n i t i o n o f a m o t o r v e h ic le
a c t i o n [6 1 .1 5 ( c ) ] a n d m u s t b e re p o r te d b e c a u s e th e D U I is related to th e m o to r v e h ic le a c tio n .
h. A p ilo t doe 5 N O T have to report ( to A v ia tio n S e c u rity , b u t w ill h a v e to r e p o r t e n m e d ic a l) a
license suspension or a tte n d a n c e at a remedial course d u e to a h is to ry o f speeding
c o n v ic tio n s but WOULD have tb report a tte n d a n c e at a remedial co u rse th a t reduced a
DUI to a c h a rg e o f reckless driving w h e th e r or not it re s u lte d in a lic e n s e s u s p e n s io n ,
I. T h e F A A h a s a c c e s s to th e N a tio n a l D riv e r R e g is te r, a n d It r e g u la rly c r o s s c h e c k s Its lis t o f p ilo t
c e rtific a te s . E V E R Y medical application is matched against th e National Driver Register.
B ig B ro th e r W IL L fin d o u t a n d th e y d o n ’t lik e d ru n k s , e v e n if y o u r n a m e is R a n d y B a b b itlh o ).
j. F a ilu re to c o m p ly w llh th e n o tific a tio n Is g r o u n d s fo r d e n ia l o f a n a p p lic a tio n fo r a n y c e rtific a te
fo r u p to o n e y e a r; o r s u s p e n s io n o r re v o c a tio n o f a n y c e r tific a te o r ra tin g .
a. A co-nvictlon for manufacturing, sale, or possession of drugs is grounds for denial of an application for any certificate
for up to one year; or suspension or revocation of any certificate or rating.
An Airline Transport Pilot is required to be of "good moral character," but a Commercial certificate has no such
requirement. So if you're a Commercial pilot and you're convicted of something minor, like ra pe or murder for
example, there's no problem, but a tailed drug test or a couple of DUIs will keep you out of the cockpit for a very
long time. Lack of good moral character affocts only your ATP, not your Commercial ticket. Use of drugs or alcohol
will affect alf your tickets.

202 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

 C h a p 5 — C e r tific a te s , L o g g in g , M e d ic a l & D ru g s

SP E ED IN G T IC K E T S and Y o u r M E D IC A L
Y o u d o r o t h a v e to r e p o r t e v e ry tr a ffic tic k e t fo r w h ic h y o u p a id a
fin e a n d w e n t h o m e a little p o o re r. H o w e v e r, o n y o u r MEDICAL
A P PLIC A TIO N , y o u w ill need to report [b lo c k v.(2)] " h is t o r y o f
a r y c o n v ic tio n ( s ) o r a d m in is tra tiv e a c lio n ( s ) in v o lv in g a n
suspens I o n . c a r c e lia lio n
o ffe n s e ( s ) w h ic h re s u lte d in Ih e d e n ia l,
driving privileges o r w h ic h re s u lte d in
o r re v o c a tio n o f
attendance a t a n educational o r re h a b ilita tio n p r o g r a m ."
T h e re fo r e , yo u d o n o t h a v e to re p o r t a n in d iv id u a l tic k e t, b u t y o u
M U S T R E P O R T o n y o u r medical if y o u h a v e ElflEfllpst y o u r
license o r attended a c o u rt o rd e r e d educational program (e g
a s a r e s u lt o f m u ltip le tic k e ts '; in order to keep vour license.
Y o u must report it o n y o u r M EDICAL b u t th e re is
no need tc r e p o r t it to th e Aviation Security Division
a s lo n g a s it d l d j M G I in ¿ J V V lw a y in v o lv e aJ.CQhol_o_r_dru£s
L ' TL

— B lo o d A lc o h o l L e v e ls A f t e r F O U R D R IN K S
W eight 140 lb ISO lb 160 lb 170 lb 180 lb 190 lb 200 lb 210 lb

1 Hour .10B .099 .092 .086 .080 ,075 .071 .066

2 Hours ,092 .083 .076 .070 .064 .053 .055 .050

3 hours .076 .067 .060 .057 .048 .043 .039 .034

4 hours .060 .051 .044 .038 .032 .027 .023 .018

W O M E N — B lo o d A lc o h o l L e v e ls A f t e r T H R E E D R IN K S
W eight 110 lb 120 lb 130 lb 140 lb ISO lb 160 lb 170 lb 180 lb

1 hour .126 .114 .104 ,095 .088 ,081 .076 .071

2 hours .110 ,098 .088 .079 .072 .065 .060 055

3 hours .094 .082 .072 .063 .056 .049 .044 .039

4 hours .076 .066 .056 .047 .040 .033 .028 .023

{1} Moderate drinking guidelines recommend a daily dnnk limit of:

(a) TH R E E d r in k s fo r W O M E N T h e a v e ra g e p e rs o n eliminates
(b> FO U R d n n k s fo r M E N . alcohol a t a ra te c f a b o u t 1/3 to
[2) A standard d rin k equals: 112 oz. o f p u re a lc o h o l per hour.
(a) One 12-ounce beer. Black coffee, cold showers or
(b) O n e five-ounce glass o f w in e . e v e n b re a th in g 1 0 0 % ojtuoen
(c) O n e a n d o n e - h a lf {J j j } ounces o f 80-proof liq u o r. from th e mask in Ih e a irp la n e w ill
£DLjrje^_oJ_Lh^_DOT_ not accelerate th e elimination o f
alcohol fr o m th e b o d y ,
A L C O H O L IC B E V E R A G E S : (135.121)
1. feLfi p e rs o n m a y d rin k a n alcoholic beverage a b o a rd a n a ir c r a ft unless th e cartlflcats holder o p e ra tin g
th e a ir c r a ft has served chat b e v e ra g e .
2. N o e m p lo y e e o f a c e r tific a te h o ld e r m a y s e r v e a n a lc o h o lic b e v e ra g e to a n y p e rs o n j f th a t p e rs o n
A P P E A R S to b e Intoxicated
3. N o e m p lo y e e o f a c e rtific a te h o ld e r m a y a llo w a n y p e r s o n t o b o a r d a n y o f its a irc ra ft ¡f th a t p e rs o n
ARREARS (o b e in t o x ic a t e d

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 203

[c h a p 5 — C e r tific a te s , Loom ing, M e d ic a l ft D ru g s]

O v e r -T h e -C o u n te r M E D IC A T IO N S :
R u le o f th u m b — I f t h e la b e l w a rn s o f p o s s ib le s id e e ffe c ts , w a it till aL le a s t tw ic e th e r e c o m m e n d e d d o s in g
in te rn a l lia s p a s s e d b e fo re fly in g .

204 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot

 Chapter G

Weather & NOTAMS

IFR or VFR?
W in d s h e a r , M io r o b u r s t ..................................................................................................... ........................... 206
T h u n d e r s to r m A v o id a n c e / P e n e t r a t io n .................................................................. ........................... 207
E x tre m e T u r b u le n c e .......................................................................................................... ........................... 207
r c E ............................................................................................................................................ ............2 0 8 , 200
K n o w n a n d F o re c a s t Ic in g C o n d it io n s ..................................................................... ........................... 210
C a r b u r e to r I c i n g ................................................................................................................... ........................... 210
F r o s t ........................................................................................................................................... ........................... 211
R im e I c e ................................................................................................................................... ........................... 211
C le a r I c e ................................................................................................................................... ..................... 211
F re e z in g R a in ............ ........... ....... ........... ................... ...................... ........... ....... ........... ..................... 211
Ic e P e lle ts ................................................................................................................................ ........................... 211
T ra c e , L ig h t, M o d e r& le , S e v e re I c in g ....................................................................... ........................... 211
G r o u n d I c i n g ....................................................................................................................
{FPDJ D c - J c c /A n ti- lc c F lu id s ............................................................................ .........................2 1 2
H o l d o v e r T i m e s ...........................................................................................................
B r a k i n g A c t i o n .............................................................................................................. .........................2 1 3
C o n ta m in a te d R u n w a y s ( c lu tt e r } ................................................................................. ........................... 212
" Ic e d - O v e r'1 S p a rk p lu g E le c tr o d e s ,.................... ...................... ........... ....... ........... ........................... 213
J e t S t r e a m .........................................................................................................................
£ le a r & ir X u r b u le n c e ......................................................................................................... ........................... 215
W in d C h ill F a c t o r s .............................................................................................................. ........................... 216
AW OS vs. A S O S ........................................................................................................... .........................2 1 7
M ETAR vs. T A F .............................................................................................................
C e il in g .............. ........... ................... ........... ................... ...................... ........... ....... ........... ........................... 2 ia
V ir g a ........................................................................................................................................... ........................... 2 i a
L im ite d A v ia tio n f e a t h e r R e p o rtin g S ta tio n ( J - A W R £ j ................................ ........................... 216
M E T A R Id e n t if ie r s ............................................................................................................... ........................... 21S
M E T A R T A F E N p I l l U t l O l » .« ..« ........... ......................... 219
W in d D ire c tio n — T ru e N o rth v s . M a g n e t ic .......................................................... ........................... 220
M E TA R JTA F & Flight Plan Wallet Sized C H E A T -S H E E T S . . . ......................... 221
C o lo r C o d e s ........................................................................................................................... ........................... 221
F lig h t P la n F o r m s ................................................................................................................ ........................... 222
E F A S 1F lig h t W a tc h / F S S — F r e q u e n c ie s .......................................................... ........................... 223
S ta n d a r d B r ie f in g ................................................................................................................ ........................... 223
A b b r e v ia te d B e e fin g ........................................................................................................... ........................... 223
O u tlo o k B r ie fin g .................................................................................................................... ........................... 223
Inflicrh l B rie f i n n ..................................................................................................................... ........................... 223
T u r b u le n c e R e r w t in n C r it e r ia _________________________________________ 223
A IR M E T ; S IG M E T ; W S T ; A W W ; C W A ; T IB S ; T W E B ; H I W A S .................. ........................... 22à
P I R E P , S D : F A : F D : A C .................................................................................................. ........................... 225
S ta b ility , R a d a r & S e v e re W e a lh e r O u tlo o k C h a r t s .......................................... ........................... 225
N O T A M s ...............................................................................................................................
F o g ............................................................................................................................................. ........................... 226
Lockheed Martin A F S S .........................................................................................

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 205

Chap 6 — W eather & N O T A MS

W IN D S H E A R : (A IM 4 -3 -7 ,7 -1 -2 4 Ihru 7-1-30. PIC Glossary.

FAA-H-8033-15, FAA-H-3083-25. 135.345, 135.351, 121.350)
1. An abrupt change in wind speed or direction.
2. If wind shear is reported — carry a little extra airspeed on
final approach, Known as speed for jets and
lurboprops.

MICROBURSTS — WINDS HEAR; ( a im 4-3-7, 7 -1 -2 4 , H im

7-1-3&. PfC Glossary. 135.345. 135.351. 121.356}
The typical Microburst Is a downdraft, that may emerge from a cloud (or no
dcuri) as high as 15,000 ft;
1. Winds intensify for about 5 minutes after ground contact.
2. Dissipates from 10 to 20 minutes after ground contact.
3. Spreads in all directions after ground contact in a violent
horizontal vortex.
4. Can occur in both "wet" and “dry" atmospheric conditions.
5. Can occur in ^families" {one microburs! may indicate passible developrrsnl al tKhars).
6. Can have h.o.rUo.QtaljwJgd3 i>.g.g.djdifte.r.e.Q.c.e.s fh**d wind-tBd wind} of to 100 knots
7. Can have vertical speeds in excess of 3,000 feet per minute,
e. - W A IT IT O U T !
W indshear Recovery
|1 Max power;
M IC R O B U R S T ¡2* Pitch up to slick shaker;
-3. Do not change configuration.
Wind Speed

C D 1 0 -2 0 knots
>20 knots
T -5 M in
T-2 Min T * 5 M in T+1C M in
10,000 ft
I
5 ,0 0 0 ft : fj ;
\S> y—■ r\
fc / v ? ; \ j> )

S t a le (m ile s }
Vertical <rt«& « c t i « n of the «volution of a mieroburst wind field.
T is th e tim e of in itia l d iv e rg e n c e a t th e s u rfa c e .

A M IC R O B U R S T encounter during **
takeoff — the aircraft may encounter a
headwind rat liftoff, followed by a
J m m ln j headwind immediately
followed by a Strong downdraft and an
extreme tailwind that may be beyond
the performance capability of the
aircraft to recover from pnor to Impact
J
*

Doppler Radar Installation

206 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

 C hap 6 — W e a th e r & N O TA M S

TH U N D ER STO R M AVO IDANCE w/NO ONBOARD RADAR:

Maintain VFR conditions ON TOP as long as possible

so as to observe and avoid build-ups.

OR... if that doesn't work... or it stops working

Maintain VFR conditions below the bases so as to observe and

avoid the rain shafts. However, never flv directly below a cell.

3. DAY — DO NOT GO WHERE the S K Y is DARK !!! Talk to ATC... get PIREPs
A VOIP the ANVIL side
4. DO NOT GO WHERE the LIGHTNING IS
NIGHT — _______________ mi
(downwind side) or a
Talk to ATC... get PIREPs. thunderstorm by si leasl
ONE MILE For every KNOT
or WIND at that flight level.

TH U N D ER STO R M PENETRATION (Inadvertent of course!

1. Best altitude - f i V l R T J f c V B M P »

2 . Tighten seat beJtslt

3. Pitot heat, prop detce or engine antMce — ON

4. Cockpit lights — HIGHEST INTENSITY — keep your eyes on

not on the light show.

5. SLOW DOWN | — Establish power setting to maintain

maneuvering Speed (Va). but DO NOT '‘CHASE1’
ALTITUDE or AIRSPEED EXCURSIONS!!

6. Below VLOp LANDING GEAR CAN BE EXTENDED to help slow and stabilize.

7. TELL ATC (calmlv and v e r y coollv of course) that vou are in

EXTREME. TURBULENCE a YOU'RE CLIMBING / DESCENDING RIGHT NOW!!
DO NOT A S K FO R PERM ISSIO TELL THEM WHAT YOU ARE D O IN G !!« ® ®
You are the Pilot In Command.
Do NOT allow ATC to flv vour airplane!! I YOU ARB IN CH A R G E It (see 91.3 I

B. KEEP the WINGS LEVEL - DO NOT ATTEMPT to TURN BACK. Load factor
increases enormously in a turn.

DO NOT ATTEMPT to MAINTAIN a SPECIFIC ALTITUDE in severe updrafts or

downdrafts. Just try to keep the WINGS LEVEL and AIRSPEED APPROXIMATELY
at MANUEVERING SPEED.
“ EXTREME T trb u le n c e ” — The aircraft is being violently tossed about and is practically impossible to
control. It may cause structural damage, if the n.lot doesn’t do something about ft immediately iaim 7-1-241
The airspeed indicator is usually unreadable because oF extremely erratic needle fluctuations and the violent
movement of ihe pilot’s eyes within their sockets (net to mention the movement of ihe pilot’s head).

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 207

 L E G A L R E Q U IR E M E N T S fo r F L Y IN G IN IC E
General rules — Deice units must be provided for the wings, tail.
\
propellers or engine inlets. pUotfetattc sources: an alternate
source of air for reciprocating engines; and a thermal or chemical
means of providing vision through the w indshield. External lighting
must also be provided to enable adequate monitoring during icing
conditions encountered at night. The FAA must approve the
equipment and any operational limitation such as, "flight into known
icing conditions is prohibited'' must be formally removed from
(he AFM or POH (If the statement was previously included). It Is
Important to note that aircraft certified for flight in known ice are
approved for flight in light or moderate conditions only, and even
^ then the systems cannot cope with severe or continuous icing.

IC E (Pan 23, Pan 25. B1.S, 51.13. 91.527, 121.341. 121.529, 125.221. 135.227, 135.345. AIM thru 7 -1 -2 2 . AC 20-73.
AC 23.1419-1. AC 135-9. AFM Sr POU. FAA-H-0OB3-15. FAA-H-B0B3-25]
1. Found in VISIBLE MOISTURE between +5" & ^0°C or colder — but usually between ±2° & -10°C
2. “ 'Known icing conditions' exist when a pilot knows or reasonably should know about weather
reports in which icing conditions are reported or forecast'" ; fa a interp Jan ie, 2009). The briefer should
check A IR M E Ts — issued at the first indication of moderate ice; and S IG M E T s — issued for severe
icing. Flight in known icing is definitely not a great idea unless the aircraft is certificated for icing
conditions, You might want to mention to the briefer that you plan lo remain below the freezing level or
clear of clouds, just for the record. If the aircraft Is not certified for flight In known Icing, your job then
becomes flying where the ice ain't. If you crash, or seriously disrupt the A TC system because of an
encounter with ice... chances are you will receive a painful spanking by an FAA Safety Inspector.
3. 91.527 and 135.227 do not require the aircraft to be “certified for flight into known icing” in order to
depart into "known or forecast light or moderate icing." as long as the aircraft has some kind of
“functioning deicing or anti-icing equipment protecting each rotor blade, propeller, w indshield.
w in g, stabilizing or c.onlroLsujiac^ and each aksjaft&d. altmielgr ra tj^ f tLjmb or fl Aht attiUidv
instrument system.1’ However, if the aircraft also carries a placard or limitation in the AFM that states,
“flight into known icing conditions is prohibited " the aircraft could nol be launched into icing
conditions because it would be subject to compliance with placards and limitations (91.9).
4. Nevertheless — Advisory Circular 135-9 {pertaining io Part 135) says — * ,, .aircraft could be operated
]n forecast or known light or moderate Icing under VFR or IFR rules if it was equipped as required in
Section 135.227 and this equipment was functioning, unless the aircraft was prohibited by operating
limitations from operating in icing conditions,"
AG 135-9 also says:
a. “Aircraft equipped with functioning equipment meeting Section 135.227(b) and N O T placarded
restricting operations in icing conditions [many aircraft manufactured prior to 1973] may fly under
IFR or VFR rules in known or forecast light or moderate icing and continue flight in actual Icing
conditions."
b “Aircraft equipped with functioning equipm ent meeting Part 135.227(b) and a PLACARD
PROHIBITING operation in icing conditions m ay depart on a flight when light or moderate Icing Is
forecast or reported to exist Tor the intended route to be flown. However, continued flight in
actual icing conditions is N O T permitted sinoe such flight does not comply with the placard or the
operating limitation in the aircraft flight manual.”
5. Rule #1 — take off “C L E A N " without AN Y ice, sn o w , or frost on the aircraft. (SI .527. 135.227, 121.629)
6. Find out what the freezing level is. stay 3900 feet below it or 8000 feet above it, or above the clouds.
7. At the 1“1sign of Ice — do som ething about it — when doing battle with ice, especially in rapidly
building severe ice, by far the safest tactic is to G ENTLY turn around and RUN A W A Y !
8. Boots & prop heat will buy a little tim e, but if ice is bad enough it can bring down any aircraft
Don't think that boots will allow you to fly for extended periods of time in moderate to severe icing.
BFGoodrich ic e x bool treatment DOES help. II creates a slick surface and minimizes ice adhesion.
9. Alcohol windshields are anti-ice not de-ice; however alcohol mil remove some (most) ice. NOTE:
Save ihe windshield alcohol for the landing approach and don't forget to turn it OFF at least 20 seconds
before touchdown. It's virtually impossible lo see through alcohol streaming over a windshield.
10. When proa heat is not available, operate the propellers at MAXIMUM RPM . High RPM helps to
prevent ice from forming down the blades and Ihe greally Increased centrifugal force tends to sling It off.

208 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 W e a th e r & N O TA M S
11. Ice bridging most certainly can o ccur in elder aircraft with slow
bool Inflation. Wait until at least a little ice accumulates prior
to boot inflation. More Ice will (hen tend to shed due to
increased drag on the somewhat larger exposed area of the
cracked edges. This is not a risk to modern turbine aircraft
wilh rapidly Inflating boots that fracture even |he thinnest Ice.
12. As a rule of thumb — C LIM B IN G is usually the preferred FIRST option —
yOu II either break out on top or climb Into air too cold for icinO . This must be
done at the first sign of ice, while the aircraft is still capable of clim bin g. Of
course there are ne guarantees, without knowing what the conditions are al the
higher altitudes, you may be going from bad to worse. But the higher you fly,
the more stored energy you’ll have should you need to Ndrift down" due to ice
accumulation, DESCENDING is usually the preferred SECO N D option {get to
warmer temperatures below the clouds and the ice If possible). As another rule
of thumb, research has shown that 90% of icing encounters are limited to a
P
3D&D-foot vertical area. The other 10% of the lime, ANYTHING is possible
Call ATC. Get pilot reports.
13. Cloud tops In winter rarely extend above 30,000 feel.
14. Penetrate the icing altitudes as quickly as possible going up or down. If you're at an Ice-free alliLude
closing in on vour destination, try to stay there until the very last minute, then make a rapid descent.
15. Don’t allow A T C to fly your airplane TELL THEM what you need to do. TELL THEM you are in a
dangerous Icing situation and you MUSTclimb/descend or turn around RtGHT NOW. If the situation
really gets serious — TELL THEM you need “ P R IO R ITY ." then use your emergency authority (Di.aj to
do what you have to do RIGHT NOW. Do NOT let the aircraft completely ice up and fall out of the sky
while waiting for a request to be granted. Keep In mind however, if you declare an icing emergency in
an aircraft not properly equipped, an ugly enough incident may come lo the attention of the local FSDO,
A small price lo pay if you're still alive!
16. Some of the heaviest icing can be found In |he tftflj of clouds An attitude that puls you in and out Of
the cloud tops is not the best place to be.
17. Some of the W O R S T ICING can be found over or d owfiwincj of mountainous terraiij (enormous lifting
factor) and over or downwind of the Great Lakes region (copious amounts of moisture).
18. As Ice accumulates, it destroys lift and adds massive amounts of weight and d ra g. Cruise speed
drops and stall speed increases. When those speeds meet, you are forced to descend tf there is
warm air below, there is no problem. If there Is an airport below, there is u s u a lly no problem.
If there are BIG_RQ_CKS below, there I t .L f a a BIG PROBLEM
19. Remember, fuel consum ption increases dramatically as more and more power is needed to keep the
struggling aircraft flying.
20. When approaching to land carrying a load of ice. find a L O N G runway preferably with an IL S . K E E P
the P O W ER & S P E E D U P . the T U R N S G E N T L E , and D O N 'T C H A NG E the FLA P S E T T IN G . You
don’t N E E D flaps. Flaps can cause a very exciting " T A IL S T A L L ” (Ihe negative lift of the tailplane is
eliminated and the aircraft pitches nose down). A sham turn can cause a sudden accelerated stall
that will not be recoverable at low altitude.
21 K E E P the P O W E R UP K E E P the S P E E D UP EVEN a S M A LL P O W ER or S P E E D R E D U C TIO N
during A P P R O A C H at EV EN in the F L A R E , could cause an INSTANT S T A LL that will bend a lot of
metal. Better to slide off the end at 10 kts than to corkscrew Into the ground a V; mile short at well
pygr a 1QQ kts

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 209

 Bonus FAA definitions:
“K n ow n jcjng Conditions”
(AIM 7-1 -22 Table 7-1-0}
Atmospheric conditions in which the formation
of ice is observed or detected in flight.
Note-
Because of the variability in space and time of
atmospheric conditions, the existence of a
report of observed icing does not assure the
presence or intensity of icing conditions at a
later time, nor can a report of no icing assure
the absence of icing conditions at a iater time.
“Fo recast Icing Conditions”
Environmental conditions expected by a
National Weather Service or an FAA-approved
weather provider to be conducive ¿0 the
formation of inflight icing on aircraft.
“K n o w n lee”
(FAA Inturprelallon Jan te. 2009.)
Involves the situation where ice formation is
actually detected or observed.

C A R B U R E T O R IC ING — C A R B H EA T/M A N IFO LP H E A T l (F a a -1+0083-25. AC 20-113-.)

* The pilot should remember that induction system icing is possible, particularly with fleet type carburetors
with temperatures as h ig h as KKP F . and the humidity as low as T o E rigine

50% . It is m o re lik e ly , however, with te m p e ra tu re s below 70° F .

and the relative hu.r.ni.djtyLabj?_v_e_ma The likelihood of icing
increases as the temperature decreases (down lo 32° F.) and as
Ihe relative humidity increases
When conditions are ripe for carb ice, apply carb heat often during
cruise (light. Carb heal will keep ice from forming if applied often
enough and kept on long enough.
When no carburelor air or mixture temperature instrum enlalion is
available, the general practice with smaller engines should be to
use F U LL H E A T whenever carburetor heat is applied- N E V E R USE Y i i i lu h -
P A R T IA L C A R B H EAT unless the aircraft is equipped with a carb air
temperature gauge and you know how lo use it. Remember, either
Iraw wtg
FULL CARB H E A T or NO CARB HEAT A pilot of an airplane
equipped with a carburetor air or mixture temperature gauge should make it a practice lo regulate his
carburetor heat by reference to this indicator.

210 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 C hap 6 — W e a th e r & N O TA MS

It has been said (by so m e o n e ) that ALL icing is some form of MIXED ICING.
(AIM 7-1-16 thru 7-1-22, AC-20-73, AC 00-45G, AC Q0-6A, FAA-H-B0B3-3, FAA-H-S033-15, 51.527, 135.227, 121.625, PJC Glossary)

FR O S T:
Even the lightest coaling can radically change airfoil behavior — REMOVE ALL O F IT before takeoff.

R IM E I C E :
1. A collection of very small, supercooled water droplets that freeze on contact — By far the most common
Ice you will see.
2. Milky or opaque appearance due lo air bubbles that become trapped between the frozen droplets.
3. Usually associated with stratus clouds and relatively smooch air.
4. Rime ice is relatively brittle and a litlle easier to remove than clear Ice but is still extremely dangerous.
5. Theoretically, most rime Icing encounters are limited to a 3000-foot vertical area.
6. Ask ATG for top reports. Lf at all possible, CLIMB Immediately. Try Lo get on lop of Ihe clouds or al a
colder level as soon as possible before the ice makes It impossible to climb.
7. If you gel lo the higher altitude and you're noL on top or Ihe situation is not gelling any better. Ask A TC
where the bases are. If there is a prayer of getting below the clouds or to a warmer level — D E S C EN D .

C L E A R IC E i
1. A collection of large, close Lo freezing water droplets that flow back across the wing some before
freezing.
2. Clear ice is hard, glossy, extremely heavy, and very difficult to dislodge.
3. Build up can be extremely rapid? You probably will not see this type of Icing very often, if ever.
4. Usually associated with large cumulus clouds and turbulence.
5. D ESCEND immediately to warmer air below (beneath tha clouds;. Or G E N TL Y lum around and run away.

FREEZING RAIN:
1. Indicates warmer temperatures above (often ahead of a winter warm front or slowly moving cold front).
2. The most severe form of icing. Build up can be exiremely rapid. If possible, G E N TL Y turn around and
RUN A W A Y !
3. You uUI see this occasionally — usually close to the ground.
4. If you encounter it during takeoff or climb... CLIMB as if vour life depends on it! Get to the warmer
air above as Quickly as possible.
If you encounter (I during approach.,. LAND as if you r life depends on it 1- KEEP YOUR $FEED
U P ! KEEP YO JR POWER U P ! But keep In mind the runway is probably as Iced up as your airplane.
You are the tesl pilot. Your job is lo gel It on Ihe ground as quickly as possible without stalling il. AND
without running off the end. However it Is still preferable to slide off the end at 10 kts than lo corkscrew
into the ground a 7a mile short at well over 100. Keep POWER UP until W HEELS are on the G R O U N D l

IC E P E L L E T S :
Indicate freezing rain at higher altitudes — Stay at or below your current altitude.

T R A C E .— Ice becomes barely perceptible, rate of accumulation is slightly greater than sublimation,
L I G H T — May be a problem if the flight is prolonged (over 1 hour), occasional use of deice/anti-ice removes
accumulation. Does not present a problem If deicefanti-lce equipment is used.
M O D E R A T E — Even short encounters become potentially hazardous, use of deice/antl-ice nr flight diversion
is necessary.
S E V E R E — The rate of accumulation is such that deice/anti-lce equipment fails to reduce or control the
hazard. Immediate flight diversion Is necessary.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 211

C hap 6 — W e a th e r & N O TA MS

Ground Icing Conditions — Rule #1;

NO P IL O T M A Y T A K E O FF an aircraft that has F R O S T , IC E or S N O W adhering to
any rotor blade, propeller, w indshield, w ng stabilising or control surface, to a powerplant
installation, or lo an airspeed, altimeter, rate of climb, or Might attitude Instrument system . The basis
for the "CLEAN AIRCRAFT CONCEPT." (01.527, 91.1101,121.629.125.221, 135.227.135.345, aim 7- 5-14) #

Fre e zin g P o in t D e pre ssa nt ( F P D ) D E -IC E/A N TI-IC E Fluids —

G R O U N D ICE R E M O V A JJP R E V E N TIO N : (AC 20-73A, A C 20-117. A C 135-17, AC 12Ú-50, FAA Ordar «M 0 .1 t
1. TYPE I — Still the most common. Normally known as "hot alvcol.'1does a good job of removing ice
but does rot prevent re-formation for very long. Short "holdover time."
2. TYPE II — A thick viscosity fluid (hat has been replaced by TYPE IV at most locations.
3. TYPE III — Thinner viscosity for aircraft with slower rotation speeds. Not currently available.
4. TYPE IV — Very popular luid (hat has for the mos( part replaced TY P E II and doubles (he ‘‘holdover
limes," Works very well but is very expensive, Looks like thick green slime. Because of Ihe thick
viscosity, it can only be used for aircraft with a V r greater than 85 knots. Enough ajr needs to flow
Over the wings to blow It off beforejiftoff. Usually TY P E I fluid for diluted Type IV) is usedLORSTto
remove Ihe [££ and then TY P E IV is applied lo prevent reformation.

H O L D O V E R T I M E $ i ( i i i ^ 135.2271
1. Ground icing procedures are specifically detailed in the OpSpecs and Operations Manual of every
certificate holder that chooses to operate during ground icing conditions,
2. Holdover time is the estimated length of time (hat deicing/anti-icing fluid will prevent the
accumulation of Ice. snow or frost on the aircraft.
3. Holdover time BEGINS when the final application of deice/anli-ice fluid starts and EXPIRES
when the fluid loses its effectiveness.
4. Holdover time may be exceeded when at least one of the following conditions exist:
a. A visual check within 5 minutes of takeoff determines that the aircraft is free of ice,
snow, or frost.
b. An otherwise FA A approved procedure (included in Operations Manual) is used to
determine that the aircraft is free of frost, ice. or snow,
c. The aircraft is redeiced and a new holdover time is determined.* S

A visual check of ^
4 L« »
the w .in
I ng»s » .» k l»
within ™

S m inutes prior to
takchoff is required
w hethe r holdover
tim es have been
exceeded or not.

212 EVERYTHING EX PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot

 C hap 6 — W e a th e r & N O TA M S

BRAKING ACTIO N I RUNWAY FRICTION REPORTS:

(AIM 4-3-B, 4-3-9. FVC Glossary. A C 15Q,'&2[K)-3[}C)
1. BRAKING ACTIOM reports are provided by A TC to pilots using
the terminology “flood," "fair," "poor.” and “n il" Either pilots
or airport management provides these reports lo ATC.
N O TE. Most air carriers. Pari 135 operators, fractional and turbojet operators are prohibited (by
company or aircraft operating procedures) from la n d in g when braking action is reported as “n il.”
2. “ Braking action advisories are In effect” — a statement broadcast on ATIS when weather conditions
are conducive to reported poor, nil or deteriorating runway braking conditions.
3. RUNW AY FRICTION reports are provided to A TC by airport management at airports with fnction
measuring devices. At these airports, reports for A T C advisories and NOTAMs will be given using
Greek letter MU {pronounced -Lmyew11) in values ranging from 0 to 100. The lower the MU value, the
less effective braking performance becomes. A MU value of 40 or less is the level when braking
performance starts to deteriorate and directional control begins to be less responsive,

CO NTAM INATED RUNWAYS (aka C LU TTE R ) — PRECIPITATION:

(AIM 4-3-9. 4-3-9. P/C Glossary. AG 91 -6}
1. Takeoffs should not be attempted when standing water, slush, or wet snow greater than 'A inch in depth
covers an appreciable part of the runway. Such conditions require corrections for takeoff calculations
because of two factors:
a. A reduction In runway friction, may increase slopping distance in Lhe case of a rejected takeoff.
b. The drag of water or slush on the landing gear or flaps could cause a retarding force and
deceleration force during takeoff.
2. Any runway that is not dry is considered to be wet Standing water, puddles, or continuous rain are
not necessary for a runway lo be considered wet. Runway braking friction can change even when there
is a light drizzle. In many cases, even dew or frost thal changes lhe color of a runway will result in a
significant change in runway friction. Runway surface conditions such as — grooved, not grooved,
heavy rubber deposits or new pavement — can have a large effect on braking action. Many newly
surfaced asphalt runway surfaces can be extremely slippery when only slightly wet.
3. A dry runway has no visible moisture on the runway surface, to Include standing water, ice, snow,
slush, or frost in any form.
4. Land and Hold Short Operations are not authorized on wet runway surfaces.

RUNWAY “C LU TTE R *
* STANDING W ATER - VZ inch or greater.
«► DRY SNOW - 1 Inch or greater
* W E T SNOW — 1/4 inch or greater
* SLUSH — Mb inch or greater.

These amounts or greater may require LARGE

weight or V-speed adjustments or may prohibit
, a takeoff or landing ail togelher (see AFM).1
3
2

IC E D -O V E R ” SP A R K P LU G E L E C TR O D E S
1. When attempting to start a piston engine without benefit of a preheat In extremely
cold weather — an engine that has fired bul gull running after only a few
revolutions is a prime candidate for "Iced-over plugs.11
2. The brief combustion is sufficient to cause some water in lhe cylinders, but
insufficient to heat them up. The small amount of water condenses on lhe
sparkplug electrodes— freezes— and shorts them out.
3. If preheat is not available, the only remedy is to remove the spark plugs and heat
them to a point where Ice can no longer exist before re-installing.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 213

C hap 6 — We a th e r & N O TA M S
J E T S TR E A M : <RC <3ltj»ary. FAA-H-A093-15. FAA-H-eOS3-25. AC 00-EA. AC tt-4 0 0 , AC 00-57. A C &1-107A)
1. A migrating hlah-veloeitv narrow stream of w inds meandering around the globe in a wavelike
pattern at high altitudes, usually found n m the upper limit of the troposphere, which flows
generally from west to east. W ind s on the average Increase with height throughout the troposphere
culminating in a maximum near the level of the tropopause. In mid-latitude, wind speed in the jet
stream averages considerably stronger in winter than in sum m er because of greater temperature
differences. Also the jet shifts farther south in winter than in summer.
2. TR O P O S P H E R E — That portion of the atmosphere from the earth's surface to the tropopause. The
troposphere ranges from the earth's surface to about 65.000 feet over the Equator to as low as 2D.000
feet or lower over the polos. The troposphere is characterized by decreasing temperature with
height, and by appreciable water vapor.
3. T R O P O F A U S E is $ thin layer forming Ihe boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere. Height
of the tropopause vanes from about 65,POO feet over the Equator to 20.000 feet or lower over the
poles. The tropopause is not conlinuous but generally descends step-wise from (tie Equator to the
poles. These steps occur as ’'breaks.” Also known as the transition zone between the troposphere
and stratosphere, usually characterized by an abrupt change of temperature lapse rate.
4. A secondjet stream is ii.ot_uncgmm.gn and thr_ee_aLon&Jim& are not unknown, A jet may be as isi
south as the northern Tropics A jet in mid-latitudes generally is stronger than one in or near the
T ro p ic s . The jet stream typically occurs in a break in Ihe tro d o pause Therefore, fi let stream occurs
in an area of intensified temperature gradients characteristic of the break.
5. A cross section of Ihe upper troposphere and lower siratospheie showing the tropopause and
associated features. Note the "break™ between (he high tropical and the lower polar tropopause.
Maximum winds (and turbulence) occur in the vicinity of ttiiti break.
—SD“ F

OIKImo " ‘ iSOTACHS________________

/ _________ -7
: Mwtitmm WINDS and
: TURBULENCE occur aL

W ind speed decreases outward from the jet core Rate of decrease of wind speed is considerably
greater on the polar side than on the equatorial side; hence, Ihe magnitude of wind shear is greater
on the polar side lhan on the equatorial side.
C IR R U S C L O U D S — A ir travels in a "corkscrew ™ path around the jet core with upward motion on
the equatorial side. Therefore, when high level moisture is available. CIR R IFO R M C L O U D S form on
Ihe E Q U A T O R IA L SIDE of Ihe J E T Jet stream cloudiness can form independently of well defined
pressure systems. Such cloudiness ranges primarily from scattered to broken coverage in shallow
layers or streaks. Their sometimes fish hook and sireamlined. wind swept appearance always
indicates very strong upper w ind usually quite far from developing or intense weather systems. The
most dense cirriform clouds occur with well defined system s. They appear in broad bands. The
poleward boundary of the cirrus band often is quite abrupt and frequently casts a shadow on lower
clo ud s, especially in an occluded frontal system.
A more important aspect of the jet stream CIR R U S shield is its association with T U R B U L E N C E
Extensive cirrus cloudiness often occurs with deepening surface and upper lows; and these deepening
systems produce the G R E A TE S T TU R B U L E N C E .

214 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 C hap 6 — W e a th e r & NO TAW S
CLEAR AIR TUR BULEN CE (C AT):
(AIM 4-5-7, 7-1-5, 7-1-23, 7-1-25, PIC Glossary, FAA-H-S0B3-15, FAA-H-80S3-25, AC OO-OA. A C C0-30B. AC 0CM5G. AC *1-107)
I. Clear air turbulence (CA T) implies turbulence devoid of cloud s. However, we
commonly reserve the term for high level
windshear turbulence, even when iQ
cirrus clo ud s.
2 Cold o u t b r e a k s colliding w it h warm a ir
fro th t h e S o u th in te n s ify w e a t h e r S y s le m s
in t h e Vicinity of i h e iet stream a l o n g th e
b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e c o ld a n d w a r m a ir.
C A T develops in the turbulent energy
exchange between the contrasting air
m asses. Cold and warm advection
along with strong wind shears develop
near the Jet stream , especially where
curvature of the jet stream sharply
increases in deepening upper troughs.
C A T is most pronounced In winter when
temperature contrast is greatest
and warm air.
3. A preferred location of C A T ¡S in a n upper trough o n the C o ld ( polar! side of the Jet stream. Another
frequent C A T location is along the jet stream north and northeast o f a rapidly deepening surface lo w .
4. Even in the absence of a well defined jet stream. CA T often is experienced in wind shears associated
with sharply curved contours of strong low s, troughs, and ridges aloft, and in areas of strong, cold
nr warm air advection.
5. Mountain waves can also create CAT. Mountain wave C A T may extend from the mountain crests to
as high as 5.000 feet above the trococause. and can range 100 miles or more downstream from the
mountains.
6. C A T can be encountered where there seem s to be no reason for its occurrence. Strong w inds may
carry a turbulent volume of ajr away from its &gurce region. Turbulence intensity diminishes
downstream, but some turbulence still may be encountered where it normally would not be expected.
C A T forecast areas are sometimes elongated to indicate probable turbulence drifting downwind from the
main source region.
7. A forecast of turbulence specifies a volume of airspace, which Is quite small when compared to the
total volume of airspace used by aviation, but is relatively large compared to the localized extent of the
hazard. Since turbulence in the forecast volume is patchy, you can expect to encounter it only
intermittently and possibly not at all. A flight through forecast turbulence, on the average, encounters
only light and annoying turbulence 10 to 15 percent of the time; about 2 to 3 percent of the lime there Is
a need to have all objects secured; the pilot experiences conlrol problems only about two-tenlhs of 1
percent of the lime — odds of this genuinely hazardous turbulence are about 1 in SOQ.
3. Turbulence would be greatest near the windspeed m axima, usually on the polar sides where there is
a combination of strong wind shear, curvature in the flow , and cold air advection. These areas
would be to the northwest Of Vancouver Island, from north Of the Great Lakes to east Ot Jam es Bay
and over the Atlantic east of New foundland. Also, turbulence In the form of mountain waves is
probable in the vicinity of the jet stream from southern California across the RockJes into the Central
Plains.
9. In flight planning, use u pper air charts and forecasts to locate the jet stream , wind shears, and areas
of most probable turbulence. AVIATION W EATH ER SERVICES (A C O fM SG ) explains in detail how to
obtain these parameters. If impractical to avoid completely an area of forecast turbulence, proceed with
caution. You will do well lo avoid areas where vertical shear exceeds 6 knois per 1.000 feel or
horizontal shear exceeds 40 knots per 1&Q miles.
10. Whal can you dQ If you gel into C A T rougher than you care to fly? If near the let core, you could climb
or descend a few thousand feel you could move farther from the let core If caught in C A T not
associated with the jel stream, your best bet is to change altitude since you have no positive way of
knowing in which direction the strongest shear lies.
I I . Maneuver gently when in turbulence to minimize stress. The patchy nature of CA T makes current
pilot reports extremely helpful to observers, briefers, forecasters, air traffic controllers, and, mosl
important, to your fellow pilots.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for thi? Professional Pilot 215

C h a p 6 — W e a th e r & H O T A M s I

W IN D C H IL L F A C T O R S

Dress appropriately for conditions, Clothing that Teels comfortable In a heated cockpit could prove less than
adequate in the event of a forced landing. Plan lo have warmer clothing on board, even if you don’l wear it
during Ihe llighl, ( faa -P-#t « k 4)

Cooling Pow er of Wind on Exposed Flesh as an Equivalent Te m p e ra tu re

W ind A ctual Th e rm o m e te r Reading ("Fahrenheit)
in 50°F 40°F 30°F I 2 0 DF 10°F Q°F I -10°F I -2 0 DF -3 0 BF -40°F -5 0 LF | -6 Q #F
MPH
Equivalent Temperature ("Fahrenheit}
C a lm 5 D DF 40 °F 3 0 DF 2 0 DF 1DDF 0°F -1 0 DF -2 D DF -3 D DF -4 0 DF -5 Q DF -6 0 DF
5 MPH 43 37 27 16 6 -5 -1S -2 G -36 -47 *57 -68
10 40 23 16 4 -9 -24 -33 -46 -53 -70 -83 -95
15 36 22 9 ■5 -18 -32 -45 -SB -72 -B5 -99 -112
20 32 13 4 -10 -25 -30 -53 -G7 -82 -96 -110 -124
25 30 16 D -15 -29 -44 -50 -74 -S3 -104 -113 -133
30 23 13 -2 -13 -33 -43 -63 -70 -04 *109 *126 -140
35 27 11 -4 -20 -35 -51 ■67 -32 -93 -113 -129 -145
40 26 10 -6 -21 -37 -53 -69 -85 -100 -116 -132 -148
INICREASING
L IT T L E D A N G ER
for a properly clothed person.
DANGE ■R from freezing G R E A T D A N G ER
of ex posed flesh.
 C hap 6 — W e a th e r & NO TAW S

AWOS vs ASOS ’ http:/fwww. aviationweather.gov/

■*.......*** « 3'
A W O S : (AIM4-3-26, 7-1-1, 7-1-12, 7-1-17, 7-1-30, 7-1-31, A C 15CJ5221D-16C}
1. Automated feather Observing System. A suite of weather sensors of man/ different configurations
that were either procured by the FAA or purchased by individuals, groups or airports that are required to
meet FAA standards. AWSS — fiutomatic feather Sensor £yslem ¡s functionally the same as ASOS.
2. A slate or airport can purchase an AW OS with assistance from the FAA's Airport Improvement Program.
3. Provides minute-by-minute weather to pilots at airports that have no other approved weather reporting
4. AW OS types:
* A w o s -A — Only reports the altimeter selling.
*■ AWOS-1 (I) — Altimeter, wind, temperature, dew point, and density altitude.
* AW OS-2 (in — information provided by AWOS-1 plus VISIBILITY
* A W O S -3 (III} — Iniomnalion provided by AW OS-2 plus CLOUD/CEILING data
* AW OS-3 P (lll-P) — Adds a Precipitation type identification sensor.
* AW OS-3 T (lll-T) — Adds Thunderstorm/lightning reporting capability,
* AW OS-3 F/T (III P/T) — Precipitation and Thunderstorm/lightning reporting.
* AW OS-4 (IV) — contains all the AW OS-3 system sensors, plus precipitation occurrence, type
and accumulation, freezing rain, thunderstorm, and runway surface condition sensors.
5. AWOS can also generate automated remaps about density altitude, variable winds, and ceilings.
6. AD1 indicates a station W ITH O U T a precipitation identification sensor (i.e., cannot determine the
difference between liquid or frozen/freeling precipitation),
7. AP2 indicates a station WITH a precipitation identification sensor.
8. AW OS information can be obtained on the proper frequency in-Flighl; the web addresses listed above;
and normally by telephone (see Airport Facility Directory: "A C -U -K W IK ." etc.),
9. An AW OS commissioned prior to July 1996 is not required to use the METAR format. That means it
might report temperature in degrees Fahrenheit amongst other differences.
* ............................................................................. ............................................................................................" " ' n
* A W O S observationE ara considejad Ihn " off i ci a I w aathcr." |J (hn A W O S is ta p o rlin j IFR conditions (e.q. ¡EoJHled log angund the
I sansuij. biJtthu pilot s e w s la h lia tetfuttniy obvious VFR. (ha AWOS informalion iscunilderud (u lie correct landoflieiali no matter
■ how bogus rl may seen-.. 31.1 55fd1 stales [in pari]... "excspl as provided in 91 J 57... no person may takeoff nr land an aircraft, under
■ VFR. within. C la n B. Class £. Class fl, or Class £ airspace designated for en ilr w r t {’ll Unless |reported| ground visibility aHlinl
■ alrpoft i£ at least 3 am: or (2) It ground visibility is not reported..■unless Bight visibility... in the trallie pallarn is al least

ASOS: (AIM 40-26. 7-1-1.7-1-12. 7-1-17. 7-1-30, 7-1-31]

1. Automated Surface Observation System. Wore sophisticated than AW OS and is designed to provide
the necessary information to generate weather forecasts. ASOS is comprised of a standard suite of
weather sensors (with several exceptions) all procured from one contractor.
2. Continuous minute-by-minute observations necessary to generate a routine wealher report (METAR).
3. Similar to AW OS but more sophisticated and is designed to provide the essential information
(M ETA R } to generate weather forecasts (T A F l.
4. A S O S can determine type and intensity of precipitation (rain, snow, freezing rain), thunderstorms and
obstructions to visibility such as fog and haze.
5. A S O S can also measure wind shifts, peak gusts, rapid pressure changes, and the amount of
accumulated precipitation.
6. ASOS shines a laser ceiliometer into the sky to observe cloud layers. It takes a measurement every 30
seconds over a 30-minute period, then double-weighs measurements during the Iasi 10 minutes so the
computer can decide if the cloud layers are scattered, broken or overcast,
7. The ASOS visibility sensor is normally located near the touchdown zone o f the primary instrument runway.
8. The word "A U T Q 'f included in the broadcast signifies lhal an observer is not logged onto the ASOS for
backup or augmentation.
10. A S O S information can be obiained on the proper frequency in-flight and normally by telephone on the
ground (fiirporl£acilily directory. AC-U-KW IK etc ).

ASOS and AWOS:

1. The flag word “T E S T " is added to the voice transmission of an ASOS/AWGS when it is being tested
before commissioning. The quality of the observations may not be up to FAA standards. Therefore, the
data should not be used operationally unlit the " T E S T 1flag word is removed.
2. Ceiling information is Time averaged" over a 30-minule period and visibility over a 10-minute period
3. The upper limit of cloud height and visibility reported by ASOS/AWOS is 12,000 feet and 10 miles.
4. Most common reason ASOS/AWOS cannot be received by telephone is due to maintenance or repair.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 217

[c h a p 6 — W e a th e r & N O TA M S

METAR vs. TAF j h t t p ^ w u ^ j i v l a t lo n w B a t h e r . g o v ; :

METAR: (AIM 7-1-1, 7-1-12. 7-1-16, 7-1-30, 7-1-31, AC 00-45Q, FAA-H-B063-25J

1. M E Teoroloqical reports— ¿vialior goulire Weather Re peris.
2. Terminal wealher O B S ER V A TIO N S.
3. Normally this will be an hourly surface weather observation issued 5 minutes before each hour.
4. SPECI— is a special (M ETAR) report issued because of quickly changing conditions (e.g_, w in d direction
changes by 45" or more in lass than 15 mlnulas and the wind speed is 10 knots or mors; VISIBILITY decreases to less Plan, or H
below, increases 1d equal or exceeds: 3, 2, or 1 mile; RVR changes Lo above or below 2,400 teat ale. — see AC 00^)50).

T A F : (AIM 7-1-1, 7-1-12, 7-1-16, 7-1-30, 7-1-31, A C M W 5G, FAA-H-3083-26)

1. Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts,
2. Detailed [usually] 24-hour FO R E C A ST normally issued four times a dav (amended as required)
starting at approximately 30 minutes before each main synoptic hour iOOZ 06 Z, 12Z, and 18Z) of
PREDICTED weather conditions expected to occur wilhin a 5 SM radius of an airport. May include
expected weather wilhin 5 to 10 SM of'the airport (preceded by "V C” in the Vicinity).
3. 32 large airports in the U,S. (as well as many overseas) now have 30-hour forecasts.
4. To issue a forecast there must be available at least two conseculive wealher observations (METARS).
5. TAF always begins with "where" & "when" — Ihen moves on to forecast of winds, visibility, wealher and
sky condition.

CEILING: (1.1. P/C Glossary)

Height above the earth's surface— A G L— of the lowest layer of clouds or obscuring phenomena reported
as “ broken " “ overcast Mor “ obscuration." and no! classified as “thin" Or "partial."

VIRGA: (a c O0-6A. AC 0CM5G, AC 00-54)

Precipitation (rain or ice particles) falling from a cloud but evaporating before reaching the ground.
Virga results when a]r below the cloud is very dry and is common in the western part of the country.
Virga associated with showers suggests strong downdrafts wilh possible moderate or greater

i ..................................................................................... ............ .............. ............................................ \

From FAA Order 8900.1 para 3-2122:
'„.A n AW OS cannot be used as an authorised weather source for Part 121 and Part 135 IFR
operations If the visibility is reported missing..," ;
O p S doc CQ77 (Part 121 operations or Part 135 turbojet operations) requires ’REPO R TED“ ■
ceiling & visibility. See page 265 for additional guidance concerning OpSpec CÜ77, i

■Think of a Terminal Aerodrome Forecast lLA W H SI — A human observer, usually an air

trorric controller. nugm ants o r adds Information
as a HOROSCOPE with NUMBERS. to an auLam-eLed abasrvation. Normally kml led
ir hours of operation. (AIM 7-1-12)

M E TA R ID E N TIF IE R S [ACOO-46G)
In the canlarminaus Dniled Slates, the three-tartar ¡denliliar Is pretixad wilh K. For example
SEA (Sflallle) becomes KSEA. Elaewhera, (he liral ore or two Isllars of the ICAO IdtnW w
indicate in Which region cl the world and country (or slata) 1ha station is located. Pacific
locations such as Alaska, Hawaii, and lha Mariana Islands start with P followed by an A, H,
o rG respectively. Thu losl two letters reflect lha spacilic raparting station idantitication. if
tha location's three-letter identification begins wilh an A, H. or G, the P is added to the
beginning. If the location's three-letter identification does not begin with an A, FI, or Ci, tha
Iasi letter is dropped and tile P is added lo the beginning. Examples.
A N C (Anchorage, AK) becomes FANC.
GME (Noma, AK) becomes PAOM,
HNL IHonolulu. HI) becomes PHNL.
KOA (Keahale Point, HI) bacamas RHKO.
„ DAM (Anderson AFB. Guam) b a w ™ s PGDA.
J
218 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot
 C hap 6 — W e a th e r & N O TA M S
Aerodrome Forecast (TA F ) & Aviation Routine Weather Report (M ETAR) g-i-ao)
TA F K P IT 0S173OZ 0918/1024 15005 K T 5 SM H Z FE W 0 2 Ü W S O 10/31022K T
FM0919M 3 Ü Q 1 5 G 2 5K T 3SM S H F A O V C Q 1 5 T E M P O 0920/0922 1/2 SM + T S R A O V C 0 0 9 C E
FM10Q10Q 270 0 B K T 5SM S U R A BKN 02Q O V C 0 4 0 P R O B 3 0 1004/1007 1 S M R A B R
FW101015 10OÜ5KT 6SM S U R A O V C 0 2 Q B E C M O 1013/1015 P 6 S M N S W S K C
NCJlb: Users are cautioned La conllnm UAlb^and I IME o' Mie lAI-iB.g.;i FW'yooOM to OOOQZ on Ihu 'Olh. Do not cuníusc wl]h 10CQZ|
M E T A R K P IT 0519552 C O R 2 2 0 1 5 G 2 5 K T 3/45M R28L/260ÜFT T S R A O V C 0 1 D C B 18:16 A2992 R M K S LP 0 4 5 T 0 1320159
FORECAST E X P L A N A T IO N REPORT
M essaae tvpe: TAF-routine or TAF AMD-amended forecast METAR-houriv. SPECI-
TA F special or TESTM-ncn-commissioned ASOS report M E TA R
KPIT ICAO lacatiDn identiFiet KPIT
G91730Z Issutinca lime ALL limos in U TC 1Z '. 2-digri dato. 4-dlgn lima 091955Z
Valid period. either 24 nr 30 hours. This First two die to oF EACH Imjr digit number indicate date oF
0918/1024 (he VBlid period, the final two dig .to indicate the lima (uni id from 1SZ on the 9lh 1o 24Z Oh the 101h)
In U.S. M ETAR CORroctad of: or AUTOm alad observation fur aulomaled report truth no human
intervention: omiLled when observer logs on
COR
Wind 3 dirjt iruo-ncrth dirgetion. nogrgsi i(j degrees (or next 2-3 digits For spoort gnd
15005KT unit, K T (KMH or MPS}; as needed. Gust and maximum spaed; ÚOTM KT for calm: lor M ETAR, ¡1 22015G25KT
direction varies CO3 or more, Variabi.ilv appended a a. 130^260

5SM
Prevailing vtifcUlty: in U.S. Statute Miles &fractions. above 6 miles m TA F EtUtflflM (Or. 4-digil
3/45 M
mriimum visibililv in meters and as required, lowest value with d rection)
Runwav Visual Range: R: 2-dicit runwav designator Lett Center. or R:qht as needed: w f . Minus
or Plus In U .S.. 4-d ig it value, FaeT In U. S„ (meters elsewhere), 4-d ig it value Va rlabi hty 4-dlgll R2SL/260GFT
value (and tendenov Qcwn. Up or No change)
HZ (Hgjie) Signiiicfinl prosgnt, lorecasl S rgcepi woglhgr; geg (able (llmndersiorm. nun) TSR A
Cloud amount, height (add 2 íeros) S, type: SKv Clear OÍB, FEW>0ffl-2/B. SCaTtered 3/B-tFB-
i'SCTj'i1
.1= Scattered clouds rhe elevalion of Ihe reporting station). BroK^N 5/0-7/B.
FEWQ2Ü □VarCast 8/6: 3-dlgli height In hundreds of 1). lowering Stimulus « fijtnulanimlus in M ETAR. In OVC 010CB
TA F, only £ £ . Vertical Risibility for obscured sky S. height "W QD4’. More than 1 layar may be
reponed orioracust, In nulomaleri f/.ETAR repioris only, CLnaR Tor "'clear below 12.0SÜ feet"
Temoaralure. deerees Celsius: llrsl 2 ditiils. temueraturB *F last 2 diolls. dewuolnt lemtierature:
Minus lor below zero, e.q.. M0E
18/16
Altimeter settinu: indtcalor S ■I digits, fi-inchos 8 hundr'Kls (Q-hectoPnsciils. e.g. Í11013) A2992
WSÜ10/3102 In J.S . TAF. nori-convective low-level (<2,QQ0II) Wind Shear; 3-dig it he ighl (hundreds of ft}; “f ; 3-
2KT digit wind direction S 2-3 digit Wind speed above Ihe indiqeled height 1 unit. K I
Ih METAR. ReWarK indicator fi remarks. For example: Saa-Lavel Pressure in hectoPascals 4 A2992RMK
tenths, as shown: 1004 5 hPa; Temp/daw-poml in tenths *C, as shown: (emp. 10,2 *C, dew-pc.nl SLP045
16.9 'C T0ia2C1S9
FroM and 2-diqü hour and 2-d.tnt minute b a o im iro lime: indicates sioniFican! chanoe. Each FM
FM1930 s(arto gn n nnw line, indgntnd !j (paces
FroM.: Chanoes are exoectad at: 2-diait date. 2-dinil hour, and 2-diail minute b a o irriro time
FMÜ9193Q ind.cales siqnilican! chanqe. Each FM slarts on a new l:ne, indented 5 spaces
TEM PO TEM POi jiv . changes axpected lor <1 hour and in total. < hall of the period Palwean the 2-diall
0920/0922 dale and 2-dig it hour beginning, and 2-digit data and 2-digit hour end.ng time
PROB3G PRQB.ability and 2-dlgit purconl (3fl or 40) probable condition In tho poned botwuen (ha 2-dlgit
1004/1007 date & 2-d gil hour beginning lime, and the 2-digitdate and 2-digit hour ending time
BECMG B E C tiM in G : change oxpoctod in the period belween tho 2-dlglt dale and 2-diflil houf
1013/1015 beginning time, and the 2-digitdate and 2-digit hour ending time

ADDITIONAL ABBREVIATIONS
NSW - No Significarli Weather VC = Vicinity Ibalwean 5 £ 1D3M □! the cbEBrvalian)
= Light \ rtno alan** = Moderate \ *+' = Heavy_________________________________________________________
I5"=Thunderstorm \ SH-Showers \ E L _Blowirtg \ FZ=Freezing \ BC=Patches \ Ml= Shallow 1 PR=Fartial \
DR-Driftina_____________________________________________________________________________________________
RA-Rain 1DZ-Drizzle \ GR=Hail \ SN-Snow \ PL=lce Pellets \ SG -Snew Grains \|C=lce Crystals \
GS=5mall hail/snow pellets \ ^P-Llrhnown precipitation in automated observations__________________________
BR-Mist (>5/3SM) \ FG=Foa (ì 5/8sm ) \H£=Haze \ FU-Sm oke 1DLNDust or Widespread dust \ VA=Volcanic ash \
PY=Sprav\ SA=Sarid or Sandstorm or Dust&lorm or Dusting________________________________________________
S Q -5 o uall \ FC-Funnel Cloud V+FC-Tornado/Waterspnilt \ S5icr ds or SAi-Sandstorni \ DUtor sa i - Dustslorm
‘Explanations In parentheses "()" indicate different worldwide practices.
‘ C eiling is not specified — defined as the lowest broken or overcast layer, or the vertical visibility.
‘NWS (Heltonai ¡¡¡(aether garvice) TAFs exclude turbulence, icing & temperature forecasts; NWS METARs exclude trend

EVERYTHING EX P LA IN ED for the Profession al Pilot 219

Chap 6 — W eather & N O T A M S

W IND D IR E C TIO N — T R U E North vs. M A G N E TIC

M ETAR I A F ASPS (used for METAR). and the Windsanri Temperatures
Aloft Forecast ( FD j report wind direction in reference to TR U E North.
[AM 7-1-12. 7-1-30. 7-1-31 FAA-H-0093-25]
Wind direction broadcast over FAA radios (or dial-up telephone A W 0 5 JA S 0 5 1
is in reference to M AGNETIC North. |AiM 7-1-12d,3.(t)n o t e ]

Exam ples of wind speed and direction plots

Calm NW i1f klii SW.2DU»

© \ > j P
Ïïj3é tin H iBflkfm W i« k » i

o -% *-o
5

Wind conditions are reported by an arrow attached to the station location circle.
The station circle represents the head of an arrow, with the arrow pointing in the
direction the wind is blowing. The stem line, with the barbs, points to the direction
the wind is from — the arrow appears to fly with the wind at its tail (a tall wind).
W inds are described by the direction from w hich they blow , thus a northwest
wind means that the m o d ¡9 bHavillfl ftflm the northwest toward the southeast.
The speed of the wind is depicted by barbs or pennants placed on the wind line.
Each barb represents a speed of 10 knots, while half a baifa is equal to 5 knots and
a pennant is equal to 50 knots. (FAa - h-bcs3-25)

UEIAfl KSTL l « 0 i 3I023G4ÛKT $SM

SCT03Î D5/M03 KT)?ç

UFT/lfl KINO lHhili 1/2 SM TSRXfiB

WOOS 18/18 A2S70

HËTAfl KCMH 19S02 ICOI7KT 2SM GFT

ÛVCO0D 11/10 A3S7Û

WETAFI KPtT T950Z 13012KT 7SM

6KN1» 00^4 A301Î

220 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 C hap 6 — W e a th e r & N O TA MS

CUT Is
i T T j KPIT 0017302 O B I& n O H 1B0B5KÎ 5SM HZ F LWOBO WSQ1ft')1D22KT
S| CUT
/
FMA&iyaa m o i s g î s k t a s m ë h r a o v e o i & t e ï pq o h ì u d è h 1/2S« + ï s r a ü u c o û b c b
2
FM I UÜ10Ù AIO HK ’ b£M âhftA.ÜKNB2U Û V C M U PRÛB'JÜ IQÛ-iriCKSÎ lS M R A B f t
1MHJ1Q15 1 S W 5 K JJS M S H R * O V O 0 2 & Û E C M G 101^1 O U M S M NSW SKC
r 4H B -r u as is e s z c o r ï à û iB g a a r f o m s m r 28U 2b o o f t i s r a o v ç £ 1 Ç Ç 0 Ife'ie
LPfWt 1ü 1-9211 ltr4 JR Jsora loq K d 0mabon [foudre W 1 i h :- E E E
U E S !
KPfT IC-ÀO Lacallan Ir-dcslw KPIT
Uahd fluitaj kllm ¡M VI M huun T U (liai two- dmILi if EACH lu»
M IB iK lZ d ik|p! iljiiisv i■jJ :_i^: dell ul LIil alili punii Lin. hull tA'c djgtla D9d955Z
■uii du Hin Hi m n i il liiiu Tli/t ■■ !■• ‘JUl hi SU. ■■ Si» I Clil
In U S M E TA R CQRrndodi ol: or A U I f l l M M BfelMWlUon
C& R
for julorratod rc-pcP:: a miltad when observer Inns on
W ind 3-digli TR U E H d rcclm n far M^EiaBk i; next 2-3 digits 230lBfì2SKT
15005*1
far ipqsil ri g ib t, i! ME ÏA H 6 r or n*&rq V -ir^ilitv
Visibility iSM j; ^ftm liw in TA ! ~P-.irt5M H tfk -R : le d a li SM. H i
ninyvov IL -C -f i'if T Y a n jü e Up Down, No change R20 LilCODFT
HZ Siam liunl peasant, farceasl Aid ra n n i Aisortiur T5R A
M V Qlanr DA.. E L ft * Ü A J A . 1 £ I S IM f t , JUSÖ OVC&1ÔCB
O V C atfl: H-digil height |lCÖs afft); T-Dwnnnq CUmulus nr
F L WD 1C 1ÄJ1G
giin'iLlcrin'i^us ^ ora cal jfisitulry tar obseurcd sky ’TfV'WM"
FOLD r yJrlrjLrS.tln*- rmlnl B^i'i.-S ÜQV L'ulûW 1ÉT-ÜI Mtìftì AJIlhlùlqr
A2992

iVüUirj, W nd Î L o j 2-digit hctgbL'ilCOs o? H y j dgil diroeben i 2-3 HMK SLP045

71022KT
P K E S F fi»
HHlLSi PrilPg

FM091330 _
In ME T AR K' M-: K n 'd c jl'i A remarks 5r= :i
& =
digit'«ind speed at eve the ndnsalcd t a g t : ano unr. KT.

hoctaPj »c a ll Unttuft. I'JU4. L- HPa c np^üe w point, r A 02“A u lo wllH

(gprtht'C os sh JAr :cmn *
T01B20159
Eriiss in i g - +• J. ■ *■;.

ce'.'i p o r i -BlS-g^e i r a - i o diacnn-lrilDi

m cl-Jfigci i i l u l l j U f c H U M IUH1L ard m a t m in ÈAE42 =
11 MITI T i u p o d i v rzanifri qipcrifld lor i i n u n m tats, r aih BndMiadz
092010922 SUB42-
PRQB3D PRÖB-abJilv are 2-digiL^ ilDVsi probable condii an E,Nm Eiga-'i'- Jo!
1004.10QT hùlwaisn 2-dliMf hoor g a gn A. C IG -ü o lii'ü
U.QCMG □EC-.M 'iG Llmi un Ijalwnnr J d a l» & Z-dlglLh«ur T C U BTBwwfiM
10131*1015 P=ircfc than. Mn Sianiltcnnl Wcathc-r ÇUR^elcar eUn'LiL :
‘ -Light, ’no
a;kiHr=M&riìanal». *' = Heavy" = VìÙnity; fdj = Lln.ilbhV 0 Ç = Patches,
m - PnfoL.il TÄ-ThundörSlürm H L Hl frying 9M- K Fl rudere,. QA iDHillinn F Z - l-rnn/mi]
3 E S T Î OZ-DrizZJn. RA^FtAm 8H~Lrinw. SG-SnowLirains. IÇ -k d Cryslals.
E L “ lcc PctLcts Ë E " H n i £ £ -£ m a ll tiail'Snnw pci lets, Ü P =Un known PrcdpiALlTQ l
*|.ï Wl1^ 1IH i1 & R -M H . Efl-FOfl. Ë IT S n ifik i. H A -V U c flN flÀ lh , Ì À " Ì A tk Ì. H I Hitóq.
E ï-5 fjra y . DU-Widospnpad DUsi. £ S "S ü b a li. S 3 " SardStoflii. |0-|>jBCS§wm
CUT PO =W cl developed dLslsordivhiris. (EÜ^F l i t ig I Üîoud +FC=tnirada.lwJ:crsDqul CUI
CUT, FOLD and LAMINATE COLOR CODES
VFR/IFR Flight Plan CO LOR CODE
AIM 5-1-4 & 5-1-8 Your Wallet Sized Cheat-Sheets Am ber A
International Flight Plan Beige BE
AIM 5-1-9
B lack BK
800-992-7433 Blue B
IFR .VFR) Brown BR
(Tail # ) __________________
M o r e (A C T y p e )_ . . _/U/A/G
Gold GD
____________ Knots
Groan G
(Where am 17}___________ Grey GY
F ite ® Departure T im e ____ Or,.
As Soon As Possible
Maroon
O ra n g s
M
O
_________ Thousand
Pink PK
S tu ^ D 4 _ _ ^ D 4 Lndg
_______ h o u rs en route
_
Purple P
Remarks_____________ _ Red R
______ hours fuel
Silver S
Alternate ? ______
Name_____ s p e lle d _______ Tati T
Based i n ____ Turquotso TQ
(Phone) num ber___________ Violet V
_____ on board
White W
(co lo r}________& _________
Yellow Y

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Profession al Pilot 221

 Chap 6 — W eather & N O TA M S
F L IG H T PLAN FO R M S:

8 0 0 - 992*7433
IFR (VFR)
<Taü#)_________ _ _ _ _
(AC Type)_________ fUlfiJG
Knots
(V Y h a ra a m l? )_____________
Departure Tim e (orAiAPi
__________ thousand
□ . D-* & Lndg____
____ hours enroule
Remarks ___
hours fuel
Alternate? ____
Marne spelled
Baiati in___ Phans tt_
on board
(color)

A IM 5-1-9 — FIG 5-1-3 — Form 7233-4

REMARKS
»w—«ffa iiew h* nmon
(AIM b-1-4 thru AIM 5 -1-13)— Slock 11
af a flight plan ¡4 reserved only lorlhoia
remarks partmenl la A T C nr 1d Ihs International Flight Plan
darJiCEilioi i of other flight piufi maori iDonruai;ii
information, Such ÉA Ihs appropriale <=FF
radiolelephcny (call sign) associated wiih
the designator fled In Bloch 2. Mams of a <=
personal nalurs are noi accsptsd. <=
*...................................................... * imci^h: <Mmip»CAriOMo* o*o»**to*

IH B M IE T*FC t MKJiAr inrwTiFirJitH»i r > TP T O F F I iK i M T

C a te H old P n »:e if iirw — <-(FPL <1
Gale hold procedures will be In VPfUWLK l w t O f A * K _* |* Jn Mnl Ç*T W1QR««W
/ /
effeci whenever departure uiMPvuiTLnr w n n o t i
delays exceed or are anticipated <=
iâfiHmi*HgUPiio Iavu »QVtfc
to exceed 15 minutes, (a im 4-3-

\
International (ICAO) Flight Plan <=
Use of FAA Form 7233-4 is
recommended far domestic IFR IdUfcjriMAI h'>( ALHOtRtQMi 3W Ai rk. A4WOU40ML
<1
| flig fits and is ma ndatory for al I [ FR
| flights that will depart U.5. Domestic
li ôThFÜIrfORfcATtÛH
i airspace, Domestic operators that
I desire RNAV Performance Based
; Navigation IPBNi routing {e.g.,
¡ p .i n n I M i F jr A N Y IfdM u n i i I fjW I O N . t U M ] i * n I S MH I P I
RlMAV SlDs and STAR») should file 1f ENDURANCE EKKPHCT^H»
I an JCAO format International Flight I* WH W40N»CH tf* WF LLÜA
e; r m pr FU
I Plan including the appropriate PEN
SURVIVEEQWPMEW JHMD*
| equipment information. Instructions POLAR D E S E R T M ARfTiME J U W L E iJH
r
■ for filling out an ICAO flight plan are □ I [
I quite extensive and a little beyond [WÎWLï
h u u t t ; ft f i r f * ^ M v fift tiH.fi*
| the scope o f this book. The AIM <=
iD i
; recommends that you go to the FAA A i K I M T T C C i 3fl b U * u * t£ A

' website for a detailed description. A/

! P le a se ro fe r lo AIM 5 - 1 - 9 o r G oogle <=
| 'FAA F lig h t P la n n in g In fo rm a tio n ’'
N /'
PllOriNCOMMAiC-
for (bat extensive guidance. C/
I httD:/'w w .y.fja.cioVifabauL;office orci/h 0lM irt ACCEPTEDB* *ÜDTO**ALiWdMATiQH
I oadguarters offices/ato/service units
tonroutoJfliohl plan lllina/

222 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 C hap 6 — W e a th e r & N O TA M S
E F A S i F L IG H T W A T C H f F_S_S — F R E Q U E N C IE S : .aim 7,1.5.0-1-21.4-2-u.faa- H * m .15)
1. Enroule Flight Advisory Service — E F A S .
2. 122.0 — 6:00 AM to 10:00 PM local lime — EFAS provides communications capabilities for aircraft
flying at 5.000 ft AGL (or lower) to 17,500 feet M5L — Tell them what VOR you are near.
3. Discrete EFAS frequencies have been established to ensure communications coverage from 18,000
through 45,000 M5L serving in each specific A R TC C area. These discrete frequencies may be used
below 18.000 feet when coverage permits reliable communication, .............................................
4. Used for updating weather information and pilol reports only. • The letter "Ft" alter a fss frequency
t m eans that FSS t a r 1 Receive on Inul
5. Mol 10 be used for filing, opening or closing flight plans.
■ iroqunncy. but can't IransmM over it.
6. Other F5Sfrequencies: w *****VlVlWWW
a. 122.1R — used to TR A N SM IT to FSS — the pilot should listen on the listed VOR frequency ■
however Ihe pilot must remember to tetl FSS which (VOR) frequency he is listening on
122.1 is the most common transmil-only frequency, although there are others.
b. 122.2 - Assigned lo the majority of FSSs as a common Enroute TW O -W A Y frequency,
c. 123.6 — Local Airport Advisory frequency for certain FSSs that are located on an airport.
d. 121.5 - Emergency frequency.

S T A N D A R D B R IE F IN G (aim 7 -i-4) — you have not received a previous briefing or have nol received
preliminary information through ma&& dissemination media; o.g.. TIBS, TW EB, ate.

ABBREVIATED BRIEFING — you only need to supplemenl mass disseminated data, updale a
previous briefing, or obtain one or two items.

O UTLO O K BRIEFING — your time of departure is six or more hours in the future; for planning purposes
only.

IN F L IG H T B R IE F IH G — when needing to update a preflight briefing.

TUR BULEN CE Reporting Criteria (A IM 7 -1 -2 3 )

IN T E N S IT Y A IR C R A F T R E A C T IO N R E A C T IO N INSID E A IR C R A F T
ih
Turbulence that momentarily causes alight, erratic changes altitude Occupants may Teel a slight Strain against
and/or attitude (pitch, roll, yaw). Reportas Light Turbulence; seal baits or shoulder straps. Unsecured
L ig h t or objacls may bo displacing slighlly. Food
Turbulence that causes Slight, rapid and somewhat rhythmic bumpiness service may be conducted and little dt no
without appreciable changes a altitude or altitude Report as Light Chop difficulty is encountered in walking
Tuibulonefl dial 1» similar la Ughi Turbulence but of greater mlonslly.
Changes in altitude andini altitude occur but ihe aircralt remains in
poBlIIvs control at all limes, It usually causas va rial ions in indicsled Occupants leal datinilo slrains ngeinsl saat
airspeed. Fie port as Nodorate Turbulence; belts or shoulder straps. Unsecured objects
M o d e ra te or are dislodged. Food service and walking are
Turbulsnco 1ba1 is similar to Light Chop bu1 or gronlcr intensity. It tausas ■difficult,
rapid bumps or jolis wilhout appreciable Changes in aircralt altitude or
altitude. Fieport as Moderate Chop.
Occupants are forced violently against soal
Turbulence that causes large, abrupt changes in altitude and/or attitude.
baits or Shoulder Straps. Unsecured objects
S e v e re It usually causes large variations in indicated airspeed Aircralt may be
are bossed about Food Service end walking
momanisrily ou! of control. Kaputt as Sflvoro Turbuianco.
are ¡mousslbiu.
Pilot should immediately reduce power,
reduce airspeed, allempt 1o maintain wings
level and disregard altitude excursions. Q£)
Turbulence in which the aircralt is vidsntly tossed about and is
N O T R E Q U E S T an altitude chanoa ora
E x tre m e practically impossible to control It may cause structural damage. Report
block nhiiudo — iusl do what you hnvs to
as Extreme Turbulence.
do to keeo the winas on the airolane —
TELL
TJtiEKl what yftu_aie dsina us soon
as you gut a chuntu
Hiah level turbulence inormallv above 15.ODD feet ASL:- not associated with cumuliform cloudiness., including thunderstorms. should be
reported as C A T (Clear Air Turbulence) preceded by the appropriate intensity, or light or moderate chap.
Occasional - Less lhan 1/3 of ihe lime. Intermittent -1/3 to 2/3. Continuous - More than 2/3.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 223

Chap 6 — W eather & N O T A MS
AI RM E T (W A ) I (AIM 7-1-0, PIC G lcss ary.A C 00-05□)
1 AIRman's M ETeorological Information
2. Wsathqr of interest to all aircraft but potentially hazardous to aircraft having lirpifed capabilities or
lo non-instrumenl rated pilots.
3. Weather of less severiLy lhan that covered by SIGMETs.
4. AIRMETs cover:
a. Moderate icing
b. Moderate turbulence
c. Sustained winds of 30 knots or greater at the surface
d. Widespread areas of JFR conditions
e. Extensive mountain obscuration
5. AIRMETs come out four times a dav (scheduled every 6 hours), cover a forecast period of gix hours,
and give an outlook for the next six hours with unscheduled amendments issued as required.
6. AIRMETs have a fixed alphanumeric designator with:
a. ZULU — for icing and freezing level data.
b. TA N G O — for turbulence, strong surface winds, and wind shear.
c. SIERRA — for instrument flight rules and mountain obscuration.

S IG M E T (W S): (AIM 7-1-6, PIC! Glossary. A C 00-4SG. AC CO-BA;

1. SIGnificant M ETeorolouical Information.
2. Significant and serious weather concerning the safety of ALL aircraft.
a. Severe and extreme turbulence or Qlear Air Turbulence (CAT).
b. Severe icing.
c Du$tSform$-sandstorms or volcanic ash that reduce visibility to less than 3 mlle$-

C O N V E C T IV E S IG M E T (W S T ): (AIM7-1-5, AC QO-45G)
1, Concern only severe thunderstorms tornadoes, heavy precipitation, hail and high surface winds.
2. Issued on a scheduled basis, hourly at 55 minutes oast the hour and are valid for two hours or unli
superseded by the next hourly update.

S E V E R E W E A T H E R F O R E C A S T A L E R TS jA W W li ( a im 7 - 1- 6 . a co w m J)
f . Preliminary messages issued to alert users that a Severe Weather Bulletin (W W ) is being issued.
2, Define areas Of severe thunderstorms or tOrnado&S.
3. These messages are unscheduled.

C E N T E R W E A T H E R A D V IS O R IE S fC W A l: (aim7-1 -e. accmssj

1. Unscheduled inflight, flow control. Sir traffic, and aircrew advisory
2. By nature of its short lead-time, the CWA is not a light-planning product. It is a Nowcast for
conditions beginning within the next two hours,
3. Used as a s implement to an existing StGM ET or AIIRMET.

Telephone Information Briefing Service (T IB S ) — aka — (P A TW A S ):

(AIM 7-1-2, 7-1-4, 7-1-0, PJC Gloseeiy. FAA-H-B0S3-15, FAA-H-B0B3-25. AC O0-45Q, FAA-P-074Q-3OB)
1. System of automated telephone recordings of meteorological information available throughout the US.
2. 1-S00-WX BRIEF (500-992-7433 Press 3} or the dedicated TIBS line 877-454-2799

T R A N S C R IB E D W E A T H E R B R O A D C A S T (TW E B )fA la sk a O nly): (AIM7-1-9. AC 0O-45G;

1, Broadcast continuously over selected NOBs and/or VORs.
2, Route-oriented data with inflight advisories, winds aloft and selected METARs and TAFs.
3, Telephone numbers are found in the AfFD in the FSS & National Weather Service Telephone # section.

H A Z A R D O U S IN F L IG H T W E A T H E R A D V IS O R Y S E R V IC E (M W A S ): (A i m 7 n o ;
1, Continuous broadcast of inflight advisories including AWW, SIGMETs, AIRMETs, PIREPs, elc.
2. A HIWAS alert will be broadcast by A T C on all frequencies that will include frequency instructions
(available on HIWAS Flight Watch or Flight Service frequencies). HIWAS availability shown on IFR low
Enroute and VFR sectional charts.

224 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 C hap G — W e a th e r & N 0 T A M 3
PIREP fUAl — "Pilot REPortS". Also "U U A 1’ — "Urgent Pilot REPortS" of significant w&ather:
E n c o d in g PIR EPS — (A IM 7- 1-20 th ru 7 '1 -2 7 , F A A -H -B O B 3 -25, A C 0 0 -4 5 G )
UUA Type of report:
U R G EN T (UUAS Any PIREP mat contain« aNv of tha following weather phenomena: tornadoes.. Tunnel Clouds. or waters pouts:
1
severe or extreme turbulence. inducing Clear Air Turbulence: severe icina: hail; volcanic ash. low-level wind shear
UA (LLW S) (pilot reports air spued FlucluBlionsd 10 knots or more withm 2,000 foot of 1he surface); any other wonther
phenomena reported which are Considered by lhe controller Id be potentially hazardous, bo Bight operations.
R O U TIN E iUAl - Anv PIREP rhar contains waalher phenomena not listed above, includino low-leval wind shear reports with air
west! fluctuations of >099 than 10 knola,
/o v Location: Use VHF NAVAlDtsI nr an airport usina the Ihiee- ar lour-lelter location identifier. Position can be OVer a sile. art some
location relatives a site, or alonq a jouta. Ex: /OV ABC /OV KFSMOHOMS /OV OKCQ4502[>- DFW; /OV KABR-KFSD
/TM TLMe. Four digits in U TC . Ex: /Tl/l 0915
/FL Altilude/Fliaht Level! Three Units for hundreds of (eeL with no space between FL and altitude. IF not known, use UNKN
E x: .'FLOPS VF L3 10. /F LUN KN
/TP Aircraft TvPe. Fourdioits mail mum: if not known, use UNKN. Ex: .' F"J L323: /TP B737./TP UKKN
/SK S K v cover: Describes cloud amount. height of cloud bases, and heioht ol cloud loos. If unknown. UNKN. Ex: /SK 5CT04Q-
rORlSh./SK 0KNUNKN-TOPO7t. /SK L5KN-CJVC050-TQPUNKN. /SK SCT03O-TOPO6O/QVC12O: /SK FEWO30: /SK SKC
/WX Fliaht visibilitv and weather: Fliaht Visibility -FV i reoorLed First in standard M E TA R weather symbols. Intensitv 1-for W it. no
qualifier For moderele. and + for heavy) shall be coded for ell precipitation lypes excapl ice crystals and hail
Ex: -WX FVD5SM -RA /WX FV01SM 3N BR; fWX RA
/TA TamoarAtura (Celsiusl: 1below zero, orelix villti an "M". Terroeralure shall be reported if icing is reported. Ex: /TA 15: ,'TA MOB
/w v Wind. Direction from Which the wind Is blowing coded In tenn of degrees using three digits. Directions ol less than 100 degrees
shall be preceded by a zero. The wind speBd shall be entered as a two-or three-digit group immedlately following the direction,
coded in while knots using tha hundreds, tens, and units digits. Ex W V 27Q45K.T: A W 290110KT
/TB Turbulence. Use standard contractions lor intensitv and tvoe i'CA T or C H O P when aooroonalel. Include altitude onlv il different
From FL. Ex: /IB EXTFtM; /TB O C N L LG T-M O D BLtlV 090; ,'TB M O D -5EV C H O P 000-110
/IC lElflfl Describe using stnndnrd imonsdy and type «n trsdions. include altitude only if different from FL.
Fi- ,'in 1G T-M O O HIMF; ,'1C &EV CLR 02H-C45
/RM ReMarkf. Frei) form to clariiv the report pulling hazardous elements first. Ex ''RM LLW $ -15 K T SFC-Q3D D URC RWY22 JF K

RADAR W E A T H E R R EP O R TS (SD ): (AC 0ii-45G, FAA-H-B0B3-25}

1. Thunderstorms and general areas of precipitation.
2. Reported al 35 minutes past each hour with intervening reports as required.
3. Type, intensity, trend, location of precipitation, echo lop of Ihe precipitation and if significant the echo
bases. All heights MSL.

A V IA T IO N A R E A F O R E C A S T {F A ): [At 0o45G, kaa-h-suss-j E)

1. Forecast of general weather conditions over an area Lhe size of several states.
2. Used for enroute weather and to interpolate a forecast at airports that do not have T A F .
3. Issued TH R E E Q ) times a day
4. Contains a 12-hour forecast followed by a 6-hour outlook (1 8-hour in Alaska) for a total forecast
period of 10 hours (3d-hours in Alaska).

W INDS and T E M P E R A T U RES A L O F T F O R E C A S T (F D ): (AC QfM&G, FAA-H-0083-25)

1. Forecast for specific locations.
2. Forecasts are made twice daily based on OQZ and 12Z data for use during specific time intervals.
3. A 4-dlglt group shows wind direction, in reference to true north, end wind speed in knots.
4. A 6-digit group will include forecast temperatures in degrees Celsius.

C O N V E C T IV E O U T L O O K {A C ): (AC 0M5G, FAA-H-0003-25)

1. Prospects for thunderstorm activity during the following 24 hours.
2. Transmitted atC70CZ and 1500Z and valid until 1200Zlhe next day,

S T A B IL IT Y C H A R T : (ACDfMSG, FAA-H-BO03-2S}
Outlines areas of stable and unstable air.

RADAR S U M M A R Y C H A R T : (AC (KJ-45G, FAA-H-BQB3-25}

1. Graphically displays a collection of radar weather reports.
2. Displays the type of precipitation echoes and indicates their intensity, trend, movement,, echo tops and
bases.

S E V E R E W E A T H E R O U T L O O K C H A R T : (ac 00-45G. FAA-H-3CE3-25)

Depicts areas of probable thunderstorm activity,
EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 225
C hap 6 — W e a th e r & N O TA MS
TEMPORARY FLIGH T RESTRICTIONS — TFRs — NOTAMs; <<¡1 1 3 7 ac 0 i-eac>
{a} The Administrator will issue a NOlioe To AirMen {NOTAM } designating an area within which temporary
flight restrictions apply and specifying the hazard or condition requiring their Imposition, whenever he
determines it is necessary in order to—
(1) Protect persons and property jin the surface or in the aii from a hazard associated with an
Incident on the surface: [e.g., toxic fumes, volcanic eruptions, etc.]
(2) Provide a safe environm ent for the operation of disaster relief aircraft: or
(3) Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing and other aircraft above an incident or event,
which may generate a high degree of public interest (e.g., large sporting events).
The Notice to Airman will specify Ihe hazard or condition that requires the imposition of temporary
flight restrictions.
{b) When a NOTAM has been Issued under paragraph (e)(1) or this section [hazard on the surface] no
person may operate an aircraft within the designated area unless that aircraft is participating In the
hazard relief activities and is being operated under the direction of the official in charge of on scene
emergency response activities.
(c) When a NOTAM has been issued under paragraph (a)(2) of this section [to provide airspace for
d im te n a lla L a Itc ta ft] no person may operate an aircraft within the designated area unless at least
O N E of the following conditions are met:
(1) The aircraft is participating in hazard relief activities and is being operated under the
direction of the official in charge of on scene emergency response activities.
[2} The aircraft is carrying law enforcement officials.
(3) The aircraft is operating under the A TC approved IFR flight plan.
(4) The operation is conducted directly to or from an airport within the area, or is necessitated
by the impracticability of VFR flight above or around the area due to weather, or terrain:
notification is given to the Flight Service Station or A TG facility specified in the NOTAM lo
receive advisories concerning disaster relief aircraft operations; and the operation does not
hamper or endange: relief activities and is not conducted for the purpose of observing the
disaster
(5) The aircraft is carrying properly accredited news representatives, and, prior to entering the
area, 3 flight plan is filed with the appropriate FAA or A T C facility specified in the Notice to
Airmen and the operation is conducted above the altitude used by the disaster relief aircraft.
unless otherwise authorized by the official in charge of on scene emergency response
activities.
fd) When a NOTAM has been issued under paragraph (a)(3) of this section [prevent congestion of
sijahtS-e_e.tnj^ir_c.r3J_t above an evenLof-highjriLerestl no.oerson_m.avLon.era.te. an aircraft within the
designated area unless at least ONE of the following conditions is met:
(1) The operation is conducted directly to or from an airport within the area or is necessitated
by the impracticability of VFR flight above or around the area due to weather or terrain, and the
operation is not conducted for the purpose of observing the incident or event.
[2} The aircraft is operating under an A T C approved IFR flight plan.
(3) The aircraft is camjfJnHjncident_or_event.pe.rs.onnel. o.r_l3.w_enf_or_cemen|_offlei3Is
(4) The aircraft is carrying properly accredited news representatives and, prior to entering that
area, a flight plan is filed with ihe appropriate FSS or A TC facility specified in the NOTAM .
(e) Flight plans filed and notifications made with an FSS or A T C facility under this section shall include
Ihe following information:
+
(1) Aircraft identification, type and color, " Erngrutrncv air f a lf k rules" ,
(2) Radio communication frequencies to be used. N O TAM S can also he issued 1
under 01.1 30 and usually resuM ij
(3) Proposed times of entry of. and exit from, the designated area. from Soma emergency alfacling [■
(4} Name of news media or organization and purpose of flight. the FAA's ability to operate the air i
(S> Any other information requested by A TC , traffic system salely, [■
Other N O T AMS protect space 11
llight operations and Iravel by Ihe [ 1
O T H E R T E M P O R A R Y F L IG H T R E S T R IC T IO N S : pfMidant or other public liguros
1. National Disaster Areas in the State of Hawaii, (see 91,1381 t covered undaT 01.141 S. 01.143.
V iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii*
2. Em ergency Air Traffic Rules (see 91.139)
3. Flight Restrictions in Proximity of Presidential and Other Parties, (see 91,1411
4. Flight Limitation in Proximity Ot Space Flight Operations, (see 91.1431
5. Restriction on Flight Operations During Abnormally High Barometric Pressure {above 31,00 Inches),
(set 91.144)
6. Operations in the vicinity of aerial demonstrations and m ajor sporting events, (see 91.145)
226 £ VERYTHING EX PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot
 C hap 6 — W e a th e r & N O TA M S
MO T ices T o AirM an — N O TA M s : (AIM 5-1-3, JO 7930f2N, Njp_^jwww,fflg.goWair traffky'Dubifc-Btionsi')
1. Time critical information that is either temporary in nature or not known sufficiently in advance to permit
publication on aeronautical charts or other publications.
2. Information is classified into four categories. ■*
*ie until uin"
"with immediate eifaet until further notice'

N O TA M (D):
1. Information is disseminated for all navigational facilities that are part of the National Airspace System
(NAS) and all airports listed in the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FO).
2. Remain available for the duration of their validity or until published. Once published, the NOTAM data is
deleted from the system.
3. Information includes such data as taxlwav closures, personnel and equipm ent near or crossing
runw ays, and airport lighting aids that do not affect instrument approach criteria, such as VASI.
4. All NOTAM Ds must have one of the keywords listed in TBL 5-1-1 (AIM 5-1-3) .as the first part of the text
after the location identifier,

FD C N O T A M s :
1. Regulatory in nature.
2. Contain such things as a m e n d m e n ts to published lA P s and other current aeronautical c h a r ts .
3. Also used to advertise temporary flight restrictions caused by such things as naturald|sasters or large-
scale public events that may generate a congestion of air traffic over a site.

Pointer N O T AM s:
1. Highlight or point out another N O TA M . such as an FDC or NOTAM (D ) NOTAM. Assists users in
cross-referencing important information that may not be found under an airport or NAVAID identifier.
2. Keywords in pointer NOTAMs must match the keywords in the NOTAM that is being pointed out, The
keyword m pointer NOTAMs related to Temporary Flight Restrictions (I E B ) must be A IR S P A C E .

SAA NOTAMs:
1. Issued when Special Activity Airspace will be active outside the published schedule times and when
required by the published schedule.
2. Pilots are still responsible to check published schedule times for Special Aclivity Airspace as well as any
NOTAMs for that airspace.

Military NOTAMs:
Periaining to U.S. Air Force, Army, Marine, and Navy navigational aids/airpcrls that are part of the NAS
#—b, p..........................
' T-,,-, letters - ZZZ ' appearing efter the
2 NOTAM numbaJ indicate the NOTAM waa
I issued by the North American Aerospace
■ ijafanse Command \ NORAD i.
Notices To Airman PUBLICATION ( n t a p ):
Published ay Mission Support Services, A TC Products and Publications., every 28 days. Data of a permanent
nature can be published in the NTAP as an interim step between publication cycles of the A/FD and
aeronautical charts. The NTAP is divided into four parts:
1. A TC Products and Publications. This part contains selected FDC NOTAMs lhat are expected to be in
effect on the effective date of the publication. This part is divided into three sections: Airway NOTAMs;
Procedural NOTAMs: General NOTAMs,
2. Revisions to Minimum En Route IFR Altitudes and Changeover Points.
3. International NOTAMs,
4. Graphic Notices compiled by A T C Products and Publications. Comprised of 6 sections. General,
Special Military Operations, Airport and Facility Notices, Major Sporting and Entertainment Events.
Airshows. and Special Notices.

N O TA M N U M B E R ING S Y S TE M
4- FDC Notam s— Organized by year and then by a computer selected (sequential) number.
* Not am P's — The first two digits are the month issued, the following numbers represent the number of
Notams issued for that month. _______

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 227

C hap 6 — W e a th e r & N O TA MS

FOG (AC QQ-BA, EAA-H-8083-25)

Foa is fo a . Who cares whal type it is, If vou can't soo. you can't see. But if you really need to know.
(1) RADIATION FOG — relatively shallow fog, normally less than 300 feet thick. It may be dense
enough to hide the entire sky or may conceal only part of the sky. " G round fo a Mis a form of radiation
fog but that term should only be used for fog that's less than 20 feet thick. IT the Tog is less than six
feet thick It should be reported as “shallow foa.” As viewed by a pilot in flight, dense radiation fog
may obliterate the entire surface below him; a less dense fog may permit his observation of a small
portion of the surface directly below him. Tall objects such as building, hills, and towers may proirude
upward through ground fog. Conditions favorable for radiation fog are clear skv. little or no w in d , and
small temperature-dew point spread (high relative hum idity!. The fog forms almost exclusively at
night or near daybreak Terrestrial R A D IA TIO N cools the gro u n d : in turn, the cool ground cools
the air in contact with it. When the air Is cooled to its dew point. fOQ form s. When rain soaks the
fllfiü M followed bv clearing skies, radiation F O G is very common the f p llo m n ^ ^
Radiation fog is restricted to land because water surfaces cool little from nighttime radiation, tl is
shallow when wind is calm. Winds up Lo about 5 knots mix Ihe air slightly and tend to deepen the fog by
spreading the cooling through a deeper layer. Stronger winds disperse the fog or mix (he air through a
slid deeper layer with stratus clouds forming at the lop of the mixing layer. Ground fog usually “b u m s
off" ralher rapidly after sunrise . Other radiation fog generally clears before noon unless clouds
move In over the fog.
(2) ADVECTION FOG — forms when m oist air moves over colder ground or water It is most
common along coastal areas but often develops deep in continental areas. At sea ¡I is called “soa
fog.” Advection fog deepens as wind speed increases up to about 15 knots. Wind much stronger than
15 knots lifts Ihe fog into a layer of low straius or siretocumulus, The W E S T C O A S T of ihe United
States is quite vulnerable to advection fog. This fog frequently forms offshore as a result of cold
water and then is carried inland b y ihe w in d . During the w inter, advection fog over ihe central and
eastern United States results when moist air from Ihe G U L F O F M EXICO spreads N O R TH W A R D
over cold a ro u nd . The foa may extend as far north as the Great Lakes. Water areas in northern
latitudes have frequent dense sea fog in summer as a result of warm, moist, tropical air flowing
northward over colder Arctic waters. A pilot will notice little difference between dying over advection
foa and over radiation foa except that skies may be cloudy above the advection fog. Also, advection
fog is usually more extensive and much more persistent than radiation fog. Advection fog can move in
rapidly regardless of the time of day or night.
{3} UPSLOPE FOG — forms as a result of moist, stable air being cooled adiabatically as it moves
up sloping terrain Once the upslcpe wind ceases. Ihe fog dissipates. Unlike radialion fog, it can
form under cloudy skies. Upslope fog is common along the eastern slopes of the Rockies and
somewhat less frequent east of Ihe Appalachians. Upslope fog often is quile dense and extends te
high altitudes.
{4) S T E A M F O G — often called Jsea smoke, forms in winter when cold, dry air passes from land
areas over comparatively warm ocean waters. Moisture evaporates rapidly from the water surface;
but since the cold air can hold only a small amount of water vapor, condensation takes place lust
above the surface of the water and appears as "steam" rising from the ocean. This fog is
Composed entirely Of water droplets that Often freeze quickly and fall back into the water as ice
particles. Low level turbulence can occur and icing can become hazardous.
{5} PRECIPITATION-INDUCED FOG — When relatively warm rain or drizzle falls through
cool air, evaporation from the precipitation saturates the cool air and forms fog. Precipitation
induced fog can become quite dense and continue for an extended period of time. This tog may extend
over large areas, completely suspending air operations. It is most commonly associated with warm
fronts, but can occur wilh slow moving cold fronts and with stationary fronts
(6) ICE FOG — occurs in cold weather when the temperature is much below freezing and water vapor
sublimates directly as ice crystals. Conditions favorable for Its formation are the same as for
radiation fog except for cold temperature, usually -25’ F or cold er. It occurs mostly In the Arctic
regions, but can also be found m Ine middle latitudes during an extremely cold w inter. Ice fog can
be quile blinding to someone flying into the sun.

228 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilo!

 Chap 6 — Weather & H O T A M S
Lockheed Martin A F S S : (w w w .a f 5 5 .c o m )
1 . Lockheed Martin is now firmly in control of most of the formerly
FAA operated Flight Service system.
Now called Automated Flight Service Stations (A F S S }
(aka FS21 — Flight Service for the 21st Cen(gry). 95% of
its business is general aviation.
2 All Flight Service Specialists now use one single database
nationwide, enabling any Specialist to provide services for any
pilot anywhere in the country, from any seat in any Flight Service
facility. Including all local N O T AM S and all flight plans nationwide 24/7.
3 . AFSS currently has six physical locations — Prescott. A Z (PRC): Princeton. IVIN (PNM): Fort Worth.
T X (FTW ); W ashington. DC {DCA): Raleigh. NC (RDU); and Miami, FL (MIA)
4 . Alaska — The FAA still operates all FSS and AFSS sites in Alaska doe lo its unique nature and absurd
w ealher. Current AFSS sites in Alaska are located In F a irb a n k s . J u n e a u , and K e n a i.
3 . 8CC-W X-BRIEF (600-992-7433) calls are routed by new voice-recognition You Betcha
technology. You will be prompted by the system to say “briefer" or we're gonna
press "1 ," say " T IB S " or press "2 ," etc.f and then asked. " What state make the FAA
are you departing from ?” Your response will cause the system lo continue to run
route your call to a Specialist who is area-rated for your departure state. in Alaska!
If all uf those briefers are busy. Ihe system is supposed to automatically
route your call to the next available briefer in an adjacent area, still with
local knowledge of your area
6. With a phone cell you may sel up a pilotjjrofilc thal uses your phone
number (caller ID) to enable Specialists to see your
N-num ber. Iy££ and color of aircraft, equipment suffix, true
airspeed, and pilot Information, as soon as your call drops lo ,i
their position. Use of a oommon number such as an FEO is not t l
recommended.

T ip s lo a v o id lo n g h o ld t im e s ( s h o r t c u t s in p la c e o f v o ic e r e c o g n itio n } :
1 Press 1 lo speak io a briefer: ihen enter ihe two letter state abbreviation using
your telephone keypad [e g.. Alabama - A L or 25: Arizona - AZ or 29:
North Carolina - NC or 62: etc.). For even faster service, press 1 or say
LLanx" lo get the fjrsiLavMableJbrjfeter anywhexe in the country.
2. Press 2 to issue, cancel, or amend NOTAM S (authorized persons only).
3. Press 3 to listen to TIB S (Ielephore Information Briefing Service); enter
state code.
4. Press 4 lo record a Fast File Fllflht Plan.
5. Press 5 to hear Special Announcements.
6. To make sure your flight plan is filed — ask Ihe briefer lo confirm the
flight plan has been accepted.
7. To expedite your IFR Clearance — Dial the dedicated IFR clearance
num ber - 388-766-3267 when departing from a non-towered airport
that does noL have a Remote Communication Frequency.
6. Problem s or poor performance with flight service? Report the bastards immediately lo the FAA s
FSS Hotline — 888-358-7782. T:iese complaints are addressed directly with Lockheed
9. TIBS direct line — 877-484-2799: then enter stale code (continuous recording of weal her and other info).
10. Another suggestion is to use one of the many FREE web addresses such as FltPlan.com. D U A T.co m ,
D U ATS.com : A O P A.org: etc.

In t e r n a tio n a l D ir e c t A c c e s s N u m b e rs f o r FSS a n d U .S . C u s to m s N o t if ic a t io n
fr o m A r e a s in t h e C a rib b e a n , M e x ic o , a n d S o u th A m e r ic a ;
1. Fort Worth. Te xas......................................................................................................................817-697-6110
2. Miami, Florida............................................................................................ ............ ............ ......305-233-2600
3. For international briefings lo above destinations (when within the continental U .S .)..........800-432-4716
4. Prescott, Arizona........................................................................................................................928-583-6126

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 229

C hap 6 — W e a th e r & HOT A MS

“ I to ld you all w e had to do w as sneak 100 ft below m inim um s

and w e ’d get under those annoying clouds.
Alrighty... c h e c k gear dow n please.”

D Q H M ÌE .3

230 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 Chapter 7
An Overview of
Commercial Operations
How Parts 61, 91, 119, 121 & 135 Dance Together
D efinitions — C o m m e rc ia l; Com m on/N un co m m o n o r P riv a te ....
C o m m u te r: O n -D e m a n d ............................................................................... ......... 233
D o m e s tic; Flag; S u p p le m e n ta l; S c h e d u le d ; P art 121 & 1 2 5 ....... 234, 235
Part 135 or Part 121 Does Nol Apply T o ............................................................. .......... 236
Wet Lease vs Dry Lease....................................................................................... .......... 236
Business Names; Common Carriage: Noncommon Carriage........................... .......... 237
Aircraft Requirements........................................................................................... .......... 237
Operational Control................................................................................................ .......... 237
Certificate-Hold ¡no District Office tCHDOi; Direct Air Carrier............................ .......... 237
Part 91 vs. Part 121 vs. Pari 135......................................................................... ...238. 239
P IC Q u a lific a tio n s ........................................................................................... ......... 240
S IC Q u a lific a tio n s ; S IC R e q u ire d ..., ......... 241
Training. Testing & Checking — A Quick Synopsis........................................... .......... 242
Passengers During Cargo Only Operations....................................................... .......... 243
Load Manifest (W & B)............................................................................................ .......... 243
W & B ; R e co rd k e e p in g ; C G ; M e c h a n ic a l Irre g u la ritie s .................... . 243-247
Cargo Compartment Classification...................................................................... .......... 248
Sterile Cockpit; Manipulation of Controls: Flight Deck: PIC/SIC Designation ............ 249
Fuel S u p p ly ........................................................................................................ 250, 251
D e stin a tio n & A lte rn a te A irp o rt W e a th e r............................................ 252, 253
Do Y o u N eed an A lt e r n a te ? ........................................................ ......... 254
A lte rn a te A irp o rt W e a th e r M in im u m ^ ........ ......................................
People Express Exemption {3585)...................................................................... ...256.257
T a k e o ff M inim urns .......................................................................................... 258, 259
Maybe their airline
didn't last vary long, A p p ro a c h W e a th e r R e q u ire d ..................................................................... ......... 269
bui ihey still have Landing Under IFR; R V R ...................................................................................... .......... 261
some oreaf wings! Approach Lighting.................................................................................................. .......... 262
High M inim um s Captain .....> ...»....................... ........ .......
Special Exemption 5549....................................................................................... .......... 263
A rrival at A irports w ith No W eather R eporting. ................
Departing Airports with No Weather Reporting................................................... .......... 265
Flight T im e & D uty ................. ........................................................................ . 266-275
Plight Locating Procedures; Regular & Provisional Airports, Runway Lighting .......... 276
International Flights betw een Mexico or Canada and the U . S ..
Small & Large Aircraft: Type Rating Required.................................................... .......... 273
A cce le ra te -S t op ! A ccelera te-G o D is ta n c e ......................................... ......... 278
Landing Lim itations— 6 0 % , 7 0 % , 6 0 % — Effective R unw ay Length .... 270
Subpart F — Large and Turbine-Powered Multiengine Airplanes.................... .......... 260
Autopilot — Minimum Altitudes for U s e ............................................................... .......... 231
Alcoholic Beverages: Stowage of Food, Beverage; Exit Seating..................... .......... 232
Smoking Prohibitions............................................................................................ .......... 233
Subpart K of Part 9 1 ..................................................................................... 284, 285
T h e Effect of Subpart K on Part 1 3 5 .....................................................

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 231

C hap 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s
COMMERCIAL OPERATOR aka COMMON CARRIER: 1 1 91 h i 119,1, m s a c 120-12A)
1. A person who, Tor compensation or hire, engages in the carriage by aircraft of persons or property.
Where It is doubtful thal an operation is for '‘compensation or hire.” the test applied is whether the
carriage by air is merely incidental to the person's other business or is, in itself, an enterprise for profit.
2 COM PENSATION or HIRE — the FAA does not have to show that the pilot or operator made a profit.
It is sufficient to show thal the flight resulted in an econom ic advantage to the pilot andfar operator.
The economic advantage can be established e ven if there was a financial loss as a result of the flight,
such as for retention of good will.
3. Primary components of “ COMMON CAR R IAG E" —
a. “Hfllifflui" a willingness lo the public - boJd_OJjLa_hand and say
va ... We ll take iust about AN YO N E if ya got the M ONEY:”
b. Transport persons or property from place to place;
c. For compensation (profit, financial gain, or some future economic advantage).

NONCOMMON or PRIVATE CARRIAGE: isi .23, AC 120- 12A)

1. Carriage for hire, which does not involve “ holding out” to the public, is considered “private carriage "
Sometimes called “ contract carriers" because they might carry persons or properly for hire under a
mutual contractual agreement between the operator and another person or organization, which did not
result from the operator's holding out or offering service. The custom er seeks an operator and enters
into an exclusive contract as opposed to the operator seeking a customer. Other examples include
carriage of participating members of a club carriage of the g pprafgr's own employees or property; or
carriage of persons and properly thal are only Incidental to the operator's primary business.
2. Does N O T involve “holding out" to lhe general public or a willingness to transport all customers.
3. Carriage for hire for one customer or a few select custom ers, generally on a long-term basis.
4. Keep the local FAA Involved at all limes, just to keep things honest. You don't want any surprises.

If a pilot offers transportation 10 the public, and arranges for and Hies the aircraft, he is acting as an “ air earlier
and must hold an air carrier certificate. II the pilot merely offers his services as a pilot, and has nothing to do with
securing the aircraft, then he is simpiy offering '‘p ilo t se rvices.11which requires no operating certificate
3

A commercial pilot may Fly as a Part 91 “Corporate pilot1’ flying a company airplane
carrying company property and passengers. He can also provide Part 91 “pilot service“ as
a “Contract pilot" — whereas a commercial pilot is paid by an airplane owner to fly the
airplane for the owner. In both cases the “ow ner” has “operational control .“

A person cannot "hold out" to the public or offer “com m on carriage" with an aircraft that
the pilot, or the company (hat the pilot works for, has "operational control" unless operating
under the more stringent rules of Paris 135 or 121 with the blessing of the FAA,
“Carriage in air commerce of persons or property for com pensation or hire”
requires an air taxi/commercial operator certiflcate.

Hurry up, dagnabbit!

Yawl're slower than a DC-3
in a 50 kt headwind.

232 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

 C h ap 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O pe ra tio ns
COMMUTER Operation [P a rt 135] (no.2 >— means any SCHEDULED operation conducted! by any
person operating one of the following types of aircraft with a frequency of operations of at leasl
FIVE ROUND TRIPS per W EEK on at least one route between two or more points according lo Lhe
PUBLISHED flight S C H E D U LE S :
{1) Airplanes, other than turbojet powered airplanes, having a maximum passenger-seat configuration
of S seats or less, excluding each crewmember seat, and a maximum payload capacity of 7.500
pounds or less: or
(2) Rotorcraft. ■Part 13S CO M M U TER — 9 seats or less, payload of 7500 Lbs or less,
■non-turbojet, passenger-carrying, scheduled (5 round trips per week).

In response to the " one level of safety11 campaign promoted by ALFA, most ' CO M M UTER S" do not fit
the new "commuter operation" definition and are now more appropriately called "REGIONAL airlines"
that are operated mostly under Part 121 DOM ESTIC or FLAG rules. ( 121.2, 121 .470)

ON-DEMAND Operation [P a rt 135] (i 1 c.2) — means any operation for compensation or hire that is
one of the following:
(1) Passenger-carrying operations conducted as a public charter under part 380 of this title or any
operations in which the departure TIM E , departure LO C A TIO N , and arrival location are specifically
NEGOTIATED with the CU STO M ER or the customers representative that are anv of the followina
types of operations:
(i) COMMON CARRIAGE operations conducted with airplanes, including turbojet-powered airplanes,
having a passenger-seat configuration of 3D seats or fewer, excluding each crewmember seal, and
a payload capacity of 7,500 pounds or less, except that operations using a specific airplane
that is also used in domestic or flag operations and that is so listed in the operations
specifications as required by § 11949(a)(4) for those operations are considered supplemental
operations;
(K ) Noncommon or PRIVATE CARRIAGE operations conducted wilh airplanes having a passenger*
seat configuration of less than 20 seats, excluding each crewmember seal, and a payload
capacity of less than 6.000 pounds: or
Any rotorcraft operation.
SCH ED ULED PASS ENGER-c afrying operations conducted with one of the following types of aircraft
with a frequency of operations of less than five round trips per week on at least one route between
Iwo or more points according to the published flight schedules:
(i) A IR P LA N ES, other than turbojet powered airplanes, having a maximum passenger-seat
configuration of 9 seats or less, excluding each crewmember seat, and a maximum payload
capacity Of 7.500 pounds or less: or
R O TO R C R A FT S C H E D U L E D O p e ra tio n
Passenger-carrying operations for hire
131 A LL-C A R G O iterations conducted wilh airplanes havino a . , , .. . , 7
11 . ! 7) , _ ___ . „ r ., 3 ^ ■ conduced by a eemmarclaf epomlor for «
■E » f >eA PA CJ » SS .P.° .U.n.d.5.° r. .*?■ . 21 . ‘1 . . . . * which a d ™ noüte of departure. and Î
it
» n¿irrival localionJlimaE are provided.
r r iu c il I r v n lir v n J lim n r - ir a n m u iH n H 4a

............................ ..
Part 135 ON-DEMAND:
1. PASSENGER-carrvino PUBLIC C H A R TE R S . 30 seats or less, payload 7500 Lbs or less. Except
when the aircraft Is also used in Part 121 operations, then it must be operated Part 121 Supplemental.
2. SC H ED ULED P A S S E N G E R S . 9 seats or less, payload 7500 Lbs or less, non-turbojet less than
9 round trios par w « k .
3. A LL-C A R G O (scheduled or non-scheduled) with a payload of 7500 lbs or less.
J, Non-Common or P R IV A TE C A R R IA G E , less than ¿0 passenger seats, payload of less lhan 6000
Lbs. (Anything above these numbers must be conducted under Part 125 rules.)

Part 135 ON-DEMAND (In Other W ord s):

1. O n-dem and or scheduled (leas than s round trips per weak) passenaerfcarao opera tions uti I¡zing
T U R B O J E T Hi P R O P E L L E R -D R IV E N aircraft having seete or 1^55 and a payload capflcjfr of
7,500 pounds or less, and the airplane is not otherwise required to be on a Part 121 certificate.
2 Excludes private or non-common carriage with 2Q seats or more or a payload of 6,000 pounds
or more, which must be operated under Part 125.
3. Scheduled operations utilizing PROPELLER-DRIVEN aircraft with 9 seats or less and a payload
of 7,500 pounds or less, whether commuter or on-demand.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 233

C h a p T — C o m m ercial O p e ra tio n s
P A R T J 21 — Includes any of the fo llo w ing: tu a .i. 110.2.1 iaan À DEITÀ
AIRLINES
DOMESTIC Operation [P A R T 121 ] (1 — means any SC H ED ULED operation conducted by any
person operating any AIRPLANE described in paragraph (1) of this definition at LO CATIO N S described
in paragraph (2) of this definition;
{1) A IR P LA N ES: ¿ S O U T H W E S T AIRU N ES
(t) Turbo jet-pa we red airplanes;
(ii) Airplanes having a passenger-seat configuration of more than & passenger seats, excluding each
crewmember seat; or
(li) Airplanes having a Eayl.oad.capatite of moreJhanJL5QQ, pollads
(2> L O C A T IO N S :
(i) Between any points within the 4$ contiguous States of the United States or the District of
Columbia: or
(ii) Operations Solely within the 4& contiguous States Of the United States Or Ihe District Of Columbia: Or
(iii) Operations entirely within any State, territory, or possession of the United Stales: or
(iv) When specifically authorized by the Administrator, operations between a ny p o in t w ith in the 43
contiguous States of the United Stales or the District of Columbia and any specifically
a u th o riz e d p o in t lo c a te d o u ts id e the 4& c o n tig u o u s S tate s uf the United States or the District of
Columbia.
U S AI RWAYS
F L A G Operation [P A R T 121] ■:11 o.a) — means any S C H E D U LE D operation conducted by any person
operating any ftIRPLANE described in paragraph {1) of this definition at the LO CATIO N S described in
paragraph f2) of this definition; „ „ . . —^ __
(1) AIRPLANES: B / U n i T c D
(i) Turbojet-powered airplanes;
(ii) Airplanes having a passenger-seat configuration of more than 3 passenger seats, excluding each
crewmember seat; or
(iii) Airplanes having a payload capacity of more than 7,500 p oun ds.
{2} LO C A TIO N S :
(i) Between any point within the State of Alaska or ihe State of Hawaii or any territory or
p o s s e s s io n of the U n ite d S ta te s and a ny p o in t o u ts id e the State of Alaska or the Stale cf Hawaii
or any territory or possession of the United Slates, respectively; or
(ii) Between any point within the 48 contiguous States of the United States or the District of
Columbia and any point outside the 4B contiguous States of the United Stales and the District of
Columbia.
(iii) Between arty point outside ihe Ü J L and a.njQlhgj_u_oj.nU)ALts_LdÆ the U.S,

SUPPLEM ENTAL Operation [P A R T 121] (m .z) — means any COMMON C a r r i a g e operation

for compensation or hire conducted with any AIRPLANE described in paragraph Ml of this definition that
is a TY P E O F O PER ATIO N described in paragraph (2) of this definition:
(1) AIRPLANES;
(i) Airplanes having a passenger-Seat configuration cf more than 30 seats, excluding each
crewmember seat;
(ii) Airplanes having a payload capacity of more than 7.500 pounds: or
(iii) Each propeller-powered airplane having a passenger-seat configuration of more than & seats
and less than 31 seats, excluding each crewmember seal, that Is also used in domestic or flag
operations and that is so listed in (he operations specifications as required by § 113.49(a)(4) for
those operations; or
(iv) Each turboi&t powered airplane having a passenger seal configuration of 1 or more and less than
31 seats, excluding each crewmember seal, that is also used in domestic or flag operations and
that is so listed in the operations specificalions as required by § 119.49(a)(4) for those operations,
(2) TYPES OF O P E R A TIO N :
(i) Operations for which Ihe dcvrrrte/jJIM E dcjj_ii.rjurjXOJATJ_C_N and are
specifically NEGOTIA TED with the CU STO M ER or the customer's representative.
(ii) All-caroo operations: or
(iii) Passenger-carrying public charter operations conducted under part 380 of this title.

234 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the PicfnsEtcn.il Pilot

 Chap 7 — Com m ercial O perations

S C H E D U L E D O p e ra tio n ■;1 1o.2} — Passenger-carrying operaticna

for hire conducted by a commercial operator for which advance
notice of departure and arrival location/times are provided.

D O M E S T IC Operation (110.2) [Part 121) —

1. SC H ED ULED operations conducted with turbojets: Off
2. Airplanes with more than 9 passenger S E A T S . OR
3. Airplanes having a payload capacity of more than 7.5Q0 POUNDS.
4. Between any points within the 43 contiguous States or the District
of Columbia and/or any specifically authorized point located
outside this area.
5. Includes flight legs of an international trip, which are entirely within
Lhe 43 contiguous States.

FLAG Operation (m 2) [Part 121) —

1. SC H ED ULED operations conducted with turbojets: OR
2. Airplanes with more than 9 passenger S E A TS : Off
3. Airplanes having a payload capacity of more than 7.500 P O U N D S.
4. Between any point within Alaska or Hawaii and any point outside of
Alaska or Hawaii: QR
5. Between any point within the 43 contiguous States and any point outside
the 43 contiguous States. OR
Between any two points which are completely outside lhe 50 U,S. States

S U P P L E M E N T A L Operation tno.aj [Part 121] \

1, Charter type — M QNSCHEDULED — operations conducted with aircraft having more than 30
SEA TS and/or aircraft having a payload capacity of more than 7.5PQ POUNDS
2, The PLACE and TIME of departure are N EG O TIA TED between the operator and the customer.
3, No fixed schedule.
4 NOTE: The difference belween “ON -DEM AND" [135] and “SUPPLEM EN TA L" [121] has to do
with the size of the aircraft. SUPPLEM ENTAL uses aircraft having more than 30 S E A TS
and/or a max payload capacity of more than 7.50Q POUNDS.

P a r t 1 2 1 (In O th e r W o rd s ):
1 SC H ED ULED T U R B O JE T operations: OR 1
2. SC H ED ULED operations with more than 9 passenger SEA TS or max oavload capacity
of more than 7.500 POUNDS (except Part 125 private carriage operations); Off
3. NO N SCH ED ULED PUBLIC CH AR TER S using aircraft with more than 30 passenger [
S E A TS for more than 7.500 PO U N DS) [Part 121 Supplemental!

P A R T 1 2 5 — was issued to establish a uniform set of certification and operational rules for large airplanes
having a seating capacity of 2Q or more passengers or a maximum payload capacity of 6.ODD pounds or
more, when used for PRIVATE C A R R IA G E . These rules substantially upgrade the level of safety
applicable to large airplanes formerly operated under Part 91. (AC 125-1)
The focus of this book is on far more common Part 91, 121, and 135 operations.

Subpart K of Part 91 — See pages 264 through 236 of this chapter.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 235

C hap 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s
PART 135 or PART 121 DOES NOT APPLY TO :
1 Student instruction.
2. Nonstop sightseeing flights with an aircraft having a passenger seal configuration of 3Q or fewer, and
a payload capacity of 7.500 Lbs or less, that begin and end at the same airport, and are conducted
within a 25 SM radius of that airport. Barnstorming, aerobatic, and ‘ military experience" flights ar
considered to be "sightseeing." [NOTE: Drug testing is required 135.1 (a)(5)].
3 Ferrv or training flights.
4, Aerial work operations, including:
a. Crop dusting, seeding, spraying, and bird chasing.
b. RaojppjLtamqfl.
c. Aerial photography or survey (however you may NOT
land at an airport to pick up a photographer, end then drop off the
photographer at another airport — this can be construed as a Part 135 operation).
Fire fighting
Helicopter operations in construction or repair work (but Part 135 D O E S apply to
transportation to and from the site of operations).
Powerline or pipeline, patrol,
Siohfseeinn flights conducted in hot air balloons.
Nonstop flights conducted within a 25 SM radius of Ihe airport of takeoff for the purpose of Intentional
parachute ju m p s. ____ — ---------.. .
m iiBflpiflE flights conducted within a 25 SM radius of the airport of takeoff if:
Nol more than two passengers are carried.
DayVFR.
EM ERGENCY
The helicopter is certified in standard category and complies with the 100-hour inspection^
The operator notifies the FAA at least 72 hours before each flight.
The number of flights does nol exceed a total of six ini any calendar
ca year.
Each flight has been approved by the FAA ' ■*did net bava sexual
Cargo is not carried in or on the helicopter, . minilo ns with Ihe! woman,
Operations conducted under Part 133 of this chapter or 375 of this title.
Em ergency mail service conducted under 49 U .S .C . 41906,
Operations conducted under Part 91.321 (carriage of candidates in elections

Dry Lease vs Wet Lease:

1 D R Y Lease — The lessor provides the airplane. The lessee independently supplies the m oney, the
crew , and responsibility of operational control. All flights are for the lessees' Own purposes including
the carriage of passengers or property and definitely does not "hold out" to the public for compensation
or hire. This is normally considered a private operation.
2, W E T Lease — The lessor provides BOTH the aircraft and the crew : and maintains operational
control. This typically involves carrying persons or property for compensation or hire in some way
shape or form. This arrangement is normally classified as a commercial operation and requires a Part
135 operating certificate. (O r sometimes operated as an illegal clandestine “13414" operation.)
3. The wet,''dry determination is decided on a case by case basis by the all-knowing Gods residing at your
local FSDO that serve diligently to protect the public's safety from your stupidity by delaying paperwork
for as long as humanly possible ., only lo tell you they didn’i like il so you'll have to do ¡1 all over again
and resubmit for further review. I love those guys. Dysfunction at ¡Is finest. Remember... It doesn't
have to make sense... It's the FAAko}.

236 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 C hap 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s
BUSINESS NAM ES;(113.9)
1. A certificate holder may not operate an aircraft under Part 121 or Part 135 using a business name
other than a business name pppearinfl iq the certificate holder’s Operation Specifications.
2. Alternative business names are often called iLD B A fl names or "Doing Business As" names.
All “J^oino Business fis” names must be listed in the certificate holder’s Operations Specifications.
3. A certificate holder may not operate an aircraft under Part 121 or Part 135 unless the NAME of the
certificate holder, or air carrier NAM E of the certificate holder, or certificate N UM BER, is LEGIBLY
DISPLAYED on the AIRCRAFT and is clearly readable to a person standing on the orou nd to the
satisfaction of the Administrator.

COMMON Carriage — Involves "holding out to others." Requires an air carrier certificate.

NONCOMMON Carriage - an aircraft operation for compensation or hire that does not involve
holding out to others (does not involve holding out to the public).

AIRCRAFT REQUIREMENTS: {is&as)

Each certificate holder must have Ihe E X C LUSIVE USE of at leasl ONE AIRCRAFT that meets the
requirements for at leasl one kind of operation authorized in the certificate holder's operations
specifications.

O P ER ATIO N A LCO N TR O L — a n with respect to a flight, means the exercise of authority over
Initiating, conducting or terminating a flight. Each certificate holder is responsible for operational control
and shall list, in the manual required by § 135.21 {General Operations Manu ah. the name and title of
each person authorlied by it to exercise operational control {135.77). Operational control is simply a
com pany official who has the authority to release an aircraft for light, (iic.z> For Part 121 operations,
the PIC AND Ihe aircraft DISPATCHER are JOINTLY RESPONSIBLE for preflighl planning and dispatch
release of a flight in accordance with 121.533, 121.535 and the company's OpSpecs.

Certificate-Holding District Office (CHDO) — means the Flight Standards District Office that
has responsibility for administering the certi ficaie and is charged with the overall inspection of the
certificate holder's operations, p i a . 2 )

DIRECT AIR CARRIER — ■means a person who provides or offers to provide air transportation and who
has control over the operational functions performed in providing that Iransporlation. (110.2)

Selling a Certificate
A certificate is act an "asset" that can be bought or sold. Nevertheless, if the certificate holder is a corporation or LLC
which remains intact. ,, and there is a transfer o f the majority o f stock only,.. recertification is net required. In other
words, you can sell the whole company, but the certificate itself cannot be sold. The Certificate-Holding District Office
(CHDO) must be notified of the sale and must approve any proposed changes to management as a result o f the sale.

L O C K H E E D L-1049 SUR ER C O N S T E L L A T IO N {C O N I}
Some aviation trivia — A mid-air c o llisio n over New York City between a TWA Supor
C onstellation and a United DC-ft On an overcast winter day in IflfiO brought about the “ ¿50 knots
below 1J.OQQ fc c t'nrule. The aircraft collided in the clouds at 5.OOP feet wi1h the jot doing over
330 knots The cause was determined to be a combi nation of pllotfcontrollor error

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 237

C hap 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s

*
♦
Part 91 PLUS Part 135 \
{or... Part 91 P L U S Part 121 or... P L U S Part 125)
1. It is im p o rta n t to n o te th a t a ll c i v il ia n f l y i n g m u s t b e in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h P a r t 91
A n y tim e y o u 're fly in g y o u m u s t a b id e b y all P a r i 9 1 re g u la tio n s n o m a ile r w h a t o th e r
additional 'P a r t" y o u 'r e c u r r e n tly fly in g u n d e r.
2. D o n o t th in k o f it a s P a r t 91 O iR — P a r t 1 3 5 .
3. Y o u m u s t th in k o f it a s E ITH E R . ,.
LLP _ a rj_ 9 1 _ Q N L ,r — 0 3 — " E a rt.S .lA ftfA J E a rJ J A S ," - O R - E a rt_9 JL A M £ > _£ a rJJL 2 1
4. I f th e r e is a re g u la tio n s ta te d in P a rt 91 — a n d P a r i 1 3 5 d o e s n 't h a v e a m o re re s tric tiv e
r e g u la tio n — th e r e ’s n o n e e d to re s ta te th e re g u la tio n in P a rt 1 3 5 (O r P a rt 1 2 1 ).
5. P a r t 1 3 5 { o r P a rt 1 2 1 . o r P a rt 1 2 5 ) is an AD D ITIO N { a d d itio n a l r e s tric lio n ) to P a r t 9 1 .
5, T h e re a re a fe w ra re o c c a s io n s w h e re P a n s 1 3 5 o r 121 a llo w y o u to d is re g a rd a P a n 91
re g u la tio n , b u l th e s e c h a n g e s w ill b e s p e c ific a lly n o te d .

Types of Part 135 Certificates

[A C 1 2 0 -4 9 — " C e r t if ic a t io n o f A ir C a r r ie r S ” ) { F A A O r d e r B 9 0 0 .1 )

1. O n ly 1 P ilo t In C o m m a n d is a u th o r iz e d o n th e c e r tific a te a n d (h e re a re n o
Single Pilot S e c o n d In C o m m a n d s .
P a r t 1 3 5 O p e r a to r 2. M a y o p e r a te m o re th a n o n e a irc ra ft, b u t o n ly th e p e rs o n w h o s e n a m e is o n
th e c e r tific a te c a n fly a n y o f th e m u n d e r P a r i 1 3 5
3. M u s t c o m p ly w ith a ll P a rt 1 3 5 r e g u la tio n s e x c e p t th e r e is n o r e q u ir e m e n t fo r
a p p ro v e d m a n u a ls , tr a in in g p ro g r a m s o r m a n a g e m e n t p e rs o n n e l.
4. M u s t c o m p le te th e 6 a n d 12 -m o n th (1 3 5 .2 9 3 , 1 3 5 ,2 9 7 a n d 1 3 5 ,2 9 9 ) c h e c k s
w ith th e F A A { o r m a y b e g r a n te d a p p ro v a l to u s e a c h e c k a irm a n e m p lo y e d b y
a n o th e r a ir c a rrie r w h o is u s in g th e s a m e ty p e o f a irc ra ft).

1. A llo w s u p to 3 S e c o n d In C o m m a n d s b u t s lill o n ly o n e P ilo t In C o m m a n d .

Single PIC 2. T h e r e q u ir e m e n t fo r m a n u a ls o r m a n a g e m e n t p e rs o n n e l c a n be w a iv e d if
re q u e s te d d u rin g th e c e r tific a tio n p ro c e s s .
P a r t 1 3 5 O p e r a to r
3. N o t a u th o r iz e d to o p e r a te a irc ra ft ty p e c e r tific a te d fo r m o re th a n n in e
p a s s e n g e r s e a ts ; C a t II o r III o p e r a tio n s , o r c o n d u c t o p e ra tio n s o u ts id e th e U S.

1. S till c o n s id e r e d lim ite d in s iz e a n d s c o p e , b u t th e o p e ra to r m u s t d e v e lo p

Basic tra in in g p ro g r a m s , m a n u a ls , a n d p re s e n t q u a lifie d m a n a g e m e n t p e r s o n n e l to
P a r t 1 3 5 O p e r a to r th e F A A fo r a p p ro v a l ( s o m e c o m b in in g o f m a n a g e m e n t p o s itio n s m a y b e
a p p r o v e d ) , (n s .s s ttiru 119.71. 135.331 thru 135.3-531
2. N o m o r e th a n 5 p ilo ts in c lu d in g S IC s .
3. N o m o r e th a n 5 a irc ra ft.
4. N o m o r e th a n 3 d iffe r e n t ty p e s o f a irc ra ft.
5. N o a ir c r a ft ty p e c e rtific a te d fo r m o r e th a n n in e p a s s e n g e r s e a ts .
6. N o C a te g o ry 1.1 o r III o p e ra tio n s .
7. N o o p e ra tio n s a re c o n d u c te d o u ts id e ih e U n ite d S ta te s . C a n a d a , M e x ic o , o r
th e C a rib b e a n .

1. F u ll P a rt 135 o p e ra to rs e s s e n tia lly h a v e n o re s tric tio n s a s to s iz e — b u t f o r

“Full” e a c h n e w p riv ile g e — th e o p e r a to r m u s t b e g ra n te d a s p e c ific " O p e ra tio n s
S p e c ific a tio n ” b y th e F A A In o rd e r to c o n d u c t lh a t p a r tic u la r o p e ra tio n .
P a r t 1 3 5 O p e r a to r
2. M u s t h a v e all re q u ire d m a n a g e m e n t p e r s o n n e l [c o m b in in g o f m a n a g e m e n t
p o s itio n s is n o r m a lly n o t a llo w e d b u l e x c e p tio n s c a n b e n e g o tia te d ) .
3. M a y u tiliz e a n y n u m b e r o f p ilo ts , a irc ra ft, o r ty p e s o f a irc ra ft; in c lu d in g a ir c r a ft
w ith m o r e th a n 9 p a s s e n g e r s e a ts .
4. F lig h ts lo a h y c o u n tr y a n d fo r C a l II o r III o p e ra tio n s m a y b e a llo w e d u p o n
is s u a n c e o f s p e c ific O p e r a tio n s S p e c ific a tio n s .

238 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot


Part 91 vs Parts 121/135 <mi>
Part 91 Parts 121/135
1. A c o m m e rc ia l p ilo t m a y fly a s a P a rt 91
'C o r o o r a t e D ilo t " — fly in g a o o m D a n v a iro la n e
c a r r y in g c o m p a n y p ro p e r ty a n d p a s s e n g e rs .
2. M a u D ro v id e P a rt 91 “ D ilo t s e r v i c e " — w h e r e a s a
c o m m e rc ia l p ilo t is p a id b y a n a ir p la n e o w n e r to Dy
th e a ir p la n e fo r th e o w n e r a n d h is g u e s ts .
3. M a y D ro v id e “ n r iv a t e c a r r ia g e " fo r h ire fo r o n e
c u s to m e r o r a fe w s e le c t c u s to m e rs ,
4. M a y a ls o p e rfo rm ih e s e rv ic e s lis te d In 1 1 9 .1 th a t
a re n o t c o v e re d u n d e r P a rt 1 3 5 r e g u la tio n s
(i.e ., s t u d e n t i n s t r u c t io n , n o n s to p s i g h t s e e in g
f l i g h t s w ith in 2 5 M M . f e r r y f l i g h t s . c r o c d u s t in g
b a n n e r l o w i n g , p ip e lin e n a t r o l. e tc .).
N o m in im u m f l i g h t e x p e r ie n c e r e o u ir e d .
A S e c o n d In C o m m a n d is n o t r e q u ir e d fo r
in s tr u m e n t flig h t in a ir c r a ft th a t a re n o r m a lly flo w n
s in g le p ilo t.
N o t r a in in o p r o g r a m re o u ire d .
N o d r u g a n d a lc o h o l p r o g r a m re o u ire d fo r m o s t
o p e ra lio n s [e x c e p t d r u g te s tin g is r e q u ire d fo r
" n o n s lo p s ig h ts e e in g flig h ts " s e e 1 3 5 .1 (a )(5 )],
B a c k g r o u n d c h e c k s N O T r e g u ir e d .
N o f l i g h t l im e l im it s , d u t y t im e l im i t s o r r e s t
re q u ire m e n ts ,
A n y a i r p o r t m a y b e u s e d — IF R o r V F R — a s lo n g
a s it is a d e q u a te fo r th e a irc ra ft a n d is in c o m p lia n c e
w ith th e lim ita lio n s o f th e A ir c r a ft F lig h t M a n u a l.
A n i n s t r u m e n t a c c r o a c h m a v h e in it ia t e d
regardless o f th e w e a t h e r
EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot
C hap 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s
1. R e q u ire s an 11A i r T a x i/ C o m m e r c ia l O p e r a t o r
C e r tific a te ."
2. C a n " h o l d o u t " to Ih e p u b lic a n d o ff e r " c o m m o n
c a r r ia g e " to a n y o n e w h o is w illin g to c a y .
3. C a n a d v e r t is e a n d o ff e r “ c a r r ia g e in a ir
c o m m e rc e o f p e rs o n s o r o ro o e rty fo r
c o m p e n s a t io n o r h i r e . "
A P a r t 1 3 5 P IC m u s t h a v e a t le a s t 5 0 0 h o u r s to ta l
tim e ( . . . e t c . ) fo r V F R o p e ra tio n s a n d a t le a s t
1 2 0 0 h o u r s to ta l tim e ( . .. e tc . ) fo r JF R o p e ra tio n s .
F o r P a r t 1 3 5 P IC — a n A T P is r e a u ire d fo r t u r b a r e is ,
o r a iro la n e s w ith 10 o r m o r e n a s s e n o e r s e a ts , o r
m u ltie n g in e c o m m u t e r o p e ra tio n s , n 35.5431
A P a r t 121 P IC m u s t h a v e a n A T P . [121.437(311
A S e c o n d In C o m m a n d Is r e q u ir e d w h e n c a rr y in g
p a s s e n g e r s u n d e r IF R unless Ih e o o e r a llo n [a n d th e
o ilo li is a p p r o v e d f o r u s e o f a n a u t o o i lo t in lie u o f a
S e c o n d In C o m m a n d . (135 101. 135105)
A n F A A a o o ro v e d t r a in i n g p r o g r a m is r e a u ir e d fo r
ail 1 3 5 o p e r a tio n s e x c e p t s im p le s in g le p ilo t o p e ra to rs .
M u s t h a v e a d r u a a n d a l c o h o l r a n d o m t e s t in g
u m a r s m f o r a ll e m p lo y e e s in " s a f e l y s e n s i t i v e "
p o s itio n s . T h is w o u ld in c lu d e a n y o n e th e o p e ra to r
c o n tr a c ts w ith , s u c h a s w h e n m a in te n a n c e is
p e rfo rm e d b y a n o th e r fa c ility a w a y fro m h o m e b a s e .
(135.249 thru 135,265 S 121 appendix 1 4 j)
E IY E Y E A R b a c k g r o u n d c h e c k s a re re q u ire d d u e lo
th e P ilo t R e c o r d s Im D r o v e m e n t A c t o f 1 9 9 6 fP R IA ) :
1. A c h e c k o f a ll p r e v i o u s e m p lo y e r s fo r tr a in in g o r
c h e c k rid e p ro b le m s a n d d ru g te s tin g h is to ry .
2. A n F A A r e c o r d s c h e c k o f ih e p ilo t s c e r tific a te
a n d m e d ic a l in c lu d in g a n y a c c id e n te o r in c id e n ts ,
3. A c h e c k o f ih e o ilo t's d r i v in g r e c o r d fo r a n y d ru a
o r a lc o h o l re la te d " m o t o r v e h i c le a c t i o n s . "
1 3 5 .2 6 1 thru 1 3 5 .2 7 3 (1 2 1 .4 7 0 thru 1 2 1 .5 2 5 ) re g u la te s
c r e w f l i g h t t im e , d u t y t im e a n d r e s t re a u ire rn e n ls ,
T h e a irp o rt m u s t h a v e W E A T H E R R E P O R T IN G a n d
be of adeouate length to meet reouired a c c e le r a t e
s to D .'a c c e le r a te o o distance (for most aircraft! and
m eet Ihe 6Q“/ii/7 0 % (destination/alternate) landing
limitation rules. [135.367 lhru 135.399; 12 1.1S5 Ihru 121.205)
A o ilo t m a v n o t b e a in a n i n s t r u m e n t a p p r o a c h
u n le s s th e la t e s t w e a t h e r r e p o r t s a t le a s t
m í n im u m s fo r th e a D D ro a c h .H 3 5 .2 2 5 . 121,H i tell
239
C hap 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s
Hi, my name is Captain Dudley
If it's got wings, 1can fly it.
P ilo t In C o m m a n d Q U A L IF IC A T IO N S :
(135.243, 135.247. 135.293. 135.299. 155.345 thro 135.351. 91.1053. 121.434 A m 121.445)

Part 135 PIC — V F R :

1. C o m m e r e ia l/ l n s t r u m e n t .fM u lh -E n q in e ra tin g s (fo r m u lti-e n g in e o p e ra tio n s ),
a n d c u r r e n 1 2 nd C la s s M e d ic a I.
2. M u s t b e I n s t r u m e n t c u r r e n t , a ls o c o m p a n y tr a in e d a n d f in e c h e c k e d
(1 3 5 .2 9 3 , 1 3 5 .2 9 9 ) in th e a irc ra ft w ith in th e la s t 1 2 m o n t h s .
3. 5 0 0 h o u r s T o ta l T im e in c lu d in g 100 h o u rs to ta l c ro s s c o u n tr y a n d 2 5
h o u rs n ig h t c ro s s c o u n tr y .

Part 135 PIC — IFR:

1, C o r n m e r p j a lj ln s t r u m & n t M u lt i- E n g in e ra tin g s (fo r m u lti-e n g in e
o p e ra tio n s ), a n d c u rr e n t 2 nd C la s s M e d ic a l.
2 M u s t b e c o m p a n y tr a in e d a n d line checked (1 3 5 .2 9 3 , 1 3 5 .2 9 9 ) in th e a ir c r a ft
w ith in th e p r e v io u s 12 m o n th s a n d instrument checked (1 3 5 .2 9 7 ) w ilh m th e
p re v io u s 6 m o n t h s .
3. 1.2QQ h o u r s T o ta l T im e in c lu d in g 5 0 0 h o u rs c ro s s c o u n tr y — 1 0 0 h o u rs to ta l n ig h t
— 2 5 h o u rs n ig h t c ro s s c o u n tr y — 7 5 h o u rs o f a c tu a l o r s im u la te d In s tru m e n t lim e
a t le a s t 50 h o u rs o f w h ic h w e re in a c tu a l flig h t.
4. F o r P A S S E N G E R -c a r rv in q o p e r a tio n s o n ly — N o p e rs o n m a y s e r v e a s P IC o f a
tu r b o je t, a r an airplane having i Q o r m o re passenger s e a t s . O R a
m u l t i e n g in e a irp la n e in a c o m m u t e r o p e ra tio n u n le s s h e h o ld s a n A ir lin e
T r a n s p o r t P ilo t c e rtific a te a n d a c u r r e n t 111 C la s s M e d ic a l (1 3 5 .2 4 3 ),
5. F o r C O M M U T E S o p e ra tio n s . th e P fC m u s t a ls o h a v e th e In itia l Q p e r a lin g E x p e r ie n c e ( IO E ) o u tlin e d in
1 3 5 .2 4 4 (o r 1 2 1 ,4 3 4 ) (i.e ., 2 0 h o u rs in a m u ltie n g in e tu r b in e o r 2 5 h o u rs in a tu r b o je t w ith a q u a lifie d
c h e c k p ilo t th a t c a n be a c q u ire d d u rin g r e v e n u e flig h ts , T h e h o u rs c a n be re d u c e d b y 5 0 % b y (he
s u b s titu tio n o f o n e a d d itio n a l ta k e o f f a n d la n d in g fo r e a c h h o u r o f flig h t. (P a g e 3 0 8 )

Part 121 — PICs

1. 1 .5 0 0 h o u r s T o ta l T im e ; A ir li n e T r a n s p o r t P ilo t c e r tific a te ( P a g e s 1 8 8 -1 8 9 ): a p p ro p ria te t y p e r a t i n g ,
c u rr e n t 1*1 C la s s m e d ic a l.
2. M in im u m o f 1 ,0 0 0 flig h t h o u r s in a ir c a r r ie r o p e r a t io n s (i.e ., S IC in P a rt 121 o p e r a tio n s , P IC in
o p e ra tio n s u n d e r e ith e r 1 3 5 ,2 4 3 fa H 1 ) o r S3 1 ,1 0 5 3 ( a ) ( 2 ) f it : o r a n y c o m b i n a t i o n th e re o f). F o r th o s e
p ilo ts w h o w e re e m p lo y e d a s p ilo t in c o m m a n d in p a r t 121 o p e r a tio n s o n J u ly 31. 2 0 1 3 , c o m p lia n c e w ith
th e 1 .0 0 0 h o u r m in im u m is n o t re q u ire d . (12143«)
3. N O T E — M ilit a r y P IC lim e ( u p t o 5 0 0 h o u r s ) in a m u ltie n g in e lu r b in e - p o w e r e d , fix e d - w in g a irp la n e in
an o p e ra tio n re q u irin g m o r e th a n o n e p ilo t m a v b e c r e d it e d to w a rd s th e 1 .0 0 0 h o u r s .

R E C E N T P IL O T E X P E R IE N C E f o r P ilo t In C o m m a n d : <61.57, a u r a , 1 2 1 .4 3 9 . 1 3 5 .2 4 7 . 135.2993

1. T o c a rr y P A S S E N G E R S th e £ ( £ m u s t h a v e 3 ta k e o ffs a n d la n d in g s in a n a irc ra ft o f th e s a m e c a te g o r y
a n d c la s s in th e p a s t 9 0 days — th e s e la n d in g s m u s t b e m a d e to a f u l l stop if in a tailwheel a irc ra ft o r
a l n i g h t — a n d — if a type rating is r e q u ir e d ... m u s t be in th e same ty pe o f a irc ra ft. (6157.135.247)
2. F o r P a r t 121 o p e r a tio n s th e th r e e ta k e o ffs a n d la n d in g s a re re q u ire d fo r A N Y flig h t c re w m e m b e r
r e g a r d le s s o f if p a s s e n g e r s a re c a rr ie d o r n o t
3. F o r o p e ra tio n s a t N IG H T ( b e tw e e n 1 h o u r a fte r s u n s e t a n d 1 h o u r b e fo r e s u n r is e ) , th e s a m e a s #1
a b o v e d u r in g th is s a m e 9 0 d a y p e rio d o f tim e .
4. If th e h a s n o t flo w n o v e r a ro u te a n d in to an a irp o rt w ith in th e p r e c e d in g 9 0 da v s <— (lie p ilo t must
become familiar w ith all available information r e q u ire d fo r th e s a fe o p e r a tio n o f th e flig h t [135.299(c),
91.103),

[ T O P S E C R E T C A P T A IN S T U F F ] ---------
. # 1 , P o in t th e a ir p la n e w h e re y o u w a n t to g o , if it d o e s n ’t g o th a t w a y — P O IN T HARD ER
■ #2, If y o u d o n 't w a n t th e a ir p la n e to g o o v e r th e r e — D O N 'T L E T IT G O OVER TH ER E *

240 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 C hap 7 — C o m m e r c ia l O p e ra tio n s
Ki, I'm First O fficer QrvJle. M y ¡ab is jH-ally conll...
1. fot alrtran wm r^uir» no n Ihan or* p4«t. I'mIn charge of thelarding gear and sometimes
Ih* l £ n-gurrn j fWEfiWflfrt? .SIC Quivi
Ita n.^hlE OirraUFUnimiJ S ta iti arepsie. I lie captain even lets ms talk on ths radio,
m- » > ir the autopilot biHakE — I gst. to lly hII the time —
2. Pari 111 C-ùpLlata art rimjfiad lo bave a akcepl whan It's time to land or laksoff.
I also gal to wear this really dap par-lackin' unilorm.
FULL h w cafafl (M* SIC orly>. (1 £1 ,tìtì}
J
Part 135 S e cond In C o m m a n d Q U A L IF IC A T IO N S :
[61.55, (si.B7, 91.1053,121.437, 135,245, 135.293, 135.329(a), 135.345thru 135.3511
1. T h e p ilo t m u s t have C o m m e rc ia l / In stru m e n t / M u lti-E n g in e r a tin g s (fo r
m u lti-e n g in e operations), a n d at least a 2nd C la s s M e d ic a l (135,245),
2. T h e p ilo t m u s t b e " i n s t r u m e n t c u r r e n t 1' [ m u s t h a v e L O G G E D — 6 t .u l
a p p r o a c h ^ & h o l d in g w ith in th e Ia s i 6 m o n t h s — 1 3 5 ,2 4 5 $ 6 1 , 5 7 (c )) ‘IMHO1
Tris <iaw iL.k-t requiring an ATP and a ;
a n d m u s t b e c o m p a n y tr a in e d a n d c h e c k e d in th e a irc ra ft w ith in th e la s t 1ype at 19 Mill do notlìng lo aflPianoe
12 m o n th s (135.283). N O T E : A p ilo t w h o is n o t " In s tru m e n t c u r r e n t' aaiaiy, h it v«* do a greet deal to niter
[ 6 1 .5 7 (d )] a l ih e tim e o f th e S u b p a rt K o f P a n 91, P a rt 1 2 1 , o r P a rt 1 3 5
DuLdoiiiYllvas talented Indrvldiisn dial
cannul atfard 1he absurdly filiated
S IC c h e c k c a n a s k th e p e rs o n a d m in is te rin g th e c h e c k to g iv e a 6 1 .5 7 ( d ) prilla o1 adnmsBlon,
in s tr u m e n t P ro fic ie n c y C h e c k in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e S IC c h e c k . The ‘IMHO1
e x a m in e r o r c o m p a n y c h e c k p ilo t m u s t th e n s ig n it o f f a s a n IP G in th e p ilo t's lo g b o o k .
3. For training or ferry flights — a commercial pilot with the appropriate category and class ratings need not
meet the training and checking requirements of 135.29 3 if no passengers or cargo are carried (6 1,55d6e).
4. A pilot w h o is training to b e c o m e an SK) fo r a Part 135 o p e ra to r, may serve as th e SIC o f th a t a irc ra ft
fo r th e p u rp o s e s o f r e c e iv in g tr a in in g a s lo n g a s no p a s s e n g e r s o r cargo a re c a rr ie d a n d th e flig h t is
c o n d u c te d ! u n d e r day V FR c r dav IFR. Y o u may log SIC tim e fo r th is tra in in g u n d e r 61.51(f).
5. Using two captains — P u ttin g tw o c a p ta in s to g e th e r is a r e la tiv e ly c o m m o n p ra c tic e , b u t to be p e r fe c tly
in a c c o r d a n c e w ith FAA p o lic y ; th e rig h t- s e a t o c c u p a n t m u s t h a v e b e e n tr a in e d & c h e c k e d fo r th e r ig h t
s e a t d u tie s . 1 3 5 .3 2 9 ( e )(1 ) s la te s — " In a d d itio n to in itia l, tr a n s itio n , u p g ra d e a n d re c u r r e n t tr a in in g ,
e a c h tra in in g p ro g r a m m u s t p ro v id e g ro u n d a n d flig h t tr a in in g , in s tru c tio n , a n d p ra c tic e n e c e s s a ry lo
e n s u re t h a t e a c h c r e w m e m b e r — re m a in s a d e q u a te ly tr a in e d a n d c u rr e n tly p ro fic ie n t fo r e a c h a irc ra ft,
CREW M EM BER POSITION a n d ty p e o f o p e ra tio n In w h ic h th e c r e w m e m b e r s e rv e s : a n d . . . e tc ." T h is
m e a n s th a t a p ilo t w h o is tr a in e d a n d c h e c k e d a s PIC (e v e n w h e n a ty p e ra tin g is re q u ire d } cannot act
as SIC o n a r e v e n u e t r i p UNLESS th e p ilo t h a s a ls o b e e n tr a in e d a n d c h e c k e d fo r (h e d u tie s o f S IC .
In o th e r w o rd s , y o u c m n p t j u ^ o n a revenue trie (P a r i 121 o r 1 3 5 ) unless th e
dude f o r dudette) in th e r i g h t seat h a s b e e n t r a in e d a n d checked fo r th e rloht seat duties. T h e
c a p ta in s ittin g in th e rig h t s e a t h a s to b e tr a in e d h o w W O T t o p la y w ith th e s te e r in g tille r a n d a ls o h o w
W O T to m o v e th e th r o ttle s ( o r la n d in g g e a r le v e r ) w ith h is r ig h t h a n d b u t In s te a d u s e In s le ft h a n d ,. , th is
is tu ff s tu ff. N o t a b ig d e a l — m o s t lik e ly ju s t a c o u p le o f e x lr a m a n e u v e r s fr o m th e r ig h l s e a l.
6. Using two captains on a Part 31 flight or a flight when no p a s s e n g e rs c r cargo are earned is not a
p ro b lem and is perfectly legal [61.55(d)(1)],

Part 121 — S IC : (61.23, 51.156, 61.159,61.160, 61.167, 121.436)

1. An A T P c e r tific a te or an “A T P c e rtific a te w ith Restricted Privileges" (a k a R -A T P P a g e 1 8 9 ), th e
type rating, a n d a 2 nd Class m e d ic a l (fo r a 2 p ilo t o p e r a tio n u n d e r a g e 6 0 ) . A n SIC
a p p r o p r ia te a ir c r a ft
type ra tin g o b ta in e d u n d e r § 6 1 ,5 5 does not satisfy th is requirem ent, ( 121,43$)
2. A P a rt 121 S IC is re q u ire d to h a v e m a d e a t le a s t 3 t a k e o f f s a n d la n d in g s in th a t s p e c ific t y p e o f
a irc ra ft w ith in th e p r e c e d in g 9 0 ^ a ^ s . ( 121,439)
3. “ ¿ I E w ith Restricted Privileges" (P a g e 189) — 21 y e a rs o f age, c j m j m ^ i U .instrument. c o m p le te
th e “A T P Certification Training Program ." 10 hours o f tr a in in g in a flig h t simulator th a t re p r e s e n ts a
multiengine turbine a irp la n e w ith a M TO W o f 40.POP pounds o r g r e a te r, a n d fo r military p ilo ts — 75P
hours T T . OR fo r a graduate o f a n aviation degree p ro g r a m — 1 ,0 0 0 hours. OR w ith o n ly an a v ia tio n
associates degree — 1 .2 5 0 h o u rs . OR w ith no aviation degree — 1 .5 0 0 h o u rs . (61.160)

S e c o n d In C o m m a n d R E Q U IR E D : («1 3 1 . 9 1 531 1 3 5 9 9 1 3 5 . 1 0 1 . 1 3 5 . 10 s, 1 3 5 1 0 9 )
1. F o r m o s t L a rg e A ir c ra ft (o v e r 1 2 ,5 0 0 lb s ) a n d m o s t je t s [m o s t a ir c r a ft th a t re q u ire a ty p e ra tin g ],
2. Mo certificate holder may operate a n a irc ra ft without a second In com m and if th a t a ir c r a ft h a s a
passenger seating configuration, e x c lu d in g a n y p ilo t s e a t, o f T E N seats o r m o re .
3. W h e n c a rr y in g passengers u n d e r IF R in a n y a irc ra ft — unless th e re is an a p p ro v e d Autopilot s y s te m
(3 a x is ), (h e u s e o f th e a u to p ilo t is authorized by th e c o m p a n y 's Operations Specifications, a n d th e
p ilo t h a s b e e n c o m p a n y ira in e d e n d c h e c k e d to u s e It,

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 241

C hap 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n a l

Training. Testina and Checking — A Quick Synopsis

TRAINING ( 1 3 5 -3 0 1 f 1 3 5 .3 2 1 , 1 3 5 .3 4 3 fh r u 1 3 3 .3 5 1 , 1 2 1 .4 0 0 , 1 2 1 ,4 1 0 th r u 1 2 1 .4 2 7 )
IN IT IA L
M o l p r e s e n tly s e rv in g a s P I C N I C o n a n y C o m p a n y a irc ra ft.
T ra in in g :
T R A N S IT IO N
A C e s s n a 1 7 2 p ilo t m o v in g to a C e s s n a 4 0 2 r e c e iv e s tra n s itio n tra in in g fo r th e 4 0 2 .
T ra in in g :
UPGRADE
S IC to P IC in ih e s a m e a irp la n e — 6 - 7 4 7 S IC to 0 - 7 4 7 P IC ,
T ra in in g :
D IFF E R E N C E S M u s t be g ro u n d a n d flig h t tr a in in g .
T ra in in g : E x a m p le — B - 7 3 7 - 2 0 0 to B - 7 3 7 - 4 0 0
RECURRENT R e q u ire d to re m a in a d e q u a te ly tr a in e d . G ro u n d & F lig h t.
T ra in in g : H a p p e n s e v e r y 6 a n d /o r 12 m o n t h s .

TESTING & CHECKING

4 A S e c o n d (n C o m m a n d — o r P IC — m u s t h a v e th is
1 3 5 .2 9 3 CO M PE T E N C Y CH ECK: c h e c k e v e rv 12 m o n t h s in e a c h a irc ra ft tv n e .
(s o m e tim e s c a lle d — E q u ip m e n i c h e c k o r C o p ilo t + A n IL S {a ll e n g in e ) ; a t le a s t o n e N o n -P re c is io n
c h e c k }( 1 2 1 .4 4 1 & A ppendix F to Part 121) A p p ro a c h ; h o ld in g : s ta lls ; s le e p tu r n s & s in g le
e n g in e w o rk .
+ A E ilo l In C o m m a n d m u s t h a v e th is c h e c k e v e ry
6 m o n th s .
1 3 5 .2 9 7 IN STR U M EN T P R O F IC IE N C Y *■ M a y b e s u b s titu te d fo r 1 3 5 .2 9 3 .
C H E C K : (PJC c h e c k o r In s tr u m e n t c h e c k ) ♦ R o ta te S .E . & M .E . o r ty p e s o f M .E . {P IC )
+ O n e IL S to a m is s e d a p p ro a c h a n d o n e S E IL S to a
(121.441 & Appendix F to Part 121)
la n d in g ; tw o N o n -P re c is io n A p p r o a c h e s ; h o ld in g :
s ta lls ; s te e p tu rn s & s in g le e n g in e w o rk
* A P ilo t In C o m m a n d m u s t h a v e th is c h e c k e v e ry
1 3 5 . 2 9 9 LINE C H E C K : {R o u te c h e c k ) 12 m o n t h s
(1 2 1 .4 4 0 ) 4 U s u a lly c o m b in e d w ith .2 9 3 o r .2 9 7
* O n e F lio h t; o n e R o u te ; o n e A irp o rt.
> A P ilo t In C o m m a n d u s u a lly g e ts A L L 3 c h e c k j^ e v e o t - S . m o n t h ^ ( n o t r e q u ire d b u t p ru d e n t).
r O ne G R AC E M O N TH b e fo re o r a ft e r th e d u e m o n th [c o u n ts a s m o n th d u e l. M35.3C1 135.323 121401)
I+ P ilo t b e in g c h e c k e d is P IC (Unless examiner acts in that
capacity for a portion of Ihs flight), (61.47)
F L IG H T C H E C K S : (61.47, 135.293(d) 135.301) 4 E m e rg e n c y p ro c e d u re s , s m o o th n e s s , ju d g m e n t,
s u c c e s s fu l o u tc o m e o f th e m a n e u v e r N E V E R in
I d o u b t.

If a flig h t c h e c k is
fa ile d u n d e r P a r i 1 3 5 .
th e Failure o f th a t
c h e c k h a s n o e ffe c t o n
a p ilo t's q u a lific a tio n s
lo fly u n d e r P e r l 121
( o r v ic e v e rs a ).
If a p ilo t Fails a alter lava nig all a id d-aapiiiy tha gear and naps-. The capnaina
c h e c k rid e ih e p ilo t
m a y n o t b e u s e d “ in
'IM H O '
Tiib B -u ffjia cftt»h lhai pwnpued the m w 121 to* SIC«
Had lilln i'j Lode .vltti me rack cn an A 7F for Ilia SIC {who Had
« t l o ve r 1.900 Insl b ut m s y b * a lot tc da w ith the FAA'a alall
ia e iv s fy la tiin liy s tb it tb«y dnimriwd mio « /e iy s i« ? haad i&r
decBdi-s. U ntl receiiuy, Ilia fA A preaclietl ptiwenny out 0-1 Iha
appiuach :u stall' « ih u u l any lo w or alUDude : aas man lud ft}.
In attiif«iOf<JB C iflJ , ilia to n lfo l vYlwalf IPIaUc. A far rows
■;-jil . iI r t iD r t f y la lo unload tint v^lng "nm adlalaly i P lfS H liie
niheel) Mhlla adding T.O. pow ef and aeeapl a. " m inim al laaa o f
a Itilu lijc " I b a tiltd uiltli Iba FAA ftv many yaara ouar this, bul i
look Him urauli lo gat Oiam la llrislly Chung« Inal mandard in d
agree wim ms.
Of sauna *e all Knswlhe s e a l rauaa ..| Ihia arrlda.it waa
m a t [L-tiitll& f LIEH* f l j tilQ M fi f l o t Q i i y y j j j J C lilld llU jl t |l ^ a l f l f j
j rg.7jJF F n 11 during a night inst-jura nt approach on aulopio-l
rofpOneo 10 thfl Stick 6l1tikflrtlKithBi w i i to giaiu tiggre68*vfrly
fU L L back fin Ihe wheel whh calastruplui reaulta. Why? $ 4
M u l l M y Humble □ pinion'

o p e r a t io n s u n d e r
T H IS P A R T u n t i l . . . "
[135 301(h). 121 441(e)]
. .........................
242
It's easy to make a smalt fortune with a Part 135
com pany as long as you start with a very large fortune, j
'W ttttS M ttM tfM tttttttM rtM ttS M ttttttM ttttttttttttttM M M tttM M ttM ttttttttttf
EVERYTHING EX PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilaf
 C hap 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s

PASSENGERS During CARGO ONLY Operations

ONLY IF: H 35. BS. 121.5U )
1 A com pany E M P LO Y E E ( c a r g o h a n d le r , p ilo t tra in e e , s e c re ta ry , m e c h a n ic ).
2. A p e rs o n n e c e s s a ry fo r th e h a n d lin g o f a n im a ls . ....................................... *
3. A p e rs o n n e c e s s a ry fo r th e h a n d lin g o f H a z a r d o u s M a te ria ls . Ths fFAA
; 7110 couldask
a a could asktotosea
see j
some proor el employment
4. A U .5 . G o v e r n m e n t s e c u r ity o r h o n o r g u a rd a c c o m p a n y in g a s h ip m e n t. ; aJ?™ o a n p ^ ^ p i m w a * !!
for a com pany em ployee
5. A m ilita r y c o u r ie r in o p e r a tio n s u n d e r a m ilita r y c o n tr a c t. • who
who¡sisridinq
ridingalong.
along. !'
6. A n F A A p e rs o n d o in g e n r o u le in s p e c tio n s . **•••w w k*
7 A p e rs o n , “ A U T H O R IZ E D BY THE A D M IN IS T R A T O R ' [th e F A A ], w ho is p e r f o r m in g ! a d u ty
c o n n e c t e d w ith a c a r g o o p e r a t i o n o f th e c o m p a n y

Π233- Weight & Balance Load Manifest:

(135.63. 13-5.97, 139.105. 91.529.91.1027. 121.693. 121.695. Ops Manual)
1. M u s t b e s e c u r e d m a n a p p ro v e d ra c k , b in o r c o m p a r tm e n t a n d /o r b y a s a fe ty b e lt o r o th e r tie -d o w n
h a v in g e n o u g h s lr e n g th to e lim in a te th e p o s s ib ility o f s h iftin g .
2. D u rin g P A SS EH GERJC A R G O o p e ra tio n s — c a rg o m u s t n o t o b s tr u c t a c c e s s to a n y re q u ire d e m e r g e n c y
o r re g u la r e x ii, th e a is le b e tw e e n th e c r e w a n d Ih e p a s s e n g e rs , v ie w o f th e " s e a t b e lt" s ig n , a n d m u s t
n o t b e c a rr ie d d ir e c tly a b o v e s e a te d o c c u p a n ts .
3. D u rin g C A R G O O N LY O P E R A T IO N S — a t le a s t o n e e m e r g e n c y o n e re g u la r e x i t m u s t b e
a v a i la b l e . (135.97)
4. A L o a d M a n if e s t (W&E3) is r e q u ir e d to r e v e r y le g W ith c a r g o o r p a s s e n g e r s o n b o a r d ( m u lti-e n g in e
a ir c r a ft o n ly ).
5. O n e c o p y o f Ih e W &B m u s t b e le ft a t th e d e p a r t u r e p o i n t a n d o n e c o p y r e t u r n e d to O p e r a t io n s
w h e re it m u s t b e k e p t fo r 3 0 d a v s [P a rt 1 3 5 o r s u b p a rt K o f P a rt 9 1 ) oir 9 0 d a v s (P a rt 1 2 1 ).
6. All m ulti-engine aircraft m u s t b e re weighed e v e ry 35 calendar months u n le s s th e a ir c r a ft is o p e r a te d
u n d e r a w e ig h t a n d b a la n c e s y s te m a p p ro v e d in th e o p e r a tio n s s p e c ific a tio n s o f th e c e r tific a te h o ld e r
( t y p ic a lly 4 8 m o n t h s ! (135.1B5)

D o u g l a s D C - 3 L o a d M a n if e s t
D a te - 25. 20TX
N# — ?23$0 A llo w a b le T /O G r o s s W e i g h t .......... 26 900
C a p ta in — fflE g O A
A llo w a b le L n d g G r o s s W e i g h t ........ 26 $00
F irs t O ffic e r — W /V ?
F ro m — ¿,47 —
M ax Actual M o m e n t/
A rm
W e ig h t W e ig h t 1 0 ,0 0 0
Irrdudea 1JP all. F U E L (M oin.10,000)
B a s ic
35 gals apare all (Ccnu hj , rrs o s 436.2
Weight 13 Manketa. Z rillaian.. F o rw a rd (240.5) R e a r (276.0)
Com p A 70.0 600 400 22 Gal Wt Mom Wt M om
50 300 7.2 300 8.3
C om p B 1 1 5 .0 800
100 600 14 4 600 166
Com p C 154.0 1000
150 900 21.6 900 24.6
C om p D 2 2 B .5 3000 WOO 22 6 1200 33.1
200 1200 26.9
Com p E 323.0 3000 ÍOOO 32J 250 1500 36.1 1500 41.4
C om p F 4 1 1 .5 2400 woo 4U 300 1800 43.3 1800 49.7
Com p G 493.1 1300 350 2100 50.5 2100 58.0
C om p H 561 0 350 400 2400 57.7 2400 66.2
F uel FW D 240.5 XX XX 2400 57?
Fuel REAR 2 7 6 .0 XXXX 2400 66.2
T /O C o n d 26405 659 CG 249.6
F u e l B u rn 2 4 0 .5 f-F W D ) - 2/00 -5 0 .5 Forward C G lim it............ ....239.6
Fuel B u m 2 7 6 .0 (-R E A R) -2400 -66 2 A f t C G l i m i t .................................2 6 3 ,1
Lndg Cond 2/905 542 CG 247.6

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 243

C h a p 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s

LO A D M A N IF E S T — W e ig h t & B a la n c e — R EC O R D K E E P IN G :
(91.1027, 121.693 thru 121.697, 1 35.63. 135.185, Opa Manual)
1, A Load Manifest iW & B l is required for E V E R Y L E G with C A R G O or P A S S E N G E R S on board.
2. A c o p y o f th e W & B s h o u ld be ¡eft el th e departure point e n d one copy returned to Operations w h e re
it m u s t b e k e p i fo r 30 d a y ? [1 3 5 .6 3 ( d ), 9 1 .1 0 2 7 ] o r 9 0 d a y s [1 2 1 .6 9 5 (b )],

J U S T IF IA B L E A IR C R A F T E Q U IP M E N T — m e a n s a n y e q u ip m e n t n e c e s s a r y fo r th e
operation Of th e aircraft. It does N O T include e q u ip m e n t Or ballast s p e c ific a lly installed p e r m a n e n tly or
o th e r w is e fo r th e p.urjj_o_se_o_f_alterinfl th e & m a lv _ w e if lh t o f a n a irc ra ft to_meet th e maximumjaytload
capacity. ( i i o . 2 >

M AXIM UM P A Y L OAD C A P A C IT Y — means; (iio.2)

(1) For an a i r c r a f t f o r w h ic h a m a x im u m z e r o f u e l w e ig h t is p r e s c r ib e d in FA A technical specifications,
the m a x im u m z e r o f u e l w e i g h t , le s s e m p t y w e i g h t , le s s a ll j u s t i f i a b l e a i r c r a f t e q u i p m e n t , and le s s
th e o p e r a t in g lo a d (consisting of minim um flightcrew, foods and beverages, and supplies and
equipm ent related to foods and beverages, but not including d isposable fuel or oil).
(2) F o r a ll o t h e r a i r c r a f t , the m a x im u m _ c e r t lf ic a t e d t a k e o f f w e ig h t of an aircraft, le s s t h e e m p t y w e i g h t .
le s s a ll J U S T I F I A B L E A IR C R A F T E Q U IP M E N T , and le s s t h e o p e r a t in g lo a d (consisting of minimum
fuel lo a d , o il. and flightcrew). T h e a llo w a n c e f o r t h e w e ig h t o f t h e c r e w , o il, a n d f u e l is a s f o l l o w s :
(i) C R E W - for each crew m em ber required by the Federal Aviation R egulations -
(A) For m ilt flight crew m em bers — 16 0 p o u n d s .
(B ) For f e m a le flig h t crew m em bers — 1 4 0 p o u n d s .
(C ) F o r m a le f l i g h t a t t e n d a n t s — 1 8 0 p o u n d s .
(D) For female flight attendants — 130 p ou n d s.
(E ) For f l i g h t a t t e n d a n t s n o t id e n t if ie d b y g e n d e r - 140 p o u n d s .
(¡¡) O IL - 3 5 0 p o u n d s o r th e o il c a p a c it y a s s p e c i f i e d on th e T y p e C e rtific a te D a ta S h e e t.
(iii) F U E L — the m i n im u m weight of f u e l r e q u ir e d b y the applicable F e d e r a l A v ia t io n R e g u la t io n s for
a f l i c h i b e tw e e n d o m e s t ic p o i n t s 1 7 4 n a u t ic a l m ile s a p a r t u n d e r V F R w e a t h e r c o n d itio n s lh a j f lo e s ^
not Involve extended overwater o p e ra tio n s Thai portion, pf 10b MAXIMUM ;
PA Y LO A D C A P A C ITY Quli.miuri ‘
referring Id ''35D pounds of O IL" .
S TA N D A R D A V E R A G E PAS S E N G ER W E IG H T S : (AC i2Q-27E> and ''EJJELtftjb U Lfl WW” ¡s or|ly ;
A D U L T p a s s e n g e rs ( in c lu d e s 20 p o u n d s c a rr y -o n b a g g a g e ) a g ita b le for airmail llial do NOT ,
hav-e a maximum 1'¿EFLP FU EL ;
Sum m er — (M a y 1 th r o u g h O c to b e r 3 1 ):
W E IG H T" SDfluifiad tor Ihe aimralt ,
A d u lt P a s s e n g e r (60'>W40% matedamaie m ty .... 1 9 0 p o u n d s in Ihe aiit fail's T ype CarUticate J
M a le ................................................................................. 2 0 0 p o u n d s Data Shan't nr Ihe approved ■
F e m a le ............ .................... 179 pounds Alrcrafl Flight Manual J
C h ild ....................................................................................8 2 p o u n d s
W in t e r — (N o v e m b e r 1 th r o u g h A p ril 3 0); «1
A d u lt P a s s e n g e r (60%M0% mafaTsmaie m br),.,. 1 9 5 p o u n d s
M a le ..... ........... ....... ........... ................... , . , ................. 2 0 5 p o u n d s
F e m a le ............................................................................ 1 8 4 p o u n d s
C h ild (2 to le s s th a n 13 y rs o l d ) ........................... 8 7 p o u n d s
T h e ta b le a b o v e is fo r c e r tific a te h o ld e r s a u th o r iz e d to u s e an a p p ro v e d c a rr y -o n
b a g g a g e p ro g r a m w ith a s p e c ifie d 2 -b a g lim it a s d e s c rib e d o r r e fe re n c e d in
p a ra g r a p h A 0 11 o f th e ir o p e r a tio n s s p e c ific a tio n s .

C A R G O FL O O R LO A D IN G L IM IT S :<faa-h-8D83-1A;
1. C a rg o flo o r lo a d lim it b a s e d o n th e w e ig h i o f Ih e c a rg o a n d Ih e a re a th e
w e ig h t is d is trib u te d o v e r.
2. T o d e te r m in e th e m a x w e ig h t o f a lo a d e d c a r g o p a lle t fo r flo o r lo a d lim it — d iv id e its total weight
in c lu d in g th e w e ig h t o f th e e m p ty p a lle t a n d tie -d o w n s tra p s , b y its a r e a in s q u a r e f e e t . T h e lo a d p e r
s q u a re fo o t m u s t be e q u a l to o r le s s th a n th e p la c a rd e d flo o r lo a d lim it.
3. A 4 - f o o t b y 4 - f o o t p a lle t 116 s q u a r e f e e t i th a t w e ig h s 2.Q0Q m o u n d s ( in c lu d in g Ih e p a lle t a n d s tra p s ),
w ill h a v e a Floor lo a d in g o f 125 p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e f o o t .

244 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 C h a p 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s

W e ig h t / B a la n c e a n d C e n t e r o f G r a v it y ,i=m -h - so&m a . a c 120-2 t e >

Em pty Weight T o ta l w e io h l o f a ir c r a fl — IN C L U D IN G — e ll fix e d b a l la s t u n u s a b le f u e l, u n d r a in a b le

o il to ta l a u a n titv o f e n o in e c o o la n t, a n d t o t a l a u a n titv o f h v d r a u lic f l u i d .
E X C L U D IN G — c r e w , n a u lo a d . u s a b le f u e l a n d d r a in a b le o il.

B asic O perating T o ta l w e io h l o f a irc ra ft — Including c r e w , r e a d v f o r flight. b u t w ithout c a v lo a d o r

fuel ftomB-timaB EX CLU D ES ‘lie crewl — Includes a ll fix e d b a lla s t, u n u s a b le fu e l, normal
Weight (BOW )
operating level of oil a n d to ta l a u a n titv o f h v d ra u lic flu id . T ra n s p o r t a irc ra ft o n lv .
Fuel Load U s a b le f u e l o n lv . n o t th e fu e l in ih e lin e s o r lh a t r e m a in s tra p p e d in th e s u m p s .

M axim um 1. T h e w i n d s f l e x u p & d o w n w ith t u r b u le n c e a p p ly in g s e v e re b e n d in g lo a d s a t th e

w in g r o o t s T h e s e lo a d s In c re a s e d r a m a tic a lly a s w e ig h t in th e fu s e la q e in c re a s e s .
Allow able
Z F W s e ts a m a x im u m a llo w a b le w e ig h t th a t c a n b e c a r r ie d in th e f u s e la g e in
Zero Fuel W eight o r d e r to eliminate th e p o s s i b i l i t y Of d e s t r u c t iv e w in q - b e n d in n s t r e s s
*" ....... " '*
The ¿sro fuel weigh! ligure 2. T h e maximum c e r m is s lb le w e i g h t o f an a ir c r a ft w it h no d is o o s a b le fuel o r o il.
may be Found in either the 3. Z e ro fu e l w e ig h t lo r a p a rtic u la r flig h t is th e B a s ic O p e r a tin g W e ig h t + payload
aircraft T v p s C ertificate
Data Sheet. or aDnrmjed
4. Maximum weight th a t c a n b e c o n c e n tr a te d In th e fuselage (p ilo ts + p a y lo a d ).
5. B a s e d o n th e w in g s abilltv to t o le r a t e b e n d in g s tr e s s e s F w in o b e n d in g l i m i t " !
fitta fa ft EUflht Manual
6. All weight o v e r a n d a b o v e M Z F W m u s t b e in th e fo r m o f FU EL in th e w in g s
Useful Load W e ig h t o f th e p ilo ls , p a s s e n g e rs , b a g g a g e , u s a b le fu e l a n d d r a in a b le o il. T h e e m p ty
w e ig h t s u b tra c te d fr o m th e m a x a llo w a b le ta k e o ff w e ig h l. G e n e ra l a v ia tio n a irc ra ft.

Datum A n im a g in a r y lin e f r o m w h ic h a ll m e a s u r e m e n t s o f “ a r m " a re t a k e n L o c a tio n o f th e

d a tu m is e s ta b lis h e d b v th e m a n u fa c tu r e r . T h e d a t u m is " s t a t i o n " z e ro .

Station A location in a n a ir c r a fl id e n tifie d b y a n u m b e r d e s ia n a tin q its ^sta n ce in inches

from th e datum. T h e d a tu m is s ta tio n z e ro . T h e s ta tio n a n d a rm a re u s u a lly id e n tic a l.
A n o b je c t lo c a te d a t station +103 w o u ld th e r e fo re h a v e a n arm of +103 inches.

Arm (m om ent arm) D is t a n c e in I n c h e s f r o m th e re fe r e n c e d a t u m lin e t o th e c e n t e r o f a r a v i t v o f a n ite m

f+ ) if m e a s u r e d a f t o f th e d a t u m o r ( - ) if m e a s u r e d f o r w a r d o f th e d a tu m .

M om ent P r o d u c t o f th e w e ig h t o f an ite m multiplied bv its arm e x p re s s e d in pound-inches

M om ent Index A moment d iv id e d b v a c o n s ta n t s u c h a s 1 QQ. 1 .000 o r 1 0.000 U s e d to s im p lify th e

VY&B c o m p u ta tio n s fo r la r g e r a ir c r a fl (h e a v y w e ig h ts x lo n g a rm s = h u g e n u m b e r s ).

Center of Gravity T h e p o in t a b o u t w h ic h a n a irc ra ft w o u ld b a la n c e if it w e re p o s s ib le to s u s p e n d it a t th a t

p o in t, e x p re s s e d in in c h e s fr o m d a tu m . It is th e th e o r e tic a l " m a s s c e n te r11 o f th e a irc ra fl.
Weight x Arm - Moment To ta l M om ent + To ta l W eight = CG
Canter of Gravity T h e fo rw a rd a n d a FI lo c a tio n s b e y o n d w h ic h ih e C G m u s i n o t be lo c a te d d u rin g ta k e o ff,
flio h l o r la n d in o . C G R a n g e is ih e d is ta n c e b e tw e e n ih e fo rw a rd a n d a fl lim its .
Lim its

Chord of an A n im a g in a r y lin e d ra w n th r o u g h a n a irfo il fr o m ------- ----------------------------------------

airfoil its le a d in g e d g e lo its (ra ilin g e d g e . C c h o rd ___ »

Mean Average distance fr o m ih e leading edge to th e trailing edae

V
o f th e w in a . A n imaoinarv airfoil th a t h a s th e s a m e
Aerodynam ic
a e r o d y n a m ic c h a r a c te r is tic s a s th e a c tu a l a irfo il. C G is o fte n ........ LEMAC
Chord (M AC ) e x p re s s e d a s a p e r c e n ta g e o f M A G f o r la rg e r a irc ra ft. N o rm a lly ,
F \ j
a n a ir c r a ft w ill w ield acceptable f r ig h t characteristics if th e C G
M AC \
is lo c a te d s o m e w h e r e n e a r 257« o f th e a v e r a g e chord — w h ic h -
is one-fourth of the distance back fro m th e L e a d in g E d g e o f TJEMAC |
th e M e a n A e r o d y n a m ic C h o rd (a v e r a g e w in g s e c tio n ).

LEM A C f T E M A C L e a d in g E d g e (o r T r a ilin g E d g e ) o f th e M e a n A e r o d y n a m ic C h o rd

M a xim u m TakeO ff M a x a llo w a b le w e ig h t fo r t a k e o f f . S o m e a irc ra ft a re a p p ro v e d fo r a o r e a t e r M a x im u m

R a m o W e ig h t (M R W ) to a llo w fo r f u e l b u m d u n n o ta x i. T a k e o ff w e ig h t m a v b e lim ite d
W eight fM TO W )
to a le s s e r w e ig h t d u e to ru n w a y le n g th , d e n s ity a ltitu d e , o r o th e r v a ria b le s .

Max Landing G uess w hat this is t : Somewhdl Intarehangsabty with “BflfllMHad Landing W aiaht" — Ma* landing :
¡weight dependent an field conditions (altitude, temp, pressure, wind and slope) J
Weight (MLW)

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 245

C h a p 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s

P IL O T R EC O R D K E E P IN G — W E IG H T & B A L A N C E — LO A D M A N IF E S T :
(91.1027. 121.633 thru 121.637, 135.63. 135.1 B5. Ops Manual)
T h e c e rtific a te h o ld e r s h a ll k e e p a n d s h a ll m a k e a v a ila b le fo r in s p e c tio n b y th e A d m in is t r a to r th e fo llo w in g ;
1. T h e c e rtific a te h o ld e r 's O p e r a t in g C e r t i f i c a t e .
2. Operations Specifications.
3. C u rre n t lis t o f a ir c r a ft u s e d .
4. In d iv id u a l R E C O R D O F E A C H P IL O T I n c lu d in g
a. F u ll n a m e o f p i l o t , in c lu d in g c o p ie s o f p i lo t c e r t if ic a t e a n d m e d ic a l (o r in fo r m a tio n th e re o f).
b. T h e p ilo t’s aeronautical experience in s u ffic ie n t d e ta il to d e te r m in e th e p ilo t’s q u a lific a tio n s to
p ilo t a ir c r a ft in o p e r a tio n s u n d e r th is p a rt.
c. T h e p ilo t’s c u r r e n t d u t i e s a n d th e d a te o f ih e p ilo t's a s s ig n m e n t lo ih o s e d u tie s .
d. Date and result of each in itia l a n d r e c u r re n t c o m p e te n c y tests a n d proficiency a n d route
c h e c k s re q u ire d a n d th e ty p e o f a irc ra ft flo w n d u rin g tr ia l te s t (F A A F o rm 8 4 1 0 -3 ).
e. T h e p ilo t's f l i g h t t im e in s u ffic ie n t d e ta il to d e te r m in e c o m p lia n c e w ith f l i g h t t im e l im i t a t io n s
f. T h e p ilo t’s c h e c k p i lo t a u t h o r iz a t io n if a n y
g. A n y a c t i o n t a k e n c o n c e r n in g th e p ilo t's r e le a s e f r o m e m p lo y m e n t fo r p h y s ic a l o r p ro fe s s io n a l
d is q u a lific a tio n .
h. T h e d a t e Of c o m p l e t i o n Of e a c h p h a s e o f t r a i n i n g .
i. T h e p ilo t’s re c o rd s m u s t be k e p t fo r a t le a s t 12 m o n t h s .
5. R e c o rd f o r e a c h flig h t a tte n d a n t jo d e te r m in e c o m p lia n c e w i t h J 3 5 .2 7 3 .
6. F o r M U L T I -engine aircraft, th e c e rtific a te h o ld e r is re s p o n s ib le fo r p r e p a r a tio n a n d a c c u ra c y o f a L O A D
M A N IF E S T i W & B f in duDlicate T h e m a n ife s t m u s t b e ore Dared for E A C H takeoff a n d m u s t in c lu d e :
a. N u m b e r o f o a s s entiers.
b. T o ta l weight o f th e lo a d e d a irc ra ft.
c. M a x im u n i a ilo w a b le t a k s & f f w eiiiht fo r th a t fli-qht.
d. C e n te r o l G r a v ity limits. : 1 3 fiS 3 l
e. C e n te r o f G r a v ity o f th e loaded aircraft. -w w w f
f. Registration num ber o f th e a irc ra ft,
a. Origin a n d destination.
h. Names o f c re w m e m b e r s a n d th e ir crew p o s itio n assignments.
7. T h e P IC s h a ll C A R R Y u C O P Y o f th e c o m p le te d L O A D M A N IF E S T m th e a irc ra ft to its d e s tin a tio n . The
c e rtific a te h o ld e r s h a ll keen c o p ie s o f th e c o m p le te d lo a d manifests fo r a t le a s t 30 days.

For Part 135 M U L T I-engine aircraft —

A LO A D M A N IF E S T fW&B) M U S T be filled out In
duplicate prior to departure for every teg w ith cargo
T Date:
Lc n g e Ts Lo a d Manifest
12-25-20XX__________________
O r passengers on board. The disposition of the Tail N um ber 123GO________________
P IC : Richie F ly a n y t h in g L c n g e l
duplicate copy (commonly referred to as the *‘Crash_A_B.urV
S IC : B e u la h M a y H a tfie ld ____________
copy) is up to the discretion of the com pany's POI.
Origin- LAX
Typ ic a lly that cop y is required to be left on the D e s tin a tio n : J F K _______________________
ground some w heref?) before departure. T h e copy Total FAX- 3C______________________
you ca rry m ust be kept at operations for 30 days. Max allowable T.O. wl: 26.000
Total 1.0. wt: Less than that!
These copies are routinely scrutinized by the PQI
Forward CG Limit: 230.6____________
(It makes them feel real im portant;-). Aft CG I innit: 2631
Part 121 operations must keep this document for at T.O. CG: B e tw e e n th o s e 2 n u m b e r s t

L
least three months. (121.605)
J
CO M AT — company M A T e ria l. N o n - re v e n u e in te r - c o m p a n y m a te r ia l (i.e ., c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , p a y ro ll c h e c k s ,
a irc ra ft p a rts fo r a c o m p a n y a irc ra ft, e tc .), C O M A T m u s t be w e ig h e d a n d in c lu d e d o n th e lo a d m a n ife s t.

246 EVERYTHING EX PLAIN ED fg r the PicfnsEtcn.il Pilot

 C hap 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s
E F F E C T S of FO R W ARD C G (FiA H aaaj-i, (tosa a, acuta as)
1. I n c r e a s e d lo n g itu d in a l s t a b i l it y — A s a n g le o f a tta c k is in c re a s e d , th e a irp la n e
le n d s to r e d u c e th a t a n g le (h ig h e r s tic k fo rc e s ),
2. L o w e r c r u is e s p e e d — In c re a s e d d ra g , g r e a te r a n g le o f a tta c k re q u ire d Lo
m a in ta in a ltitu d e . M o re e le v a to r d o w n fo r c e lo d r a g a ro u n d ,
3. H ig h e r s t a l l s p e e d — S ta llin g a n g le o f a tta c k re a c h e d a t a h ig h e r s p e e d d u e to
in c re a s e d w in g lo a d in g .
4. Greater elevator back pressure required — M o re a irflo w w ill be r e q u ire d o v e r
th e e le v a to r In o r d e r lo ra is e th e a irc ra ft's p ilc h a ttitu d e — th e r e fo re y o u 'll n e e d
m o re s p e e d f o r ta k e o ff, a lo n g e r ta k e o f f ro ll, h ig h e r a p p r o a c h s p e e d s , a n d m o re
e le v a to r b a c k p re s s u re w ill b e n e e d e d fo r th e le n d in g d a re . It is p o s s ib le , th a t
w ith th e p o w e r o ff, fu ll up e le v a to r w ill n o t b e s u ffic ie n t to k e e p th e n o s e p itc h e d
u p h ig h e n o u g h fo r a s a fe la n d in g .
5. G o o d s ta il/s o in re c o v e ry .

E F F E C T S o f A F T CG
1. D e c r e a s e d lo n g itu d in a l s t a b i l it y — A s a n g le o f a tta c k is in c re a s e d it te n d s to
r e s u lt in a d d itio n a l in c re a s e d a n g le o f a tta c k {v e r y lig h t s tic k fo rc e s ). T h e a ir c r a ft
w ill le n d to p itc h up to w a rd s ta ll d u rin g ta k e o ff, a n d m a y re q u ire fu ll-d o w n
e le v a to r a t s lo w s p e e d s to c o u n te r a c t th e n o s e - u p te n d e n c y . M a y a tte m p t to
p itc h -u p to w a rd a s ta ll o n la n d in g .
2. H ig h e r c r u i s e s p e e d — R e d u c e d d ra g , a s a s m a lle r a n g le o f a tta c k is re q u ire d
lo m a in ta in a ltitu d e . L e s s e le v a to r d o w n fo r c e to d r a g a ro u n d ,
3. L o w e r s t a ll s p e e d — L e s s w in g lo a d in g .
4. Poor stallfspin recovery.

R E P O R T IN G M E C H A N IC A L IR R E G U L A R IT IE S :<13S.&S. is i.n i)
T h e c e r tific a te h o ld e r s h a ll p ro v id e a n a ir c r a ft m a i n t e n a n c e lo g to b e c a rr ie d o n b o a r d e a c h a ir c r a ft fo r
re c o r d in g o r d e fe r r in g m e c h a n ic a l ir r e g u la ritie s a n d (h e ir c o rr e c tio n ,

T h e N T S B h a s ru le d th a t a “ M E C H A N I c' À l Ì R RE*GU L A r It Y'

is “ a n y d e v ia t io n f r o m t h e n o r m a l f u n c t io n i n g o f a n a i r c r a f t ;
c o m p o n e n t n o m a tte r h o w s lig h t o r m o m e n ta ry ”

A IR W O R T H IN E S S C H E C K : (135.71.1 2 1 700 )
T h e P ilo t In C o m m a n d m a v n o t b e g in a f l i g h t u n le s s th e p ilo t d e te r m in e s th a t th e a i r w o r t h in e s s
in s p e c t io n s re g u ire d h a v e b e e n m a d e .

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for 111» Professional Pilot 247

C hap 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s

C A R G O C O M P A R T M E N T C lassification: ps.as?}
W C l a s s A : A C la s s A c a r g o o r b a g g a g e c o m p a r tm e n t is o n e in w h ic h —
(1 ) T h e p re s e rv e o f a
[Ire w o u ld b e e a s ily discovered by a crewmember w h ile a t h i s station, a n d
(2) Each part of the compartment is easily accessible in
f li g h t .
(b)' C l a s s B : A C la s s B c a r g o o r b a g g a g e c o m p a r tm e n t is o n e in
w h ic h —
enable a
(1 ) T h e re is s u ffic ie n t a c c e s s in flig h t to
crewmember to e ffe c tiv e ly reach a n y p a r t o f th e
c o m p a r tm e n t w ith th e c o n te n ts o f
a hand t ir e extinguisher;
(2 ) W h e n th e a c c e s s p ro v is io n s
a re b e in g u s e d , n o h a z a r d o u s
q u a n tity o f sm oke, fla m e s , o r
e x tin g u is h in g a g e n t, w i l l
e n te r a n y com partm ent
o c c u p ie d b y th e c r e w o r
passengers.
(3 ) T h e re is a s e p a ra te a p p ro v e d
smoke d e te c to r o r fire
detector s y s te m to g iv e
w a rn in g a t th e p ilo t o r flig h t
e n g in e e r s ta tio n .
fc ) C lass C : A C la s s C c a r g o o r b a g g a g e c o m p a r tm e n t is One n o t
m e e tin g th e r e q u ir e m e n ts fo r e ith e r a C la s s A o r B c o m p a r tm e n t b u t
i M l i
in w h ic h —
smoke d e te c to r o r fire
(1 ) T h e re is a s e p a ra te a p p ro v e d
detector s y s te m to g iv e w a rn in g a t th e p ilo t o r flig h t
e n g in e e r s ta tio n ;
(2 ) T h e re is a n a p p ro v e d b u i l t - i n f i r e e x t i n g u i s h i n g o r s u p p re s s io n s y s t e m c o n t r o ll a b le f r o m th e
c o c k p it.
(3 ) T h e re a r e m e a n s to exclude h a z a rd o u s q u a n titie s o f sm oke, fla m e s , o r e x tin g u is h in g a g e n t, from
crew o r passengers.
a n y c o m p a r tm e n t o c c u p ie d b y th e
(4 ) T h e re a r e m e a n s to c o n tr o l v e n tila tio n a n d d ra fts w ith in th e c o m p a r tm e n t s o th a t th e
e x tin g u is h in g a g e n l u s e d c a n c o n tro l a n y fire th a t m a y s ia r t w ith in Ih e c o m p a r tm e n t,
(d ) C lass D : [R e s e rv e d ] N O T E T h is c la s s w a s e lim in a t e d a fte r th e 19 9 E V a lu e J e t c r a s h in
F lo rid a . It w a s a C o m p a rtm e n t n o t a c c e s s ib le d u rin g flig h t th a l w a s d e s ig n e d 10 c h o k e o u t
fire s d u e to la c k o f o x y g e n r a th e r th a n d e te c t o r e x tin g u is h . T h is d e s ig n d o e s n o t w o r k v e ry
w e ll w h e n th e c a r g o b rin g s a lo n g its o w n o x y g e n ,

(e ) C l a s s E: A C la s s E c a r g o c o m p a r tm e n t is one o n A IR P L A N E S U S E D O N L Y F O R th e
C A R R I A G E o f C A R G O a n d in w h ic h —
(1 ) [R e s e rv e d ];
(2 ) T h e re is a s e p a r a t e a p p ro v e d s m o k e o r fire d e t e c t o r s y s te m to g iv e
w a r n in g a t ih e p i lo t o r flig h t e n g in e e r s ta tio n ;
(3 ) T h e re a re means to shut off th e v e n tila tin g airflow to , o r w ith in , th e
com partm ent, a n d th e controls fo r th e s e m e a n s a re accessible to
th e flig h t crew in th e c r e w c o m p a r tm e n t;
(4 ) T h e re a r e means to exclude h a z a rd o u s q u a n titie s o f sm oke.
flam es, o r noxious ga se s, from th e flig h t crew c o m p a r tm e n t; a n d
(5 ) T h e re q u ire d crew em ergency exits a re accessible u n d e r a n y
Cargo loading condition.

248 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

 C h a p 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s

“S T E R IL E C O C K P IT * — F L IG H T C R EW M EM B ER D U T IE S : <135.100&121.542)
D u rin g a ‘ c r i t i c a l p h a s e o f n i g h t . " w h ic h in c lu d e s t a i l . t & h f lf lf l a n d l a n d in g . a n d e ll O th e r o p e r a t io n s b e lo w
10,QQQ fe e t, e x c e p t d u rin g c r u i s e f l i g h t b e lo w 1 0 ,0 0 0 fe e t — n o p ilo t w ill e n g a g e in a n y a c tiv ity , w h ic h c o u ld
d is tra c t fro m th e p ilo t’s d u tie s —
1. No eating o f m e a ls .
2. No nonessential conversations (in c lu d in g a n n o u n c e m e n ts p o in tin g o u t s ig h ts o f in te re s t, oj
d is c u s s io n s c o n c e rn in g th e flig h t a tte n d a n t's impressive a s s e ts ) .
3. N o r e a d in g o f p u b lic a tio n s n o t r e la t e d to th e s a f e o p e r a t io n o f th e f l i g h t .

It's a ls o n o t a g r e a t id e a to
a c c id e n ta lly g e l " d is tra c te d d u rin g
a h e a le d d is c u s s io n o v e r a irlin e
p o lic y " (y e a h rig h t) fo r o v e r an h o u r
a n d fly 1 5 0 m ile s p a s t y o u r
d e s tin a tio n b e fo re a flig h t a tte n d a n t
fin a lly c o m e s fo r w a r d a n d a s k s
w h e re th e h e ll y a g o in ’ l

M A N IP U L A T IO N O F C O N T R O L S : (1 3 5 .11 s. 121.ua)
N o P IC m a y a llo w a n y p e rs o n 10 m a n ip u la te th e flig h t c o n tr o ls d u rin g a flig h t c o n d u c te d
u n d e r P a rt 1 2 1 /1 3 5 u n le s s th a t p e rs o n is:
1 A p i lo t e m p lo y e d b v th e certificate holder a n d Q u a lifie d in th e aircraft: or
2. A n a u th o r iz e d re p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e PA A w h o h a s th e permission of th e £ ] £ . is
q u a lif ie d in th e aircraft, a n d is c h e c k in g flig h t o p e ra tio n s .

A D M IS S IO N TO F L IG H T D E C K ;(1215 4 7 )
N o p e rs o n m a y a d m it a n y p e rs o n to th e flig h t d e c k o f a n a ir c r a f t u n le s s th e p e rs o n b e in g a d m itte d is —
1. A c r e w m e m b e r :
2. A F A A in s p e c to r o r N T S B re p r e s e n ta tiv e p e r fo r m in g o ffic ia l d u tie s (n o fre e
rid e s to g r a n d m a ’s h o u s e );
3. A n amKJflJdglft Of th e U_._5.J3_0_v_e.r_nmerit a c_e.lLfic.ate_h.old.e_r. o r a n
aeronautical enterprise w h o s e d u tie s a re n e c e s s a ry o r a d v a n ta g e o u s fo r
s a fe o p e ra tio n s w ith th e P IC 's p e rm is s io n .
4. Any person w ith th e perm ission o f th e P IC a n d authorized b y management
and th e F A A .
A seat m u s t b e a v a ila b le for use in th e passenger compartment fo r p e rs o n s a d m itte d
lo th e flig h t d e c k e x c e p t for — a n f a a in s p e c to r o r N TS B re p r e s e n ta li v e ; a controller a u th o r iz e d b y th e f a a
to o b s e rv e : a c e rtifie d airman e m p lo y e d b y th e c e r tific a te h o ld e r (o r o th e r w is e a u th o r iz e d ); a n employee w h o s e
d u ty is d ir e c tly r e la te d to flig h t o p e r a tio n s , w ith w ritte n a u lh o r iz a tio n ; a factory technical representative.

Lengel’s L o a d M a n ife s t

P ilo t In C o m m a n d fS e c o n d In C o m m a n d — D a te : 1 2 -2 5 2 0 X X
T a il N u m b e r: 12300
D e s ig n a tio n R e q u ire d ; n s a .iM L 121.335) P IC ; R ic h ie F ty a n y t h in g L c n g e l
1. T h e c e rti fle a le h o ld e r s h a 11 de sig na te a : S IC : B e u la h M a y H a ttie Id
$. P ilo t In C o m m a n d fu r e a c h flio h t: e n d Onqin: LAX
b. S e c o n d In C o m m a n d fo r e a c h flia h t re o u irin a tw o D e s tin a tio n : JFK
p ilo ts . T o la lP A X - 30
2. T h e P ilo t In C o m m a n d , a s d e s ig n a te d , s h a ll re m a in th e P IC a t
M a x a llo w a b le T O . w t: 2 6 ,3 0 0
a ll tim e s d u rin g th a t flig h t.
T d ia l T . O- w t : Lo a s than that!
F o rw a rd C G L im it: 2 3 9 .6
A ft C G L im it: 263.1
T .O . C G : B e tw e e n th o s e 2 n u m b e r s l

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 249

C h a p 7 — C o m m e r c ia l O p e r a tio n s

IF R F U E L S U P P L Y { D o m e s tic ) : (91.151. 91,107.135 223 121,639 forti 121.647)

E J ^ O N
1, F ly to (h e d e s t i n a t i o n — s h o o t a n a p p r o a c h — g o o n to th e ( m o s t d is ta n t) a l t e r n a t e a n d
fly a ft e r th a t fo r 4 5 m in u t e s a t n o rm a l c ru is e .
2. H e lic o p te rs — F ly to th e d e s t i n a t i o n — s h o o t an a p p r o a c h — g o o n to th e
a lt e r n a t e a n d fly a fte r t h a t fo r 30 m in u t e s a t n o rm a l c ru is e .

V F R F U E L S U P P L Y ^D o m e s tic !: a m i, 135.203. 121.03S(hm

121.647)
1. D A Y — T o th e d e s tin a tio n + 30 m in u te s .
2. N IG H T — T o th e d e s tin a tio n + 4 5 m in u te s
3. R o lo rc ra ft — T o the d e s tin a t io n + 2 0 m in u te s .

F L A G O p e r a tio n s — N O N T U R B IN E a n d FUEL GAUGE

T U R B O P R O P : (izi. 64i)
1
2.
F ly t o a n d la n d a t th e a i r p o r t to w h ic h it is d i s p a t c h e d :
T h e re a fte r, f ly t o a n d la n d a t th e m o s t d i s t a n t a lt e r n a t e : a n d
f
3
Ih e d e s t in a t io n a n d m o s t d i s t a n t a lt e r n a t e o r 90 m i n u t e s a t n o r m a l c ru is e w h ic h e v e r is l e s s .
A L S O . . . N o p e rs o n m a y d is p a tc h a n o n tu r b in e o r tu r b o - p r o p e lle r a ir p la n e to a n a ir p o r t w h e n an
a lt e r n a t e is n o t s p e c if ie d u n le s s il h a s e n o u g h f u e l to f l v t o t h a t a i r p o r t a n d t h e r e a f t e r to f l y fo r
T H R E E H O U R S a t n o rm a l c r u is in g fu e l c o n s u m p tio n .

F L A G o r S U P P L E M E N T A L J E T O p e r a tio n s
O U T S ID E th e U .S .:iia j4 S
1. F ly t o a n d la n d a t th e a i r p o r t to w h ic h it Is r e l e a s e d : S h e l l
2, A f t e r t h a t . T o fly fo r a p e rio d o f 1 0 % o f th e t o t a l t i m e r e q u ire d to fly f r o m th e a i r p o r t o f d e p a r t u r e t o .
a n d la n d a t, th e a i r p o r t to w h ic h it w a s r e l e a s e d .
A f t e r t h a t to fly to a n d la n d a l th e m o s t d is t a n t a lt e r n a t e n ir p o r l s p e c ifie d in th e flig h t re le a s e , if a n
a lte rn a te is re q u ire d : a n d
A l t e r t h a t to fly fo r 30 m in u t e s a t h o ld in g s p e e d a l 1 5 0 Q f o o t a b o v e th e a lt e r n a t e a irp o rt (o r
d e s tin a tio n a ir p o r t If n o a lte rn a te is r e q u ire d ) u n d e r s ta n d a rd te m p e r a tu r e c o n d itio n s .

F L A G o r S U P P L E M E N T A L O p e ra tio n w h e n
w
N O A L T E R N A T E Is S P E C IF IE D <JET>: [121.6454c)] TEXACO
* W h e n a n a lte r n a te is n o t s p e c ifie d u n d e r 1 2 1 .6 2 1 (a )(2 ) o r 1 2 1 .6 2 3 (b ), a j e t a ir c r a f t m u s t h a v e e n o u g h
fu e l, c o n s id e r in g w in d a n d o lh e r w e a th e r c o n d itio n s e x p e c te d , to f lv t o th e d e s t i n a t i o n a ir p o r t a n d
t h e r e a f t e r to f l y fo r a t le a s t 2 h o u r s a t n o rm a l c r u is in g fu e l c o n s u m p tio n ( 3 h o u r s fo r t u r b o p r o p !

A
-* O bsc-rv a t I on #*
It se e m s like the
m a jo rity o f airp la n e s
that crash due to fuel
starvation do s o w ithin
The O N L Y time tw o m iles o f the r u n w a y

you can have too

m uch fuel on
board is w hen “T A N G O "
A ir T a x i or o th e r c o m m e r c ia l o p e r a t o r s n o t h a v in g
the aircraft is on F A A a u th o r iz e d c a l l s ig n s s h o u ld p r e f ix th e ir n o rm a l
id e n t i f i c a t io n w ith th e p h o n e tic w o rd “ T a n p o .rr
F IR E ! EXAM PLE;
T a n g o A z te c T w o F o u r S ix F o u r A lp h a , (aim 4-2-4)

250 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PicfnsEtcn.il Pilot

 C h a p 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s

OHMIGOD
WE RE GONNA
DIE!!

Don't w orry about a thing Sonny.

Every now and then you run a
little short on gas.
I 'll b e t y a & b u c k s I c a n m a k e th e r u n w a y .

WAJ_C_H_T_m!

W it h a m p le r u n w a y a v a ila b le .. it's a V irtu a l c e r t a in t y an a ir p la n e wJIJ f l y a little O ve r grO&$.

H o w e v e r .. w i t h o u t e n o u g h g a s o n b o a r d , it a £ ill m o s t d e fin ite ly n o t r e a c h its d e s t i n a t i o n .
tti

S o m e d a y — th a t fo r e c a s t fo r a ta ilw in d w ill tu rn in to a h e a d w in d .
S o m e d a y — A .T C w ill a s s ig n a r id ic u lo u s ly lo w a ltitu d e T 5 0 m ile s fr o m y o u r d e s tin a tio n .
S o m e d a y — th a t fo r e c a s t fo r g r e a t w e a th e r a t y o u r d e s tin a tio n w ill tu rn s o u r w h e n y o u g e t
th e r e fo r c in g a d iv e rs io n to y o u r a lte rn a te w ith e v e n w o r s e w e a th e r.
S o m e d a y — d u rin g a la te n ig h t a p p ro a c h in m is e ra b le w e a th e r, th e p la n e in fr o n t o f y o u w ill
c ra s h a n d th e y 'll c lo s e th e a ir p o r t le a v in g y o u w ith fe w o p tio n s .
S o m e d a y — th e g e a r w ill fa il to lo c k d o w n o n a p p r o a c h ... w o u ld n ’t y o u lo v e to h a v e
a b u n d a n t tim e to tro u b le s h o o t p ro p e r ly ?
A ll of the a b o v e h a v e b e e n e x p e rie n c e d b y m e p e r s o n a lly d u rin g m y te n u r e a s a freight d o g .
I f you find yourself thinking about gas a t any tim e during a flight . yqu didn't buy
enough! A N D . . . if y o u 're e v e n s lig h tly worried about gas, y o u 'l l find yourself making
foo lis h ... p o s s ib ly e v e n stupid decisions. Don't put yotrrsetf in that position f

E VERYTNING E X P L A IN E D fo r the Professional Pilot 251

Chap 7 — C om m ercial Operations

DESTINATION & ALTERNATE

(91.1033. 121.101, 121.113. 121.613, 121.619. 121 ru 121. 35.A 135.21,3 LI Iru 135.221. 135 2 S 1 ^ ^ 3Sped i
AC 0CM5G, FAA Order 8EK)G.1)
Wo person mnu takeoff an a irc ra ft under IFR o r o v e r th e to p o p e ra tio n unless th e latest weather
reports O f? forecasts, o r a n y c o m b in a tio n o f th e m . Indicate th a t weather c o n d itio n s at th e E s tim a te d
l i m e o f A r riv a l a t th e n e x t a ir p o r t o f in te n d e d la n d in g Tor E T A a t th e a lte rn a te ] w ill be a t o r a b o v e
a u th o r iz e d IF R landing m lnlm um s [o r a t o r a b o v e r e q u ire d a lte rn a te m in im u rn s ], (135.219.121 ¿13)
E x c e p t to th e e x te n t p e rm itte d b y 1 3 5 .2 2 5 ( b ) [" E lig ib le O n - D e m a n d O p e ra tio n " — S e e # 9 * b e lo w ), N O
P IL O T M A Y B E G IN a n IN S T R U M E N T A P P R O A C H p r o c e d u r e to a n a irp o rt U N L E S S th a t a irp o rt h a s
a n a p p ro v e d W E A T H E R R E P O R T IN G fa c ility a n d th e la te s t w e a th e r re p o rt Is s u e d b y th a t w e a th e r
re p o r tin g f a c ilit y in d ic a te s th a t w e a th e r c o n d itio n s a re a t o r a b o v e th e a u th o r iz e d IF R la n d in g m in im u rn s
fo r th a t a irp o rt. fi3 S A ias.225)
3. No_p.iJot m a y o p e ra te !FR outside o f c.ootrolled_airsj>ace Oft a t an^a irp orl th a t does_not_have an
a p p ro v e d s ta n d a r d instrument approach procedure. ( 135.215)
4. " ... F o r o p o r e iio n s u n d e r V F R . the p ilo t in c o m m e n d m a y , r. u s e weather in fo r m a tio n based on th a t
pilot's o w n observations..." as long as “reported weather" is not s p e c ific a lly required fo r a
p a rtic u la r o p e r a tio n hit O p S p e c. Q p S p e c C Q 77 is s u e d fo r turbojet o p e r a tio n s requires a n a p p r o v e d
s o u rc e o f “reported weather." (135.213)
5. O p S p e c C 0 G 4 p ro h ib its IF R te rm in a l o p e ra tio n s In u n c o n tr o lle d a ir s p a c e (C la s s G ) w ith o u t a n a p p ro v e d
s o u rc e o f w e a th e r d a ta .
6. S o o o o o . .. th e a ir p o r t M U S T h a v e W E A T H E R R E P O R T IN G in o r d e r to c o n d u c t a n in s tru m e n t a p p r o a c h
o r o p e r a te u n d e r IF R in th e C la s s G o f th e te rm in a l a re a u n le s s y o u r c o m p a n y h a s s p e c ia l p r o c e d u re s
o r s p e c ia l p e rm is s io n to u s e s p e c ific a irp o rts th a t d o n o t h a v e w e a th e r re p o r tin g (k in d o f ra re ).
7. A P a rt 1 3 5 p ilo t c a n s till ¡¡s i to an a i r p o r t W ITH O U T w e a t h e r r e p o r t i n g in a non-turboiet a irc ra ft b y
filin g to an a ir p o r t th a t does h a v e w e a th e r re p o r tin g lo c a te d near th e d e s ire d a irp o rt, th e n te llin g th e
a p p ro a c h c o n tr o lle r “ w e h a v e a s lig h t c h a n g e o f p la n s a n d w o u ld lik e to p r o c e e d lo [d e s ire d a irp o rt] a t
M in im u m V e c to rin g A ltitu d e , it w e p ic k it u p v is u a lly w e w ill C A N C E L a n d la n d th e r e . If n o t, w e w ill la n d
aL [o r ig in a lly file d d e s tin a tio n ]." F o r turbojet o p e r a tio n s O p S p e c C 0 7 7 r e q u ir e s “ r e p o r t e d w e a t h e r ' 1 a t
(h e u ltim a te d e s tin a tio n fo r V F R o r IF R o p e ra tio n s .
8. A n o t h e r m e t h o d o f g e t t in g t o a n a i r p o r t W ITH O U T w e a t h e r r e p o r t in g is c o n ta in e d in F A A O rd e r
8 9 0 0 .1 — T h e N T S B h a s r u le d th a t a P a rt 1 3 5 o p e r a to r m a y f ile a f l i g h t p la n a n d f ly IF R to a “ R A D IO
F IX " [e .g . V O R o r N D B ( L G M ), o r V O R /D M E fix ] w h e r e V F R c o n d itio n s e x i s t (b a s e d o n th e A re a
F o re c a s t) , a n d t h e n c o n t i n u e u n d e r V F R to a d e s t in a t io n (w h e re w e a th e r re p o r ts a re n o t a v a ila b le )
w h e n an A r e a F o r e c a s t s h o w s p r e v a i li n g w e a t h e r to be V F R . T h is m e th o d w o u ld r e q u ir e an
a lt e r n a t e b e c a u s e a n IF R a p p ro a c h is e s s e n tia lly n o t a v a ila b le . In th e r e m a r k s s e c tio n o f th e flig h t
p la n it m ig h t b e a d v is a b le to i n s e r t a n o t e s t a t in g y o u r i n t e n t i o n s to la n d a t [d e s i r e d a i r p o r t ) I f V F R
c o n d itio n s e x i s t a t th e t im e o f a r r i v a l . O n c e a g a in . .. fo r turbojet o p e ra tio n s O p S p e c C_Q_77 r e q u ir e s
"R E P O R TE D w e a t h e r " a t th e u ltim a te d e s t in a t io n .
9 *"ELIG IB LE ON-DEM AND O PERATIO NS ' — W E A T H E R R E P O R T IN G & L A N D IN G L IM IT A T IO N S —
[S e e p a g e 2 6 5 fo r d e fin itio n o f “ E lig ib le O n - D e m a n d O p e r a t io n *' (1 3 5 .4 ))
N o p i l o t m a y b e g in a n I n s t r u m e n t a p p r o a c h to a n a ir p o r t u n le s s [ 1 3 5 .2 2 5 ( b )) —
a. E ith e r th a t a i r p o r t o r th e a lt e r n a t e a irp o rt h a s a p p ro v e d w e a t h e r r e p o r t i n g ; a n d
b. T h e la te s t w e a th e r in c lu d e s a c u rr e n t lo c a l a lt im e t e r s e t t in g fo r th e a r c u d . If n o lo c a l a lt i m e t e r
s e t t in g is a v a ila b le a l th e d e s tin a tio n a irp o rt, th e p ilo t m a y u s e th e c u rr e n t a lt im e t e r s e t t in g
p ro v id e d b y th e fa c ility d e s ig n a te d o n th e a p p r o a c h c h a r t .
c. F o r flig h t p la n n in g p u rp o s e s , I f th e d e s t i n a t i o n a ir p o r t d o e s N O T h a v e a p p ro v e d w e a t h e r
re p o rtin g , th e p ilo t m u s t d e s ig n a t e a s an a lt e r n a t e a n a ir p o r t t h a t D O E S h a v e a p p ro v e d w e a t h e r
_____________ re p o rtin g .___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
N O T E : A n y o f th e a b o v e m e th o d s o f g e ttin g to a n a ir p o r t w ith o u t w e a th e r re p o r tin g s h o u ld be a d d re s s e d in th e
c o m p a n y O p e r a tio n s M a n u a l a n d s u b s e q u e n tly a c c e p te d b y th e c o m p a n y ’s P rin c ip a l O p e r a tio n s In s p e c to r.

252 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

DESTINATION & ALTERNATE Airport WEATHER ( c o n i)
10. A p ilo t m u s t u s e A L L a v a ila b le r e p o r t s O f f f o r e c a s t s . o r a n y c o m b in a tio n . If o n e o r (b e o th e r is n o t
a v a ila b le , a n d Ih e o th e r a v a ila b le re p o rt o r fo r e c a s t Is fa v o r a b le , th e p ilo t c a n s till d e p a r t d u e to th e u s e
o f th e w o rd "O R " in th e ru le .
11. If th e d e s tin a tio n a irp o rt h a s a n A W P S . A S P S . A T I 5 n r M E T A R th a t d u e s n o t in c lu d e a f o r e c a s t (in
o th e r w o rd s n o T A P ) — th e n th e “ A R E A F O R E C A S T " (F A ) — w h ic h is ih e f o r e c a s t o f g e n e ra l w e a th e r
c o n d itio n s o v e r a n a re a th e s ir e o f s e v e ra l s ta le s is s u e d 3 Lim es a d a y m u s t b e u s e d .
T h e c ritic a l lim e p e rio d is th e E s tim a te d X 'm e o f fir r lv a l. E v e n th o u g h a T e rm in a l F o re c a s t (T A P ) m a y
h a v e m o re v a lu a b le in fo rm a tio n , th e re is n o le g a l re q u ir e m e n t th a t o n e b e a v a ila b le .
12. T h e W O R S T w e a t h e r r e p o r t e d in Ih e b o d y o r R E M A R K S in a n y o f Ih e re p o r ts o r fo r e c a s ts Is
C O N T R O L L IN G A n v " C H A N C E O F / ' “ O C C A S I O N A L .” “ IN T E R M I T T E N T .11 “ T E M P O 11 o r ""
“ P O S S IB IL IT Y O F ” w e a th e r fa llin g b e lo w la n d in g m in im u m s m e a n s y o u c a n n o t " ta k e o f f a n a irc ra ft
u n d e r IF R ." T h e r e m a rk s p o rtio n o f a fo r e c a s t is a s o p e r a tio n a lly s ig n ific a n t a s th e m a in b o d y o f th e
fo re c a s t, It Is Ih e F A A p o lic y lh a i th e w o r s t w e a th e r c o n d itio n In th e m a in b o d y o r re m a rk s p o d io n o f a
te rm in a l fo re c a s t, a s w e ll a s a n y w e a th e r r e p o r t u s e d , Is th e c o n tr o llin g fa c to r w h e n s e le c tin g a
d e s tin a tio n o r a lte r n a te a irp o rt.
13. A n o th e r F A A " p o lic y '1 is to a llo w an o p e r a to r to d e c a r t w h e n c u r r e n t re p o r te d w e a t h e r (fo r th e
d e s tin a tio n ) is b e lo w m i n lm u m s . b u t th e f o r e c a s t (T A F o r F A ) is t o im p r o v e to a t o r a b o v e m in im u m s
a t th e E T A . T h is m e th o d Is u s u a lly re s tric te d to lo n g -ra n g e o p e ra tio n s , L a u n c h in g o n th e b a s is o f an
Im p ro v in g fo r e c a s t fo r a s h o rt, le t's s a y 4 5 - m in u te flig h t m a y n o l be c o n s id e r e d p ru d e n t. I f a n In c id e n t
s h o u ld o c c u r, Ih e r e 's a lw a y s Ih e s p e c te r o f a 9 1 .1 3 c a r e le s s a n d re c k le s s v io la tio n . F A A p o lic y c a lls fo r
th o u g h tfu l d e c is io n m a k in g w h e n ig n o r in g a M E T A R In fa v o r o f a T A F .
14. SOO OO ... fo r a s h o r t h o p , th e c u r r e n t re p o r te d w e a t h e r Is m u c h m o r e a fa c to r. F o r lo n g - r a n g e
o p e r a t io n s , th e f o r e c a s t b e c o m e s m u c h m o r e I m p o r t a n t . E v e n th o u g h th e p ilo t m u s t c o n s id e r th e
" w o rs t o r a n y re p o r ts o r fo r e c a s ts , th e w e a th e r fo r e c a s te d a t th e E s tim a te d T im e o f ¿ n -iv s i ¡& fo e m o s t
s ig n ific a n t. A lw a y s a ju d g m e n t c a ll w h e n It c o m e s tim e to s p lit h a irs .
15. In a s itu a tio n w h e r e th e d e s tin a tio n a ir p o r t d o e s n o t s u p p ly a T e rm in a l F o re c a s t (T A F ), a n d th e A re a
F o r e c a s t ( F A ) s h o w s a " c h a n c e o f w e a th e r b e lo w m in im u m s — a p ilo t c o u ld f ile t o a n o t h e r a i r p o r t —
n e a r ih e d e s i r e d d e s t i n a t i o n — w ith a T e r m in a l F o r e c a s t 1TAF1 a b o v e m i n im u m s . th e n d i v e r t t o th e
d e s ir e d a i r p o r t if th e w e a t h e r a t th e a c tu a l tim e o f a rriv a l is s u i t a b l e . T h e p ilo t m u s t h a v e a m e th o d o f
n o tify in g th e c o m p a n y o f th e n e w d e s tin a tio n s o a s to s a tis fy P a rt 1 3 5 flig h t lo c a tin g re q u ire m e n ts .
16. 1 2 1 .6 1 9 s ta te s th a t a s e c o n d a lt e r n a t e m u s t be lis te d In th e d is p a tc h re le a s e if b o th Ih e d e s tin a tio n a n d
th e firs t a lte rn a te a irp o rts a re fo r e c a s tin g "M A R G I N A L ” w e a th e r . 'M a r g in a l' m e a n s — " c lo s e t o th e
lo w e r l im i t p f q u a l if ic a t i o n o r a c c e p t a b i l i t y .'' T h e re fo r e , w h e n w e a th e r a l Ih e d e & lin a tio n and Ih e fir s t
a lte rn a te a re c lo s e to th e lo w e r lim its o f a c c e p ta b ility , an a d d itio n a l a lte rn a te m u s t be d e s ig n a te d . T h e
d e f i n i t i o n o f “ m a r g in a l ” a n d th e c o n d itio n s u n d e r w h ic h a s e c o n d a lte r n a te a ir p o r t m u s t b o d e s ig n a te d
m u s t be c le a rly s t a t e d in th e P a rt 121 o p e r a t o r ’s G O M . (EAAOrder 8 9 0 0 1 ;

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 253

 C hap 7 — Co m m ercia l O perations

PART 135/121 — DO YOU NEED an ALTERNATE ??

— In O rder to NOT N EED an A L T E R N A T E —
T h e D E S T IN A T IO N W E A T H E R M U S T B E A T L E A S T :
[91.169. 135.223, 121.619, 121.621. 121.625. AIM 1-1-19fl.. AIM 1-2-3d 1_______________
1 3 5 .2 2 3 .& 1 2 1 .6 2 1 (P art 1 3 5 & FLAG O p e ra tio n s}

13 5 .2 2 3 You w ill A L W A Y S need an alternate u n le ss.»

(b) Paragraph fal(21 o f th is s e c tio n does not apply i f P a rt 97 o f th is c h a p te r p r e s c r ib e s a s ta n d a rd
in s tr u m e n t a p p ro a c h p ro c e d u re fo r th e fir s t a ir p o r t o f in te n d e d la n d in g a n d , fo r a t le a s t O N E HOUR
before and after th e E s tim a te d T im e o f A r riv a l, th e a p p r o p r ia te w e a t h e r r e p o r t s o r f o r e c a s t s , o r
a n y c o m b in a tio n o f th e m , indicate t h a t - ____________________
(1) T h e IcEfLfWcj will b e a t le a s t 1,500 feet ABOVE] th e ^.O W E S T C IR C L IN G ap proach
^ lO A or

Use the A G L h e ig h t in the p a re nt h as an. * * 1 2 4 0 -m 13 0 0 -2

| CIRCLING 1 2 4 0 -1 r t9 F ( 5 0 O U ,
492 |500-1 H ] 5 5 2 [600-21
' ______________ ___________________ _ _ t _____ a ! ____

(2 ) ^f| a It iteli ng in s tru m e n t approach is not authorized for th e airport, th e ceiling w ill be at
least 500 fe e t a b o ve the l o W E S T p u b lish e d m in im u m o r 12,000 fe e t A B O V E th e

A IR P O R T E L E V A T IO N . w hichever Is H IG H E R ; a n d
(3 ) V I S I B I L I T Y for that airport is forecast to be a t least T H R E E M ILES, or TW O M ILES MORE
T H A N the LOW EST] applicable visibility m in im u m », w hlcha var 1« the G R EA TER ), fo r Ihe
in s tru m e n t a p p ro a c h p r o c e d u ra lo b e u s e d a l th e d e s tin a tio n a irp o rt.

Y o u m u s t a ls o c h e c k th e N O T E S in th e u p p e r l e f t c o r n e r o f (he : , |( r 11■ ; .\k, u lN A

a p p ro a c h c h a rt to se e if Ih e re a re a n y p e r tin e n t n o te s . K w y Irlij 10000
1 IMJC.i APPCRS
E x a m p le — C ir c l in g N o t A u t h o r iz e d a t n ig h t. TDZE 707
1 1 1 .7 003°
A p i- Flfrv 7 4 tì

P ' Iju J 'ir M u f ip p iQ in li 3ulhori lid with mnway Ü #

1 2 1 . 6 1 9 (D O M E S T IC O p e r a t i o n s ) & 9 1 . 1 6 9 1 ’P . ' C i r d i A g M A f l r t i ^ r . *
{1} 1 hour BEFORE & 1 hour A F T E R E s tim a te d T im e o f | T A tr IV IW 5 M t f t ijlB f b

A r r iv a l:
(2) C E IL IN G ( r e q u ire d to NOT n e e d a n A L T E R N A T E } a t le a s t 2000 ft a b o v e a irp o rt e le v a tio n .
(3 } V IS IB IL IT Y (r e q u ire d to A fO T n e e d an A L T E R N A T E ) a t le a s t 3 miles.

1 2 1 .6 2 3 (SU PP LE M E N TA L O p e ra tio n s)
+ R E G A R D L E S S of the W EA TH ER — S U P P L E M E N T A L O p e r a tio n s must l i s t a t le a s t o n e d e s tin a tio n
a lte rn a te a ir p o r t in the flig h t re le a s e u n le s s the flig h t has e n o u g h fu e l, c o n s id e r in g w in d a n d tr a ffic
d e la y s , to f ly to th e d e s tin a tio n a ir p o r t a n d fly th e re a fte r fo r a t le a s t 2 h o u rs a t n o rm a l c r u is in g fu e l
c o n s u m p tio n . ..................................................................................................

*
FLA G arc SU PP LEM EN TAL jperations
must list .1 tlo slln a lio n alternata the
fight relea se urtloSS the fighi has
enough Idei, considering wind and Iratfic
delays, lo flv lo (ho destinaliort Liirport
and Fly thereafter Tor al least 2 hours at
narmel cruising Fuel conEumplian,
.......................................... ..
■ Fl A fl Operatr-orts raquii'n an a lte rn a te to be 1.
■ filed lor A J V V flig h t o v e r t h o u rs r a m aile r \ '
■ what Ihe waslher is forecasted to be.
’ w ............................................................ * W
] The w o rst w e a th e r condition in a n y o f the reports o r \
■ forecasts is controllin.g. Any “ CHANCE OF.'1 ■
! ■ ' o c c a s io n a l.'1 " In te r m itte n t. " te m p o ' 1o r ' p o s s ib ilit y 1' o f !
1 ■ weather fairing below these minimums means — I
, l You WILL need an ALTERNATE. This must also be |
i ■ con sid ere d w hen listing an a irport as an alte rn a te a irp o rt, i
■
*
A lte rn a te A irp o rt C o n s id e ra tio n s
GPS users, (wilhout WAAS) may Nigh! plan 1o u » GPS-faased uppmichaa nt
either their d a tlira lia r or alternate, but not al bo in lotalior*.
sens W jthO UI barg-YNAV may flight plan for the use o( LNAV
■■ ■ppnoachas (without vertical guidance) a1 the deslinallon. alternate, or both, ■
WAA$_ users equipped W ITH barc-VNAV rrray High! plan for LNAVA/NAV or
RNP 0.3 DA approaches (using vertical guidance^ al boLh Ihe destination 1
and the alternate, (aim 1-1-19.1-MSp.. i-i*3d.. OpSpst C055) J

254 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

 [c h a p 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s

A L TE R N A TE Airport IFR W EA TH ER MINIMUMS

T o U s e a n A irp o rt a s a n A L T E R N A T E : .¡a i.isa , 135.221 thru 135,225, 121,6 1 7 thru 121.525, o p s p e c c o s s j
1* It H U M h a v e W E A T H E R R E P O R T IN G H o .w _ e ls e w o u ld y .o u _ k n .o w _ w h a l t h e w e a t h e r i s ?
2. C h e c k A — “ A lt e r n a t e M in im u m s n o t s t a n d a r d " (front of m o s approach hock >o r . . . ’’ N A " N o t A u th o r is e d
a n d /o r th e “ E Q R J E U -IN G -A 5 _ A N _ A L.T E B fc L A L E 11 b o x { b a c k o f a ir p o r t d ia g ra m c h a rt— J e p p e s e n ).
3. T h e p r e c is io n a p p r o a c h — 6 0 0 ' & 2 m i l e s : o r n o n -p r e c is io n a p p r o a c h — 8 0 0 ' & 2 m ile s — 3 1 .1 6 9 ru le —
NO T APPLY

A
Poes t o P a r t s 121 o r 1 3 5 ,
m .m — A lternate A irp o rt
: A L T E R N A T E A IR P O R T — means an airport at which an aircraft may | W e n th e r M in im u m * — No pansori inrty
j land if a landing at Elio Imendt'd airport becomes Inadvisable. (1.1} HI an airport at in allarnaLs airport u rlm
t ie appropriate wealher reports or
fafacaala. or any comhnallon theraar,
• 1 35.221 — Alternate Airport Wenlhc-f lYHrrfmum-s HP person Ittiy dtiwQiMit indlcau lhal lha w uthar ewKlltlaM wn ba
; an alUarnate airport unless II n. w gjthgr- raped» or rirecasls. or any combinalion or thorn, ■Ior abtiye DM allerrute Weather
■ aidlcaie tti.ji rl^ wdalher cand Ham viill tta i t nr abr.i,« au|>iv>r»iigd j ( m m air part minimum* specified In Bw oertnioate
landing inJminumt f» Ih-il Mqpoit at lltt EulInMlL-d June of Arrival HdJw'a QiaadiLim* SiiLnflajtlpjuia tor lliai
i alroorl w hen Ilia Ilia lit at rl vea
T H IS W lw H A T A P P LlES Vo^PART~121/135: (Opspec coss)
A P P R O A C H E S A V A IL A B L E C E IL IN G V IS IB IL IT Y
For airports with at least ONE operational navj-a-aliana 1
A d d 1 S M lo the
f a c ilit y providing a s tr a ia h t-in mono roc Is ia n approach A d d 4 0 0 f t to M D A iH ) o r
C A T I landing
Dnoceduro. o r a straiaht-in. precision aDwoach procedure, D A {H ), a s a p p lic a b le
a r. when applicable, a c ir d in a maneuver from an IAP m in im u m .
For airports with at least TWO operational n a v ia a tio n a l A d d 2 0 0 f t to the h ig h e r A d d Vi S M to Ih e
fa c ilitie s , (muil hiavo 2 d iffe re n t identifier» - uvon if they miqlH
D A (H ) o r M D A { H ) o f th e tw o h ig h e s t C A T I
share the seme frepuencvl. each providing a SIrakillt-Ln
a p p ro a c h e s used. la n d in g m in im u m u f
noncreci&iori o r a slraiaht-in D rw c ls io n approach
procedure to d iffe r e n t suitable ru n w a y s . (The runwavs th e tw o a p p ro a c h e s .
4.......... ................... ....................... ............. ........... .......... ..... .......................VI
ca n bo d iffe r e n t e n d s of the s a m e s la b o f c o n c re te .) ! Ih iubnic biihtts it id pcisaibltì La Itìvè Niighèi1âltê/rtâtÊ irtlrtlrrturrtS whört üälng
NOTE; Extended Range Operations (aka ER-OPS or ETOPS — LUID irthiraboiiul JinvJ(m1iû[L ÌncJlJdes llisn ì i Iik i ii-ilnn □ « . Wtwn IMI ■
see OuSpec 130421 Teuuire (wo sese-ra-ie suitable runwav surfaces ! BXuallM fcMB-la. [ha aperalor may ele-ct In ccnaUJ&r ihe aLrp-arl (uvlng only
(e.q , 361 a id 36R1 (8300,1, Vol 3, Chep 18, Sec 51 I tin t atraaht-ln anoMach ftmindufa and min id d Ihe Mohär bull« ieuuramtml
144H1 ft und 1 SM:- la whl-clnvor ilriuii'il in .iriuiuiidi Diatodurc prevldsj Tur
! Ci- ioyuüI cessible edllrijj j ii U viilbility mlnirnumi ibSOC.I)
....................................................................................................... ■'

A
= Alternate Minimums not standard. Refer to tabulation. A A L T E R N A T E M INS
P a g e E1
A
A p p ro a c h C h a r t N o te s . U p p e r L e ft C o m e r o f A p p C h a rt. A S H E V IL L E . N C
as h ëviile , north c ar o lin a A SH VILLE REGION AL ILS R w y IS '
ILS Rwy 34'
LOG 1 IMO APP CRS Rwy Idg 8001 NOB Rwy IS*
rozE 2165 NOB Rwy » '
110.9 164* Api ri ¡tv 2165
NA when control tower cloEod.
C iriJih g noi o u ih o ftje d w o n t>F runw oy I6 -3 A , ’ ILS. Cdle gonw A.B.C, 800-2; Category D.
ighl circling nor ou lh orizcd. 800 2V. l o C . Category □. 800 Î ’/.
''Catogwlas A.B. 1300 Î ; C ftta flo h ** C D.
13 0 0 0
iCatepone* A ll. 1800-?: O lflg n riH n C.D.
N o tic e th a t 1000-3
A sheville's A lte rn a te M in im u m s are
N o t s t a n d a r d A lt e r n a t e M in im u m s a re fo u n d
- N O T s t a n d a r d (check fron! Of approach Ijopk). .
a t th e f r o n t o f th e A e ro N a v A p p r o a c h B o o k .

« N O TE; AirorsH operating under Pa,q_12_1_c_*nn;pj_rfapar? '• 'n airport not limed in Ihe Ops Specs unless the i.
! is at least &flflJL2. 9 flO A JLK 2 - of 100Q & 1. No pilot may lakeoff Irom an alta mate airport unless the J
p weather is at least equal to the min .inuma described r: QpSoec C0&5 For alternate airports. {121.6371 1
........................................................ • ■ t M I I M M i l l l i l l l l l i l l l l à l l I t l l M I t M M M M I I *
.......................................... ........................................................................................................ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ « ■ * ■ • ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ .............. ...
S E C O N D A L T E R N A T E — An additional (second) alternata airport must be haled (filed;- if the wealher for the destination and the
first altitmato airport oro forocaat (o ba "MARGINAL ' (121.619)
‘'M A R G IN A L '” — The FARs do not deline 'marginal." An accepted definition is — " close to the lower limit al qualification or
a-ccaptabilily" (i.e,, close to minimums). This usually means when (ha CEILING for lha lowest approach el Ihe destination gr
allemate is 100 feet or lass ABO VE PUBLISHED MINLMUitlS and/or (he VISIBILITY is forecast to be Vi milH or less A B O V E the
VISIBILITY MINIMUMS. Each certificate holder mutt provide a specific definition ol "MARGINAL W E A TH E R " Through Its own
OpSpncs and provide ■guidnnce in Ihsir Operations Manual.
........................................................................................... ... iiA W '
E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 255
C hap 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s
P E O P LE E X P R ES S E X E M P TIO N 3585 (H istory):
1. P e o p le E x p re s s A ir lin e s (P E A ) w a s a s m a ll s ta r t-u p a irlin e (h a t in 1 9 3 1 file d a p e titio n w ith (h e F A A to
g a in r e lie f fro m th e re s tr ic tio n s o f 121 --613,. 1 2 1 .6 1 9 (a ) a n d 1 2 1 .6 2 5 w h ic h e s s e n tia lly s ta le :
H o p e r s o n m a y d i s p a t c h o r re le a s e an a ir c r a ft fo r o p e r a tio n s u n d e r I F R . u n l e s s a p p ro p ria te
w e a t h e r r e p o r t s o r fo r e c a s ts , o r a n y c o m b in a tio n th e re o f, i n d ic a t e th a t th e w e a th e r c o n d itio n s w ill
be a t o r a b o v e th e a u th o r iz e d m in im u m s a t th e e s t im a t e d t im e o f a r r iv a l a t th e a ir p o r t o r a irp o rts
to w h ic h d is p a tc h e d o r re le a s e d .
2. If a n N W S fo r e c a s t s h o w e d w e a th e r b e lo w m in im u m s o r in c lu d e d C O N D I T I O N A L W O R D S in th e
R E M A R K S S E C T IO N s u c h a s " b e c o m i n g / 1 " t e m p o r a r i l y / 1 " o c c a s i o n a l / ' “ i n t e r m i t t e n t l y / ’ “ a
c h a n c e o f ” o r " b r i e f l y " — th e w e a th e r c o u ld p o s s ib ly fa ll b e lo w m in im u m s — th e flig h t c o u ld n o t be
la u n c h e d ( F A A le g a l o p in io n — F A A O r d e r 3 9 0 0 .1 ) .
3. P e o p le E x p r e s s c o u ld n o t a f f o r d Ih e ir O w n c e rtifie d w e a t h e r o b s e r v e r s a | e a c h d e s tin a tio n SO
th e r e fo re h a d t o r e ly o n th e N a tio n a l W e a th e r S e rv ic e u s in g fo r e c a s t I n f o r m a t io n a s m u c h a s 6 h o u r s
O ld
4. T h e m a jo r a ir lin e s h a d th e ir o w n w e a t h e r m e n to p ro v id e u p - t o - t h e - m in u t e o b s e r v a t io n s a n d
fo re c a s ts . O fte n th is w o u ld re s u lt in th e m a jo r a ir lin e b e in g le g a l t o d e p a r t u s in g th e u p -to -d a te
in fo rm a tio n , w h ile th e " p o o r P e o p le 's ” c o u l d n o t (I w o n d e r w h y th e m a jo r a ir lin e s w o u ld n o t s h a re th e
in fo r m a tio n w ith its c o m p e titio n ? ).
5. S o . . . P e o p le 's a rg u e d th a t th e N W S r e p o r t s w e re is s u e d t o o in f r e q u e n t ly a n d Ih e c o n d i t i o n a l
r e m a r k s t o o v a g u e a n d " e v a n e s c e n t' t o b e u s e d a s th e b a s is fo r d i s p a t c h in g f l i g h t s .
6. T h e F A A e v e n tu a lly H U B f f l j f l l ) S ta tin g ".. .th e F A A c o n c lu d e s th a t an e q u i v a l e n t le v e l o f s a f e t y w ill b e
p ro v id e d if th e p e titio n e r m e e ts th e c o n d i t i o n s a n d limitations s p e c ifie d in th is e x e m p tio n ."
7. E x e m p t io n 3 5 5 5 (o riq in a l.y is s u e d J u ly 2 7 ,1 9 8 2 } — ' P e o p le E x p r e s s A i r l i n e s . In c ., a n d a n y o t h e r
s im ila rly s itu a te d P a r t 121 c e r t if ic a t e h o l d e r th a t d e s ir e s to o p e r a te u n d e r te rm s o f th is e x e m p tio n , ]s
h e r e b y g r a n t e d a n e x e m p t io n f r o m S e c tio n s 1 2 1 .6 1 3 . 1 2 1 . 6 1 9 f a l. a n d 1 2 1 ,6 2 5 o f th e E A R , to th e
e x te n t n e c e s s a ry t o p e r m it it to d is p a t c h a n a irp la n e , u n d e r IF R , t o a d e s t in a t io n a ir p o r t w h e n th e
w e a t h e r fo r e c a s t fo r th a t a ir p o r t in d ic a t e s o y (h e u s e o f C O N D I T I O N A L W O R D S s u c h a s
" o c c a s io n a lly ," " in te rm itte n tly ," " b rie fly ," o r "a c h a n c e o f," in th e R E M A R K S S E C T IO N o f th a t re p o r t, th a t
(h e w e a th e r c o u ld b e b e lo w a u th o r iz e d w e a th e r m in im u m s a t th e tim e o f a rriv a l, s u b je c t to th e fo llo w in g
c o n d itio n s a n d lim ita t io n s : ., ," [s e e n e x t p a g e ].

U Si D e p a rtm e n t
Û! Timportaflofl
F c d o rc i A v i a t o r O p e r a t io n s S p e c if ic a t io n s
A d ir i r i s I raft e n

A 0 D 5 . E x e m p t io n s a n d D e v ia t io n s H Q C o n tro l 0 7 f1 9 /9 G
H Q R e v is io n 01b

T h e c e r tific a te h o ld e r is a u th o r iz e d to c o n d u c t o p e r a tio n s in a c c o r d a n c e w ith th e p ro v is io n s , c o n d itio n s , a n d /o r

lim ita tio n s s o t fo rth In th e fo llo w in g e x e m p tio n s a n d d e v ia tio n s is s u e d in a c c o r d a n c e w ith T ille 14 o f th e C o d e
o f F e d e ra l R e g u la tio n s (C F R ). T h e c e r tific a te h o ld e r is n o t a u th o r iz e d a n d s h a ll n o t c o n d u c t a n y o p e r a tio n s
u n d e r th e p ro v is io n s o f a n y o th e r e x e m p tio n s a n d /o r d e v ia tio n s is s u e d u n d e r T itle 14 o f th e C F R .

E x e m p t io n N u m b e r D a te o f E x p ir a t io n R e m a rk s a n d fo r R e fe re n c e s
3585 M 1 2 /2 5 /X X L e n g e l W o rld A ir lin e s is g ra n te d e x e m p tio n
fr o m F A R 1 2 1 .6 1 3 , 1 2 1 .6 1 9 (a ) a n d 1 2 1 .6 2 5
to d is p a tc h u n d e r IF R w ith c o n d itio n a l
la n g u a g e in Ih e fo r e c a s t w e a lh e r re m a rk s
th a t w e a th e r is b e lo w m in im u m s .

256 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot

 C h a p 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s
P E O P L E E X P R E S S E X E M P T IO N 3 5 8 5 : (Authorized EíBíTiplions. and/or Deviation* are listnd ¡n OpSpec A005)
1. E a c h c e rtific a te h o ld e r s h a ll apply for a n d obtain approval from th e F A A b e fo r e c o m m e n c in g
o p e ra tio n s In a c c o r d a n c e w ith th is e x e m p tio n ,
2. E a c h c e rtific a te h o ld e r s h a ll list ON E A D D ITIO N A L A L T E R N A T E a irp o rt In th e d is p a tc h re le a s e
whenever th e weather re p o r ts or fo r e c a s ts , or a n y c o m b in a tio n th e re o f, ton th e destination a ir p o r t a n d
first alternate a ir p o r t indícate, by th e u s e o f C O N D ITIO N A L W O R D S in th e R EM A R K S S E C T IO N ,
th a t th e forecast w e a th e r c o n d itio n s f m th e destination a n d first alternate a ir p o r t M IG HT B E a s lo w
a s O N E -H A L F th e visibility v a lu e e s ta b lis h e d for th e lowest visibility minim um o f th e instrument
approach p ro c e d u re e x p e c te d to b e u s e d fo r a n in s tr u m e n t a p p ro a c h at th e destination OR first
alternato. F o r th e a d d itio n a l a lte rn a te to be lis te d In th e d is p a tc h re le a s e , the weather re p o r ts o r
fo r e c a s ts for th is AD D ITIO N AL A L T E R N A T E shall N O Tc o n ta ln a n y C O N D ITIO N A L W O R D S .
In c lu d in g b u t n o t lim ite d to "occasionally. " “ Intermittently." "briefly." a n d “a chance of." ¡neither
th e main body or th e remarks s e c tio n o f s u c h re p o rts .
3. N o p e rs o n m a y ta k e o f f a n a irp la n e , under this exem ption, u n le s s it h a s e n o u g h F U E L —
a. T o fly to th e airport to w h ic h it is dispatched:
b. T h e re a fte r, to fly to a n d la n d a t th e m o s t d i s t a n t a lt e r n a t e a ir p o r t fo r th e a irp o rt to w h ic h
d is p a tc h e d , ta k in g in to a c c o u n t th e a n tic ip a te d a ir tr a ffic c o n tro l ro u tin g ; a n d
c. Thereafter, to fly fo r 45 minutes a t normal cruising fuel consum ption.
4. E a c h c e rtific a te h o ld e r 's Pilot In C om m a nd , w h ile en route shall ensure b y w a y o f a ir - g r o u n d voice
com m unication w ith th e ir c o m p a n y 's D is p a tc h C e n te r a n d o th e r a p p ro p ria te fa c ilitie s , th e h e /s h e is in
receipt o f th e most current re le v a n t weather re p o rts a n d fo re c a s ts fo r th e destination a n d th e
alternate a ir p o r t fs ) to b e u s e d w h e n m a k in g a decision lo p ro c e e d to a n a lte rn a te a ir p o r t fo r la n d in g .

E X E M P T IO N 3585 A L T E R N A T E R E S T R IC T IO N S
LOCATION CRITERIA TA F MAIN BODY TAF REMARKS
N o le s s th a n o f th e
AlJjninim um s required
DESTINATION V IS IB I L IT Y m in im u m s ceiling and visibility
fo r la n d in g o n th e s u ita b le
Requirements o n ly m in im u m s reauired fo r
ru n w a y
la n d in g
N o le s s th a n % o f th e
All m in im u m s r e a u ir e d to
FIRST Alternate C EILIN G and V IS IB I L IT Y ceiling and visibility
b e d e s ig n a te d a s a n
Requirements m in im u m s re q u ire d m in im u m s reauired fo r
a lte rn a te
la n d in g
All m inimums reauired to All minimums reauired
SECOND Alternate C EILIN G a n d V IS IB IL IT Y
b e d e s ig n a te d a s a n fo r la n d in g o n th e s u ita b le
Requirement« m in im u m s re q u ire d
a lte rn a te ru n w a y

5. M o s t airlicics h o w use EK em M ion35S5, h o w e v e r m o s t f ie r t if ic a le - iio ld in g D is tric t f i f f ic e s (th e F S D O

c h a rg e d w ith o v e r s e e in g th e a ir lin e s o p e r a tio n s ) n o rm a lly re q u ire a r e v ie w a n d renewal every 2 ye ars.

2 "d A lt e r n a t e R e q u ire d f o r 3 S c e n a r io s :
1. If th e destination visibility fu s in g conditional w ord s in th e remarks s e c tio n ) is
fo r e c a s t to possibly be a s lo w a s 1£2 the required visibility fo r th e a p p ro a c h , th e
a irc ra ft m a y Still be d iS p a lc h e d p r o v id e d y o u list ca 2nd alternate (N O TE : th e 2nd a lte rn a te
m u s t b e " g o ld e n " — th a t is — n o p o s s ib ility o f fa llin g b e lo w d e riv e d m in im u m s ) .
2. T a k e a look at th e 1 st alternate — th e c o ilin g A N D v is ib ility in th e m a in b o d y o f th e
fo r e c a s t m u s t m e e t " derived" m inim um s [d e r iv e d b y adding 40Q ft & 1 SM to th e
m in im u m s if th e re is one approach: o r 200 ft & Vi SM i f th e re a re two approaches
s e e OpSpec CQ5S) OR (if th e y d o n 't) (h e c e ilin g a n d v is ib ility in th e C O N D ITIO N A L
W O R D S o f th e R E M A R K S s e c tio n m a y b e a s lo w a s 1/2 th e required (d e r iv e d ) a lte rn a te
ceiling a n d v i s i b i l i t y p ro v id e d y o u l i s t a 2™' alternate (N O T E : th e 2 1''1a lte r n a te m u s t
a lw a y s b e " g o ld e n " — th a t is — n o p o s s ib ility o f fa llin g b e lo w d e riv e d m in im u m s ) .
3. Marginal weather (121 .6 1 9) — tf th e destination ceiling or visibility is fo r e c a s t to be at
(o r n e a r) m inimums a t th e E T A — and — if th e 1>L alternate is fo r e c a s t to be at (o r
n e a r) re q u ire d (d e r iv e d ) m inim um s — y o u need to (let a 2nd alternate.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 257

[chap 7 — C om m ercial Operations^

IFR TAKEOFF Mlnlmums-121/135 [91.175(1). 91,1039,121,017, 135.^17. Ü p £ ^ C057J

STANDARD Pari 121/135 takeoff minimums are defined in 91.175ff)

1, mO_ENOJNE$_or_le^ - _1_Slatuto_m jle o r B V JS A O M
2, M O R E T H A N T W O E N G IN E S — 1/2 S ta tu te m ile o r R V R 2 4 0 0
3, '0 - 0 " ta k e o ffs a re le g a l o n ly fo r " P a rt 9 1 ” o p e ra tio n s ,

are AUTHORIZED (v ia O p S p e c C 0 5 7 } to u s e Ih e
M o s t all P a rt 121 4 1 3 5 c o m p a n ie s

LOWER T H A N S TA N D A R D T A K E O F F M IN IM UM S lis le d b e lo w :
SINGLE PILOT — T a k e o ff m in im u m e q u a l to th e lo w e s t a u t h o r iz e d s t r a ig h t - i n C a t I IF R
l a n d in g m in im u m s to r th a t a irp o rt. If it's a la rg e a ir p o r t w ith a n JLS (a n d g o o d a p p r o a c h /r u n w a y c e n te r lin e
lig h ts ), th is n o rm a lly m e a n s an 1 3 0 0 f t R V R , o r w h a te v e r is s ta te d o n th e a p p ro a c h c h a rt a s th e lo w e s t
a u th o r iz e d s tr a ig h l- in C a l I V IS IB I L IT Y m i n im u m s . ( N O T E — A n o p e r a tio n th a t re q u ire s tw o p ilo ts m a y b e
is s u e d O p S p e c s th a t a llo w a 5 0 0 R V R ta k e o ff u n d e r c e r ta in c ir c u m s ta n c e s ,)

Y o u m u s t a ls o c h e c k in th e c h a rt n o te s fo r th e
Procedures arcLPublishflri V = T a k e - o f f M in im u m s n o t s t a n d a r d a n d / o r D e p a r tu r e

N T o f I he A e r o N a v
Aooroach book. 1 «nivali. NOfilH CAROUNA
IOC 1IMO AfT <«S IMI ftwr My Ö001
..............................fc V . 2l&j
nan 1W Api 1ii*v si sa
: Chart Notes £__
y
T Calling i^ t injikm iuJ won i4 iuiwo/ 16- J4.
** iMujhl irclinii mil iBiJlhtifafiid
1
___!_________________________
Page C2

^ TAK EO FF MINIMUMS AND (OBSTACLE) DEPARTURE PROCEDURES

ASHEVILLE, NC
A S H E V IL L E R E G IO N A L
T A K E - O F F M I N I M U M S : R w y 1 6 . s td . w ith a m in . c lim b o f
2 3 0 ' p e r N M to 5 0 0 0 . R w y 34, s td . w ilh a m i n . c l im b o f
ELEY 2165 f
2 5 0 'p e r N M to 6 1 0 0 .
DEPARTURE PROCEDURE R w y 16, c lim b v ia 1 6 4 .4 9 °
240Î .
h e a d in g to B R A N D B . C o n t in u e c lim b in h o ld in g p a tte r n
to c r o s s B R A N D B a t o r a b o v e 5 0 0 0 b e fo r e c lim b in g to
M E A o n c o u rs e . R w y 34, c lim b v ia 3 4 2 .7 7 s h c a d in g t o
K E A N S LO M C o n tin u e c lim b in h o ld in g p a tte r n to
c r o s s K E A N S L O M a t o r a b o v e 5 1 0 0 b e fo r e c lim b in g to
2340 M E A o n c o u rs e
N O T E : R w y 1 6 , m u ltip le t r e e s 2 . 5 7 N M n o r t h w e s t Of
d e p a r t u r e e n d o f ru n w a y , 2 9 5 3 'M S L . T r e e 2 0 7 f fr o m
d e pa rt u re e n d o f ru n w a y . 5 2 9 ' le ft o f c e n t e rii n e . 2 1 4 6 '
TtJZE M SL. R w y 34, m u lt ip le lr e e s 2 . 2 N M w e s t o f d e p a r t u r e
2140
:ud i 7 HM e n d o f r u n w a y , 3 1 3 7 ' M S L . M u ltip le t r e e s 1 .4 6 N M fr o m
h i» r * i d e p a r t u r e e n d o f r u n w a y , 3 1 5 6 ' lo ft o f c e n to ri ¡no, 2 6 2 0 1
1DZ/CL fiwy a* M S L . P la n t 1 .3 2 N M f r o m d e p a r t u r e e n d o f r u n w a y ,
MIRI It « y 16 34# 4 1 9 0 ' r ig h t o f c e n te r lin e , 4 0 7 ' A G L / 2 5 6 7 ' M S L . T r e e
5 4 3 " fr o m d e p a rlu re e n d o f ru n w a y , 6 14 1le ft o f c e n te r li n e ,
2 1 9 4 'M S L

258 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 Chap 7 — Commercial Operations
IFR TA K E O F F Minimum Continued!
[91.175(f), B1.1C-39. 121.617. t 2 t . 619. 121.625. 121.651. 135.217. 135.357. 135.379. 135.333. O pEpac CD57 3 C079;

TWO PILOTS F lia h t c r e w o f tw o 'r e q u ir e d " p ilo ts ( r e q u ir r iL f r y t h g _ r e flU ljjip r iA P r g_tryp_g

c e rtific a i io n o f Ih e a irc ra ft) — C h e c k V n o n -s ta n d a rd . THhMffs from Unlisted Airports: (1l1.i37)
No pilot may Lakeofl tin an plane 'mm an airport not
1 V i M ile o r R V R 1 6 0 0 — A T L E A S T O N E o f t h e fo llo w in g : listed in the QpSpecs unless the weather conditions
nro equal to or bettor than proscribed in Pnri 97
a. H ig h In te n s ity R u n w a y L ig h ts (H U R L).
Where minimums are not prescribed, the weather
b. C e n te rlin e L ig h ts (C L ). min ¡mums ol 9-30-2, 900-1VV, nr 1 .GOO-1 are required.
c. C e n te rlin e M a r k in g (R C L M ).
d. O R ... A d e q u a te v is u a l re fe re n c e to c o n tin u o u s ly id e n tify th e ta k e o f f s u rfa c e
2. T D Z R V R 1 2 0 0 a n d R o llo u t R V R 1 0 0 0 a n d t r u s t have B O T H o f th e fo llo w in g ;
a. C e n te rlin e L ig h ts (C L ).
; 01.1039(e) — No person
b. T w o R V R re p o r tin g s y s te m s , j may takeoff whan the
| visibifily is less than 600 ft.
3. TDZ R V R 600 M id R V R 6 0 0 , a n d R o llo u t R V R 6 0 0 , p ro v id e d
A L L o f th e fo llo w in g v is u a l e ld s a n d R V R e q u ip m e n t a re a v a ila b le ;
a. C e n te rlin e L ig h ts (C L ). 500 HVR li.ka jlU ana authorised
Iru Eryne operators,
b. C e n te rlin e M a r k in g s (R C L M ).
300 RVR is. possible wtten using
c. A t le a s t tw o o f th e th r e e R V R re p o r tin g s y s te m s m u s t be w o rk in g . a taksoFF guidance system.
NOTES:
1. M id R V R m a y b e s u b s titu te d fo r e ith e r T D Z R V R o r R o llo u t R V R if T D Z R V R o r R o llo u t R V R is n o t
a v a ila b le .
2. U s e o f a u to p ilo t In lie u o f a r e q u ire d 2 n d - in -c o m m a n d IS N O T a u th o riz e d .
3. E a c h p ilo t s ta tio n m u s t h a v e ;
a. A n A ttitu d e In d ic a to r , D G . V S I, A ir s p e e d a n d A ltim e te r.
b. A n in d e p e n d e n t s o u rc e o r p o w e r fo r A ttitu d e a n d D G .
4. E a c h P IC a n d S IC m u s t h a v e a t le a s t 100 h o u r» P lC (o r S IC ) in specific make & model a n d h a v e
c o m p le te d c o m p a n y training p ro g r a m f o r th e m in im u m s a u th o r iz e d .
5. F o r ta k e o ffs w h e n T D Z a n d ro llo u t R V R is le s s th a n R V R 1 0 0 0 , th e a ir c r a ft m u s l be a b le to a c h ie v e
p e rfo rm a n c e s p e c ifie d in F A R 1 3 5 .3 6 7 , 1 3 5 .3 7 9 , o r 1 3 5 .3 9 8 a s a p p r o p r ia te (Must have “ A C C E L E R A T E -
S T O F D IS T A N C E " — the d ista n ce required to a ccelerate to lifto ff speed and, a ssum ing failure o f a n en g ine a t the
instant that liftoff speed is attained, to bring the airplane to a full stop — andfor be able to climb to 35 ft before the
end o f the ru n w a y on one en g ine if it fa ils a t V i — aka " A C C E L E R A T E -G O D IS T A N C E "). [C079d,ie]]
6. I f y o u T A K E O F F w ith weather B E L O W landing m in im u m s — fo r all p r a c lic a l p u rp o s e s — y o u c a n n o t
re tu rn to la n d if y o u lo s e a n e n g in e a fte r ta k e o ff, T h e r e fo r e , y o u m u s t EILE (o r lis t in th e d is p a tc h o r
flig h t re le a s e ) a “ T A K E O F F A L T E R N A T E 1* (a k a “ D E P A R T U R E A L T E R N A T E D th a t is w ith in
O N E hour's flying time ; il normal c ru ise speed, in s t i l l air 1 3 5 .2 1 7 ; o r. a t normal cruise speed
with one engine Inoperative - 1 2 1 .6 1 7 ) o r .. . T W O hour’s ‘ ly riy lim e V dn a r e t a il w th
in s till dii
3 or more engines. (135.217,121.e i7 ) T h e “ T A K E O F F A L T E R N A T E " a ir p o r t m u s t h a v e weather a l o r
a b o y e J F R - la n d in ja m i n im urns ( I 2i . u a )
.............................. ..................................
If thti efepartura runway docs not have RVR vou are limited, to
J 9 1 .1 0 3 9 . 1 3 5 ,2 1 7 — N o person m a y takeoff *
Yt mils visibility For the lows it C i i I visibility atittlorlaodi tor that
runway;. OpSpas CP57 dugs pat alow takeoffs trpm runways ■ w h e re w e a th e r c o n d itio n s a re below IFR ■
which do not have RVR. bawd or Ihe RVR raewrf of -mother Z landing m inim um ? unless there is an !
runway. DoSoec CCF57 — “...RVft rsuofts. wFkeri available (of a ■ a lte rn a te a ir p o r t within 1 hour's riv in o tim e
particular runway, shall he used (nr all takaoFf operations on thaL
runway AH lakoofl oparaiions. bumd on RVR. HWltLmULRVR
i (at normal cruise speed, in slill air).
reports from this locations along ths runway specified...' .

* T h e f l i g h t p la n ( o r f l i g h t r e le a s e ) m u s t
specify a takeoff alternate if th e weather
a t th e ta k e o ff a ir p o r t is b e lo w l a n d in g
m in im u m s fo r th a t a iip o rt.
A n y la n d in g m in im u m s a l th e ta k e o ff
a ir p o r t th a t a re a u th o r iz e d fo r th e
c e rtific a te h o ld e r m a y b e c o n s id e r e d
in c lu d in g C a te g o r y II o r III IL S a p p ro a c h e s . ,
1 2 1 .6 1 7 — N o p e rs o n m a y t a k e o f f w h e re w e a th e r \
c o n d itio n s a re b e le w IF R l a n d in g m in im u m s u n le s s
th e r e is an a lt e r n a t e a ir p o r t w ilh in :
1 A ir c r a ft h a v in g T W O engines — N o t m o r e th a n
one hour at normal cruise speed in still air with
one engine inoperative.
2. A ir c r a ft h a v in g IH R EE_a r more engines - N o t
m o re th a n two hours a t normal cruise s p e e d in
Still air with one engine inoperative.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 259

[c h a p 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s ]

APPR O ACH W EA TH ER R E Q U IR E D
(Cargo or passengers on board) | [EH.175. 121.561 (b), 135.4, 135.225, DpSpecs A014, CQ53, 0 0 5 4 , CQ64, CCT4, CQ77|
1. E x c e p t to th e e x te n t p e rm itte d b y 1 3 5 .2 2 5 ( b ) [" E lig ib le O n - D e m a n d O p e ra tio n " (1 3 5 4 ) a n d s e e p a g e
2 3 6 o f th is c h a p te r ], a n a irp o rt M U S T h a v e W E A T H E R R E P O R T IN G fr o m a n “ a p p r o v e d s o u r c e ' 1 in
o rd e r to c o n d u c t an in s tr u m e n t a p p ro a c h a n d th e c u rr e n t c o i l i n g , v i s i b i l i t y , a n d a lt im e t e r s o t t in g m u s i
b e a v a ila b le .
2. Y o u C A N N O T B E G IN t h e A P P R O A C H u n le s s Ih e w e a t h e r is a t o r a b o v e a p p r o a c h m in i m u m s
V IS IB I L IT Y is C O N T R O L L IN G C e ilin g m u s t be " c o n s id e r e d ” fo r P a rt 1 3 5 o p e r a tio n s b e c a u s e 1 3 5 .2 2 5
re fe rs to " w e a th e r c o n d itio n s " n o t ju s t v is ib ility ( F A A le g a l o p in io n ). C e ilin g m u s t b e " c o n s id e r e d " b u t it
d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r ily p r e v e n j ^ ^ 5 D i l o t f r o m s h o o l a n a p p ro a c h . P a rt 121 w o u ld n o t h a v e to
c o n s id e r c e ilin g u n le s s " M 1 1 a I Ia is n o te d o n th e a p p ro a c h c h a rt [1 2 1 .5 5 1 (b )].
3. [ f y o u h a v e b s a u n th e a p p r o a c h a n d la t e r w e a t h e r g o e s k e J k tw J tn M y o u c a n c o n t i n u e th e
a p p ro a c h a n d la n d if y o u fin d — u p o n re a c h in g M D A o r D H — th a t (h e actual w e a th e r c o n d itio n s — i.e .
F L IG H T V IS IB I L IT Y (w h a t YO U s e e ), is a t le a s t e q u a l to la n d in g m in im u m s . In o lh e r w o rd s , o n c e y o u
h a v e s ta r te d th e a p p ro a c h y o u a re s till b e h o ld e n lo 9 1 .1 7 5 ( T a k e o ff a n d L a n d in g U n d e r IF R ) a n d 9 1 .1 3
(C a re le s s o r R e c k le s s O p e r a tio n s ). T h e m o re c o n s e rv a tiv e m e th o d is lo d is c o n tin u e th e a p p r o a c h if
w e a th e r g o e s b e lo w m in im u m s .. . 'c a u s e . . . if y o u c ra s h y o u 'r e d e fin ite ly s c re w e d !
4. L o w e s t a u t h o r iz e d s tr a ig h t-in C a t e g o r y I la n d in g m in im u m s — fo r A N Y a ir p o r t — a re 1 BOO R V R
(T D Z ) or % m ile lo w e r v is ib ility .
5. Tow er visibility v a lu e s below 14 mile a re N O T authorized. T h a t m e a n s i f th e R V R e g u ip m e n l is
broke o r non-existent, y o u c a n n o t la n d if th e tower visibility g o e s below Ya mile.
6. M id R V R m a y be s u b s titu te d fo r T D Z R V R i f T D Z R V R is n o t a v a ila b le .
7. R V R v a lu e (if a v a ila b le ) T A K E S P R E C E D E N C E O V E R T O W E R V I S I B I L I T Y .

D ES C EN T BELOW DH or M DA B J J a td h 135.225, 121.651(c). 121 651(d). OpSpec C07J]

1. Y o u m u s t h a v e th e "la n d in g e n v iro n m e n t" in s ig h t [r u n w a y o r lig h ts , e tc ., 9 1 . 1 7 5 t c t[.
2 . F lig h t v is ib ility — w h a t YO U s e e — m u s t be a t le a s t e q u a l to la n d in g m in im u m s ,
3 T h e a irc ra ft m u s t b e in a p o s itio n lo m a k e a n o rm a l a p p ro a c h a n d la n d in g .
4. Y o u m a y n o t d e s c e n d b e lo w 100 fe e t a b o v e T D Z — u n le s s ih e re d te r m in a tin g o r s id e ro w b a rs a re
v is ib le . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ..................... .........................._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

t Even th o u g h flight visib ility is controlling, the reported w eather could be used i n ^ |
an e n fo rce m e n t a-clion w hen it is d o u b tfu l that the flig h t visib ility re p o rte d by the
p ilo t could have existed. T h is w o u ld be extrem ely difficult (b u t not im possible)
fo r the F A A to 'p ro v e ." F lig h t visib ility can v a ry g re a tly fro m ground visibility.
FAA Legal Interpretation (March 1C, 193&>:
"...E n fo rc e m e n t a ction w o u ld be taken o n ty in th o se ca se s in w hich the pilot
could not re asonably con clu de flight visibility w as a t or a b o ve approach
m inim um s, but the pitot n e ve rth e le ss p ro ceeded to Land.,."

Editorial C o m m e n t — D o n 't d o o r say a n yth in ' stupid.

APPRO ACH W EA TH ER N O T R E Q U IR E D FO R ■ P A R T 91
(No cargo or passengers — Part 91 repositioning or ferry flight of a Part 135 aircraft)
C u rre n t w e a th e r: " C e ilin g o b s c u r e d - R V R T6QQ1' ( M in im u m s fo r a p p r o a c h — R V R 2 4 0 0 )
1. Y o u s h o o t lh e a p p r o a c h — f o r a “ lo o k - s e e 51 175 doss net require Lhe use al " rgpp-rtad visibility”
2 . Al D H Ih e n e e d le s a re c e n te r e d . lor Purl 61 operations. Ths pilot« 1ha only person
who can dEtermine whal the "fliahlt-Visibility17is.'was.
3. Y o u s e e th e a p p ro a c h lig h ts a n d th e r u n w a y
4. Y o u b e lie v e th e FLIG H T VISIBILITY — w hat YOU s e e — is a t le a s t % m ile .
5. Y o u 'r e in a p o s itio n lo m a k e a n o r m a l la n d in g (N O TE : Tha pilot may not dascand below 100 leal above Ihe touchdown
zone elevation using Ihe approach JighlE as reference unless Ihe red fermineling beiE or red sidu row bars are also disliqclly
visible end Identifiable).
6. Y o u la n d . F L IG H T V IS IB IL IT Y r l . 1 t — T h e a v e ra g e
fo rw a rd h o riz o n ta l d is ta n c e , fro m th o
c o c k p it in f l i g h t, a t w h ic h p ro m in e n t
IF A N Y O NE C A R ES T O A SK : u n lig h te d o b je c ts m a y be s e e n a n d
1. A t D H I h a d th e la n d in g e n v ir o n m e n t in s ig h t. Id e n tifie d b y d a y a n d p ro m in e n t lig h te d
2. I h a d a l le a s t V i m ile v is ib ility . □ b |e c ts m a y be s e e n and id e n tifie d b y night.
3. I w a s in a p o s itio n lo m a k e a n o rm a l a p p ro a c h a n d la n d in g .........................................................................................

260 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for tho Professional Pilot

 C h a p 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s
LA N D IN G U N D ER IFR: (5 1 .1 7 5 . 1 2 1 4 5 1 .135.525; ^ An Enhanced ^
1 O P E R A TIO N B ELO W DH or M P A — No p i l o t m a y o p e ra te an a ircraft £lighl Vision
System fEFVSl
a l a n y airport fatlflfl ih e a u th o r iz e d M P A or continue a n a p p ro a c h th e may tut used on
a u th o r iz e d D H u n l e s s : stiaiaMun
a, T h e a irc ra ft is continuously in a position from w hich a descent »0 a
approaches funlyl
to descend talan
landing o n th e in te n d e d runway can be made a t a normal rate of descent MPA cr DH. but
u s in g norm al m an b uvers. and For o p e r a tio n s c o n d u c te d u n d e r Part 121 or not below 1ÛÜ
Part 135 u n le s s th a t d e s c e n t ra te w il l allow T O U C H D O W N to o c c u r feel abov-e Ihe
W ITHIN th e T O U C H D O W N Z O N E o f th e runway o f in te n d e d la n d in g ; T P Z E unless

b T h e fliahtjyisjbilqy (or E n h a n c e d f l i g h t l a b i l i t y ) is not.less than th e

tsíatí elbhe
VIS IBILITY in
visibility prescribed in Ih e in s tr u m e n t a p p ro a c h b e in g u s e d ; a n d s u ffis io n l (d

E x c e p t fo r a C a te g o r y II o r C a te g o r y III a p p r o a c h , a t le a s t & N E j)i th e ancrcadi whhcxi»

f o l l o w i n g v is u a l re fe re n c e s fo r Lhe in te n d e d r u n w a y is d i s t i n c t l y v i s ib l e i usa or it™ efvs
a n d id e n tifia b le to (h e p ilo t:
* T h e A p p r o a c h L i g h t S y s t e m e x c e p t (h a t th e p ilo t m a y n o t d e s c e n d b e lo w 1 0Q f e e t
a b o v e th e t o u c h d o w n z o n e e le v a t io n u s in g th e a p p ro a c h lig h ts a s a re fe re n c e u n le s s th e
r e d t e r m in a t i n o b a r s o r th e re d s id e r a w b a r s a re a ls o d is tin c tly v i s ib l e a n d id e n tifia b le
* T h e threshold
FLIGHT VISIBILITY r t.lr — The
* T h r e s h o l d m a r k in g s :
average forward horizontal distance,
* T h r e s h o l d lig h t s ; from the cockpit in flig h t, at which
* R u n w a y E n d Id e n tifie r L ig h ts (R E IL );
prominent imlighted obfecls may be
* V is u a l A p p r o a c h S lo p e In d ic a to r (V A S I f: seen and identified by day and
* T o u c h d o w n Z o n e o r T o u c h d o w n Z o n e m a r k in g s . prominent lighted objects may be
* Io u ch flo w n Zo ne Lights; seen and identified by night.
* R u n w a y o r r u n w a y m a r k in g s : o r
* R u n w a y lig h t s .

2. LA N D IN G — N o p i lo t o p e ra tin g a n a irc ra ft m a y la n d th a t a ir c r a ft w h e n th e F L IG H T V IS IB IL IT Y {o r
E n h a n c e d F lig h t V is ib ility ) is le s s t h a n th e v i s i b i l i t y p r e s c r ib e d in th e in s tr u m e n t a p p ro a c h p ro c e d u re .

3. M ISSED A P P R O A C H — E ach pilot o p e r a tin g an a irc ra ft shall im m e d ia te ly execute an

a p p ro p ria te missed approach p ro c e d u re when either of th e following cortdltlqQS exist
a . W h e n e v e r (h e r e q u ir e m e n t s of p a r a g r a p h #1 a r e n o t m e t a t e ith e r o f th e fo llo w in g tim e s :
* W h e n th e a ir c r a ft is b e in g operated below M P A ; o r
* U p o n a r r iv a l a t th e m is s e d a p p r o a c h p o in t a n d a t a n y t im e a f t e r t h a t u n t i l t o u c h d o w n
b. W h e n e v e r an i d e n t i f i a b l e part of th e alfbort is not d is tin c tly v i s ib l e to Lhe p ilo t during a circling
maneuver at or above M D A . u n le s s Ih e in a b ility to s e e an id e n tifia b le p a rt o f th e a irp o rt re s u lts
o n ly fr o m a n o rm a l b a n k o f th e a irc ra ft d u rin g th e c irc lin g a p p ro a c h .

C o m p a ra b le V a lu e s o f R V R a n d G R O U N D V IS IB IL IT Y ;
I f R V R m in im u m s For ta k e o ff o r la n d in g a re p r e s c r ib e d in an in s tr u m e n t a p p ro a c h p r o c e d u r e . b u t th e R V R
i s n o t r e p o r t e d fo r lh e r u n w a y o f in te n d e d o p e r a tio n , th e R V R m in im u m s h a ll b e c o n v e r t e d t o a r o u n d
v i s i b i l i t y in a c c o r d a n c e w ith th e ta b le b e lo w a n d s h a ll b e th e v i s i b i l i t y m i n im u m For ta k e o ff o r la n d in g o n
th a t ru n w a y .

RVR Visibility R V R — R u n w a y V i s u a l jl a n g e : (a i m 7 - 1 - 1 5 )
fleet) (statute miles! There are currently two configurations of RVR—
1.6DD 1/4 a. TASKERS The existing system RVR values are measured by projector &
receiver ' ' tr a n s m la s a rn o tc rft" mounted on 1 4 -fo o t to w flra 250 fo o t a p a rt
2,400 1/2 along the runway. A known intensity of light is emitted from the projector and
3,200 5/6 measLirod by the receiver, Any obscuring matter such as rain, snow, or teg
reduces the light intensity arriving at the receiver. Readouts to a minimum of
4,000 3/4 600 It — in 2QO-ft increments to 3,000 It — SOO-ft increments from 3,000 to a
4,500 7/6 maximum of 6.000 ft. These values arc updated once every minute.
b. NEW GENERATION - Currently replacing the old taskers — Still mounted on
5,000 1 14-fool lowers but use 'forward scatter" technology. Can measure down to
6,000 1- 1/4 150 ft RVR in 100-ft increments below 600 ft — 200-ft increments between B00
ft i 3,000 ft ■ 500-fl increments between 3,000 ft to a maximum of 6,500 ft.
..................
EVERYTHING EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 261
C h a p 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s

in d ic a te s P ilo t C o n t r o lle d Lighting (P C L )

262 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fgttio n a l Pilot

 C h a p 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s
H IG H M IN IM U M S C A P T A I N : [91,1039(0,I2i.es2(a), 135 ,2 2 5 (b>. OpSpbccom]
1. P a r t 121 — M e w c a p ta in s w ith le s s t h a n 1 0 0 h o u r s a s P il o t In C o m m a n d in o p e ra tio n s u n d e r P a r t
1 £ 1 2 f in th e t y p e f l j a i r p l a n e b e in g o p e ra te d a re re s tric te d to h ig h e r w e a t h e r l a n d in g m i n i m u m *
2. P a r t 135 K e w c d g -ta n s w ith le s s t h a n 1 0 0 h o u r s us P ilo t In C o m m a n d u i a TU RB IN E-PO W ERED
a irc ra ft o p e r a te d u n d e r P a r t 1 3 5 a re r e s tr ic te d to h i g h e r w e a t h e r la n d in g m i n im u m s
3. Subpart K of Part 9 1 — N e w c a p ta in s w ith less than 100 hours as Pilot In Com m and o f a TURBINE-
PO W ER ED a ir c r a f t a re re s tric te d to higher weather Jandiim m inim um s
4. T h e s e ' H IG H M IN IM U M S C A P T A I N S " m u s t a d d 100 f e e t to th e M in im u m D e s c e n t A lt it u d e (M B A ) o r
th e D e c is io n A lt it u d e ¡ D A ; AN D a d d % m ile (o r R V R e q u iv a le n t) to th e la n d in g v i s i b i l i t y m in im u in s .
E x a m p le s ;
a I L 5 a p p ro a c h — D A i'H ) 3 0 2 f t ¡2001 R V R 1 8 0 0 o r % s m
A h ig h m in im u rn s c a p ta in w o u ld be r e q u ire d Id raise th e B A to 4Q 2 ft a n d Ih e visibility w d u ld
h a v e to be a t le a s t R V R 4500 (fro m th e O p S p e c ta b le b e lo w ) o r 1 statute mile (if R V R is n o t
re p o r te d ) to b e le g a l f o r th e a p p ro a c h (+ 1 0 0 f t + > i s m ).
b N O N P R E C IS IO N a p p ro a c h — M D A fH ) 7 0 2 ft ¡5 0 0 ) RVR 4QPD o r V* sm
A h ig h m in im u m s c a p ta in w o u ld be r e q u ire d to raise th e M P A to 80_2_ft a n d th e visibility w o u ld
h a v e to be at le a s t R V R 6000 o r VU statute mile to b e le g a l fo r th e a p p ro a c h (+ 1 0 0 ft + % s m ).
6. N O T E 1; A lth o u g h adding 1Q0 & % is applicable fo r a ll airports ( d e s tin a tio n & a lte rn a te ), It does N O T
have to be raised above th e conditions required to designate th e airport a s a n alternate a irp o rt.
7. N O T E 2 : S121.652 perm its th e 100-hour flig h t e x p e rie n c e re q u ir e m e n t lo b e reduced by u p to 50% by
substituting one landing fo r one re q u ire d hour o f flight experience, p ro v id e d Ih e P IC h a s a t le a s t
1 0 0 h o u rs P IC tim e in a n o th e r ty p e a ir p la n e in P a rt 121 o p e r a tio n s . 6 1 35.225 does N O T permit a
reduction to th e 1_p0-hour flig h t e x p e rie n c e r e q u ire m e n t.

Pilot In Com m and of a P art 121 Aircraft or a

Part 135 turbine-powered aircraft with l « M ttiMl
RVR V is ib ilit y
100 hours of PIC time in that aircraft «h a ll u s e
(M I (statute mllos]
the High Minimum pilot R V R landing m inim um
1,600 1/4
equivalents a s determ ined from this table
(OpSpec C054) 2,400 1/2
RVR Landing RVR Landing Minimum. 3,200 516
M inim um s Equivalant Re qui re d far
4,000 3/4
A s Published High M inim um Pilots
4,500 7/6
RVR 1800 RVR 4500
RVR 2000 RVR 4500 5,000 1
RVR 2400 RVR 5000 6,000 1*1/4
RVR 3000 RVR 5000
RVR 4000 RVR 6000
RVR 5000 RVR 6000

S P E C IA L E X E M P T IO N 5 5 4 9 : <Aulhoriz#d ExempLrans-andi'or Devialion £ are listed in OpSpec A0C5;-

S p e c ia l E x e m p tio n 5 5 4 9 p ro v id e s r e lie f fro m 5 1 2 1 .6 5 2 a llo w in g P a r t 121 H IG H M IN IM U M S C A P T A IN S to
F L Y t o P U B L IS H E D L A N D IN G M IN IM U M S i f th e a ir c a r r ie r h a s r e c e iv e d a u t h o r iz a t io n fo r th e e x e m p tio n ,
fro m th e F A A . C e rta in c o n d itio n s , e q u ip m e n t a n d w e a th e r c o n d itio n s a re re q u ire d , s u c h a s:
1- A n A U T O P I L O T ,’F lig h t D ire c to r w ith A P P R O A C H C O U P L E R (o r B e a d - U p - flis p la y ) u s e d a ll t h e
w a y t o D e c is io n A l t i t u d e ;
2. L a n d in g fro m a Category IIL S a p p ro a c h below 4,000 RVR o r % mile v is ib ility , w ill not be
conducted w h e n th e C R 0 5 5 W JN D c o m p o n e n t e x c e e d s 15 knots a n d (o r) th e B R A K IN G A C T IO N
is re p o rte d to b e less than go o d :
3. A ll Category II a p p ro a c h e s a n d la n d in g s will be conducted using th e auto-land a p p ro a c h c o u p le r
(A L A C ) s y s te m w henever m inim um s a re re p o rte d below 1.800 R V R ;
4. E a c h o p e r a to r u s in g th is e x e m p tio n m u s t e s ta b lis h a “ C R E W P A I R I N G 11 p o lic y ¡ 6 1 2 1 .4 3 8 ) (h a t
re q u ire s a s a m in im u m fo r th e t y p e a ir p la n e b e in g u s e d th a t e it h e r th e P IC o r S IC h a s a l le a s l
7S h o u r s o f lin e o p e ra tin g flig h t lim e as e ith e r th e P |C o r S IC In th e a p p r o p r ia t e s e a t .
5. N O T E : T h e e x a c l w o rd in g o f th is e x e m p iio n w ill v a ry d e p e n d in g o n th e ty p e o f o p e ra tio n a n d w h ic h
C e rtific a te - H o ld in g D is tric t O ffic e is h a n d lin g th e e x e m p tio n (I.e ., w h ic h F A A y o u h a p p e n to b e
ta lk in g to th a t d a y ).

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 263

Chap 7 — C om m ercial Operations

A R R IV A L at Airports with NO WEATHER REPORTING!1

[135.213. 135.213. 135.235, 135.215, 135.225. Opt Manual. FAA Ordtir 0900.1)
E x c e p t to th e e x te n t p e rm itte d by 1 35.225(b) [ Eligible O n -D e m a n d O peration" (135.4) see page 2B6 o f this ch a p te rl,
a P a rt 1 3 5 a ir c r a ft— w ith f r e i g h t o r p a s s e n g e r s o n b o a r d —o a n n o t o p e ra te u n d e r IFR in th e C la s s G
( u n c o n ir o lle d ) a irs p a c e b e lo w 700 or 1,200 f t UN LES S : fo r th e p u rp o s e o f la n d in g o r d e p a r tin g an a i r p o r t th a t
h a s a p p r o v e d w e a k e r reporting (A S Q S / A W Q S - 3 o r F S 5 )(1 H .2 1 B ). Y ou C A N o p e r a t e VFR in th is
u n c o n tro lle d a irs p a c e a n d n o V F R flig h t p la n Is n e c e s s a ry a s lo n g a s 135.70 c a n b e m e t th ro u g h th e “ f l i g h t
l o c a t in g p r o c e d u r e s " p u b lis h e d In y o u r c o m p a n y 's G e n e r a l O p e r a t io n s M a n u a l _________________________
N O T E . If v'uli are o perating u n d e r P a r t 121 ur a T U R B O J E T u n d e r P a r t 1 3 5 . V F R arrivals/departures may oe
further r e s t r i c t e d b y O p S p e c C 0 7 7 w hich requires “ reported’’ visibility and ceiling.
C h e c k th e p r o c e d u re s s e c tio n y o u r G e n e ra l O p e r a tio n s M a n u a l fo r s p e c ific g u id a n c e .
V F R /IF R a r r iv a l/d e p a r tu r e p r o c e d u ie s _ s h o u |d be s c rip te d p r e c is e ly in th e p ro c e d u re s s e c tio n o f y o u ^ G O M .

L e t's s a y y o u w a n t t o la n d a t P o n tia c . M ic h ig a n to d e liv e r a b o x , w h ile th e t o w e r is c lo s e d a n d th e a irs p a c e

h a s re v e r te d lo C la s s G ( u n c o n tr o lle d ) d u e to la e fr o f w e a t h e r r e p o r t i n g :
1, Y o u c o u ld f ile t o D e t r o i t M e t r o A i r p o r t (w h ic h h a p p e n s to b e c lo s e b y a n d h a s a fa v o r a b le fo r e c a s t) .
2 W h e n v¿o0u1 ^s1t a r t t a l k i n g t o D e t r o i t a p p ro a c h th is w o u ld b e th e a p p ro p ria te R A D IO C A L L :
_ D o u g la s 1 2 3 A h a s a " s l i g h t c h a n g e o f p la n s "
123A go ahead
H 3 5 1 2 3 A w o u l d lik e “ M IN IM U M V E C T O R IN G A L T I T U D E " o v e r P o n t ia c
______I f w e p i c k i t u p v i s u a ll y w e ’ ll la n d th e r e , i f n o t, w e ’ l) la n d a t D e t r o it
* TM T U n d e rs ta n d S ir— 1 2 3 A Is n o w c le a re d d ire c t to P o n tia c — d e s c e n d a n d m a in ta in 3 0 0 0
* Direct Pontiac— down to 3000— 123A
3. R e m e m b e r , y o u a re N O T c h a n g in g y o u r o rig in a l d e s tin a tio n (D e tr o it) u n le s s y o u p ic k u p P o n iia c v is u a lly
— CA N C EL — a n d th e n la n d a t P o n tia c .
4. I n s t r u m e n t a p p r o a c h e s lo P o n t ia c a re NOT a llo w e d (w ith fr e ig h t o n b o a rd ) w h e n th e re is n o w e a th e r
re p o r tin g T h is IN C L U D E S V IS U A L A P P R O A C H E S !! Y o u m u s t CANCEL v o u r IF R flig h t P lan
B E F O R E d e s c e n d in g b e lo w M in im u m V e c to rin g A ltitu d e a n d In to C la s s G (u n c o n tro lle d ) a irs p a c e .
5, A s a n a lte rn a tiv e , y o u c o u ld file IF R to a “ R A D IO F IX " n e a r th e d e s tin a tio n , w h e r e th e a r e a f o r e c a s t
s h o w s th e p r e v a ilin g w e a t h e r to b e V F R — C A N C E L — th e n c o n t i n u e V F R t o th e d e s t i n a t i o n . T h is
p la n r c q u ir c s _ a n A L T E R N A T E A IR P Q R T to be lis te d o n y o u r flig h t p la n b e c a u s e Ih e p u b lis h e d
a p p ro a c h a t th e d e s tin a tio n Is e ffe c tiv e ly n o t a v a ila b le lo y o u . M a k e a n o te In th e re m a rk s s e c tio n th a t
y o u in te n d to la n d a t [d e s ire d a irp o rt] if c o n d itio n s a re s u ita b le .

L IM IT A T IO N S o n th e U s e o f L A N D IN G M IN IM U M S f o r T U R B O J E T A ir p la n e s :
(OpSpet C054b.)
(1 ) A PI lo t-In -C o m m a n d o f a tu r b o je t a irp la n e s h a ll n o t c o n d u c t a n In s tru m e n t a p p ro a c h p ro c e d u re w h e n
v is ib ility c o n d itio n s a re re p o r te d to b e le s s th a n V* s m o r R V R 4 ODD u n til t h a t p ilo t h a s b e e n s p e c ific a lly
q u a lifie d lo u s e th e lo w e r la n d in g m in im u rn s.
(2 ) A P IC o f a t u r b o j e t a irp la n e s h a ll n o t b e g in an in s tr u m e n t a p p r o a c h p ro c e d u re w h e n th e v i s i b i l i t y
c o n d itio n s a re re p o rte d to be le s s t h a n V< s m o r R V R 4 0 0 0 . u n le s s th e fo llo w in g c o n d itio n s e x is t:
(a ) 1 5 y T additional runway le n g th is available over th e L a n d in g F ie ld L e n g th specified for th e
destination a ir p o r t b y th e a p p ro p ria te S e c tio n s o f th e C o d e o f F e d e ra l R e g u la tio n s .
(b ) Precision in s lr u m e n l (a ll w e a th e r ) runway markings or ru n w a y centerline lights a re
o p e r a tio n a l o n th a t ru n w a y .

264 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PicfnsEtcn.il Pilaf

 C hap 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s

A irports w ith
(135.205. 135.213. 135.215. 155.219. 135.225. OpSpecs. General Operations Manual)
W E A T H E R R E P O R T IN G
D E P A R T P o n lia c . M ic h ig a n — with passengers o r freight onboard— w h ile th e tower is
L e i's s a y y o u w a n t to
closed — a n d th e a irs p a c e h a s re v e rte d to Class G d u e to lack o f weather reporting (a n d a s s u m in g y o u a re
r
NOT o p e ra tin g a tu r b o je t w h ic h m a y b e fu r th e r re s tric te d b y O p S p e c C Q 7 7 ):
1. Y o u w o u ld 1 f ile yOUr IF R flig h t p la n .
2 . If— in y o u r e s tim a tio n — th e w e a t h e r Is IF R — Y o u c a n n o t le g a lly d e p a r t I F R (a n IF R d e p a r tu r e w o u ld
in c lu d e a V O ID T IM E ) — b e c a u s e P a r t 1 3 5 a ir c r a ft a re n o t a llo w e d to o p e r a t e IFR in C la s s G
(u n c o n tr o lle d ) a irs p a c e u n le s s th e a irp o rt h a s a p p ro v e d w e a th e r re p o r tin g (A S O S / A W O S - 3 o r F S S }.
3. If— In y o u r e s tim a tio n — th e w e a t h e r is V F R (fo llo w in g th e g u id a n c e in y o u r G G M ):
a. In s tru m e n t d e p a rtu re s w ith a V O ID T im e a re n o t a llo w e d w h e n w e a th e r Is n o t a v a ila b le
( b e c a u s e y o u c a n n o t o p e ra te IF R in th e C la s s G a irs p a c e ); S o . . .
b. D e p a r t V F R (N O T E . N o r m a lly y o u c a n n o t d o th is in a T U R B O J E T w ith o u t " re p o rte d " w e a th e r) ;
c. P ic k u p y o u r IF R c le a r a n c e a f t e r d e p a r t u r e — a n d b e fo re e n te r in g IM G c o n d itio n s (k e e p th e
ru n w a y in S ig h tN ). R A D IO C A L L :
D e t r o it A p p r o a c h — D o u g la s 1 2 3 A
’ 123A go ahead
1 2 3 A Is " O F F TH F GRO UN D" f r o m P o n t i a c — IF R t o J F K
1 2 3 A c a n y o u m a in ta in y o u r o w n te r r a in /o b s tr u c tie n c le a ra n c e th r o u g h 3 0 0 0 fe e t?
fflff N o p r o b le m s i r
T f f l l 1 2 3 A is c le a re d to J F K a s file d — c lim b a n d m a in ta in N ln e r th o u s a n d — s q u a w k 6 4 5 3
ffffl A s f i l e d — N ln e r t h o u s a n d — 6 4 5 3 — 1 2 3 A
N O TE : If you are operating under Part 121 or a T U R B O J E T under Part 135. V FR deparlures/arrivals may be
further restricted by OpSpec C077 which requires "reported visibility and ceiling.”
C h e c k th e p ro c e d u re s s e c tio n o f y o u r G e n e ra l O p e r a tio n s M a n u a l.
V F R /I F R d e p a r tu r e te r r iv a l p r o c e d u r e s s h o u ld be s c rip te d p r e c is e ly In Ih e p r o c e d u r e s s e c tio n o f y o u r C O M .

W E A T H E R R E P O R TIN G & 135.213 l

(OpSpecs AQ14, C054. C0B4, C077, 3900.1, GOM)
T h e F A A c o n s id e r s c o m m e r c ia l pilots (e tc .) competent to p ro v id e
weather In fo rm a tio n fo r P a rt 135
VFR o p e r a t io n s f o n f i r t . H o w e v e r, in o r d e r to u s e th is c o n c e s s io n ,
th e o p e r a to r s GOM must specify
th e circum stances u n d e r w h ic h P IC s may use th e p r o v is io n o f § 135.2131a)" " If o b s e rv e r s o th e r th a n
P IC s a re u s e d ; o p e r a t o r s m u s t s p e c ify th e tr a in in g a n d q u a lific a tio n s o f th e s e o b s e r v e r s ." T u r b o je t
o p e r a tio n s h o w e v e r re q u ire a p p ro v e d " re p o rte d " w e a lh e r fo r V F R ( o r IF R ) o p e ra tio n s .
2. T o c o n d u c t IFR operations, p ilo ts must use weather o b s e r v a tio n s (fro m o ffic ia l s o u r c e s ) taken a t th e
a k p f i r j w h e r e th o s e o p e r a t io n s a re g p n d u o t ^ j -
3. T h e re fo r e , terminal operations c o n d u c te d u n d e r
¡FR (i.e ., in s tr u m e n t a p p r o a c h e s o r IF R d e p a rtu re s
without (o ffic ia l) weather reporting a re N O T permitted.
w ith a v o id lim e ) fr o m a irp o rts
R e m in d e r — A visual approach is an [FR o p e ra tio n .

W E A T H E R R E P O R T S a n d F O R E C A S T S — 1 3 5 .2 1 3 :
(a) Whenever a p e rs o n o p e r a tin g an a irc ra ft u n d e r th is part is required to use a weather report or
forecast, th a t p e rs o n shall use th a t o f th e U .5 . N a tio n a l W e a th e r S e rv ic e , a s o u rc e a p p ro v e d b y th e
U S . N a tio n a l W e a th e r S e rv ic e , o r a source approved by Ih e Adm inistrator. H o w e v e r, fo r operations
under V F R . th e Pilot In Com m and m a y. If s u c h a report is not available, use weather Information
based o n th a t pilot’s own observations Q£ on th o s e o f other persons competent to s u p p ly
a p p ro p ria te o b s e rv a tio n s .
(b) F o r th e p u rp o s e s o f p a ra g r a p h (a ) o f th is s e c tio n , weather observations m a d e a n d furnished to pilots
to c o n d u c t IFR operations a t an a ir p o r t must be taken a t th e airport where th o s e IFR operations are
conducted. UNLESS th e Administrator Issues operations specifications a llo w in g th e use of
weather o b s e rv a tio n s ta k e n al a location not at Ihe airport where Ihe IF_Rj^_cJiili_on_s._^rc
conducted. T h e A d m in is t r a to r is s u e s s u c h o p e r a tio n s s p e c ific a tio n s w h e n , a fte r in v e s tig a tio n b y th e
U ,S . N a tio n a l W e a th e r S e rv ic e a n d th e c e r tific a te - h o ld in g d is tric t o ffic e , it is found that th e s ta n d a r d s o f
safety fo r th a t o p e ra tio n would allow th e deviation fr o m th is p a ra g r a p h for a particular operation fo r
w h ic h a n a ir c a r r ie r o p e ra tin g c e r tific a te o r o p e ra tin g c e r tific a te h a s b e e n is s u e d .

EVERYTHtNG E X P L A IN E D for the- Professional Pilot 265

C h a p 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s

FLIGHT TIME & DUTY!

§ 1 3 5 .2 6 3 F lig h t T im e L im it a t io n s a n d R e s t R e q u ir e m e n ts : DAYS INN
ALL C e r t if ic a t e H o ld e r s : ¡1 3 5 .2 ^ 1
(a ) A c e rtific a te h o ld e r m a y a s s o r t a flig h t c r e w m e m b e r a n d a flig h t C re w m e m b e r m a y a c c e p t a n a s s ig n m e n t fo r
flig h t tim e o n ly w h e n th e a p p lic a b le r e q u ir e m e n ts o f §§ 1 3 5 .2 6 3 th ro u g h 1 3 5 .2 7 1 a re m e t.
fb ) N o c e r tific a te h o ld e r m a y a s s ig n a n y n ig h i c r e w m e m b e r to a n y d u ty w ith th e c e r tific a te h o ld e r d u rin g a n y
r e q u ire d re s t p e rio d .
fC) Tim e s p e n t in t r a n s p o r ta t io n, n o t lo c a l in c h a r a c t e r th a t a certificate holder R EQ UIR ES o f a
flig h t c r e w m e m b e r a n d PROVIDES to tr a n s p o r t th e c r e w m e m b e r to a n a irp o rt a t w h ic h h e is lo s e rv e o n a
flig h t a s a c r e w m e m b e r , o r fr o m a n a ir p o r t a t w h ic h he w a s re lie v e d fr o m d u ly lo re tu rn to h is h o m e s ta tio n ,
is not considered part of a rest period.
not considered lo b e a s s ig n e d
fd ) A flig h t c r e w m e m b e r i$ flig h t tim e in excess of f l i g h t time limitations if th e
flig h ts to w h ic h h e is a s s ig n e d normally t e r m in a t e w it h in t h e l i m i t a t i o n s , b u t d u e to CIRCUM STANCES
BEYO N D th e CO N TR O L o f th e c e rtific a te h o ld e r o r flig h t c r e w m e m b e r { s u c h a s A D V E R S E W E A T H E R
c o n d itio n s ) , a re n o t a t th e tim e o f d e p a r tu r e e x p e c t e d to re a c h th e ir d e s tin a tio n w i t h i n th e p la n n e d f l i g h t
t im e

§ 1 3 5 .2 6 5 F lig h t T im e L im it a t io n s a n d R e s t R e q u ir e m e n ts :
SCHEDULED o p e r a t io n s :
fa ) N o c e r t if ic a t e h o l d e r m a y s c h e d u le a n y p ilo t, a n d n o p i lo t m a y a c c e p t a n a s s ig n m e n t, fo r f l i g h t t im e in
SC H ED ULED operations — Off — in Qlher Q o m m e rc ia l F ly in g if th a t p ilo t's T O T A L flight time in ALL
c o m m e r c ia l flying w ill exceed:
{1) 1,200 hours In a n y c a le n d a r year ( J a n u a r y 1 to D e c e m b e r 31 d e fin e s " c a le n d a r y e a r").
( 2 ) 1 2 0 hours in a n y c a le n d a r m onth.
{ 3 ) 3 4 h o u r s in a n y 7 c o n s e c u t iv e d a v s
{4) 8 hours during any 24 consecutive hours for a flight crew consisting of one pilot.
{5) 8 hours between required rest Periods for a flight crew consisting of two pilots
(b) Except as provided in p a ra g r a p h (c) o f th is section, no certificate holder may schedule a p ilo t, and no
p ilo t m a y a c c e p t a n a s s ig n m e n t, fo r flig h t tim e d u r in g th e 24 consecutive hours preceding the
scheduled completion of anv flight s e g m e n t without a s c h e d u le d rest period during that 24 hours of
a t le a s t th e fo llo w in g :
{1) § consecutive hours of rest for less than 8 hours of scheduled flight tim e.
( 2 ) 1 0 c o n s e c u tiv e hours o f rest for 8 or more but less than 9 hours of s c h e d u le d flight time.
{3) 11 consecutive hours of cesi for 9 or more hours of scheduled flight time
(c) R E D U C E D R E S T — A certificate holder may schedule a pilot fo r less than the rest required in
p a ra g r a p h ( b ) o r m a y re d u c e a s c h e d u le d re s t u n d e r the following conditions:
{1} A rest r e q u ire d u n d e r p a r a g r a p h (b)(1) may be s c h e d u le d fo r o r reduced to a m in im u m o f
8 hours if the pilot is given a rest period of at least 10 hours that must begin no later than 24
hours after the commencement of the reduced rest period.
(2 ) A rest r e q u ire d u n d e r p a ra g r aph (b)(2) may be s c h e d u le d for or reduced to a m in im u m of
3 hours if the pilot Is given a rest period of at least 11 hours that must begin no later than 24
hours after (he commencement o f the reduced rest period.
{3) A rest required under paragraph (b)(3) may be scheduled for or reduced to, a minimum of
9 hours if the pilot is given a rest period of at least 12 hours thal must beoin no later than 24
hours after the commencement of (he reduced rest period.
(d ) E a c h c e r tific a te h o ld e r s h a ll re lie v e e a c h p ilo t e n g a g e d In s c h e d u le d a ir tr a n s p o rta tio n fr o m all fu r th e r d u ty
fo r a t le a s t 2 4 c o n s e c u tiv e h o u r s d u rin g a n y 7 c o n s e c u t i v e d a y s .

266 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 .C hap 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e r a tio n s
§ 1 3 5 .2 6 7 F lig h t T im e L im it a t io n s A n d R e s t R e q u ir e m e n ts :
UNSCHEDULED O n e a n d T w o P ilo t C re w s .
(a ) N O C E R T IF IC A T E H O L D E R M A Y A S S IG N an / flig h t c re w m e m b e r , a n d
N O F L IG H T C R E W M E M B E R W A Y A C C E P T an a s s ig n m e n t, fo r flig h t tim e a s a
m e m b e r o f a o n e o r tw o p ilo t c re w if t h a t c r e w m e m b e r 's to ta l flig h t tim e in all
c o m m e rc ia l fly in g w ill e x c e e d —
( 1 ) 5 0 0 h o u r s in a n y c a le n d a r q u a r t e r .
[2) S00 hours in any tw o c o n s e c u tiv e calendar Q u a rte rs .
( 3 } 1 A O O h o u r s in a n y c a le n d a r y e a r .
(b ) E x c e p t a s p ro v id e d In p a r a g r a p h i d o f th is s e c tio n , d u r i n g a n y 2 4
c o n s e c u t i v e h o u r s th e to ta l f l i g h t tim e o f th e a s s ig n e d flig h t w h e n
a d d e d to a n y o th e r c o m m e rc ia l fly in g b y t h a t flig h t c r e w m e m b e r
may n o t exceed—
{ 1 } a h o u r s f o r a flig h t c r e w c o n s is tin g o f o n e p i l o t , o r
(2 ) 1 0 h o u r s f o r a flig h t c r e w c o n s is tin g o f t w o p i lo t s q u a lifie d u n d e r
th is P a rt fo r th e o p e ra tio n b e in g c o n d u c te d .
(c ) A flig h t c r e w m e m b e r ’s Flight tim e m a y e x c e e d th e f l i g h t t im e l im i t s o f p a ra g r a p h
{ b ) o f th is S e c tio n IF th e a s s ig n e d f l i g h t t im e o c c u r s d u rin g a R E G U L A R L Y A S S IG N E D d u t y p e r io d o f n o
m o r e th a n 14 h o u r s a n d —
{ 1 } If th is d u ty p e rio d is im m e d ia te ly p r e c e d e d b y a n d f o l l o w e d b y a re q u ire d r e s t p e r io d o f a t le a s t 10
c o n s e c u t iv e h o u r s o f re s t:
( 2 ) I f flig h t tim e is a s s ig n e d d u rin g th is p e rio d , fh a t to ta l flig h t tim e w h e n a d d e d to a n y o th e r c o m m e rc ia l
fly in g b y th e flig h t c r e w m e m b e r m a y n o t e x c e e d — A
(i) a h o u rs fo r a flig h t c re w c o n s is tin g o f o n e p ilo t: o r
(ii) 10 h o u rs f o r a flig h t c r e w c o n s is tin g o f tw o p ilo ts ; a n d
( 3 ) I f th e c o m b in e d d u ty a n d re s t p e rio d s e q u a l 2 4 h o u rs .
(d ) E a c h a s s ig n m e n t u n d e r p a ra g r a p h (b ) o f th is s e c tio n m u s t p ro v id e fo r a t le a s t 1 0 c o n s e c u t i v e h o u r s o f
r e s t d u rin g th e 2 4 h o u r p e r io d th a t p r e c e d e s th e p la n n e d c o m p le t io n t im e o f t h e a s s i g n m e n t .
(e ) W h e n a flig h t c r e w m e m b e r h a s e x c e e d e d th e d a ily flig h t lim e lim ita tio n s in th is s e c tio n , b e c a u s e o f
c i r c u m s t a n c e s b e y o n d t h e c o n t r o l o f th e c e rtific a te h o ld e r o r flig h t c r e w m e m b e r {s u c h a s a d v e r s e
y v e a tfiE t c o n d itio n s }, th a t flig h t c r e w m e m b e r m u s t h a v e a re s t p e rio d b e fo re b e in g a s s ig n e d o r a c c e p tin g a n
a s s ig n m e n t fo r flig h t tim e o f a t le a s t ■
i l l 11 c o n s e c u t i v e h o u r s o f rest if th e flig h t tim e lim ita tio n is exceeded b v r o t m o r e t h a n 30 m i n u t e s :
{2 ) 1 2 c o n s e c u t i v e h o u r s a f r e e t If th e flig h t tim e lim ita tio n is exceeded b y m o r e t h a n 30 m i n u t e s , b u t
n o t m o re th a n 6 0 m in u te s : a n d
{ 3 } 1 6 c o n s e c u t i v e h o u r s o f r e s t If th e flig h t tim e lim ita tio n is e x c e e d e d b y m o r e t h a n 6 0 m i n u t e s .
(fl T h e c e r tific a te h o ld e r m u s t p ro v id e e a c h flig h t c re w m e m b e r a t le a s t 13 re s t p e r i o d s o f a l le a s t 24
a a d v p e a c h c a l e n d a r Q u a r te r. / / \

■ ' ’C a le n d a r y e a r " is th e p e rio d fro m ' ’C a le n d a r q u a r t e r " is d e fin e d a s

\ th e firs t m o m e n t o f J a n u a ry 1s1 u n til fo u r p e rio d s o f 3 m o n th s e a c h , b e g in n in g
I th e Ia s i m o m e n l o f D e c e m b e r 3 1 , l . J a n u a ry 1” , A p r il 1a,; J u ly 1 * \ a n d O c to b e r 1“\
V x . “.* ■ ■ ■ * M W M M W X W X *

A L L Pilots - LO C A L or N O T L O C A L T r a nsportation {1 3 5 .2 6 3 )
T ra n s p o rta tio n ‘ N O T L O C A L IN C H A R A C T E R "' a k a " D E A D H E A D t r a n s p o r t a t i o n 1’ w h e re a s th e
\
c e rtific a te holder “REQUIRES a n d PROVIDES” tr a n s p o rta tio n for the p ilo t to or fr o m a ‘'N O N -L O C A L ”
lo c a tio n w h e re th e c r e w m e m b e r s h a ll b e g in d u ty s e rv ic e , is n o t c o n s i d e r e d p a r t o f a r e s t p e r i o d .
“LO C A L t r a n s p o r t a t io n ” is tr a v e l to a n d fro m o n e ’s r e s id e n c e to o n e ’s p la c e o f b u s i n e s s , o r fr o m a
h o te l o r m o te l to a n a irp o rt. T h e u m e a p ilo t s p e n d s in tr a v e lin g b e tw e e n h is re s id e n c e a n d an a irp o rt
o u t o f w h ic h h e is to o p e ra te , o r fro m th a t a ir p o r t to h is re s id e n c e , is tim e s p e n t in " lo c a l tr a n s p o rta tio n "
a n d IS C O U N T E D a s p a r t o f a R E S T P E R IO D
E X A M P L E : If y o u liv e 2 h o u rs fr o m th e a irp o rt, th a t’s y c u r c h o ic e , it is still c o n s id e r e d " L O C A L
t r a n s p o r t a t io n ’' a n d is s till c o n s id e r e d p a r t o f y o u r r e s t p e rio d . If Ih e e m p lo y e r h a s y o u o h th e ro a d
a n d h a s lo tr a n s p o r t y o u tw o h o u rs a w a y to th e n e a r e s t h o te l, th e n th a t is c o n s id e r e d " N O T L O C A L IN
C H A R A C T E R ” a n d th e tim e s p e n t in tr a n s p o rta tio n c a n n o t b e c o n s id e r e d p a rt o f th e r e s t p e rio d .

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 267

Chap 7 — C om m ercial O ra tio n s

i-i'M H i.M
F e d e ra l A v ia tio n D e c is io n s
In general, flight time and duty regulations are the m ost com plicated set of legal
gibberish the F A A has ever created. U sin g case law and F A A letters of
interpretation, the next tw o pages attem pt to explain the m ost difficult of all —

Part 135 U N S C H E D U L E D Operations.

FLIGHT TIME Limitations and REST for U N S C H E D U L E D Operations
1 3 5 .2 6 7 :
1. T o ta l flig h t tim e in all c o m m e r c ia l fly in g m u & i n o t e x c e e d :
a . 5 0 0 h o u r s in e a c h c a le n d a r q u a r t e r (3 m o n th s )(e .g ., J a n u a r y 1 to M a rc h 3 1 ).
b. SOQ h o u r s in a n y t w o c o n s e c u t iv e c a le n d a r q u a r t e r s (6 m o o |h s )(e .g ., A p ril 1 to O c to b e r 3 1 }.
c. 1 .4 0 0 h o u r s in a n y c a le n d a r y e a r { J a n u a r y 1 to D e c e m b e r 31 d e fin e s " c a le n d a r y e a r 1*!.
D u rin g a n y 2 4 c o n s e c u t i v e h o u r s th e p ilo t m u s t h a v e a t le a s t 10 c o n s e c u t iv e h o u r s o f r e s t
(+ 30 minutes for prafligm and i s minutes tor post Uigm) — a n d th e to ta l flig h t lim e o f th e a s s ig n e d flig h t w h e n
a d d e d to a n y o th e r c o m m e rc ia l fly in g b y (h a t flig h t c r e w m e m b e r m a y n o t e x c e e d .
a. 8 h o u r s f o r a r e q u ire d flig h t c re w o f o n e p i l o t : o r
b. 1 0 h o u r s f o r a r e q u ire d flig h t c re w o f t w o p i l o t s .
I f a p ilo t s t a r t s h is 14 h o u r d u t y d a y [2 4 h o u r s m in u s 10 h o u rs re s t) b y fly in g a s in g le p i lo t a ir c r a ft—
a n d la te r in th e s a m e d u ty d a y ftre s a tw o p ilo t a ir c r a ft— h e is r e s t r i c t e d b y th e s i n g le p i lo t 8 - h o u r
l im i t a t io n o f 1 3 5 .2 6 7 (C )(2 ){I). (FAA tetpf kite rpretalion 1979-&Î)
W 4) /
T h e c e rtific a te h o ld e r {C o m p a n y ) m u s t p ro v id e {a s s ig nn in a d v a n c e ) e a c h p ilo t a t le a s t 1 3 r e s t p e r io d s o f
a t le a s t 2 4 c o n s e c u t iv e h o u r s e a c h in e a c h c a le n d airr aq u aa rrtteerr {3 m o n th !s ) 1 3 5 -2 6 7 {f).

FE R R Y F L IG H T S — P a r t 1 3 5 o r P a rt 1 2 1 :
1. Part 91 firry fiiabts (no cargo or passengers on board) for (ha ha purpose
pur posa of
o f repositionhg
renosi tienine the aircraft TO PICK UP
cargo or pas sen tiers D O count as pan of the duty period and Part 135 (or Pa rt 121) flig h t time lim ita tio n s .
2. Part 91 firry fligh t!; for (he purpose of repositioning an aircraft back to homo has» (em pty) after completion of
a Part 135 (cargo.'pax o r board) High" may be conducted w ith o u t regard to the- Part 135 (or Part 1211 flig h t or
duty time lim its because they are conducted under Part 91 (no canqo/pax on board) and only at the discretion of
the crew . (FAA lutjaLniorprxtetioii Owes mb« 7.1900) M V
3. The certificate holder (Company) cannot assign this flight.
4. Thu Part 91 leg homo (empty) is not taunted against tho current doty period's OAH-Y flig h t lim e lin iila lio n s
although such flights Wilt | g counted against the pilot’s SUBSEQUENT DAILY flig h t tlm o lim its (see the " 24-
hour consecutjvc hour lim ita tio n 1' on rext page) anc also the quarterly, a rd yearly flight t me limitations.
5. [135.267(d)) Each assignment [under 135.267(b) hot reguterly assigned) must provide tor at least 10 consecutive
hours of rest [+ 30 minutes for prefhghl & 15 minutes for post flight) during the 24-hour period that precedes the
planned com pletion time of tha assignment.
ir your total flig h t lim a (Parts 135 + 91) exceeds the 8/10 hour Part 135 rules you must have a rest period
before your next assignment of at least:
a. 11 hours rest (11 15 block-to-block) if exceeded by not more than 30 m in utes.
b. 12 hours rest (12:45- bloct-tD-block) if exceeded by m ore than 30 minutes but mot more than 60 minutes.
c. 16 h o u rs rest (te:45 Modf-to-bfctik) if e xceeded by m o re th a n 60 m inutes.
A Part 91 deny flight home is (theoretically) at the tfiscrefron of the crew and is based on:
a. How do you fo al... and: do volt w ant to bring tho aircraft home?
b. Remember — tha certificate hoider (Company) cannot TELL you to bring the aircraft home.
c. If anything should happen during this ferry flight that might be blamed on pilot fatigue, the crew could be
violaied for "CARELESS ...... RECKLESS OPERATION’1and the company could be violated for allowing
such a flight. (91.13) The FAA's iegal opinion states that a violation could be found if you were fatigued to
the point where there WAS or COULD HAVE BEEN a hazard to flight safety as a result of your fa tig ue.
(FAA legal Interpretation by Donald Byrna, AssIsLanl Chief Counsel dated March 30.1992)
d. Advice — It's a d a great idea to the 14 hour duty day. It's best to always be able to (ggjt hath
on tho previous 24 hours and find 10 hours of uninterrupted tlis l oven If conducting a Part 91 terry (aka
repositioning) flig h t. If you can't find that 10 hours of rest you are pote/tftaf/y in violation of 91.13 and
could conceivably be cited by some ovenzoalous, self-righteous FAA {fo lks ¿gains) ¿viation) inspector
even if nothing happens (BASTARD!). However, if your company’s policy allows Part 91 tail-end
repositioning; and your car and a bot woman (or man!) is waitin' on ya. If it were me... I'd crank up those
engines and head on back to ihe housoko). Carefully though. . not (ho best of times to blow a tiro!;o).

268 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for tho Professional Pilot

 C hap 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s
D E LA Y S :
1. For decades this FAA legaf interpretation pertaining to 135.267 has been policy — “ If the original planning for a
flight is upset for 'reasons beyond ihe c a n tra l' of the crew and operator data arrival of cargo, passengers,
m aintenance difficulties, adverse weather and air traffic delay* qualify) the flight may nevertheless he conducted
even though the crew duty time may extend beyond 14 h o a rs . IF the original planning was REALISTIC."
(FAA lagel interpretations June 7. 1990; January IS. 1992: March 28. 1991. March 30. 1992; August 30. 1993. etc.)
2. It must be noted 1hat this same interpretation also states: " Both the crew and the certificate holdor would be in
violation of Sec. 91.13(a) jf crow m om bcrs fly when their state o f fatigue would endanger othars F urtherm ore,
the flig h t crow need n ot actually endanger others for a viola tion of Seo. 91.13(a) to occur - a violation exists If
the crew's fatigue subjects life ar.d proper^ to potential endannerm ent-'m
3. NOTE; On Dacombor 23, 2010 the FAA issued a ''Notice of Proposed Interpretation" which said: "If a flight
crewmember was to be aware at the lime of departure on the last leg of the flight that he or she has not had the
required rest, 135.267(d) would P R O H IB IT him or her from departing on the last leg of the flig h t’ In other words...
duty time ooutd N O T be extended beyond 14 hours for ANY reason! This oarthshaking p olicy change was later
rescinded by the Office of Chief Counsel saying: ’Per Congressional instruction set out in section 346 o f the FAA
^authorization act. Ihe FAA will not bo finalizing [this) proposed Interpretation " But Ihe question remains..
What the hell is a "Notice or Proposed Interpretation" anywayt?;D).

“R E G U L A R L Y A S S IG N E D D U T Y P ER IO D ":ms 267(c)]
Means that a pilot consistently begins and ends his work period at fhe same time each day. Operations (such as Llon
dom ancH which do not fit Into a ’ regularly assigned duty period" as required by 135.267(c). must comply with the rolling
24 consecutive hour "look back' limitations of 135.267(b).

Th e ' R O LLIN G 24 C O N S E C U T IV E H O U R Lim itation":H35.267amn

Before you accept a trip, you must be able to count backwards 24 hours from the projected “ duty com pletion p o in t"
of the contemplated assignment and insure you will have at reast 1£ consecutive hours of assigned rest during that
period and that you will not exceed the 6 hours {single pilot) or 10 hours (two pitot) of flight time during 14 hours on
duty (24 hours minus 10 hours rest). J

D U T Y PER IO D — means the period of elapsed time between reporting for an assignm ent involving flig h t time
and release from that assignm ent (broken by a minimum rest period). (135.273;

F L IG H T T IM E means pitot trmo tha1 commences whan an aircraft m oves undor its own power for the purpose of
flight and ends when the aircraft comas to roat after landing; aka block-to-block ( i i J

R E S T PER IO D "means Ihe period free of all R ESPO N SIB ILITY Tor work or duty should
the occasion anse.' Rest must be determined ''PROSPCCTyM FLY” (in advance). It cannot
be determined "retrospectively* (after Ihe fact, or by default). It must be continuous {although
one telephone call is not considered an interruption). It must be free from all d u ty o r restraint
(it's your time). It must be free from atl R ES P O N S IB ILITY for work should the occasion arise.
You cannot be R EQ UIRED to report for work should the company cage you o r call you. If you
have a RESPONSlBfj.1 TY to report to work if called, then the time is not rest. (135.273)

S TA N D B Y /R E S T : / \
1. A 24-hour standby period in which a p iid is scheduled for no activity unless paged does nol constitulc 'duly lime'
in the sense that it produces the need for rest, but it also does not constitute " raat tim e " if Ihere is any
RESPONSIBILITY to return t i e call and report to work.
2. A company cCuld assign you to Wear and could require you to answer a pager to assign a flight. But required
standby lime is not rest It must be proceeded by 10 hours of prospocUvely-deternincd rest, and you must be
able to count backwards 24 hour^ from the projected “duty completion point1' of the contemplated assignment
to insure you will have at least 10 hours of rest during that period and that you wiJL not exceed the 3 (or ID)
maximum hours of flight time during that 24-hour period.
3 H OW EVER...
If you. are not required to w ear a pager — but wear it voluntarily — then it is not duty time and could be
considered rest.
■# If yon are not re q u ire d to do anything — .miluding answering a page — then it os not duty time and
could be considered rest,
♦ If yon previously have been assigned (in advance) a rest period of at least 10 hours — and after
which iust happen to be wearing a paper (voluntarily) — and are paged — and you choose (but are
not required) to_r_eJu.m_th.e_c.alJ — then you are asked if you would like to fly (but not required) — and
you choose (but are not required) to a cce p t the tnp — then the time spent in rest can be considered
legitimate rest and is legally adequate to satisfy the requirements of the regulations.
^ Operations JVlanual policy should be written so that these principles are clearly stated. The company can
provide the pager but the pilot is not required to even turn it on,

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the- Professional Pilot 269

Chap 7 — C om m ercial Operations
P A R T 117 — Flig ht and D u t£ L im ita tio n s and H ast R e q u ire m e n ts : Flig ht c r e w M em be rs
[P a rt 121 P a sse n ge r O p e ra tio n s ]
§ 117.1 A p p lic a b ility .
[a) This part prescribes flight and duty Iimitatiions and rest requirements for ati flightcrew members and certificate holders
conducting paesanpar operations under part 121 of this chapter.
(b) This part applies H> all operations dlroctod by part 121 certificate holders under part 91 other than subpart K Of
this chapter if any segment is conducted as a domestic passenger, flag passenger, or supplemental passenger
operation.
[cj This part applies to all flightcrew members when participating in an operation under part 91. other than subpart K ot
Ibis chapter, on behalf of me part 121 certificate holder if any flight segment ,s conducted as a domestic passenger,
flag passenger, or supplemental passenger operation.
[d) Notwithstanding paragraphs (a), (b) ar.d {c) of this section, a certificate holder may conduct under part 117 its port
121 operations pursuant to m i Z f l . 121.480. ¡>r 121.S00

5 1 1 7 .3 D e f in it io n « .
In addition to the definitions in §§1.1 and 110.2 of this chapter, the following definitions apply to 1his pari. In the event there is
a conflict in definitions, the definitions in this part control.
AccHmatfffj means a condition in which a flightcrew member has been in a theater for 72 hours or has been given at least
36 consecutive hours free from duty.
Airport/standby reserve means a defined duty period during which a flightcrew member is required by a certificate holder to
be at an airport for a possible assignment.
A ugm ented f/ifiltlcrew means a flightcrew that has- more than the minimum r.umbor of flightcrew members required by the
airplane type certificate to operate the aircraft tc allow a flightcrew member to be replaced by another qualified flightcrew
member for in-flight rest.
Calendar da y means a 24-hour period from 0000 through 2359 using Coordinated Universal Time or local time,
C e r t if ic a t e h o l d e r means a person who holds or is required to hold an air carrier certificate or operating certificate issued
under part 119 of this chapter.
Deadhead transportation m cars transportation o f a flightcrew member as a passenger or non-operating flightcrew
member, by a ry mode o f transportation, as required by a certificate holder, excluding transportation to or from a suitable
accommodation. All time spent in deadhead transportation is duty and is not rest. For purposes of determining the
maximum flight duty period pi Table B otthis part, deadhead transportation is not considered a flight segment.
Duty means any task that a flightcrew member performs as required by the certificate holder, including but not limited to
flight duty period, flight duty, pre- and post-]light duties, administrative work, training, deadhead transportation, aircraft
positioning on the groune. aircraft loading, and aircraft servicing.
Fatigue moans a physiological state of reduced mental or physical performance capability resulting from leek of sleep or
increased physical activity 1hat can reduce a flightcrew member's alertness and abilily to safely operate- an aircraft or
perform safety-related duties.
FjJigu-o risk management system {FRM5J means a management system for a certificate bolder to use to mitigate the
effects of fatigue in its particular operations. It is a data-driven process and a systematic method used to continuously
monitor and manage safety risks associated with fatigue-related error.
F ir f o r d u t y m e a n s p h y s io lo g ic a lly a n d m e n ta lly p re p a re d a n d c a p a b le o f p e rfo rm in g a s s ig n e d d u tie s a t th e h ig h e s t d e g re e
Of s a fe ly .
Flight duty period (FDP) means a period that begins when a flightcrew member is required to report for duty with the
intention of conducting a flight, a series of flights, or positioning or feayinq flights, and ends when tho aircraft is parked
after the last flight and there is no intention for further aircraft movement by the same flightcrew member. A flight duty
period includes the duties performed by tbe flightcrew member on behalf of the certificate holder that occur before a
flight segment or between flight segments without a required intervening rest ported Examples of tasks that arc part of
the flight duty period include deadhead transportation, training conducted in an aircraft or flight simulator, and
airport/slandby reserve, if the above tasks occur before a flight segment or between flight segments without an
intervening required rest period.
Homs base means 1he location designated by a certificate holder where a flightcrew member normally begins and ends his
or her duty periods.
LJneholder means a flightcrew member who has an assigned flight duty period and is not acting as a reserve flightcrew
member.
Lom r-ceff reserve means that, prior to beginning the rest period required by §117.25, the flightcrew member is notified by
Ihe certificate holder to report fora flight duty period following the completion of the rest period.
Physiological night's rest means 10 hours of rest that encompasses tho hours o f 0100 and 0700 at the flightcrew
member's home base, unless the individual has acclimated io a different theater, (f the flightcrew member has
acclimated to a different theater, the rest must encompass the hours of 0100 and 0700 a ltha acclimated location.
Report time means the lime that the certificate holder requires a flightcrew member to report for an assignment.
Reserve availability period means a duty period during which a certificate holder requires a flightcrew member or. short call
reserve 10 bo available to receive an assignment fo ra flight duty period.
Reserve flightcrew member means a flightcrew member who a certificate holder requires to be available to receive an
assignment for duty.

270 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot

 C h a p 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s
RtisLfocjVO^rineans a bunk or seat accommodation installed .r. an aircraft that provides a flightcrew member wilh a sleep
opportunity.
{1 j Class 1 reef facility means a bunk or other surface that allows far a flat sleeping position and is located separate
from both the flight deck and passenger cabin in an area that is te m oerature - control Ia d . allows the flightcrew
member to control lig h t, and provides Isolation Trout no iso and disturbance.
(2) Crass 2 rest facility moans a scat in an aircraft cabin that allows for a flat or near fla t steeping position; is
separated from passengers by a m inim um of a curtain to provide darkness and som e sound mitigation; and is
reasonably free from disturbance by passengers or flightcrew members.
(3) C/ass 2 resf facility moans a seat in an aircraft cabin or flight deck that reclines at least 40 degrees and
provides lea and to o t su pp ort.
Rest p e rio d means a continuous period determined prospectively during which the flightcrew member is free from all
restraint bv the certificate holder, including freedom from present meueimiu Uy lm wui't should the act osier arise
Scheduled means to appoint, assign, or designate for a feed time.
Short-tail reserve means a period of time in which a flightcrew member is assigned to a reserve availability period,
Spfjf duty means a flight duty period that has a scheduled break in duty that is less than a required rest period.
SdfJ-abto aceormn&daticift means a temperature-controlled facility with sound mitigation and the ability to control light that
provides a flightcrew member with the ability to sleep either in a bed, bunk or in a chair that allows for flat or near flat
sleeping position. Suitable accommodation only applies to ground facilities and does not apply to aircraft onboard rest
facilities.
Thoater means a geographicai area in which the distance between the llightcrew member's flight duty period departure point
and arrival point dLffors by no more than 60 degrees longitude.
Unfortsaon aoarational cirajnisfanco means an unplanned event of insufficient duration to allow for adjustments to
schedules, including unforecast weather, equipment malfunction, or air traffic delay that is not reasonably expected.
Window of circadian low moans a period o f maximum sleepiness that occurs between 0200 and 0559 during a
physiological night.

§ 117.5 Fitn e ss for duty.

(a) Each fligh tcrew member m ust report for any flight duty perioo rested and prepared to perform his or her assigned
duties.
fb j Mo certificate holder mav assign and na fliahtcr&w member may accept assignment to a flig h t duty period j j the
f llgh tcrow member has reported for a flig h t duty period to o fq tig uo^ to pate Iy perform h»B or her assigned duties,
fc> No certificate holder may permit a flightcrew member to continue a flight duty
period if the flightcrew member has reported him or herself too fatigued to
continue the assigned flight duty period.
(d) A s part o f the dispatch or flig h t release, as applicab le, each flightcrew m e m b e r
m ust affirm atively state ho or she is Hi for duty prior to commencing flight.

§ 117.7 Fatigue risk m a n a g e m e n t s ys te m .

Gotta have a system.

§ 117.9 Fa tigue e d u c a tio n and a w a re n e s s tra in in g p ro g ra m .

Gotta have a training program.

§ 117.11 F lig h t tim e lim ita tio n .

i» No cortJflcate holder m ay schedule and no flightcrew member may accept an
assignment or continue an assigned flight duty period if the total flig h t tim e :
(1) Will exceed the lim its specified in Table A of this p a l if the operation is Flight time (1.1) means \
conducted with the minimum required flightcrew. pilot time that commences
(2) Will exceed 13 hou rs if the operation is conducted with a 3-oilot flig h t crow . when an aircraft moves
(3) Will exceed 17 hours rf the operation is conducted with a 4-oltot flig h tc re w . under its own power for the
(b) if unforeseen operational circu ms lances atiae after takeoff that are beyond the purpose of flight and ends
certificate holder's c o n tro l, a flightcrew member may exceed the maximum flight time when the aircraft comes to
specified in paragraph [a) of this section and the cumulative flight time limits in rest after landing; aka
117.23(b) t£ the extent necessary to safely land the aircraft at the next destination . block-to'block
airport or alternate, as appropriate.
(c) Each certificate holder must report to the Administrator within 10 days any flight time
thal exceeded me maximum flight time limits permitted by this section. The report must contain a description of the
extended flight time limitation and the circumstances surrounding the need for the extension.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 271

 C h ap 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s .
§ 117.13 Flig ht duty p e rio d : U n a u g m e n te d o p e ra tio n s .
(a) Except as provided Far in § 117.15. no certificate holder may assign and no flightcrew member may accept an
assignm ent far an unauomentod flig h t operation ¡1 the scheduled flig h t duty period w ill exceed the lim its ir. Tabic B
af this part.
(b) If The flightcrew member is n ot acclim ated:
{1) The maximum flig h t duty period in Table B of this pan is reduced by 30 m in utes.
(2 ) The applicable flig h t cjutv period is based on the local time a t the theater in w fiich the flightcrew member was
last acclimated.

§ 1 1 7 .1 5 Flig ht duty period: S p lit duty.

For nn unauamontod operation only. JJ a flig htcrow momber is provided with a ro-st opportunity :an opportunity to sloop)
in a suitable accommodation during his or her flig h t duty period, the time That the flightcrew member spends n 1he
suitable accommodation is not part of that flightcrew member's flight duty period if all of the following conditions arc
met:
[a) The rest opportunity is provided between the hours o f 22:00 and Q5:00 local tim a .
(b) The tim e spent in the suitable accommoiiaiion is at lonst 3 hours, measured from the tim e that (he flightcrew member
reaches the suitable accom m odation.
(C) The rest opportunity is scheduled before the beginning of (ho flig h t duly period in w hich that rest opportunity is
taken
(d) The rest opportunity that the flightcrew member is a ctually provided may not be lass than the rest opportunity that
was scheduled.
(e) The rest oppoitunity is not provided until the firs t segment of 1he flight duty period has been com pleted.
(f) The com bined time of thp flig h t duty period and the opportunity provided in (his section dOQS not otcpod 14
hours.

§ 117.17 Flight duty p e rio d : A u g m e n te d flig h tc re w .

[a) For flig h t operations conducted with ar acclim ated smflm&nted flia h tc rc w . no certificate
holder may assign and no flightcrew member may accept an assignment jj (he scheduled
flig h t duty period w ill exceed the lim its sped lied ir Tabic C of this part.
(b) If (he flightcrew member is not acclimated
(1) The maximum flig h t duty period in Tabic C of (his part is reduced bv 30 minutes.
(2) The applicable flight duty period is baaed on the local time at the theater in w hich ihe
flightcrew member was [aal acclimated
[c) No certificate holder may assign and no flightcrew member may accept an assignment under this section unless
during tho flight duty period:
(1) Tints conseculive hours in the second half of the ftia tu duty period are available for in -flig h t rest for the f liifll
flvinq the aircraft during la n d in g .
(2) Hlnflty tipnaocutivfl m inutes are avail able for In -fliflh l m l for the p ilo t performing rntm ltPrinfl duties during
landing
(d) No certificate holder may assign s nd no fl ightcrew me mber may acco pt an assignment involving more than three
flig h t sag merit« under this section.
(o) At all times during flight, at loast one fligh tcrew member qualified in accordance with $ 121,543iblt3liil of this
chapter m ust bo at the flight controls

272 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

 Chap 7 — C om m ercial Operations
§ 117.19 F lig h t d u ty p e rio d e x te n s io n s .
(a) For augmented and unauamented operations, if unforeseen operational circum stances
arise prior to ta keo ff:
(1) The pilot in command and the certificate holder m ay extend the maximum flight duty
period permitted in Tables B or £ of this part up to 2 hours The pilot in command and
the certificate holder may also extend the maximum combined flig h t duty period and
reserve availability period limits Specified in § 117.21(c)(3) and (4) of this part up to 2 hours.
(2) Ar extension in the flight duty period under paragraph (a)(1) o f this section of m ftlfd Ih pn ¡}Q ptinptes mav occur
only once p rio r to receiving ■ roat period described in & 117.25(b).
(3) A flig h t duty period cannot be extended under paragraph (a)( 1) of this section if it causes a flightcrew member to
exceed trio cumulative flight duty period limits specified in 117.23fel.
(4) Each certificate holder must report to the Administrator within 10 days any flight duty period that exceeded the
maximum flight duty period permitted in Tables B or C of this part by more than 30 minutes. The report must
contain the following:
(i) A description of the extended flight duty period and the circumstances surrounding the need for the extension
and
(ii) If the circumstances giving rise to the extension were within the certificate holder's control, the corrective
action(s) that the certificate holder intends intake to minimize the need for future extensions.
(5) Each certificate holder must implement the corrective action(s) reported In paragraph (a)(4) of (his section within 30
days from the dale o f the extended flight duty period.
(b) Tor augmented and unaugm ented operations, if unforeseen operational circum stances arise after takeoff
(1) The pilot in command and the certificate holder may extend maximum flight duty periods specified in Tables B or
C of this part to ihe extant necessary to safely land the aircraft at the next destination airport or alternate
airport, as appropriate.
(2) A r extension of the flight duty period under paragraph (b)(1) of this section of more than 30 minutes may o c c u r
B D lm iS i B d flL te receiving a rest period described in § 1_1_7_.2.5lb.i.
(3) A r extension taken under paragraph (b) of this section may exceed the cumulative flight duty period limits
specified in 117.23fc).
(4) Each certificate holder m ust report to the Administrator w ithin 10 days any flig h t duty period that exceeded the
maximum flight duty period limits permitted by Tables B o r C of this part. The report must contain a description of
the circumstances surrounding the affected flight duty period _

§ 117.21 R e se rve sta tu s. ^ £ ts e rv e d

(a) Unless specifically designated as airport/standby or short-0.111 reserve by the
certificate holder, all reserve is considered long-call reserve
(b) A ny reserve? lhat moots lhc definition o1 airport1stand by reserve must be designated as airport/standby reserve
For airport/standby reserve, all time spent in a reserve status is part of the flightcrew member's flight duty period.
<c) F or short call reserve
(1) The reserve availability perioc may n ot exceed 14 h o u rs .
(2) For a flightcrew member who has pomaletcd a reserve availability period, no certificate holder may schedule
and no flightcrew member may accept an assignment of a reserve availability period unless the flightcrew member
receives the required rest in § 117.25(e).
(3) For an unauom ontod operation. Iho total number of hours a ftightcrow member mav soond in a flig h t duty period
and a reserve availability period mav not exceed the lesser of the maximum applicable flight duty period in
Table B of this part plus 4 hours o r 16 hours, as measured from the beginning of (he re servo availability
period.
(4) For an augmented operation, the total number of hours a flightcrew member may spend in a fight duty period
and a [osorvo a v ila b llty period mav not exceed tho flight duty period in Table Q of this part gjus 4 liptira. as
measured from the beginning of the reserve availability period.
|d) For tong call reserve, if a certificate holder contacts a flightcrew member to assign him or h e n s a flight dirty
period that will begin before and operate into the fliahtcrcw member’s window of circadian_Low. the flightcrew
member must receive a 12 hour notice of report lime from the certificate holder.
(o) A certificate holder mav shift a roaer^fl flightcrew mom bar's reserve iijiita from long^all tg. abort-call only If the
flightcrew member receives a rest period as provided in ■§ 117.25fci.

§ 117.23 C u m u la tiv e lim ita tio n s .

(a) The lim itations of this section include all flying by flightcrew members on behalf of any certificate holder or K
Program Manager during the applicable periods.
(b) Mo certificate holder may schedule and no flightcrew member may accept an assignment if the flightcrew member's
total flig h t time will ox coed the following.
(1) ICO hours In any 672 consecutive hours and
(2) 1,00(1 hours in any 365 consecutive calendar day period
|c) No certificate holder mav schedule and no flightcrew member may accept an assignment if the flightcrew member's
total Flight Duty Period will axcaad:
(1) 60 flight duty period hours In any 165 consecutive hours and
(2) 190 flight duty period hours in any 672 consecutive hours.
EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for Iho Professional Pilot 273
 C hap 7 — C o m m e rc ia l O p e ra tio n s
§ 117.25 Rest pe rio d .
(a) Ho c-crUficatn holder may assign and no flightcrew member
may accept assignment to am reserve or duty with the
certificate holder during any required rail period.
(b) Before beginning any reserve or flight duty period a flightcrew
member must be given m Least 30 consecutive hours free from
all duty in any jfifi ^rntnculivu hour period
(c) If a fliahtcrow member operating in a (lftyr theater has
received 36 consecutive hours of rest thal f l i ghtcrew member
is acclim ated and the rest period meets the requirem ents of
paragraph o f this seel ion,
(d) A flightcrew member m u st be given a m inim um of 56
consecutive hours rest upon return 10 home base if the
flightcrew member: (1) Travels more than 60° longitude during a flight duty period or u series of flig h t duty period,
ard ;2) is away from home base fo rrgore than 166 co nse cutive hou rs during this travel. The 56 hours of rest
specified in. this section m ust encompass throe physiological nights' rest based on local tim e .
(o) Mo certificate holder may schedule and no flightcrew member may accept an assignment for any reserve cr flight duty
period unless the flightcrew member is given a rest period of at least 10 consecutive hours im m ediately before
beginning the reserve or fligh t duly period measured from tho time the flightcrew member is released from duty
The 10 hour rest period must provide the flightcrew member with a m inim um of a uninterrupted hours of sleep
opportunity,
(f) If a flightcrew member determines that a nest period under paragraph (e) o f this section will not provide eight
uninterrupted hours of sleep opportunity, the flightcrew member must notify the certificate holder- The flightcrew
member cannot report for (he assigned flight duty period until he or she receives a rest penod spodflud in
paragraph (a) oF this section.
(g) If a flightcrew member engaged in deadhead transportation exceeds the applicable flight duly period in Table B of
this part, the flightcrew member m ust be given a rest period oguaJ to the length of the deadhead transportation but
not less than (he required rest in paragraph fe) of this section before beginning a flight duty period.

§ 117.27 C o n s e c u tiv e n ig h ttim e o p e ra tio n s.

A certificate hoi dor may.schedulc and a fkghtcrow member may accept u p to five consecutive flight duty periods Lhal
infringe on the window of circadian low if the certificate holder provides the flightcrew member with an opportunity to
[£SI in ¡s suitable accommodation during nactl of the consecutive nighttime flight duty periods The tail opportunity
must bo at least 2 hours, measured from the lime that the flightcrew member reaches the suitable accommodation, and
must comply with tha conditions specified in § 117,15(a). (c). (d). and (e). Otherwise no certificate holder may schedule
and no flightcrew member may acccpi more than throe consecutive flight duty periods that
infringe on the w indow of circadian low. For purposes of this section, any split duty rest that
is provided in accordance with § 117.15 counts ns part of a flight duty period. | EM E R G E N C Y
PUSH TO CANCEL
§ 117.29 E m e rg e n c y and g o ve rn m e n t spo n so red o p e ra tio n s .
(a) This section applies to operations conducted pursuant to contracts with the U.S. Government and operations
conducted pursuant to a deviation under § 119,57 of this chapter that cannot otherwise bo conducted under this part
bo cause of circumstances trial could prevent flightcrew members from boinq relieved by another Cnew fit safely
provided with trie rest required under § 117.25 at the end of trie applicable flight duty period.
(b) The pilot-in-co mm and may determ ine that the maximum applicable! flig h t duty period, flig h t tim e , andtor com bined
flight d u ty period and re servo availability period limits m ust be exceeded to trie axtont necessary to allow trie
flightcrew to to trio closest destination where they can safely be relieved from duty hv another fligh tcrew QI can
receive the requisite amount of reat p rior to commenting their next flig h t duty period.
fc) A flig h t duty pol ice may not be extended :o' as oocratior condLctoc pursuant to a con:-act w th trio U.S.
G overnm ent if it causes a fligh tcrew member to exceed the cum ulative flig h t tim e lim its in § 117.23(b) and the
cumulative flight duly period limits in § 117.23(c).
(d) The flightcrew shall ha given a rest period immediately after reaching iric destination described in paragraph (b) of
this section equal to trie length of Ihe actual flight duty period Or 24 hours, whichever is less.
(o) Each certificate holder must report within 19 days:
(1) Any flight duty period that exceeded the maximum flight duty period permitted in Tables B or C of this part, as
applicable, by m ore th an 30 m in utes: and
(£) Any flig h t lime that exceeded trie m axim um flight time limits permitted in Table A of this pari arid § 117.11. as
applicable.
(f) The report musit contain trie following:
(1) A description of the extended flight duty period and flight time limitation, and ihe circumstances surrounding the
need for trie extension; and
f2) If trie circumstances giving rise to the extension(s) were within the certificate holder's control, trie corrective
action(s) that the certificate holder intends to take to minimize trie need for future extensions.
(g) Each certificate holder m uet im plem ent the corrective a c tio n lsi reported pursuant to paragraph (f|(2 ) of this section
w ithin 30 days from iric date of trie extended flight duty period and tor trio extended fligh t tim o

274 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

 Chap 7 — C om m ercial Operations]

T a b le A to P a rt 1 1 7
M a x ir n u m F lig l i t T i m e L im it s f o r
U n a u i 3m e n te d O p e r a t io n s T a b l e
Tim e of Reoort Maximum FliahtTline
(acclimated) (hours)
0000-0459 S
0500-1959 9
2000-2359 e

T a b le B to P a rt 117
F lig h t D u ty P e r io d : U n a u g m e n te d O] a e ra tio n s
S c h e d u le d tim e of M a x im u m Fligh t D u ty Period {H O U R S )
STAR T fo r Li nehol tiers b a se d on N U M B E R of F L I G H T 5 E G M E N T S
{a c c lim a te d tim e ) 1 2 3 4 S 6 7+
0000-0359 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
0400-0459 10 10 10 10 9 9 9
0500-0559 12 12 12 12 11.5 11 10.5
0600-0659 13 13 12 12 11.5 11 10.5
0700-1159 14 14 13 13 12 5 12 11.5
1200-1259 13 13 13 13 12.5 12 11.5
1300-1659 12 12 12 12 11.5 11 10.5
1700-2159 12 12 11 11 10 9 9
2200-2259 11 11 10 10 9 9 9
2300-2359 12 10 10 9 9 9 9

T a b le C to P a rt 1 1 7
Fligh t D uty P eriod : A u g m e n t e d O p e r a t io n s
M a x im u m flig h t du ty pe rio d (H O U R S )
S c h e d u le d tim e of
ba se d on re s t fa c ility and n u m b e r of pilots
STAR T
C la s s 1 re st fa c ility C la s s 2 re st fa c ility C la ss 3 re s t fa c ility
{a c c lim a te d tim e )
3 pilots A pilots 3 pilots A pilots 3 pilots 4 pilots
0000-0559 15 17 14 15.5 13 13.5
0600-0659 16 1S.5 15 16.5 14 14.5
0700-1259 17 19 16.5 18 15 15.5
1300-1659 16 1S.5 15 16.5 14 14.5
1700-2359 15 17 14 15.5 13 13.5

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 275

[ch a p 7 — C om m ercial Operations!

F L IG H T L O C A T IN G P R O C E D U R E S
Google
(Dps Manual. 3 M G 2 £ ^ 3 5 7 1 7 1 2 1 / 2 5 r 121/27. 121.517 Ihru 121.625, OpSpeu C 077}

1, All must be on a flight plan filed with FSS and a

company official must be notified immediately BEFORE takeoff and
immediately AFTER landing. The company must always know exactly where the aircraft is.
For all a company Official must be informed of |he route, the E T E . and
notified immediately BEFORE takeoff and Immediate Iv AFTER landing. This statement would have
io appear in your Operations Manual and be accepted by the company's FAA principal Operations
Inspector.
It is acceptable lo cancel IFR and continue VFR for the terminal (arrival) portion of a flight If in the
judgment of the captain It can be conducted VFR and will expedite traffic flow. Again this statement
should appear in your Operations Manual in order to actually cancel and continue VFR.
NOTE: If you are operating a TU R B O JE T under Part 135. you are restricted by QpSpec C077 and
may N O T conduct a VFR arrival or departure from an airport without weather reporting

“ R E G U LA R A IR P O R T":
An airport used by a certificate holder in scheduled operations and listed in its operations specifications,

“ P R O V IS IO N A L A IR P O R T ":(i 10.2)
An airport approved by the Administrator for use by a certificate holder for the purpose of providing service
to a community when the regular airport normally used is not available,

A IR P O R T R E Q U IR E M E N TS — R U N W A Y L IG H T IN G : (135.22s, 121 .semi. 125.4s)

(a) No certificate holder may use any airport unless it is adequate for the proposed operation,
considering such items as size, surface, obstructions, and lighting.
(b) No pilot of an aircraft carrying P A S S E N G E R S a t night may take off from, or land on, an
airport unless —
(1) That pilot has determined the W IN D d ire ctio n from an Illuminated wind direction
indicator or local ground communications or. in the case of takeoff, (hat pilot's personal
observations; and
(2) The limits of the area to be used for landing or takeoff are clearly shown —
(I) For airplanes, by boundary or R U N W A Y marker L IG H T S ;
(rr) For helicopters, by boundary or runway marker lights or reflective material.
fc) For the purpose of paragraph (b) of this section, If the area to be used for takeoff or landing is marked by
flare pots or lanterns, their use must be approved by the Administrator.

..................................................
R U N W A Y ED G E L IG H T S :
(AIM 2 - M & PtC Glossary [Airport lighlingl) \
White lights, except on instrument
runways, yellow replaces white on
the last 2.000 feet or half the
runway length, whichever is less, to
form a caution zone. Runway lights
are uniformly spaced at intervals of
approximately 200 feet. Lights
marking the end of the runway emit
red lights toward the runway.

276 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 Chap 7 — C o m m ercial Operations

IN T E R N A T IO N A L F lig h ts y ( S i . 701 ttmi Í1 .7 1 Í, JMM 5-1-9. 5-1-1 1 , G O M )

1. M U S T be on an IFR or DVFR flight plan. (91.7C7)
2. Should include ILA D C U S 'f [advise cu&loms] in the remarks section.
3. For flights outside the United States all crewmembers and passengers must have
a valid oassoort. At least one crewmember must hold a personal FCC
Restricted Radiotelephone Operator Permit. The aircraft itself must also have
a Radio Station License issued by the FCC in order to operate internationally.
"English Proficient" endorsement required on all pilot certificates.
4. You must clear customs a total of 4 times during a round trip:
a. Out of the United States.
b. Into the foreign country.
c. Out of the foreign country (Ihis usually happens at the same time unless you're going to hang
around fora while and have a few margaritas before you depart).
d. Back into the United States.
5. When a U.5. certified pilot flies outside the United States, the pilot must abide by: 1
a. The United Stales Eederal Aviation Regulations {FA R s i:
b. The regulations of Ihe International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), and
C- The regulations of the country the pilot is operating in:
d. When any of the regulations conflict, the pilot must comply with the most restrictive ones
{S1.703). It is the responsibility of the pilot to know the applicable regulations.

(Visit — wwwTaa^floy/air t raf fi d p u bli cation si1Ifim/airs pace — for appropriate links)
Entering, Exiting and Flying in United States Airspace:
1. Aircraft flying into, out of, or through U.S. airspace need to comply with
several requirements,
2. Particular attention must be paid to the electronic Advance Passenger
manifest Information System fAPISj required by U.S, Customs and Border
Erotecllon iC B P V 'AVVJ-
3. CBP and the Ira importation Security Administration ITS A T agencies of the
Department of Homeland Security iP H S ). work together for international flights.
4. CBP has enacted APISiprocedures for private aircraft to send advance notice
of their Intended arrival or departure Into or out of the U.S., and submit manifests
of persons on board.

A dvance Passenger inform ation System (A P IS );

1. The feleclronlc Advance £assenger Information System (eAPIS) Is a Web-based application, created by
CEP, for international travel into and out of the U.S. for private aircraft. (https :fleapis.cbp.dhs.oovf)
2. Pilots, or their assigned agents, must enroll online before filing an international flight plan.
3. Flights arriving from or flying lo a destination outside the U.S. must electronically transmit the following
information to the CBP: dittos ://eaDi5.cbp.dhs.aov/l
* Traveler manifest Information for each person on board UPON ARRIVIAL in A N Y country,
* Notice of arrival information including the United States,
* Notice of departure information REMAIN IN (he AIRCRAFT until
4. The information must be received by the CBP no less than Customs officials arrive, They
60 minutes prior lo takeoff for flights departing from or arriving really gel off cn watching you
In the U.S. sweal or freeze lo dealh!
5. Pilots mav submit departure as well as subsequent arrival
Informalion with APIS before leaving the U.S. Having filed both
flights, if there is a delay, it is possible to amend the flight plan with Customs or Flight Service by
phone, or If in flight, by radio. If there is a change of date, a new manifest must be filed.
6. APIS will take the place of Customs Form 70S: however, revenue flights are required to fill out Form
7507 (General Declaration). Each person on an inbound flight will have to submit Form 6059B
( individual declaration card!.
7. All civil, private aircraft entering the U.S. must first land at an airport of entry before continuing to their
destinations, unless other arrangements are made with U.S. CBP. Advance notification musi be
provided electronically to CBP by means of the eA FIS.
a, An International Civil Aviation Organization U C A O i format flight plan is recommended — ftlM 5-1-9.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 277

C h a p 7 — Co m m ere la I O pera t Io n s ,
SM A L L A IR C R A F T : ^
Gross weight 12,500 lbs or less. '"

L A R G E A IR C R A F T : ii , 61.31, 61.5B, 61.53, S1.561,135.365, 135.36?, 135.369, 135.375, 135.377,135.605)

1, Gro$$ we ight more than 12.500 lbs.
2. ALL large aircraft and ALL jets — ALW AYS require a type rating and normally require 2 pilots unless
certified for single pilot operations.
3, As a general rule. LARGE AIRCRAFT and JE TS normally require a crew of at least 2 pilots unless
approved for single pilot operations by the FAA during the aircraft certification process.
4. Sometimes a Large aircraft is approved for single pilot operation based on the pilot's type rating, e.g.:
(be Kina Air 300, 350, Beech 1900 and Starship all weigh more than 12,500 lbs — If a pilot takes his
type rating as a single pilot— he can fly those airplanes alone — If he lakes hie type ride as part of a
crew— he must fly as part of a crew. The Citation Jet ISP /1ISP a all CE5O0 series are also certified for
single or two-pilot operations. A King Air 350 equipped with g seats or less is certified to operaie with
a single pilot, if it is equipped with 10 or more seats, it must be operated with two pilots. The 350 Is
certified under Part 23 ‘ Commuter category” rules, which allow single pilot operations for prop-driven
aircraft over 12,500 Lbs equipped with less than 10 passenger seats.

B«■9+999-999l i t ! >999999-9999-999+9-99-9+9■9r.
For aircran trim ntqdn mw** thin J
; m i pHol, Ills SIC i f q u lr m a TYPE J
I RATISd i3lC omv k f f l g h u ■
T Y P E R A T I N G — R E Q U I R E D ; tsi .31 si 55 aua 6163 si sj m 157 si.si l. w ™ u > u w m n m na». j
1, A type rating is required for ALL Large Aircraft (over 12,500 lbs) and ALL Jets.
2. In order to serve as PIC on an aircraft a pilot is lype rated in. ihe pilot musi complete a “ pilot-in-
eommajoud MflJticiencv cJb.e^k" for that aircraft within the previous J^-cafendajum&niJb&
/24-calendar months if alternated with another type rated aircraft). The pilot-in-oommand proficiency
check given in accordance with Parts 121, 125 or 135 or Subparl K of Part 91 for that aircraft will satisfy
Ihis requirement (see Chapter 5 for the details).

A C C E L E R A T E -ST O P t A C C E L E R A T E -G O D IST A N C E :
{2 5.1 OS, 91.665, 135.375 thru 135.399. 121.177 thru 121.133. FAA-P-B740-13, A C 120-62)
1. Accelerate-Stop and Accelerate-Go distance is required for all Part 121 & Part 135 revenue flights
except small nontrans port category aircraft with 9 seats or less do not require accelerate-stop or
acceleraie-go distance.
2. A C C E L E R A TE -S TO P — Distance required to accelerate to V* (or liftoff speed
depending on the POH) and, assuming failure to an engine at the instant v nis attained,
to bring ihe airplane to a full stop on the remaining runway and/or stopway.
3 A C C E L E R A TE -G O — Distance required to accelerale lo Vi (or liftoff speed —
depending on the POH) and, assuming failure of an engine at the instant liftoff speed
(or V t ) is attained, to continue the takeoff on the remaining engine and climb to clear a
50-fool obstacle. Accelerate-go distance does not apply to most light, propeller-driven
twins because — assuming failure of an engine at (he instant liftoff speed (or V i) is
attained — most light twins cannot continue a takeoff roll, actually lift off, and climb on
one engine, (here is no choice but to abort.

278 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 Chap 7 — Com m ercial Operations
L A N D IN G U M IT A T IO M S L A R G E & S M A L L A IR C R A F T — 6 0 % , 7 0 % & 80% :
(91,1037,135.375 thru 135.399,121.155 thru 121.205, P/C Glossary, AiFD, Jsppsssn Approach Chart Lagsrid)
1. No person may TA K E O FF a — small transport category turbojet; large transport category turboprop;
large nontransport category airplane; small nontransport category [10-19 seat) airplane; or commuter
category airplane — unless ¡Is AN TICIPATED weight on arrival at the destination would allow a full
stop landing within 60% of the "effective runway length" (70% for the alternate).
N O TE #1: Small normal category piston or turboprop aircraft with less than 10 passenger seats are
nol bound by Ihis rule.
N O TE #2: Large Transport Category TU R B O JE T S must be able to land within 60% of the effective
runway length EVEN at the A LTE R N A TE
2. LANDING LIMITATIONS (91.1037,135.335, 135.337) — A person, operating a turbine engine-powered
large transport category airplane on an ON-DEM AND flight may not TA K E O FF that airplane unless
Its anticipated weight on arrival would allow a full slop LANDING at the destination within 60% of the
effective length of the runway [70% for the alternate; or 60% if it is a turbojet using thal alternate). An
‘"ELIGIBLE ON-DEM AND O P E R A TO R 11 (135,4) is allowed to use a landing weight thal would allow a
full stop landing within 60 percent of the effective length of the runway (destination or alternate), if the
operation is conducted in accordance with an approved "Destination Airport Analysis” included in
that company’s operations manual. When operating a T U R B O JE T to a wet or slippery runway, (he
effective runway length must be at least 115% of the runway lengih required under dry conditions,
3. To compute the distance — divide the Aircrafl Flight Manual cTistance by 0.6 —
Example: if 3000 feel is required by the AFM, ihe runway at the destination must have at least 5000
feet available. O r... you can multiply the runway length by 0.6 to get the maximum allowable AFM -
required landing distance.
4. ‘"Effective Length of the Runway11 — for landing means the distance from the point at which the
obstruction clearance plane associated with the approach end of the runway intersects the centerline
of the runway to the far end of the runway, Basically this is the physical runway length less any
displaced aorticn on the approach end. The displaced threshold is usually due to a problem with the
1:20 obslruclion clearance plane. If a normal 3-degree VASI or PARI is installed within the firsl 1,000
feet of a runway, you could {almost always) assume that the threshold is the beginning of the effective
runway length.. Or, ycu could always run cut and obtain an "obstacle analysis11for thal runway,
N O TE #3: "'Landing Distance Available" (LDA) {A/FD) is the length of runway, which Is declared (by
the airport authority) available and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane landing. It does not
always officially lake into account the 20:1 obstruction clearance plane (but it usually does).
N O TE #4: "Usable Lengths" (a Jeppesen term not defined by the FARs) — “When usable runway
lengths differ from those depicted in the airport planvlew, lengths are specified in the 'USABLE
LEN G TH S’ columns. Blank columns Indicate that the runway length depicted in the airport planvlew is
applicable," It may be assumed thal "Usable Lengths’" has the aamgJDgüEjüQmfl as "Landing Distance
Available.1’
5. “Obstruction Clearance Plane" — a plane sloping upward from the runway at a slope of 1:20 to the
horizontal, and tangent to or clearing all obstructions within a specified area surrounding the runway
as shown in a profile View Of that area. A specific radius Of lateralele aranee is also required.

2 0 ! l ' 20:1 = d w e e s or 303.B feet per NM j

100 fool f c W ‘ '
très

Displaced A
I
__ _ _ Effective Runway Length
6. If the runway is W E T or SLIPPERY and there is no AFM wet data available for your TurboiEt. you
are required to have a runway that is at least 115% of the runway length required for dry conditions.
Using the 5000 feet calculated above — lhat would require an effective runway Jength of 5750 feel.
This wet distance calculation is not required for the alternate but is certainly advisable.
7. OpSpec C054 also prohibits a turbojet from beginning an approach when the visibility is less than
% mile or 4000 RVR. unless 15% is added to the distance required by the appropriate (60%) rule,
Example: If 3000 feet is required by the AFM — 3000 + 0,6 = 5000 x 1,15 = 5750 feet required.
You are not required to take the wel runway into account when making this calculation for visibility but it
is more conservative to do so.
EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 279
Chap 7 — C om m ercial Operations

S u b p a r t F — 9 1 .5 0 1 th ru 9 1 . 5 3 3 — L A R G E a n d T U R B IN E -P O W E RED
M u lt ¡ e n g in e A i r p l a n e s & F r a c t io n a l O w n e r s h ip P r o g r a m A i r c r a f t : (31 :1D1j * i \
(a) This subpart prescribes operating rules, in addition to those prescribed in other subparts of this part, governing the
operation of large airplanes of U.S. registry, turbojet-powered in ultiengina civil a.rplanes of U.S. registry, and
fractional ow nership program aircraft of U.S. registry (hat are operating under subpart K of this pari in operations not
involving common -carriage. The operating rules in this subparl do not apply to those aircraft when they are required to
be operatod under parts 1 j1 ^1 j5 ^1 2 9 ^1 5 5 ^a rid 1 3 7 o f this chapter. (Section 91.409 proscribes an inspection program
for large and for turbine-powered (turbojet and turboprop) multiengine airplanes and turbine-powered rolorcraftof U.S.
registry when they are operated under this part or part 129 or 137.)
(b) Operations that may bo conducted under the rules In this subpart Instead of those in parts 131.129. 135, and 137
of this chapter whan com m on carriage is n ot invo lved , include—
0 ) Ferry or training flights.
(2) Aerial work operations sucli as aerial photography or survey, or pipeline patrol, but not including fino fighting
operations;
;3) Flights for [lie demonstration of ah airplane to prospective Customers when no charge is made anenpt for those
specified in paragraph (d) uf this section.
(4) Flights conducted by the operator of an airplane for his personal transportation, dt the transportation of his guests when
no charge, assessment, or fee Is made for the transportation;
(5) Caoiafla-alafflclals. employees, ¿masis. -and property of ajam pflnjLaiLfliLfliqilaii* operated bjitbaLcompMar. or
the parent or subsidiary of the company or a subsidiary of the parent, when the carnage is within the scope of. and
Incidental to . the business o f the company (other than transportation by air) and no charge, assessment or fee is made
for the carriage In excess of the cost oi owning, operating, and maintaining the airplane, except that no eharps of any
kind m *v b * nude for the carriage of a quest of a company, when the cardan* Is not within th * scone of. and
incidental to . the business of that company:
{&) The carriage of company officials employees, and quests of the company on an airplane operated under a time
sharing Interchange, or joint ownership agreement as defined in paragraph (c) of this section.
(7) The carriage of property (other than mail) on an airplane operated by a person in the furtherance of a business or
employment (other than transportation by air) when the carriage Is within the scope of, and Incidental to . llial business
or employment and no charge, assessment, or fee is made for the carriage other than those specified in paragraph (d) of
this section;
¡3) Thu carriage on an airplane of an athletic foam, sports group, choral group, or similar group having a common
purpose or objective when there is no charge assessment, or fee of any kind made by any parson for that carriage; and
(9) The carriage of persons on ah airplane operated by a person m the furtherance of a business othef them transportation
by air Tor Ihu purpose of selling them land, goods, oi property, including franchises or distributorships, when the
carriage is within the scope of, and Incidental to . that business and no -charge, assessment, or fee is made for that
carriage.
(10) Any operation identified in paragraphs (b)(1) through (b)(9) of this section when conducted—
(i) By a fractional ownership program manager, or
(ii) By a fractional owner In a fractional ownership program aircraft operated under subparl K of tins part, except Dial
a flight under a joint ownership arrangement under paragraph (b)(6) of this section may not be conducted. For a flight
under an Interchange agreement under paragraph (b)(6) of this Section, the exchange of equal time forth« Operation must
bo properly accounted for as part of the total hours associated with the fractional owner's share of ownership.
(c) As used in this section—
(1) A TIME SHARING AGREEMENT means an arrangement whereby a porson leases his airplana with flight crew to another
person, and no charge is made for the flights conducted under that arrangement other than those specified in paragraph
(d) of this section;
;zj An INTERCHANGE AGREEMENT means an arrangement whereby a person leases his airplane tc another person in
exchange for equal lime, when needed, on the other person's airplane, and no charge, assessment, or fee is made,
except that a charge may be made not to exceed the difference between the cost of owning, operating, and maintaining
the two airplanes.;
(3) A JOINT OWNERSHIP AGREEMENT means an arrangement whereby one of the registered joint owners of an airplane
employs and furnishes the Tight crow for that airplane and each or the registered joint, owners pays a share of the charge
specified in the agreement.
(d) The following may be charged, as expenses of a specific flight, for transportation as authorised bv paragraphs tb)(3) and (Z)
and (c)(11or this section:
(1) Fuel, oil. lubricants, and other additives.
(2) Travel expenses of the craw. Including food, lodging, and ground transportation.
(3) Hangar and tie-down costs away from the aircraft's base of operation.
(4) Insurance obtained for the specific Tight.
(5) Landing fees, airport taxes, and similar assessments.
(6) Customs, foreign permit, and simitar fees directly related to the Tight.
(7) In flight food and beverages.
(8) Passenger ground transportation.
(9) Flight planning and weather contract services,
(10) An additional charge equal to 100 percent of the expenses listed in paragraph (d)(T) of this section.

28Q EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

 Chap 7 — C o m m ercial Operations
A U T O P I L O T — M in im u m A l t i t u d e s F o r U s e ; (135.93. 121.579)
{a) Except as provided in paragraphs (b), (c). (d). and (e) of this section,
no person mav use an autopilot aLan altitude above the terrain which
is less than 500 feet or less than twice the maximum altitude loss
specified in the approved Aircraft Flight Manual or equivalent fora
AUTO
malfunction of the autopilot, whichever is higher
{b) When using an instrument approach facility ot/ier than !LS. no person
mav use an autopilot al an altitude above the terrain that is less than
PILOT
50 feet below the approved minimum descent altitude for that P U S H T O RESET
procedure, or less than twice the maximum loss specified in the
approved Airplane Flight Manual or equivalent for a malfunction of the
aulopilol under approach conditions, whichever is hiflhei
(c) For ILS approaches, when reported weather conditions are less than the basic weather conditions in
§ 91,155 of this chapter, no person may use an autopilot wilh an approach coupler at an altitude
above the terrain that is less than 50 feet above the terrain, or the maximum altitude loss specified
in the approved Airplane Flight Manual or equivalent for the malfunction of the autopilot with approach
coupler whichever is higher
{d) Without regard to paragraph <a), (b), or (c) of this section, the Administrator may issue operations
specifications to allow the use to touchdown of an approved (light control guidance system with
automatic capability, if —
(1) The system does not contain any altitude loss (above zero) specified in Ihe approved Aircraft Flighl
Manual or equivalent for malfunction of the autopilot with approach coupler; and
(2) The Administrator finds that the use of Ihe system to touchdown will not otherwise adversely affect
the safety standards of (his section.
{e) Notwithstanding paragraph (a) of this section, the Administrator issues operations specifications to
allow the use of an approved autopilot system with automatic capability during the takeoff and initial
climb phase of flight provided:
(1) The Airplane Flight Manual specifies a minimum altitude engagement certification restriction:
(2) The system is not engaged prior to the minimum engagement certification restriction specified in the
Airplane Flight Manual, or an altitude specified by Ihe Administrator, whichever is higher: and
(3) The Administrator finds that the use of the system will not otherwise affect the safely standards
required by this section.
(f) Th is section does not apply to ope rations conducte d in rotorcraft.

No person m ay u se a n A U T O P I L O T ; 1.
1. EN R O U TE — less than 500 fEet above Lhe terrain, or less than twice the maximum altitude
loss specified for a malfunction of the autopilot, whichever is higher.
NONPRECISION APPROACH — less than 50 feet below the MPA, or less than twice the
maximum altitude loss specified for a malfunction of the autopilot under approach conditions,
whichever is higher.
3, ILS APPROACH — when weather is below basic VFR. less than 50 feet above the terrain
or the altitude loss specified for a malfunction of the autopilot with approach coupler,
whichever is higher.
'w J

1.
Second In Command vs. A U TO P IL O T ii35.se. 135.10 1.135.105)
No certificate holder mav operate an aircraft without a second irt command if Lhat aircraft
\
has a passenger seating configuration, excluding any pilot seat, of TE N seats or more M3S.S9J.
2. When carrying passengers under IFR in an aircraft with NINE seats or less a Second Jn
Command is required unless there is an approved Autopilot system (3 axis); the use of the
autopilot is authorized by the company's Operations Specifications, and the pilot has been
company trained and checked to use it, [ 135. 101.135.105)
3. If the aircraft is operated in a “COM M UTER operation.” the pilot must have at least 100 hours

v
PIC time in the make & model.
J
An approval for single pilot operations using an approved autopilot merely provides an operator
with the option to use a single pilot. It does not mandate that all flights be conducted with a
single pilot. A company could still choose to use a Second in Command instead of the autopilot,

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 281

C ha p 7 — C om m ercial Operations
A L C O H O L I C B E V E R A G E S : (135,121.ii. 1T, 121575)
(a) No person may drink any alcoholic beverage aboard an aircraft unless the certificate holder
operating the aircraft N s S frm ltfra ì »JfVEfafle
(b) No certificate holder may serve any alcoholic beverage to any person aboard its aircraft if that
person appears to be intoxicated.
(c) No certificate holder may allow any person to board any of its aircraft ]f that person appears to be
intoxicated f

r a pasEBngsr has orte ftir

the iM d too many. slHrts. I;
fealln^ no pain, andior
otherwise becomas
sloshed, soused, or
plasteiad — AM D —
creates a disturbance
aboard an aircraft. Iha
certificate holder must
submit a report to the F A A
within 5 days. (171*75)

STO W A G E o f FOOD. BEVE R AG E, and P a s s e n g e r

S e r v i c e E q u ip m e n t D U R IN G A ir c r a ft M O V E M E N T on
t h e S U R F A C E , T A K E O F F , a n d L A N D I N G : m s g 121.5771
(a) No certificate holder may move an aircraft on the surface, takeoff, or
land when any food, beverage, or tableware furnished by the certificate
holder is located at any passenger seat.
w No certificate holder may move an aircraft on the surface, takeoff, or land
unless each feed and beverage tray and seat back tray table is secured
in its stowed position.
(c) No certificate holder may permit an aircraft to move on the surface,
takeoff, or land unless each passenger serving cart is secured in its
stowed position
<d) Each passenger shall comply with instructions given by a crewmember
with regard to compliance with this section.

E X I T S E A T I N G : (1S5.12S, 121.5B5)
Except for on-demand operations with aircraft having 13
or fewer passenger seats and commuter operations
with aircraft having 9 or fewer passenger scats
No certificate holder may allow taxi or push-back
unless at least one required crewmember has verified
that no exit row seat is occupied by a parson the
crewmember determines is likely to be unable to
comprehend the instructions for and operate the
emergency exit.

282 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Pro fuss tonal Pilot

 Chap 7 — C om m ercial Operations
P a s s e n g e r In fo rm a tio n R e q u ir e m e n t» A nd S M O K IN G P ro h ib itio n s:
(Pari 252. 25.053, 185.127. 121.317)
{a) No person may conduct a scheduled flight on which smoking is prohibited by part 252 of Ihis Lille
unle»» the "No Smoking" passenger information signs are lighted during the entire flight, or one or
more "No Smoking" placards meeting the requirements of § 25.1541 of (his chapter are posted during
the entire flight. If both the lighted signs and the placards are used, the signs must remain lighted
during the entire flight segment.
(b) No person may smoke while a "No Smoking" sign is lighted or while "No Smoking1*
placards are posted, except as follows:
(1) On-demand operations. The pilot in command of an aircraft engaged in an on-
demand operation may authorize smoking on the flight deck ( If It is
physically separated from any passenger compartment). except In
any of the following situations:
(i) During aircraft movement on the surface or during takeoff or
landing:
(1) During scheduled passenger-carrying public charter operations
conducted under part 380 of this title:
(Hi) During on-demand operations conducted interstate that meet
paragraph J2) of the definition "On-demand operation" in S 110.2
of this chapter, unless permitted under paragraph fbW2t of this
section: or
(iv) During any operation where smoking Is prohibited by part 252
of this title or hy international agreement.
(2) Certain intrastate commuter operations and certain intrastate on-
demand operations. Except during aircraft movement on the surface or
during takeoff or landing, a pilot in command of an aircraft engaged in a
commuter operation or an on-demand operation that meets paragraph
(2) of the definition of "On-demand operation" in § 110,2 of this chapter
may authorize smoking on the flight deck (if it is physically
separated from the passenger compartment if any) if —
(i) Smoking on the flight deck is not otherwise prohibited by part
252 of this title;
(ii) The flight is conducted entirely within the same State of the United Slates (a flight from one
place in Hawaii to another place in Hawaii through the airspace over a place outside Hawaii is
not entirely within the same State); and
fm) The aircraft is either not turboiet-powered or the aircraft is not capable of carrying at least
30 passengers.
(c) No person may smoke in any aircraft lavatory.
(d) No person may operate an aircraft with a lavatory equipped with a smoke detector unless there is in
that lavatory a sign or placard which reads: "Federal law provides for a penalty of uo to i2.PDP for
tampering with the smoke detector installed in this lavatory."
{«) No person may tamper with, disable, or destroy any smoke detector installed in any aircraft lavatory.
if) On flight segments other Lhan those described in paragraph (a) of this section, Lhe "No Smoking" sign
required by § 135.177(a)(3) of this part must be turned on during any movement of the aircraft on the
surface, for each takeoff or landing, and at any other time considered necessary by the pilot in
command.
(g) The passenger information requirements prescribed in § 91.517(b) and (d) of this chapter are in addition
to the requirements prescribed in this section.
w Each passenger shall comply with instructions given him or her by crewmembers regarding compliance
wilh paragraphs (b), (c), and (a) of this section.
........................................................................ ...................................... *.................................... ..................................%
T h e S M O K IN G B A N
1. P ops not app ly to all-cargo operations or '‘unschodnlotU passnngar operations. !
2. Dobs not apply to most Part 121 supplem ental operations and to most 135 on-demand operations. |
3. Smoking may be allowod in the co ckp it only If a solid door separates the flight deck from the passenger
compartment. i
4. §25.353 ■I'gi Rogardloss of whether sm oking is allowod in any other part of the airpLano. lavatories m ust have |
self-contained, removable ashtrays located conspicuously on or near the entry side of each lavatory door... .' ]

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 283

C h a p 7 — Com m ercial Operations

F raction al
Part 91 S U B P A R T K j e t P ly in g
D U M M Ie 3
H I G H L I G H T S of S U B P A R T K - F R A C T I O N A L O P E R A T I O N S :
1. Fractional Ownership DEFINITION states five requirements (91.1001 ):
a A designated "Program Manager'1' responsible for overseeing lhe opération;
b. One or more owners per fractional ownership program aircraft,
with atjeast one aircraft having multiple owners;
c. Shareholders must possess at least a 1(16 _share of a fixed-wing
fractional aircraft or at least a 1F32"J share of a fractional helicopter.
d. A drv lease aircraft exchange agreement among all lhe owners; and
e. Multi-year program agreements.
2. O PER ATIO N AL C O N TR O L (91.1009 - 91.1013) — Owners will have to
sign an agreement acknowledging and accepting their shared
responsibility for operational control.
3 M ANAGEM ENT SPECIFICATIONS & PROGRAM OPERATING
MANUAL (91.1015, 91.1023, 91.1025) — Management specifications
{similar to Op Specs) will be issued by the FAA and a Program Operating
Manual must be prepared by the Program Manager and accepted by the FAA.
4. RECORDKEEPING (91.1027) — Records of all pj|pt and flight attendant information must be kept for at
least one year. A LO AD M AN IFEST must be prepared in duplicate before each takeoff and a copy of it
must be carried on board the aircraft; the Program Manager must Keep a copy for at least 30 days.
5. PtC or SIC: Designation Required (91.1031) — The Program Manager must designate a Pilot In
Command and a Second In Command for each program flight requiring two pilots.
6. CH EC K LISTS & CH A R TS (91,1033) — The Program Manager must provide current checklists and
aeronautical charts for all operations and Lhe pilots shall use them.
7. LANDI.NG_LJ.M.ITAT_0_N_S (61 „1037) - Nc person may permit a turbine engine powered force transport
category airplane on a program flight to TA K E OFF unless, Its anticipated weight on arrival would allow a
full slop landing at lhe destination (or alternate! within 60 percent of the effective length of the runway
from a point 50 feet above the Intersection of the obstruction clearance plane and (he runway. A fractional
operator (or 135-charter operator) is allowed to use an anticipated landing weight that would allow a full stop
landing within 30 percent of the effective length of the runway. If the operation is conducted in accordance
with an approved " Destination Airport Analysis” in that person’s program operating manual that
contains the elements listed in § 91.1025toL When operating a T U R B O JE T to a wet or slippery runway,
the effective runway lengih must be at least 115 percent of the runway lengih required under dry conditions,
8 W E A TH ER REPORTING A LANDING MINIMUMS ( 9 L 1 0 3 6 ) - H ftjJflU n a U ttflU l M lllUD im tD l
approach to an airport h q !£££ —
a. Either that airport Off the alternate airport has approved weather reporting: and
b. The latest weather includes a current local altimeter setting for lhe airport. If no local altimeter
setting is available at the destination airport, lhe pilot may use the current altimeter setting provided
by the facility designated on 'he approach chart for the destination airport.
c. For flight planning purposes, if lhe destination airport does NO T have approved weather reporting,
the pilot must designate as an alternate an airport that DOES have approved weather reporting.
d. M PA or and visibility landing minim urns are increased by 100 feet and % mile respectively for
each Pilot In Command of a turbine-cowered aircraft who has not served at least 100 hours as Pilot
In Command in that type of aircraft
9 TA K E OFF MINIMUMS (91.1039! —
a. No person may take off under IFR from an airport where weather conditions are at or above takeoff
minimums but below authorized landing mlnimums unless there is an alternate airport within one (1)
hour's flying time (at normal cruising speed. In still air) of the departure airport.
b, No pilot may takeoff when the reported visibility is less than 600 feet
10. PROVING TE S TS (aka PROVING R U N Sl (91.1041) — Proving tests would be required both for Fractional
ownership program aircraft and for Pari 135 aircraft only before the initial use of eflher an aircraft for which
two pilots are required under the aircraft type certification requirements or a turbojet (at least 25 hours —
including FIVE houia of L IG H T time and FIVE instrument approaches)

284 E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the PicfnsEtcn.il Pilaf

 Chap 7 — C om m ercial Operations
11. EQUIPM ENT (91.1045) — A fractional operation will need to adhere to the same basic equipment
requirements as Part 135 operators including Cockpit Voice Recorders. Flight Data Recorders. Ground
Proximity Warn Ino Systems. Terrain Awareness Warning Systems. T C A S . and either airborne
t hund.ers.tprmjJetect Ion equipment or airborne weather radar.
12. DRUG & A LC O H O L & EM ER GENCY M AINTENANCE (91,1047} —
a. Each Program Manager shall provide each direct employee performing flight crew member flight
attendant, flight Instructor, or aircraft maintenance duties with drug & alcohol misuse EDUCA TION.
The company may voluntarily implement a company drag or alcohol testing program lhat is separate
and distinct from a federally mandated program required by Part 121.
b. If an aircraft is Operated into an airport at which no drug tested maintenance personnel are available
and EM ERGENCY M AINTENANCE is required, the company may use persons not meeting the drug
testing requirements of Part 121 provided the FA A is notified In writing within 1Q days after the
maintenance is performed and the aircraft is re inspected by maintenance personnel who do meet the
drug testing requirements when the aircraft Is next at an airport where such personnel are available.
13. BACKGROUND CHECKS 191.10511 - Within 9Q davs of an individual beginning service as a pilot, the
Program Manager shall request essentially the same background Information required by Parts 121 and 135
under the Bilot Records Improvement ficl fF R IA i.
14. FLIGHT CREW EXPERIENCE — 191.10531
a. Total flight time for all pilots:
* P IC — A minimum of 1,500 hours.
#■ S JC — A minimum of 500 hours.
b For inu1ll=enjttne_TJUjaB.INE fixed-wmo and powered lift:
# PIC — Airline Transport Rating
* — Commercial pilot and instrument ratings
o. For all other aircraft, the following certification and rating requirements:
# PIC — Commercial pilol and instrument ratings
♦ SIC — Commercial pilol and instrument ratings
d. The F M may authorize deviations from Ihe above after consideration of Ihe size and scope of the
operation.
15. Pilot operating LIMITATIONS and PAIRING — (91.1055)
a. If the 51C has fewer than 100 hours as SIC flying for the program in the type aircraft being flown, the
PIC shall make all takeoffs and landings in any of the following situations: visibility at or below V*
mile or 4,000 RVR: runway is contaminated with water or frozen precipitation: braking action is less
than “pood:" cross wind in excess of 15 knots: wlndshcar is reported in ihe vicinity; or any other
condition the PIC is not comfortable with,
a. A flight shall not be released unless, for that type aircraft, EITHER the PIC or SIC has at least 75 hours
of program High! lime, either as PJC or SIC. The FAA may authorize deviations,
16. FLIG HT TIME & D J T Y (91.1057) — Basically the same as Part 135 on-demand operations with some
minor differences Ihrown In just to keep things Interesting (and inconsistent with all other time &. duty regs).
17. TRAINING & CHECKING (91.1063 thru 91.1107) — Basically the same as Part 135 including 6-month
instrument proficiency checks for the PJC and 12-month instrument proficiency checks for the SJC
including the normal grace provisions (month
before or after the month due).
18. HAZARDOUS M ATERIALS RECOGNITION —
(91.1035) — No Program Manager may use any
pilol to perform, and no pilot may perform any
assigned duties and responsibilities for the
handling Or carriage of hazardous materials (as
defined in 49 CFR 171.8). unless that pilot has
received__training in ihe recognition of
hazardous materials,
19. EXTENDED O V ERW ATER operations [91.509(c)]
— The Program Manager may apply for a
deviation from some of the equipment
requirements of 91.509(b)(2) through (5) [i.e., life
rafts, etc.] for a particular over water operation or
the Administrator may require the carriage of all or
any specific items of the equipment listed.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 285

Chap 7 — C om m ercial Operations]

T h e E ffect of Subpart K o f P a r t 9 1 on Part 135=

Subpoil K of Pari 91 Is accompanied by several changes io Part 135 that will help provide a more or less even
playing field for the two types of operations.
Here are some of I he H IG H L IG H T S of the C H A N G E S m P A R T 1 3 5 :

D E F IN IT IO N S
J,EUGIBLE_ONJ3EM AND_OPERAT]ON” (135.4) — M e arii an an-demand [Part 135| operation that meets, the (I gnt crew
E X P E R IE N C E , pilot oparelmt) L IM ITA TIO N S and P A IR IN G requirements belo*'
1. Flight oheW E X P E R IE N C E — (The flightcre* must consist ot at least two qdaliliud p ilo ts :.
TataJ Ihghl time lor all p ilo ts .
PIC — A minimum of 1.500 h otin
SIC — A minimum ol SQO hours.
0 For rny|jHEj]oire TURJ3JtjE 'ixed-wing and powered lilt: Cutie Patooties!
* PIC— Alrllno Transtcort Rating
* SIC— Commercial pilot and instrument 'alinqa
c. For alloths rai rcrafl the following cortilication and rating raguiraments:
* P|C — Commercial pilot and Instrument ratings
■* 51C — Cotpmerqi^l pilot and instrumant rati ngs
d. T h e FAA may authorize dewistrons from iha abovH aher consideralion of the size and scope of 1he operation,
2 Pilot operating LIMITATIONS and PARING.
a. If the SIC has fewer than 10D hours as SIC llying lor the program .n the type aircralt being down. thB PIC shall make al
takeoffs ;md landings in nny of (he following siluntions vialbllity al or below 'A milt? or j.OOO RVR. runwny ih
cantaminated With water or frozen precipitation: brakrrtg aclion is less than "gddd” , cross Wind in ajioesB u‘ 1 5 knots:
windsheai is reported in the vicinity; or any other condition the PIC it not comfortable wi1h.
b, A flight shall not bo released unlass, for that type aircraft. EITHER Lho PIC or StC tins al lta»t 75 hour» in that make and
model [and type, if a type rating is- required], as eiiher PIC or SIC. Ttre Administrator may authorize deviations.

1. LANDING LIM ITATIONS [135.385, 135.387) — A person operating a turbine engine-powered large
transport category airplane on an OIM-DEMAND Night may not T A K E O FF that airplane unless its
anticipated weight on arrival would allow a full stop LANDING at the destination within 60% of the
effective length of the runway (70% for the alternate; or SQ% if ¡1i$ a turbojet using that alternate), An
'‘ELIGIBLE ON-DEMAND O P E R A TO R " is allowed to use a landing weight that would allow a full slop
landing within SO percent of the effective length of the runway [destination or alternate), if the operation is
conducted in accordance with an approved “ Destination Airport Analysis'1included in that company's
operations manual. When operating a T U R B O JE T to a wet or slippery runway, the effective runway length
must be at least 115 percent of the runway length required under dry conditions.
2. W E A TH ER REPORTING £ LANDING LIMITATIONS for an “ ELIGIBLE ON-DEMAND O P ER A TIO N " —
No pilot may begin an instrument approach to an airport unless (135.225) —
a. Either that airport or (he alternate airport has approved weather reporting: and
b The late SI wealher includes S current local altimeter setting for the airport. Jf no local altimeter
setting is available al the destination airport, the pilot may use the current altimeter setting
provided by the facility designated on the approach chart,
c. For light planning purposes, If the destination airport does NO T have approved weather
reporting, the pilot must designate as an alternate an airport that DOES have approved weather
reporting.
3 PROVING T E S T S [aka PROVING R U N 51(135.145) — Proving tests [ 25 hours including 5 hours of night
and 5 instrument approaches) are required before the initial use of either an aircraft for which two pilots
are required under the aircraft type certification requirements or a turbojet.
4. EMERGEN-CJfJMAfNTENANCE (120.35, 120,39) — If an aircraft is operated (on-demand) into an airport at
which no drug tested maintenance personnel are available and emergency maintenance is required,
the company may u s e persons not meeting drua/alcohol testing requirements of Part 121 provided
the FA A is notified in writing within 10 days after the maintenance is performed and the aircraft is
reinspected by maintenance personnel who do meet the drug testing requirements of Part 121 when the
aircraft is next al an airport where such personnel are available.
5. EXTENDED O V ER W A TER operations (135.167] — The Administrator may allow a deviation in the
operations specifications to provide relief from carrying certain specific equipment items normally required
for all extended overwater operations for a particular extended overwater operation.
6. NJ-G-H-T—CJJ-RRE_N_C_Y [135.247) — Changes provide an alternate moans of compliance for meeting night
currency requirements i'3 takeoffs & 3 landings !, for a commercial pilot who operates more than one
typq of turbine-powered airplane thai is type certificated for more than one pilot flight crewmember,
provided the pilot has logged al least 1500 hour» total time as a pilot.
235 EVERYTHING EX PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot
 Chapter 8

More Commercial Stuff

Parts 91, 121, and 135 — Still Dancin’
O p e ra tio n s S p e c ific a tio n s ................................................................. .................. 286
O p e ra tio n s M anual ( G O M ) .................................................................
Management Personnel Qualifications...................................................... .................... 291
R am p C h e c k ............................................................................................
Checklists; Charts; Performance D ata..................................................... .................... 299
Passenger Occupancy of Pilot Seat.......................................................... .................... 293
Briefing of Passengers Before Takeoff...................................................... .................... 293
Proving Runs anti Validation Testing......................................................... .................... 294
Cockpit Voice Recorder [CVR'i ................................................................. .................... 294
Elicht Data Recorder fFDRTTT .................... 294
Ground Proximity ! Terrain Awareness Warnina Systems iG P W S )....... .................... 294
Initial. Transition 6, Upgrade GROUND Training...................................... .................... 295
Recurrent T raining....................................................................................... .................... 295
Group I & Group II Airplanes....................................................................... .................... 296
Training Type DEFINITIONS {Initial. Transition. Upgrade, etc.).............. .................... 296
Grace Month................................................................................................ .................... 296
EM ERGENCY Training, Fire Extinguishers............................................... .................... 297
H A Z M A T....................................................................................................... ........... 293, 299
Company Flight Instructors......................................................................... .................... 300
Authored Instructor.................................................................................. .................... 300
Check Airman................................................................................................ .................... 301
C H E C K R ID E S ...........................................................................................
Initial Operating Experience t'lOE t ____ ___ _____ ____ ______ _______ _ .................... 303
Flight Attendants; Weapons........................................................................ .................... 303
Aircraft Tests & Inspections {100 hour, V O R )........................................... .................... 309
Service Difficulty Reports............................................................................. ........... 310. 311
Maintenance— Reports, Programs, AAIP, Maintenance Required......... .................... 312
Instruments & Equipment Required............................................................ .................... 313
Safety Belts................................................................................................... .................... 313
Extended Over water Eguipmenl & Performance........................ .................... 314
RADAR.......................................................................................................... .................... 315
T C A S ............................................................................................................. .................... 315
F la s h lig h t .................................................................................................
Airworthiness................................................................................................. .................... 316
Reporting Mechanical Irregularities........................................................... .................... 316
Flight Crewmembers at Stations................................................................. .................... 316
Seat Belts & Shoulder Harness______________________________ ___________ 316
A irp la n e F lig h t M an ual (AFM >— L im ita tio n s — P la c a r d s ........ .................. 317

Ferry Permit (Special Flight Permit)..,.,.,.,......,.,.......... ............ ............ . ........... 322, 323
Pilot R e co rd S h a rin g ( P R I A ) .............................................................
Access Investigation Check {Airport Badge)............................................. .................... 325
Closing &. Locking of Flightcrew Compartment Door................................ .................... 325
Eye Locator — Seat Adjustment................................................................. .................... 325
Aircraft Dispatcher........................................................................................ .................... 326
Dispatch Release 1Flight Release............................................................ .................... 326
Age 60 and Part 121.................................................................................... .................... 327

EVERYTHING EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 287

Chap S — More C o m m ercial Stuff
O P E R A T I O N S S P E C I F J C A T I O N S ^ P A R T 1 3 5 o r P A R T 1 2 1 : ( H ij, 11* 47, 11949)
1 Operations Specifications {aka 'OpSpecs'1} are issued by the FAA and contain the specific
authorizations, limitations, and procedures under each kind of operation that is to he conducted.
2. Operations Specifications are listed by number (e.g.; A001, A002, B001, B054r C052, D095r etc.).
These numbers correspond to the same subject areas for all operators.
3. Some OpSpecs are generic in nature (Le., virtually the same for all operators with similar operations
except for the company name at the top of the page), and other OpSpecs are customized for the
individual operator (e.g,, business names, location, aircraft registration numbers, etc,)
4. "OpSpecs" also contain:
a. The specific location of (he certificate holder's base of operations,
b. Other business names under which the certificate holder may operate.
C. T ype of aircraft, registration marking, and serial num bers of each aircraft authorized to use.
d. Kinds of operations authorized.
e. Areas of operations authorized.
f. Airport limitations.
g. Time limitations for overhaul in a. inspecting, and checking airframes, engines, propellers.
rotors, appliances, and emergency equipment,
h. Any authorized deviation and exemption granted by the FAA.
O p e ra tio n s S p e c ific a tio n E x a m p le

U S . Department
□f Trans portatiGn
Federal Aviation Operations Spccific-iuion*
Administration___________________________________________________________________________________________________
CUM . HQ ........ ro l: IW2WW
A irs p a e e -N o n s e h fd u le d Passe niter and A ll-C a r a o P pcrallcm s I IQ R evisio n; ti20

The K tlilic B ic holder is authorized to eunducl nunschudulcd passenger and all-C arp i {scheduled and ntinschedulud) special lerminal
area I PR Mjerahono in. Class Cr airspace specified in accordance w ith ihe limitations and provisions o f this paragraph The certificate
holder ahull not conduct any other spec ill terminal if e b I l k oporal ton* under tins opentions specification,

t. The certificate Iinkier is Bu&orieed 1oconduct ihcse operation* provided 1hail Ilie certificate holder determines thill

{ |) Thu a itp O rt is served b y an a u th o ris e d in s tru m e n t a p proa ch p ro ce d u re .

{2 ) Th e nirporl ha* tin approved sdurcc o fw e tth c r
{3 ) Th e airport has a suitable means fur the pilol-in-cum m and to acquire air traffic advisories and the status u f airport .services
and facilities,
{4 ) Th e facilities and .services necessary lo safely conduct IF R operations are available and operational at the time u f the
partieular Operation,

h. T h e eertifieate holder ls authorized to designate and use an alternate ur diversionary anpurl which w ill involve terminal area
U K operations in C I bss G u m p a c c provided lhi.it at Ihe time o f any operation to that alternate o r d iv to io n k ry airport, Ihe
eertifieate holder determines that the pruvisiuns specified in subparagraphs afIh through {4 } are met.

e. LiJiecpt as provided in operations specified iuits paragraph <.'077, till Title 14 C F R I’art I i f Lutbuiel and 14 C'J R I’art 12 L
operations in the terminaJ area are eundueted under ijistrtimetiL flight rules.

]. Issued by ihe Federal Aviation Administration.

1 These Opcrvtiorw SpeaificBtions urc approved by di reelion of the Atlminislriilor.

^ t u w U d 7fécZ>04ta/d
Ronald M cD onald Prineipal Operations Inspector 5R34
3. Date Approval is effective: 1/14/XX Amendment Number: 2
4. I hereby accept tod receive Operations Specifications in this paragraph.

R
“ it iU t J L u tq U
2jUehH^Lei5|jel^^^^FresidemT)Lre^lnnuTfj|ierjtiom^
Print Date: 1 /140C XX X COirf-1 C E R T I F I C A T E N O .: LENOSBCU
Lengel W orld Airlines, Ine.

288 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

 [ch a p B — More C om m ercial Stuff

G e n e ral Operations Manual fGOM); h m j i . laa.aa 121.131 ttw 121,141.91.102a. bi 1025;

1. The certificate holder shall prepare and keep a current Operations Manual (aka: General Operating
Manual. G O M . or “Ops Manual' ), approved bv the FAA, selling forth the policies and procedures by
which the company will comply with the Operations Specifications issued by the FAA and (he current
Federal Regulations
2. A copy of the manual must be made available to all ground personnel and furnished to all flight
crewmembers and is intended to he used by employees for guidance on how lo do their jobs.
3. Each flight crewmember is required to have their Operations Manual IN THEIR POSSESSION any
lime while operating a company aircraft. "An electronic version of the manual is sufficient and
satisfactory provided that (here is a means lo view it during the performance of assigned duties."
“Sharing manuals or e-readers would not be In compliance with the regulation/1
4. Each employee to whom a manual is furnished is responsible to keep it u p to date with changes and
additions furnished to them.

O P E R A T I O N S M A N U A L {G O M ) C O N T E N T S : {135.23. 135.77, 135.179,. 119.63, 121.131 thru 121.141}

Each manual shall have the date of the last revision on each revised page. The manual must include:
1. The name, title, duties and responsibilities of each management person i
2. Name and title of each person authorized to exercise
^operational control"fthe authority to launch an aircraft] (135.77}.
3. Weight A Balance procedures.
4. Copies or excerpts from the Operations Specifications Including:
a. Area of operation.
b. Types of operations,
c. Category and class of aircraft.
d. Crew complements.
5. Accident notification procedures.

Procedures for ensuring the Pilot In Command knows

that required airworthiness inspections have been made.
7. Procedures Tor reporting [mechanical discrepancies and determining that the mechanical
discrepancies have been corrected whether at home base or on the road.
e. Minimum Equipment JJst iM E L : procedures (135.179).
9. Refueling procedures.
10. Passenger briefing procedures.
11. Flight locating procedures. The“Ops Manual” is your Bible
12. Emergency procedures. while working for any Part 135 or Part 121 company. \
13. E.n_ro_uicj^uMi.fi.djali.Q.n procedures. You must know all the company procedures
14. Approved Aircraft Inspection Program contained within it. If you are “ ramp checked" it will
(M 1 E ) when applicable. be one of the first things they ask for. If you cannot
15. HAZardous MATerials procedures. produce it you be In a heap-o-trouble. The FAA feels
16. Evacuation of passengers during an you cannot fly an airplane wilhout it. Make s u t e y o u
emergency. , can reach it from the cockpit in flight.
17. Other procedures and policy Instructions
regarding operations.

The manual cannot act contrary to any FA R . It is not “approved" by the POI (Principle Operations
Inspector) it is “ accepted." which is a lower standard of review. It can include any "guidance'' the company
wishes to provide. “Guidance." by definition, is not mandatory but merely informatorv.

If an individual fails to comply with a part of the Operations Manual that is made mandatory bv some
section of the FAR s. then the individual Is In violation of that FAR and should be cited bv the F A A .

If, on the other hand, an individual violates a company standard or policy not covered by the FARs then any
action against the individual is purely at the discretion of the company, not the FAA.
(FAA Legal Interpretations dated June 10.1981 and February 18.1991.)

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 289

Chap fl — More C om m ercial Stuff

O P E R A T IO N S M A N U A L (G O M ) I N F O R M A T I O N a n d C H A N G E S :
(1 3 5 .2 1 , 1 3 5 .0 1 , -01.0, 1 2 1 .1 3 1 tfiru 1 2 1 .1 * 1 }
The certificate holder shall inform each employee of changes to the Operations Specifications that apply to
that person’s duties and shall make available to each pilot the following materials In current form:
1. Aeronautical Information Manual or a commercial publication that contains the same information,
2. Part 61. Part 91. Part 135 and/or Part 121 of the Federal regulations.
3. Aircraft Equipment M anuals, and Aircraft Fiiflht_Manua.i.5 or equivalent,
4. For forekin operations the International Flight Information Manual or commercial equivalent
containing the operational and enlry requirements of the foreign country involved.

I An approved " C o m p l y Flight Many&!" (£FM ) may be accepted *■

; by the FAA as a substitute for an approved Airplane Flight Manual. ;
; If an approved Company Flight Manual is on board, it is not
■ required to also carry an approved Airplane Flight Manual.

* 4^
O p s M a n u a l (G O M ) “ C H A N G E 'S " can happen relatively often at \
a Part 135 or Part 121 company, !

When the “O perations Specifications'1change for any reason, or a \

company polity changes, ihe “Operations Manual” must change to
reflect those changes, therefore keeping all employees informed.

It's the company's responsibility to issue the changes to the affected

employees.

It's the employee's responsibility to keep their Ops Manual up to date with
*
*

One page of your Ops Manual is out

of date, that's a violation of 135.21(e).
D O N O T G E T C A U G H T W ]T H A N
Flying withoul a shirt or shoes is
OU T OF DATE O P E R A T IO N S M ANUAL! careless, reckless and obscene
operation. In my opinion, and a
serious violation of 31.13(a).

You are a despicable human being.

Consider yourself busted young manL-

290 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 Chap & — More Com m ercial Stuff
M A N A G E M E N T P E R S O N N E L Q U A L I F I C A T I O N S f o r PART 1 3 5 i rtteM heat, tiaem
1. D IR ECTO R OF O P E R A TIO N S :
a. Must hold either an Airline Transport Pilot certificate or a Commercial Pilot certificate
depending or what certificate is required to qualify as Pilot In Command for the operation.
h. Must have at least 3 years of experience, within the past 6 years, as Pilot In Command of an
aircraft operated under Part 1Z1 or 135 — or — have at least 3 years supervisory or managerial
experience within the past 6 years in a position that exercised "operational control" under Part
121 or 135 — or — a person with previous experience as Director of Operations, must have at
east 3 years experience as Pilot In Command of an aircraft operated under Part 121 or 135.
2. CHIEF_PILOT:
a. Must hold either an Airline Transport Pilot certificate or a Commercial Pilot cerlificate
depending on what certificate is required to qualify as Pilot In Command for the operalion
AND be qualified to SERVE as Pilot In Command in at least ONE aircraft used in the
certificate holder's operation {N O TE: the chief pilot of a Part 121 operation does N O T need to
be qualified to serve as Pilot In Command of ANY aircraft used in the certificate holder's
operalion).
b, Must have at least 3 years of experience, within the past 6 years, as Pilot In Command of an
aircraft operated under Part 121 or 135 — or — a person with previous experience as Chief
Pilot, must have at least 3 years of experience as Pilot In Command of an aircraft operated
under Part 121 or 135.
3 . DIRECTOR QF MAINTENANCE:
a. Must hold a mechanic certificate with airframe and powerplanf ratines.
b. Musi have at .east 3 years of experience within the past 3 years maintaining aircraft as a
certificated mechanic, including experience in maintaining the same category and class of
aircraft as the cerlificate holder uses — or — have 3 years experience within the past 3 years
repairing aircraft in a certificated airframe repair station, including 1 year in the capacity of
approving aircraft for return to service.
4. DEVIATIONS — A certificate holder may request a DEVIATION to employ a person who does not
meet the appropriate airman or managerial experience requirements — or — may request a deviation
lo combine managerial positions depending on the sise and scope of the operation and the
comparable experience of the person.
*" i
Part 121 operations also require
a Director of Safety and a
. ChiefJnsjjoctor See 119.65.
TKa SitiËrt
-Guys

E V E R Y T H IN G EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 291

Chap fl— More C o m m ercial Stuff)
T h e In s p e c to r’s C h e c k lis t:
1 Airworthiness certificate;
2 . Regi sfrati On;
3. Operating handbook;
4. Weight & Balance information
5. Flashlight:
Of coursa the
6 Charts (currency);
.
1,Ething they’ll i
7 . VOR check; ask for is your
8 . E LT battery; pilot certificata
9, Seat belts: and meditai
-■
10 MEL (if applicable);
11. General airworthiness of the aircraft.

I N S P E C T I O N S a n d T E S T S — “ R A M P C H E C K ” ! (135.73. 1Z1.547, 1Z1.54B)

Each certificate holder and each employee shall allow the Administrator, at any time or place, to make
inspections or tests (including en route inspections^ to determine compliance with the regulations and
Operations Specifications.

IN S P E C T O R S A D M ISSIO N to P IL O T S ’ C O M P A R T M E N T — “ R A M P C H E C K ” —
EN R O U T E C H E C K — F O R W A R D O B S E R V E R ' S S E A T : <135.75. 131.547, 121 .54s)
1. Whenever, in performing the duties of conducting an inspection, an FAA inspector presents an Aviation
Safety Inspector credential [FAA Form 11GA) to a Pitot In Command of an aircraft operated by the
certificate holder, the inspector must be given free and uninterrupted access to the pilot
compartment. However, this does not limit the emergency authority of the FIC to exclude any
person from the pilot compartment in the interest of safety
2. A forward observer’s seat on the flight deck, or forward passenger seat with headset or speaker
must be provided for use by the Administrator while conducting an en route inspection.

“ R A M P C H E C K ” — IN F O F R O M t h e F A A I N S P E C T O R ' S H A N D B O O K :
(Order 3EJOQ.1 Flight. Standards Inln-rmaLmn M anagem ent SysLem)
1. The inspector shall always have identification available.
2. An inspector must not board any aircraft without the knowledge of the crew or operator (inspectors
cannot board an aircraft without the permission of the captain). Some operators may prefer 10 have a
company representative present to answer questions.
3. If the surveillance will delay a flight, ihe inspector should use prudent judgment whether or not to
continue. (N O TE: An inspector is NO T authorized to detain you if jt means missing an engagement
or a flight They can only keep you long enough to check the appropriate paperwork.}
4. The inspector should also bear in mind that he or she may not be able to complete all items on every
ramp inspection.

R AM P C H E C K A D V IC E
1 ALW AYS remain FRIENDLY and C O U R TEO U S
2. ALW AYS address the inspector by his [or her) FIRST NAM E, it has the affect of keeping things at
the human level — they're doing their job, you’re doing your job. A little humor and a suoer-
friendlv attitude go a long way to break the ice if you can do so without acting like an idiot.
See if you can uet them to SMILE Ask THEM questions See if you can get a dialogue going
about something other than the ramp check. FAA people usually love to talk, and usually don't
have a whole lot of time. II you can keep him distracted with chilchat — eventually his time will run
out — and everyone will go home happy. If you give him enough time to dig. he WILL find
something wrong. |n which C3S0 HE will gO home happy and YO U will go to the motel unhappy.
3. Graciously comply with a request to see your license/medical and the aircraft's airworthiness
certificate and regia (ration.
4. Beyond that, if you wish to end the inspection (are those batteries in your flashlight still good?),
VER Y POLITELY, tell him you have an important commitment and a schedule you've G O T to
keep.... Then go grab some lunch, take in a movie, throw a few balls at the local bowling alley,
crank-up and takeoFf — but get away from the airport if you wish to end the inspection.

292 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PicfnsEtcn.il Pilaf

 Chap & — More Com m ercial Stuff

C H E C K L I S T S — C H A R T S — P E R F O R M A N C E D A T A : nas sa.gì Eoa.mais, 121 sm , frutto)

The certificate holder must PROVIDE the following materials, in current and appropriate fornn, accessible to
the pilot, and the pilot shall USE them:
A cockpit C H EC K LIS T containing
a. Before start.
kC H E C K L IS T
Before s ta r t....... ................. 'ALL ABOARD"
Before T a k e o ff.....A L L ENGINES RUNNING
b. Before takeoff. M y fa v o rite
c. Cruise.
d. Before landing.
c h e c k lis t ►
A fter T akeoff ..................... .......... .„.GEAR UP
C rulsD ................... ................ COPILOT FLIES
E m ergency.......... .................................. LAND
e. After landing. Before Landing .....................GEAR DOWN

2.
f. Stopping engines.
COCkpil C H EC K LIS T containing:
r
A fter L a n d in g ..... ...........ALL ENGINES OFF

a. Emergency operation of fuel, hydraulic, electrical, and mechanical systems.

b. Emergency operation of instruments and controls.
c. Engine inoperative procedures.
d. Any other emergency procedures necessary for safety.
3. CU R R EN T and appropriate en route and approach C H A R TS .
4. For multiengine aircraft, O N E-EN G IN E-IN O FER A TIV E C L IMB PERFORM ANCE DATA

VFR C H A R TS
VFR charts are REQUIRED for VFR flight. The NTSB has ruled that IFF? charts do not contain sufficient
information for VFR pilotage in the event of a complete radio failure or other emergency that would require
visual reference to landmarks, In their infinite wisdom, even a pilot with extensive VFR flight experience in
a certain area should be reguired to carry current Sectional and/or Terminal Area Charts (for commercial
and/or large aircraft operations). Nowadays just a couple of taps away on your irusty iPad. •
.....................................................................................................................................................

P A S S E N G E R O C C U P A N C Y o f P I L O T S E A T : das 11 3 )
No certificate holder may operate an aircraft, type certificated after October 151971. that has a
passenger seating configuration, excluding any pilot seat, of more than eight seats —
if any person O TH E R THAN the pilot in command, a second in command, a company check airman, or an
authorized representative of the Administrator, Ihe National Transportalion Safety Board, or the United
States Postal Service occupies a pilot seat. ____

1. Before each takeoff the Pilot In Command shall ensure [tun ¿ill passengers have been oral I1
briefed on:
a, Smoking and warned against disabling any smoke detectors in lavatories, etc.
t>. Use of seat belts.
c. Placement of seat backs In an upright position before takeoff and landing.
d. Location and means of opening Ihe passenger entry door and emergency exits.
e. Location Of survival equipm ent.
f. If the flight involves extended overwater operation, ditching procedures and the use of
flotation equipment.
g. If the flight involves operations above 12 .000 feet, the normal and emergency use of oxygen.
h. Location and operation of fire extinguishers.
2. Each person who may need Ihe assistance of another person to move to an exit if an emergency
occurs, and that person's attendant must receive an evacuation briefing.
3. The oral briefing shall be supplemenied by printed cards, convenient for each passenger, that contain
a diagram of and method of operating the emergency exits: and other instructions necessary.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 293

Chap B — More C om m ercial Stuff

P R O V IN G & V a l i d a t i o n T E S T S — a k a — “ P R O V I N G R U N S ’1: nas-us i2i.iB4«.i04i)

1. No certificate holder may operate an aircraft, other than a turbojet aircraft, for which two a ¡lots ore required by
this chapter for operation!; under VFR. If It has n ot previously PROVED such an aircraft in operations under this
part in at least 25 hours of proving tests acceptable to the Administrator including:
a . Five hours of niflht [ 10 hours for Part 121] - if right flights are to be authorised:
b. F l y Instrum ent approaches (simulated or actual) — if IFR flights are to be authorized;and
c. Entry into a representative num ber of en routs airports as d-stermined by the Administrator.
2. No certificate holder may operate a turbojet airplane if it has not pre vio u sly proved a turbojet airplane in
operations under this part in at least 25 hou rs of proving tests acceptable to the Administrator including:
a. Five hours of night [10 hour a for Part 121] if night fl ights are to be authorized:
b. F l y Instrum ent approaches (simulated or actual) — if IFR flights are to be authorized; and
c. Entry into a representative num ber of on route airports as determined by the Administrator.
3. Passengers may NOT bo carried during proving tests, except representatives o f the Administrator to observe the
tests. However, p ilo t training may be conducted during the proving tests.
4. VALIDATION testing is required to determine that a certificate holder is capable of conducting operafons safely &
in compliance with applicable regulatory standards. Validation tests are required for the following authorizations:
a. The addition of an aitCJtaft for which two pilots arc required for operations undor VFR g f a "
turbojet airplane, if that aircraft or an aircraft of (he same make or almllar design has not
been previously proved or validated in operations under
this part.
b . Operations nntsidn IJ.S. airspace.
c. Class II navigation authorizations.
d. Special performance or oporational authorizations.
5. Validation tests must be accomptishcd by test methods acceptable to the Administrator. A c tu a Iflig h tsm a y_n o f be
required when an applicant can demonstrate competence and compliance with appropriate regulations without
conducting a flight.
6. Proving tests and validation tests may be conducted si mu Itan oou sly when appropriate.
7. The Administrator may authorize deviations from this section if the Administrator finds that special circumstance»
make fu ll compliance unnecessary

C O C K P IT V O ICE R EC O R D ER S (C V R ); (251457,135,151,91.609,61.1045,1 2 1.359)

1. No person may operate a m ulti on a in a. turbine -do wered airplane or rolorcrafl having a passenger seating
configuration of six or more a rd for which two p ilo ts are required by certification or operating rules unless it is
equipped with an approved c o c k p it voice recorder that is operated contl nuoutlv from use of the check list
before the Flight (121.359 says .from the start of 1he use of the checklist before starting engines for Ihe purpose of
flight") to completion of the final chock list at the end of the might.
2. in the event of an accident or occurrence requiring immediate notification or the NTSB, the certificate holder shall
ho&P the recorded information for at Least 60davs
3. The FAA CANNOT use the CVR fo r arty civil penafty Or cqrtlflqato_actior but could
use 1he tapes as evidence for a reexamination of a pilot's competency (a "709 ride").
4. Roloaso of CVR recordings to the public following an accident is at the discretion of
the NTSB.

F L IG H T D A T A R EC O R D ER S { FDR & P F D R liras uss. 135152

91.609, 91.1046, 121.343 uyh 121.341(a)]
1. No person may operate under this p a l a m u ttU n q in e , tu rb ino ^nq in o -p ow e rp d
airplane or rotorcraft having a passenger seating configuration, excluding any pilot
scat, pf 10 to 1a seats that was added to the operator's Operations Specifications
after October 11. 1991. unless it is equipped with a Oigital F light Data R ecorder.
2. An aircraft wilh 20 seats or more is required to have a more sophisticated flight recorder.
3. Flight date recorder information CAN be used as evidence for civil penalty or certificate action,

G R O U N D P R O X IM ITY / TE R R A IN A W A R EN E S S W A R N IN G S Y S T E M S (GPWS1;
(91.223, 91,1045, 135.154, 121.354)
1. No person may operate a turbine-powered airplane having a passenger
seat configurator! of IP seat» or more unless it is equipped with an
approved ground proximity g a m in g System.
2. Airplanes manufactured after March 29, 2002 — No person may operate
a turbine-powered airplane with 1_0 or more passenger scats unless
PULL UP
equipped with Class A Terrain Awareness and Warning System. GPW TEST
3. Airplanes manufactured after March 29. 2002 — No person may operate
a turbine-powered airplane with 6 to 5 ^ a s s o n A o r seats unless
equipped wilh Class B Terrain Awareness and Warning System.
294 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot
 Chap B -— More C om m ercial Stuff

IN IT IA L . T R A N S I T I O N , a n d U P G R A D E G R O U N D T R A IN IN G
G E N E R A L S U B J E C T S ; ( 13 5 , 2 25 , las.aati, 135 . 345 . 1 2 1 .400, 1 2 1 .4 19 , 5 1 , 1 1 0 1 )
1. The certificate holder's flight locating procedures.
2. W e ig h t & B a la n c e and ru n w a y lim ita tio n s for Lakeof' and landing;
3. Meteorology including frontal systems, icing, fgfl thunderstorm*.
windshear. high altitude weather, and Crew Resource Management;
4. Air Traffic Control systems, procedures and phraseology:
5. Navigation including Instrument approach procedures:
6. Normal and emergency flflm m im m ilflll ja M flld lim :
7. V isual cues before and during descent ue'rjw DH 01 MPA and
0. Other instructions necessary to ensure lhe pilot's competence.
•A company ‘‘Trainirm Pro gram 1’ must be "'approved' 1by the FAA, which is a higher
| standard of Ecrutiny (h anlh s company tj+jneral Operations Manual. A carrier's G D M
; iu prepared by ihe tarrrer and ’accepted" by (he FA A . AccspLanca only means it
■ meets. Ihe required contents for e G D M end dees net conflict with any F A R .

For EACH AIR C R A FT TY P E :

1. General description;
2. Performance;
3. Engines and propellers:
4. Major components;
5. Major systems {¡.e., flight controls, electrical, and hydraulic:, normal.
abnormal, and em ergency operations, appropriate procedures and limitations
6. Procedures for:
Recognizing, avoiding and escaping from severe weather situations including low-level
windshear (except helicopter pilots are not required to be trained in escaping windshear);
h. Operating In or near thunderstorms {including best penetration altitudes), turbulent air
{including Clear Air Turbulence), icing, had, and other hazardous conditions; and
c. Operating during GROUND ICING conditions, if the certificate holder expects to authorize
takeoffs in ground icing conditions, including:
=> Holdover ti mes when using deicing/anli-icing fluids;
=> Dcicina/anti-icina procedures, including inspection and Checking procedures:
=ï Communications;
Airplane surface contamination [i.e . adherence Of frosl. ICO, Or snow) and critical area
identification, and knowledge of how contamination adversely affects performance:
=> Types and characteristics of delcinqfcnti-icing fluids:
=> Cold weather preflight procedures:
=> Techniques for recognizing contamination on the airplane:
i^ Iim .* *
th is rule doHS not raquirg training for operations
8. Fuel consumption and cruise control; during orourtd icing car iriilicns ¡1 iha operator dees
9. Flight planning. not anticipate frequent encounters with such
10. Each normal and emergency procedure, and conditions.. However, if g ro u n d icing conditions
• ra H f l m t m a d , the p:.ct c o u ld not takeoff until
11. The approved Aircraft Flight Manual or equivalent 1116 t i K j CCndiLlonf no luuour exist.

R E C U R R E N T T R A I N I N G : (iss.ssi. 121.427,91,1107>
1. Recurrent GROUND training must include at least (he following:
a.
À QUIZ or other review to determine the crewmember's knowledge of
the AIRCRAFT and crewmember position involved.
b. InsfruCtian as necessary in the Subjects required for initial ground
training, as appropriate, including low-allitude W INDSHEAR.
operai ing during GROUND ICING condii ions, £rew fiesource
Management, and EM ER GENCY training.
2. Recurrent FLIGH T training must include the maneuvers or procedures in this
subpart, except that satisfactory completion of the check required by
135,293 within the preceding 12 calendar months mav be substituted for
recurrent flight training.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 295

Chap — More C om m ercial S tu ff______________________________________________________________

G R O U P I A irp la n e s - Propeller driven aircraft including reciprocating and turboprop powered. (121 4ofy
G R O U P II A irp lanes — Turbojet powered, <121 400)

T R A I N I N G T Y P E S : (135.321, 121.400, 121.424,01.1103)

1. INITIAL Training — Training required fer pilots who have not qualified and served in the same capacity
on another airplane of the same group,
2. TRANSITION Training — Training required for pilots who have qualified and served in the same
capacity on another airplane of Ihe same group (e.g.. B-727 sic to B-747 sic).
3. UPGRADE Training — Training required for pilots who have qualified and served as second in
command or flight engineer on a particular aircraft type, before they serve as pilot in command or
second in command, respectively, on that airplane {B-747 sic to B-747 pic).
4. D IFFERENCES Training — Training required for pilots who have qualified and served on a particular
type airplane, when the Administrator finds differences training is necessary before a pilot serves in the
same capacity on a particular variation of that aircraft (B-737-200 to B-737-490).
5. R E CU R R EN T Training — Training required for crewmembers to remain adequately trained and
currently proficient for each aircraft, crewmember position, and type of operation in which the
crewmember serves (usually every 6 to 12 months depending on Ihe type of Iraining).
6. REQUALIFICATION Training — Training required for pilots previously trained and qualified, but who
have become unqualified due to noi having mei within the required period ihe recurrent training and/or
checking required under Part 135 or Part 121.
7. TRAINING CEN TER — An organization governed by the applicable requirements of Part 142 that
provides training, testing, and checking under contract or other arrangement to certificate holders.
A. IN F L IG H T — Maneuvers, procedures, or functions that must be conducted in the aircraft.

G R A C E MO N T H — T R A I N I N G T O A C C E P T E D S T A N D A R D S ; [135,301. 121.401(b). 01.1071]

{a) If a crewmember who is required lo lake a test or a flight check under this part, completes the test or
flight check in the calendar M ONTH-BEFORE o rA F T E R the calendar month in which it is required
that crewmember is considered to have completed the test or check ]n the calendar month in which it
is required.
(b) If a pilot being checked FAILS any of the required M ANEUVER S, the person giving the check MAY
GIVE AD D ITIONAL TRAINING to the pilot DURING TH E CO U R S E OF TH E C H E C K , In addition to
repeating the maneuvers failed, the person giving the check may require the pilot being checked to
repeat any other maneuvers that are necessary to determine the pilot's proficiency. lithe pi.ot
being checked is unable to demonstrate satisfactory performance, the certificate holder may not use the
pilot in operations under this çart until the pilot has satisfactorily completed Ihe check.

/ The INSTRUM ENT experience CUR R ENCY requirements of 61 57(c) (i.e. 6 months: 6 approaches:
holding: and intercepting and tracking courses). DO NOT APPLY to a Pilot In Command who is
\
employed by a Part 121 or Part 135 air carrier while flying under Part 91, 121, or 135 for that air
carrier f61.57(e)(2). 121,401,121.441. 135.301(a)],
IN O TH E R W ORDS — A PIC for a Part 121 or Part 135 air carrier, who has a current PIC check, and
whjle_fMnq under Part 91, 121, or 135 for that air carrier, is legal (i.e. i-nslrumenmtrr_e_nj) for
7 m onths even if he or she has not done a single instrument procedure (aside from the checkride)
dunnq that 7-month period, Please note once again that Ihis person is only legal during that 71hmonth
while ftvlna under Part 91, 121, or 135 FOR TH AT AIR CARRIER.
GRACE M O N TH :
From an FAA Legal Opinion dated October 29,1992 — "The FAA has consistently interpreted the
grace month provisions for Part 121 and Part 135 [and 61.55(g)] to allow crewmembers to fly for up
lo one month following the calendar month in which a check is required." “...a pilot would NOT
be held in violation for operations in which he served during the grace month should he fail to
comply with the proficiency check requirement during thal grace month." "The fact that your
company will purposely allow your currency requirement to lapse does NO T prevent the grace
month provision of 135.301 (a) from applying." IN O TH E R WORDS — The regulatory effect is the
same as Jf the check is accomplished (or not accomplished) in the insnlb tins (aka base monih)

296 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Prof et »¡anal Pilot

 C hap & — M ore C o m m e rc ia l Stuff
E M E R G E N C Y TR A IN IN G ; (135.331. 121,aw, 121.417.ei.iMS)
{a) Each [raining program must provide emergency training for each aircraft type, model, and
configuration, each crewmember, and each kind of .......................................... ..
operation conducted, as appropriate for each crewmember. ■ G ENERAL emergency training
{b) Emergency training must provide the following: * items common to all aircraft
(1) Instruction in emergency assignments and procedures
including coordination among crewmembers. m
(2) Individual instruction in the location, function, and l AIRCRAFT SPECIFIC emergency training ^
operation of emergency equipment including: ■ — items specific to each aircraft. ;
(I) Equipment used In ditchinfl and evacuation.
(I) First aid equipment and its proper use, and
¿Eli) Portable fire extinguishers, with emphasis on the typo of extinguisher to bo used for different
classes of fires.
Instruction in the handling of emergency SITUATIONS .. .................................................... .
+ ----------------------- *
includ nr| ; E m ergency SITUATION training
(O Rapid decompression: provides nairuclion on ihe factors
(ii) Fir.e_iio.fi iflhlojLQJP the surface and smoKe_contr:oi and procedures to be followed ! \
procedures with emphasis on electrical equipment and 1.
when an emergency occurs.
related circuit breakers found in cabin areas;
(Ni) Ditching and evacuation:
(Iv) Ulnflfia. injury. Or other abnormal situations involving passengers or crewmembers; and
(v) Hi jacking and other unusual situations.
(4) Review of the certificate holder’s previous aircraft accidents and incidents involving actual
emergency situations.
<C) Each crewmember must perform at least the following emergency DRILLS using the proper
emergency equipment and procedures, unless the Administrator finds that, for a particular drill, the
crewmember can be adequately trained by demonstration. j .......... ..................................aaa
1) Ditching if applicable. Emergency DRILL training
(2) Emergency evacuation. consists of practice in the actual
Fire extinguishing and smoke control. use of emergency equipment,
Operation and use of emergency exits, including such as actually using fire
deploymeni and use of evacuation chutes, if applicable. extinguishers, oxygen bottles, etc,
Use of crew and passenger oxygen. ... .................... ***
Removal of life rafts from the aircraft, inflation of the life rafts, use of life lines, and boarding of
passengers and crew, if applicable.
Donning and inflation of life vests and use of other individual flotation devices, if applicable,
fd) Crewmembers who serve in operations above 25.000 feet must receive instruction in the following
(1) Respiration.
(2) Hypoxia.
(3) Duration of consciousness without supplemental oxygen at altitude.
(4) Gas expansion
(5) Gas bubble formation
(6) Physical phenomena and incidents of decompression.

FIR E E X T IN G U IS H E R S — P a s s e n g e r C a r r y in g A ir c r a f t ;
(25.851. 01.513, 121.303. 121.417, 135.1551
No person may operate an aircraft carrying passengers unless it is equipped with
hand fire extinguishers of an approved type for use In crew and passenger
compartments as follows —
(a) The type and quantity of extinguishing agent must be suitable for the kinds of
fires likely to occur;
(b) At least oae_tLan.dJjjre_cxJjjnmUJii(?jr must be provided and conveniently located on
the flight deck for use by the flight crew, and
(c) At le&si one hand fire extinguisher must be Conveniently located in the passenger
compartment of each aircraft having a passenger seating configuration, excluding
any pilot seat, of at least 10 seats but less than 31 seats.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 297

C h a p & — More Com m ercial Stuff
H A Z a r d o u s M A T e r i a l s T R A I N I N G : [<tnc f r o^pec aims, 91 tass. 121.100s, iw.sosi
1. No person may perform any duties for the handling of HazMat unless within the preceding 24 calendar
months that person has completed Hazardous Materials training regarding:
a. Proper shipper certification, packaging, marking, labeling, and documentation.
b. Compatibility, loading, storage, and handling characteristics.
2. The certificate holder shall maintain a record of satisfactory HazMat training completion.
3. If the certificate holder elects MQ7~lo accept Hazardous Materials, he shall ensure that each
crewmember is adequately trained to recognize those items
4. If the certificate holder operates to airports at which trained employees or contract personnel are not
available, il may use untrained personnel to load or offload, if these persons are supervised bv a
crewmember that is trained and qualified.

H A Z a rd o u s M A T eria js O PE R A TIO N S:
( M C F R OpSpac AQSS. 91,1065, 1311005, 172.101, 173.217, 17S.B, 175.10, 175.30, 175.33, 175.SEXJ, 135.S&S)
1. Lookup the ' UN Number" aka "ID Number'’ in the Hazardous Materials Table found in 172.101 or
the "Dangerous Goods Regulations’*book published by the International Air Jransportalion
Association — iA T A . Items are listed alphabetically by name and/or numerically by UN (ID) Number.
2. This will tell you exactly whal type HazMat you are carrying— how it should be labeled— packaged— and
how much by weight or quantity you can transport— per package— in a passenger/cargo or cargo
QUk aircraft. The weight or quantity limitations apply only to the amount carried in each package
not in each aircraft. You can carry all the packages you want.
3. Example — a common iiem is D R Y iC E :
a. Dry Ice — Carbon dioxide, solid or Dry ice — UN #1345.
b. Max load per package — 200 kg (x 2 .2 Ibs/kg - 440 lbs) — this is the maximum net weight
that can be contained in each package — be sure the aircraft is well ventilated.
4. The PIC must receive a notification/summary of the information {with confirmation lhat no packages are
damaged or leaking) and 2 copies of the HazMat paperwork, The PIC notification must be kept on file
for 9D days: and the HazMat paperwork kept on file tor one year ithree years for hazardous waste r

• V ............................ r ...................... .. ............. ........................................... '\

; A certificate holder that elects WOT to carry hazardous materials must still
; have a hazardous materials RECOGNITION program This training is to
ensure thal crewmembers and ground handling personnel can identify
■ hazardous material so that suspect packages are not accepted for shipment. !

298 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot

 C h ap B — More C o m m e rc ia l Stuff
HAZMAT PAPERWORK — EXAMPLE

SHIPPEFt'S DECLARATION FOR DANGEROUS GOODS

Shipper
R onnie’ s C v Pans
Air WaytNII No 452 4 * 5 7K IM 44

1223 Wilkinsoit IM'.il t>mg* I gl | P»gn

Cliarlotle, N.C. 2H234 Shipper's líu íií-s ic e Nunvb*.1

Caring-nee
t’ ord Motor Company Longel
101 Edsed Road W o rld
Detroit, M I 44543
A irlin e s
F'wcj vom pkitàû am i s ta te d ûùpMis df Ibia D atiarattan mast WARNING
ipAenffgpIo iifjnfitlGT
T R A N S P O R T D E TA IL S Fíüime 1d r o m » ir *11 r e peca, mrtlh * * i ppfratifr
Danfcrpui GocnS ^n^.jljr.-ni ngy bt m buen df
Thu «nipTHinl » wllhm Ihn Ail pun Oí Departure 1h* applicable Un. tubjr;r bo legil wiibtt The
luniöVonB pra w ih e tì for:
C>eílaralHjn mv>l not, w ip y m i p q i i » « ! be
faceto nan-ef¥jnt!iiMfr1
i Charlotte. MC
opgnplslad andfar signed by ■ c o m o tu a tv . a
PMiüCNUHh CARGO K CLi
AIRCRAFT burder nranIAMcjrjica&ni
ONLY

Airpon ai Oeitinïiisn Lïtlroil Motro K [)' I'W

Sripmonllvpi irM wm laHi

NAI U H t ANO Ü U AN riTYO f- DANGEROUS GOODS

[hgn^greurtioodi MaiilfcnUan
cu* UW Ï-HL Üuanlirrird l'KAirp
el Irtad pttAns
Plaper Sties^ù N«** V*
Dr-- U3
: ía rr
Groiip • R*k
aun Ha.

S rlfifta c tiv c huLÍJ type i) 4.1 U N iI Í ¿ ii l hibcitioand h u í * 10 fcg 43(r

(Banni SuL|i.lijhvdici/iJi:|

Additional Handing Intamianion

"l iie |vaeltage containing UN322<> nriuat he shaded from direci sunlight, siorc-d away from aI
sources of h u t m a well ventilated area altd not stored with oilier cargo

i Iwtby d telara thi< rht eanliiAt tt Ihl* cnnalgnntanr >rg hilly and Namarrm 0 1 Scnalir-y
«tcuraltlr òaatrlbiNl abavi liy 1 b» prap*r iblppUiu nam*. end ara W ild tìlll / J-orkliil D riv e r
ilM»ii|*dl patknjtd, iT.«Jh»'l i-it1 i» i ~ i|*iiI|iIi i é í 4-(|. and tra In til P u » and Dm
»■paita In prbpar tandMhm tor IrMHpnrt atcenNng la applltibh C h a rlo tti, N C 2-1K-XX
InlgmuUanel »Md r»ílan»l gpiimimnlal »gvltllcnt,
T u rn e d B a t

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 299

Chap fl — More C o m m ercial Stuff)

C O M P A N Y F L IG H T IN S T R U C T O R S :
(135.33B, 1 35.340. 61.1, 61.51, 61I.1G7. 121.412, 121.414. 91.1031, 91.1085)
1. No certificate holder may use a person as a flight instructor unless:
a. That person has completed all training, checks and recency requirements to qualify as PIC for
that aircraft under Part 135.
b. Holds at least a Class III medical.
c. That person has completed Initial or transition flight instructor training.
d. Within the preceding 24 calendar months that person satisfactorily conducts instruction
under the observation of an FAA inspector, an operator check airman, or an aircrew
designated examiner employed by (lie operator This 24-month observation check Is
considered to have been completed in the month required if completed in the calendar
month before or the calendar month after the month in which it is due.
2. Initial Q f l O U N D T R A I N I N G for flight instructors must include: : Company Instructor
a. Flight instructor duties, functions and responsibilities. is cons id ored to b e
b. Applicable regulations and company policies and procedures. the- P ilo t lr. C o iT im -m id
c. Methods, procedures and techniques for conducting flight during all training
instruction. flights [61 .EKflUaH. j
''I****....... ......... ....................... ^
d. Proper evaluation of student performance including the detection
of:
* iBUamatE aid insufficient training: and
4 Personal characteristics of an applicant that could adversely affect safety.
0. The corrective action in the case of unsatisfactory training prOare33
f. The approved methods, procedures, and limitations for performing the required normal.
abnormal, and emergency procedures in the aircraft.
3. If the potential instructor Is N O T already a current “ C e rtifie d F lig h t In s tru c to r" then he must
also have training in:
a. The fundamental principles of Ihe teaching-learning process.
b. T e a c h in g m e th o d s and procedures; and
c. The i n s t r u c t
4. The initial and transition F L I G H T T R A I N I N G for flight instructors must include the following:
a. Safety measures for emergency situations that are likely to develop during instruction:
b. Potential results of Improper or untimely safety measures during instruction:
c. Training and practice from the left and right pilot seats in the required normal, abnormal,
and emergency maneuvers to ensure competence to conduct flight instruction: and
d. The safety measures to be taken from eilher Ihe left or right seat for emergency situations
that are likely to develop during instruction.

61.167 — An Airline Transport Pilot may instruct fo r«

their company bul must still be trained as described \
in 135.338,135.340. 121.411, 121.413, 91.1095. *

A U T H O R I Z E D I N S T R U C T O R m e a n t : (61,1, SUI}
1. A person who holds a valid ground instructor certificate issued under Part 61 or Part 143 when
conducting ground training in accordance with the privileges and limitations of his or her ground
instructor certificate;
2. A person who holds a current flight instructor certificate issued under Part 61 when conducting
ground training or flight training in accordance with the privileges and limitations of his or her flight
inSlruCtOrcertificale: Or
3. A person. AUTHORIZED by the ADM INISTR ATO R , to provide ground trainino or flight training
under SFAR No. -56, or Part 6 1 ,121. 135. or 142 when conducting ground training or night training in
accordance with that authority.
4. An authorized instructor may log as IPilot-ln-Command time ali flight time while acting as an
authorized instructor. [61,51 (e)(3)]

300 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 ^Chap_B_^JVlore_C^m m erc^

C H E C K AIR M EN — Q U A L IF IC A T IO N S :ms.337rbi. 121.411. 121.41a,

{a} For the purposes of this section and Sec. 135.339:
(1) A chech airman {aircraft) is a person who is qualified to conduct flight checks in an aircraft, in
a flight simulator, or in a flight training device for a particular type aircraft.
(2) A chech airman {simulator) is a person who is qualified to conduct flight chechs, but only in a
flight simulator, in a flight training device, or both, for a particular type aircraft.
(3) Chech airman (aircraft) and chech airman (simulator) are those check airmen who perform the
functions described in § 135.321 (a) and 135.323(a){4) and (c).
(b) No certificate holder mav use a person. nor may any person serve aa a check airman in a training
program established under this subparl unless, with respect to the aircraft type involved, that person—
iU Holds the airman certificates and ratings required to serve as a Pilot In Command In
operations under this pari;
(2) Has satisfactorily completed the training phases fan the aircraft. Including recurrent training,
that are required to serve as 3 Pilot In Command in operations under this part;
(3) Has satisfactorily completed the proficiency or competency checks that are required to
serve as a Pilot In Command in operations under this part;
(4) Has satisfactorily completed the applicable training requirements of 135.339 icheck airman
ground and flM iLLiam ina}
(5) Holds at least a Class III medical certificate unless serving as a required crewmember, in
which case holds a Class I or glass II medical certificate as appropriate;
(6) Has satisfied the recency of experience requirements of 135.247 [three takeoffs and
landings, in type, within the previous 90 days, etc,]; and
(7) Has been approved by the Administrator for the check airman duties involved.

C H E C K AIR M EN — T R A IN IN G — C H E C K IN G — C U R R E N C Y : itos.^g. 121.413. 31.10» )

1. C U R R E N C Y — Mo certificate holder may use a person as a check airman unless during the preceding
24 calendar months, that person satisfactorily conducts a proficiency or competency check under
the observation of an FA A inspector OR an aircrew designated examiner employed hy the operator.
This 24-month observation check is considered to have been completed in the month required if
completed in the calendar month before or the calendar month after the month in which It is due.
2. INITIAL G R O U N D training for check airmen must include:
a. Check airman duties, functions and responsibilities.
b. Applicable regulations and the certificate holder's pollclee and procedures,
c. Methods procedures, and techniques for conducting checks.
d. Proper evaluation of student performance including delection of:
* Improper and insufficient training: and
* Personal characteristics Of an applicant that could adversely affect safety.
e. Corrective action n the case of unsatisfactory checks
f. Approved methods, procedures, and limitations for performing the required normal, abnormal,
and emergency procedures In the aircraft.
3. TRANSITION GROUND training includes the methods, procedures, and limitations for performing the
required normal, abnormal, and emergency procedures applicable to the aircraft.
4. INITIAL and TR AN SITIO N F L IG H T (raining for check airmen must include;
a. The Safety measures for emergency situations that are likely to develop during a Check:
b. Potential results of improper, untimely, or nonexecution of safety measures during a check,
C. Training and practice in conducting flight Checks from the !ef| and right pilot scats in the
required normal, abnormal, and emergency procedures to ensure competence to conduct
the pilot flight checks required; and
d. Safety measures to be taken from either pilot seal for emergency situations that are likely to
develop during checking.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 301

Chao 6 — More C o m m ercial Stuff,

SIC C H E C K — E Q U IP M E N T C H E C K — C O M P E T E N C Y C H E C K :
f l 35.23 3. 121.441.31.1069)
(a ) N o c e r t if ic a t e h o ld e r m a y u s e a p i l o t , n o r m a y a n y p e rs o n s e rv e a s a
p ilo t, u n l e s s , s in c e th e b e g in n in g o f th e 1 2 th c a le n d a r m o n t h b e fo r e th a t
s e rv ic e ¡soc 13&.301 graco moniin. Ih a t p ilo t h a s p a s s e d a w r it t e n o r o r a l t e s t .
g iv e n b y th e A d m in is t r a to r o r an a u th o r iz e d c h e c k p ilo t, o n th a t p ilo t's
k n o w le d g e in th e fo llo w in g a re a s :
(1 } P a r t s 61 M a n d 135., a n d th e O p e r a t io n s S p e c if ic a t io n s a n d
O p e r a t io n s M a n u a l o f th e c e r tific a te h o ld e r.
(£ ) F o r e a c h ty p e o f a i r c r a f t to be flo w n b y th e p ilo t, th e a ir c r a ft
p o w e r o la n t . m a jo r c o m p o n e n t s a n d s y s t e m s , m a jo r a p p l ia n c e s .
p e r f o r m a n c e a n d o p e ra tin g l i m i t a t i o n s , s t a n d a r d a n d e m e r g e n c y
o p e ra tin g p r o c e d u r e s , a n d th e c o n te n ts o f th e a p p ro v e d A i r c r a f t
F li g h t M a n u a l o r e q u iv a le n t, a s a p p lic a b le ,
(3 ) F o r e a c h ty p e o f a irc ra ft to be flo w n b y th e p ilo l, th e m e th o d o f
d e te r m in in g c o m p lia n c e w ith W e ig h t & B a la n c e lim ita tio n s fo r
ta k e o ff, la n d in g a n d e n ro u te o p e ra tio n s .
(4 ) N a v ig a t io n a n d u s e o f a ir n a v ig a tio n a id s a p p r o p r ia te , In c lu d in g
in s tr u m e n t a p p ro a c h p ro c e d u re s .
(5 ) A ir t r a f f ic c o n t r o l p r o c e d u re s .
(6 ) M e t e o r o lo g y in g e n e ra l, in c lu d in g th e p r in c ip le s o f f r o n t a l s y s t e m s , i c i n g , f o g ,
t h u n d e r s t o r m s , a n d w i n d s h e a r . a n d , if a p p r o p r ia te fo r th e o p e r a tio n , h ig h a lt it u d e w e a t h e r
(7 ) P r o c e d u r e s fo r:
(i) R e c o t m iz in n a n d a v o id in g s e v e r e w e a t h e r s itu a tio n s .
(ii) E s c a p in g fro m s e v e r e w e a t h e r s itu a tio n s , in c a s e o f in a d v e r te n t e n c o u n te r s , in c lu d in g low -
a ltitu d e w in d s h e a r ( e x c e p t th a t r o lo r c r a f t p ilo ts a re n o t re q u ire d to be te s te d o n e s c a p in g
fro m lo w - a llilu d e w in d s h e a r) .
(iii) O p e ra tin g in o r n e a r t h u n d e r s t o r m s ( in c lu d in g b e s t p e n e tr a tin g a ltitu d e s ), t u r b u l e n t a i r
(in c lu d in g d e a r a ir tu rb u le n c e ), i c i n g , h a i l , e n d o th e r p o te n tia lly h a z a r d o u s m e te o ro lo g ic a l
c o n d itio n s ; a n d
(8 ) N e w e q u i p m e n t , p r o c e d u r e s , o r t e c h n i q u e s , a s a p p ro p ria te .
(b ) N o c e r t if ic a t e h o ld e r m a y u s e a p i l o t , n o r m a y a n y p e rs o n s e rv e a s a p ilo t, in a n y a ir c r a f t u n l e s s ,
s in c e th e b e g in n in g o f th e 1 2 th c a le n d a r m o n t h b e fo r e th a t s e r v ic e [sea 135.301 graca manthj, th a t p ilo t h a s
p a s s e d a C O M P E T E N C Y C H E C K g iv e n b y th e A d m in is tr a to r o r a n a u th o r iz e d c h e c k p ilo t in t h a t
C L A S S o f a irc ra ft, if s in g le -e n g in e a irp la n e o th e r th a n tu r b o je t, o r t h a t T Y P E o f a i r c r a f t , if h e lic o p te r,
m u ltie n g in e a irp la n e , o r tu r b o je t a irp la n e , to d e te r m in e th e p ilo t's c o m p e te n c e in p r a c t ic a l s k i ll s a n d
te c h n iq u e s in th a t a ir c r a f t o r c la s s o f a irc ra ft. T h e e x te n t o f th e c o m p e te n c y c h e c k s h a ll b e d e te r m in e d
b y th e A d m in is tr a to r o r a u th o r iz e d c h e c k p ilo t c o n d u c tin g th e c h e c k - T h e c o m p e t e n c y c h e c k m a y
in c lu d e a n y o f th e m a n e u v e rs a n d p ro c e d u re s c u r r e n tly r e q u ire d fo r th e o r ig in a l is s u a n c e o f th e
p a r iic u la r p ilo t c e r tific a te r e q u ire d fo r ih e o p e ra tio n s a u th o r iz e d -
id T h e IN S T R U M E N T P R O F IC IE N C Y C H E C K re q u ire d b y 1 3 5 .Z 9 7 M A Y B E S U B S T IT U T E D f o r th e
C O M P E T E N C Y C H E C K re q u ire d b y th is s e c tio n f o r t h e ty p e o f a i r c r a f t u s e d in th e c h e c k .
(d ) For the purpose of this pari, competent performance of a procedure or maneuver requires that the pilot
be the o b v io u s m a s t e r of the a i r c r a f t , with the s u c c e s s f u l o u t c o m e of the maneuver n e v e r In d o u b t .
(e ) T h e A d m i n is t r a t o r o r a u th o r iz e d c h e c k p i l o t c e r t if ie s th e c o m p e t e n c y o f e a c h p ilo t w h o p a s s e s th e
k n o w le d g e o r flig h t c h e c k in th e c e r tific a te h o ld e r’s p i l o t r e c o r d s .
(f) P o rtio n s o f th e c h e c k m a y be g iv e n In a n a irc ra ft s i m u l a t o r . If a p p ro v e d b y Ih e A d m i n is t r a t e

* * *v
C h e c k r i d e s a re c o n s id e r e d “ d u t y t i m e “
in th e s e n s e th a t th e y in te rr u p t "re s t tim e ,"
C h e c k rid e s m u s t b e r e c o r d e d in th e
c o m p a n y 's f lia h t J in > e _ a n . d _ d u t ^ r e c c r d 5
t
I f a flig h t c h e c k is fa ile d u n d e r P a rt 1 3 5 , th e fa ilu re
o f Ih a t c h e c k h a s n o e ff e c l o n a p ilo t's q u a lific a tio n s
to fly u n d e r P a rt 121 (o r v ic e v e rs a ).
If a p ilo l fa ils a c h e c k rid e Ih e p ilo t m a v n o t b e u s e d
“ In o p e r a t io n s u n d e r T H IS P A R T [1 3 5 ] u n t i l . . . ”
[1 3 6.30H b), 121.441 (cjJ

302 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 Chap B — More C om m ercial Stuff

PIC C H E C K — IN S T R U M E N T P R O F IC IE N C Y C H E C K : ms jbt 121^1 , 91 .1*59)

{a ) N o c e r t if ic a t e h o ld e r m a y u s e a p i l o t , n o r m a y a n y p e rs o n s e rv e , a s a P ilo t I n C o m m a n d o f a n a irc ra ft
u n d e r [F R u n le s s , s in c e Ih e b e g in n in g o f Ih e 6 ^ c a le n d a r m o n t h b e fo re t h a t s e rv ic e (see 135.301 gnaca
mantti), th a t p ilo t h a s p a s s e d an i n s t r u m e n t p r o f ic i e n c y c h e c k u n d e r th is s e c tio n a d m in is te re d b y th e
A d m in is tr a to r o r a n a u th o r iz e d c h e c k p ilo t,
( b ) N o p i l o t m a y u s e a n y ty p e o f P R E C IS IO N I n s t r u m e n t a p p r o a c h p ro c e d u re u n d e r IF R u n le s s , s in c e
th e b e g in n in g o f th e 6 ^ c a le n d a r m o n t h b e fo r e th a t u s e , th e p ilo t s a tis fa c to r ily d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t ty p e
o f a p p r o a c h p ro c e d u re . N o p i lo t m a y u s e a n y ty p e o f N O N P R E C IS IO N a p p r o a c h p ro c e d u re u n d e r
IF R u n le s s , s in c e th e b e g in n in g o f th e 6 lh c a le n d a r m o n t h b e fo re th a t u se . th e p ilo t h a s s a tis fa c to rily
d e m o n s t r a t e d E ITH E R t h a t t y p e o f a p p r o a c h u ro c e d u re OR A N Y O T H E R T W O D IF F E R E N T T Y P E S
o f N O N P R E C IS IO N a p p r o a c h p r o c e d u r e s T h e in s tru m e n t a p p ro a c h p r o c e d u r e s m u s t in c lu d e a t le a s t
o n e S T R A IG H T - IN a p p ro a c h , o n e C IR C L IN G a p p ro a c h , a n d o n e M IS S E D a p p ro a c h . E a c h ty p e o f
a p p ro a c h d e m o n s t r a t e d m u s t b e c o n d u c te d t o P u b lis h e d m in im u m s
(e ) T h e in s tr u m e n t p r o fic ie n c y c h e c k re q u ire d b y p a ra g r a p h a. o f th is s e c tio n c o n s is ts o f a n o r a l o r w r it t e n
E Q U IP M E N T T E S T a n d a F L IG H T C H E C K u n d e r s im u la t e d o r a c t u a l IF R c o n d itio n s . T h e
E Q U IP M E N T T E S T in c lu d e s q u e s tio n s o n e m e r g e n c y p ro c e d u re s , e n g in e o p e ra tio n , f u e l a n d
l u b r ic a t io n s y s te m s , p o w e r s e t t i n g s , s t a l l s p e e d s , b e s t e n g ln e - o u t s p e e d , p r o p e l le r a n d
S-Ug£Jcim EggJ[ o p e ra tio n s , a n d b M r g j j M and s y s te m s , a s a p p ro p ria te , T h e
F L IG H T C H E C K in c lu d e s n a v i g a t io n b y in s tru m e n ts , r e c o v e r y fro m s im u la t e d e m e r g e n c ie s , a n d
s ta n d a rd in s t r u m e n t a p p r o a c h e s In v o lv in g n a v ig a tio n a l fa c ilitie s w h ic h th a t p ilo t Is to b e f l u l h a t i i E d J f i
u s e . C o m p e te n t p e r fo rm a n c e o f a p ro c e d u re o r m a n e u v e r re q u ire s th a t th e p ilo t b e th e o b v i o u s
m a s t e r o f th e a i r c r a f t , w ith th e s u c c e s s f u l o u t c o m e o f th e m a n e u v e r n e v e r In d o u b t
(1 ) T h e in s tr u m e n t p r o fic ie n c y c h e c k m u s t in c lu d e th e p ro c e d u re s a n d m a n e u v e rs f o r th e ty p e o f
p ilo t c e rtific a te re q u ire d fo r th e o p e ra tio n (C o m m e r c ia l o r A T P ).
(2 ) T h e in s tr u m e n t p ro fic ie n c y c h e c k m u s t b e g iv e n b y a n a u th o n z e d c h e c k a irm a n o r b y th e
A d m in is tra to r .
( d ) I f th e P IC is a s s ig n e d to p ilo t o n ly o n e ty p e o f a irc ra ft, th a t p ilo t m u s t ta k e th e c h e c k in t h a t t y p e o f
a ir c r a ft.
( • } i f th e P |£ is a s s ig n e d to p ilo t m e r e t h a n o n e ty p e o f a ir c r a f t , th a t p ilo t m u s t ta k e th e c h e c k in e a c h
t y p e o f a ir c r a ft in r o t a t i o n , b u t n o t m o r e th a n o n e l ig h t c h e c k d u r in g e a c h 6 - m o n lh p e rio d ,
if) I f th e PLC is a s s ig n e d lo p ilo t b o t h s in g le - e n g in e a n d m u it ie n g ln e a irc ra ft, th a t p ilo t m u s t i n i t i a l l y ta k e
th e c h e c k in a m u l t i e n o in e a irc ra ft, a n d e a c h s u c c e e d in g c h e c k a lt e r n a t e ly in s in g le - e n g in e a n d
m u it i e n g ln e a irc ra ft, b u t n o t m o re th a n o n e c h e c k d u rin g e a c h 6 - m o n th p e rio d . P o rtio n s o f th e c h e c k
m a y b e g iv e n in a n a p p ro v e d s i m u la t o r
( 9 ) Jf th e P IC is a u th o r iz e d to u s e a n A U T Q P J L O T in p la c e o f a s e c o n d in c o m m a n d , th a t p ilo t m u s t s h o w
th a t h e is a b le b o th w it h a n d w i t h o u t u s in g th e a u to p ilo t to:
(1 ) C o n d u c t in s tr u m e n t o p e r a tio n s c o m p e te n tly - a n d
(2 ) P r o p e r ly c o n d u c t a ir-g ro u n d c o m m u n ic a tio n s a n d c o m p ly w ilh C o m p le x A T C in s tru c tio n s .
(3 ) T h e p ilo t m u s t s h o w th a t w h ile u s in g th e a u to p ilo t, th e a ir p la n e c a n b e o p e r a te d a s p r o fic ie n tly
a s It w o u ld b e if a s e c o n d in c o m m a n d w e re p re s e n i 10 h a n d le c o m m u n ic a tio n s a n d A T C
in s tru c tio n s T h e A U T O P I L O T C H E C K n e e d o n l y b e d e m o n s t r a t e d O N C E E V E R Y
12 c a le n d a r M O N T H S d u rin g Ih e in s tr u m e n t p r o fic ie n c y c h e c k ,

*+ T h e IN S T R U M E N T e x p e r ie n c e C U R R E N C Y
re q u ire m e n ts o f 6 1 .5 7 ( c ) (i.e . 6 m o n t h s : 6 a p p r o a c h e s :
h o l d i n g : a n d in ie r c e p lin g a n d tr a c k in g c o u rs e s ) , d o n o l
a p p ly to a P ilo t in C o m m a n d w h o is e m p lo y e d b y a P a rt
121 o r P a rt 1 3 5 a ir c a r r ie r [61 5 7 (e )(2 )].

IN O T H E R W O R D S — A P IC fo r a P a r i 121 o r P a rt 1
a ir c a rrie r, w h o h a s a c u rr e n t P lC c h e c k , a n d w h ile
f l y i n g u n d e r P a rt 9 1 , 1 2 1 , o r 1 3 5 f o r t h a t a ir c a r r ie r , is
le g a l (i.e . > n s tr_ u m e n t_ c u rre n tj fo r 7 months e v e n if h e
o r s h e h a s n o t d o n e a s in g le in s tr u m e n t p ro c e d u re

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 303

[ch a p fl — More C om m ercial Stuff)

PIC — Part 135 CHECKING MODULES:

{PAAOrdtar BSOil.1)
(Ftw Pari 121 snc 121 Appendix F)

W R IT T E N o r O R A L T E S T :
F A R 1 3 5 .2 9 7 .................................................... P IC
* P IC c h e c k w i l l IN C L U D E a t le a s t: \
F A R 1 3 5 .2 9 3 .................................................... P IC (1 ) R e je c te d ta k e o f f a n d lo w v is ib ility ta k e o ff
— (2 ) E n g in e fa ilu re a fte r ta k e o ff, s te e p tu rn s , s ta lls ,
GROU ND O P E R A T IO N S: a n d u n u s u a l a ltitu d e re c o v e r y
P re flig h t I n s p e c t io n ................................... .. P IC (3 ) H o ld in g { m a y be w a iv e d )
S ta rt P r o c e d u r e s ........................................ .. P IC (4 ) A ll e n g in e IL S to a m is s , S E IL S to a la n d in g
T a x ii n g ............................................................. .. P IC a n d tw o n o n p r e c is io n a p p r o a c h e s
P r e ia k e o ff C h e c k s .................................... .. P IC C o u p le d a p p ro a c h { I f e q u ip p e d )
(5)
TAKEOFFS & DEPARTURES: ( 6) T w o m is s e d a p p ro a c h e s (One fr o m a n IL S )
{? ) C irc lin g a p p ro a c h
N o r m a l.................................................................. P IG
0) N o fla p a p p r o a c h {a c tu a l la n d in g n o t re q u ir e d )
C r o s s w in d ....................... P IC
> {9] R e je c te d la n d in g
In s t r u m e n t........................................................... P IC
W ith P o w S rp la h t F a il u r e ...............................P IC (M E o n ly ) IV * * ***% *% *% * A.-* A A A.A A A A A « *
R e je c te d T a k e o f i ................................ P IC (M E o n ly ){M a y be w a iv e d w h e n w e ig h t, te m p e r a tu r e a n d tire lim its
p r e c lu d e th e e v e n t fro m b e in g c o n d u c te d in a re a lis tic a n d s a fe m a n n e r)
S h o rt F i e l d ........................................................ P IC (S E o n ly ) (M a y b e w a iv e d If n o t n e w -h lre o r in itia l e q u ip m e n t)
A r e a D e p a r t u r e ...............................................P IC (M a y b e w a iv e d if n o t c o n d u c te d fo r c e rtific a tio n )

IN FLIG H T M A N E U V E R S :
S te e p T u r n s ...................................................... P IC (M a y b e w a iv e d if n o t n e w -h ir e o r in itia l e q u ip m e n t)
A p p r o a c h e s to S t a lls .................................... P IC
P o w e r p la n i F a ilu r e ......... ..............P IC
2 - E n g in e In o p . A p p r o a c h ........................... P fC (3 a 4 e n g in e a ir c r a ft)

IN S T R U M E N T P R O C E D U R E S :
A r e a A r r iv a l.................... ............. P IC (M a y b e w a iv e d If n o t c o n d u c te d fo r c e rtific a tio n )
H o ld in g ............................. ............. P IC (M a y b e w a iv e d if n o t n e w -h ir e o r in itia l e q u ip m e n t)
N o rm a l IL S A p p ro a c h ..............P IC (S E IL S m a y b e s u b s titu te d )
E n g in e - o u l I L S , . , ......... ..............P IC
C o u p le d A p p r o a c h ..... ..............P fC (If e q u ip p e d )
N o n p re c is io n A p p ro a c h ..............P IC
S e c o n d N o n p re c is io n A p p r o a c h ............. P fC ( A n y tw o n o n p r e c is io n a p p ro a c h e s a u th o r iz e d )
M is s e d A p p ro a c h fr o m a n I L S ................. P IC
S e c o n d M is s e d A p p r o a c h ,......... ..............P IC A G P S a p p r o a c h m a y be c re d ite d fo r
C irc lin g A p p r o a c h ........................................... P IC o th e r n o n p r e c ls lo n a p p r o a c h e s d u rin g a
c h e c k . H o w e v e r, i f G P S a p p ro a c h e s
L A N D IN G S & A P P R O A C H E S TO LA N D IN G S: a re a p p ro v e d fo r (h e c e r tific a te h o ld e r.
N o r m a l.................................................................. P IC O p e r a tio n s S p e c ific a tio n s re q u ire th e
C r o s s w in d ............................... P IC d e m o n s tr a tio n o f a t le a s t o n e G P S
L a n d in g fro m a n I L S ......................................P IC a p p ro a c h d u rin g th e 1 3 5 .2 9 7 c h e c k .
L a n d in g w ith E n g in e - o u t . . , ......... .........., . . P I C (M E o n ly ) S i
C irc lin g A p p r o a c h ........................................... P IC
R e je c te d L a n d in g ............................................. P IC (F ro m 50 fe e t a b o v e th e ru n w a y )
S h o rt F ie ld L a n d in g ........................................P IC (S E o n ly )
N o F la p A p p r o a c h ........................... P IC N_o_pl.aji or PR rtig I flnp CAMPINGS nrs NOT ragù lied to computo |he Ni-ghl tasi Whan
Lhe f hghl lesi i£ tondUtLad in a TR A N SP O R T category airplane. i T OU G KbO W N
irm-, a no Hup cr partial i ap appreatii s N O T required and shall N O T tie attempted

N O N -N O R M A L & E M E R G E N C Y P R O C E D U R E S :
S y s te m M a lf u n c t io n s ................................... P IC
U n u s u a l A tlilu d e R e c o v e r y ....................... P IC
M a n e u v e r b y R a d ia l P a n e l .......................P IC ( A irp la n e s n o t h a v in g s ta n d b y in s tr u m e n ta tio n )
E m e rg e n c y L a n d in g ...................................... P fC (S E o n ly )

304 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot

 [ch a p & — More C om m ercial Stuff

SIC — Part 135 CHECKING MODULES;

(F A A Order 0500.1)
(For Perl 121 sa$ 121 Appendix F)

W RITTEN o r ORAL TEST: j f l ................................................................................................ v

S I C c h e c k w ill In c lu d e all o f th e r e q u ir e m e n ts \
F A R 1 3 5 2 9 3 .................................................. ..S IC
fo r a P IC c h e c k e x c e p t D ELETE:
GROUND OPERATIONS: ( 1 ) S E IL S 1
P re flig h t In s p e c tio n ...................................... ..S IC
(2 ) One n o n p re c is io n a p p ro a c h I
S ta rt P r o c e d u r e s . . ........... ................... . ,.S IC
( 3 ) R e je c te d ta k e o ff !
T a x iin g ............................................................... ..S IC
(4) S te e p tu r n s 1
P r e la k e o f f C h e c k s ...................................... ..S IC
( 5 ) H o ld in g ( r e q u ire d o n ly if n o t c u rr e n t) «
TAKEOFFS & DEPARTURES: ( 6 ) C o u p le d a p p ro a c h ;

N o r m a l.................................................................. S IC (7) M is s e d a p p ro a c h e s 5
C r o s s w in d ........................................................... S IC ( 8 ) N o fla p a p p ro a c h ■
I n s t r u m e n t ..... ..................... .................. ..S IC ( 9 ) R e je c te d landing Jf
W ith P o w e r p la n t F a ilu r e .......................... ..S IC (M E o n ly ]

INFLIG H T MANEUVERS:
A p p ro a c h e s to S t a l l s .................................. ..SLC

INSTRUM EN T PROCEDURES:
H o ld in g ................................... .................. . ..S IC (R e q u ire d if n o l c u rr e n t)
N o rm a l IL S A p p r o a c h ................................. ..S IC
N o p p r e s s io n A p p r o a c h ............................. SLC
C irc lin g A p p r o a c h ................. ........... .......... ..S IC (S IC n e e d n o t be e v a lu a te d in c irc lin g a p p ro a c h e s w h e n o p e ra to rs
p ro c e d u re s re s tr ic t S IC s From c o n d u c tin g th is e v e n t in re v e n u e s e rv ic e )

LANDINGS & APPROACHES TO LANDINGS:

N o r m a l................................................................ . S I C
C r o s s w in d ......................................................... ..S IC
L a n d in g w ith E n g in e - o u t........................... S IC (M E o n ly )
C irc lin g A p p r o a c h ................. ........... .......... ..S IC (S IC n e e d n o t be e v a lu a te d In c irc lin g a p p ro a c h e s w h e n o p e ra to rs
p ro c e d u re s re s tr ic t S IC s fr o m e o n d u c lin o th is e v e n t in re v e n u e s e r v ic e )

NON-NORMAL & EMERGENCY PROCEDURES:

S y s te m M e lf u n c iio n s .................................. ..S IC
U n u s u a l A ttitu d e R e c o v e r y ...................... ..S IC
M a n e u v e r b y P a rtia l P a n e l...................... ..SLC ( A irp la n e s n o t h a v in g s ta n d b y In s tru m e n ta tio n )
E m e r g e n c y L a n d in g ................................... .. S IC (S E o n ly )

; C h e c k r id e s a re c o n s id e r e d “ d u t y t i m e ”
; in th e s e n s e th a t Ih e y in Lerru p t " r e s t L im e ." i
; C h e c k rid e s m u s t b e r e c o r d e d in th e ;
1 c o m p a n y 's f l i g h t t im e a n d d u ty , r e c o r d s ;

EVERYTHING EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 305

Chap fl — More C o m m ercial Stuff)

L IN E C H E C K — R O U T E S & A I R P O R T S — P I L O T IN C O M M A N D :
H 35.299 121.440, 121.443}
{a ) N o c e r t if ic a t e h o ld e r m a y u s e a p i l o t , n o r m a y a n y p e rs o n s e rv e , a s a P ilo t In C o m m a n d o f a flig h t
u n le s s , s in c e th e b e g in n in g o f th e 1 2 1h c a le n d a r m o n t h b e fo re th a t s e rv ic e , th a t p ilo t h a s p a s s e d a
f l i g h t c h e c k In o n e o f th e ty p e s o f a irc ra ft w h ic h th a t p ilo t is to fly , T h e flig h t c h e c k s h a ll:
(1 ) B e g iv e n b y a n a p p ro v e d c h e c k p ilo t o r b y th e A d m in is tra to r ;
(2) Consist of at least one flight over one route segment; and
(3 ) In c lu d e t a k e o f f s a n d la n d in g s a t o n e o r m o r e r e p r e s e n t a t iv e a i r a o r t s . In a d d itio n to th e
re q u ire m e n ts o f th is p a ra g ra p h , f o r a p ilo t a u th o r iz e d to c o n d u c t IFF* o p e r a tio n s , a t le a s t o n e
flig h t s h a ll b e flo w n o v e r a c i v i l a ir w a y a n a p p ro v e d o f f - a ir w a v r o u t e o r a p o r t io n o f e it h e r o f
th e m .
{ b ) T h e p ilo t w h o c o n d u c ts th e c h e c k s h a ll d e te r m in e w h e th e r th e p ilo t b e in g c h e c k e d s a tis fa c to rily
p e rfo rm s th e d u tie s a n d r e s p o n s ib ilitie s o f a P ilo t In C o m m a n d in o p e r a tio n s u n d e r th is p a rt, a n d s h a ll
s o c e r tify in th e p ilo t tr a in in g re c o rd ,
(c ) E a c h c e r t if ic a t e h o ld e r s h a l l e s t a b lis h in its O p e r a tio n s M a n u a l a p r o c e d u r e w h ic h w il l e n s u r e th a t
e a c h p i l o t w h o h a s n o t f l o w n o v e r a r o u t e a n d I n t o a n a ir p o r t w it h in th e p r e c e d in g 9 0 d a y s w i l l ,
b e fo r e b e g in n in g th e n ig h t, b e c o m e f a m il ia r w it h a ll a v a ila b le in f o r m a t i o n r e q u ire d fo r th e s a fe
o p e ra tio n o f th a t f lig h t

T h e 1 3 5 .2 9 9 lin e c h e c k m u s t b e p e rfo rm e d in a n a ir c r a ft in flig h t { o r s im u la to r a p p ro v e d fo r lin e ' 1

c h e c k s ). T h e c h e c k c a n be a s b rie f o r a s c o m p r e h e n s iv e as th e c h e c k p ilo t d e e m s n e c e s s aary
ry.. J
< * * * * * • 1* i • 1» 1 M i u m m u i m

*
P i l o t Irt C o m m a n d

\
4 — N o rm a lly th e I n s t r u m e n t P r o f i c i e n c y . E q u ip m e n t C o m p e t e n c y , a n d
L in e c h e c k s a re all th r e e c o m b in e d a n d a c c o m p lis h e d s im u lta n e o u s ly e v e r y s ix m o n t h s {i.e .,
135.293. 135.297 135.299 1. If th e p ilo t is q u a lifie d to fly tw o d iffe r e n t ty p e a ir c r a ft — th e s e
c h e c k s w ill a lte rn a te ty p e s o f a ir c r a f t — e a c h s ix m o n th s . T h e * P I C c h e c k w ill n o r m a lly in c lu d e
a r e je c t e d t a k e o f f , e n g in e f a i l u r e a f t e r t a k e o f f , s t e e p t u r n s s t a l l s a t le a s t t w o n o n p r e c i s io n
a p p r o a c h e s , an a ll e n g in e IL S to a m is s e d a p p r o a c h , a n d a s in g le - e n g in e IL S a p p r o a c h t o
a l a n d i n g . etC-

S e p o n d Jn C o m m a n d — R e q u ire s a n E q u ip m e n t G q m jy e t e n c ^ c h o c h [135.293) e v e r y
12 m o n t h s , h o w e v e r, th e p ilo t m u s t a ls o b e " I n s t r u m e n t c u r r e n t 11 [6 1 .5 7 fc } ](i.e ., 6 a p p r o a c h e s
a n d h o ld in g in th e la s t 6 m o n t h s — m u s t b e l o g g e d ) ( 1 3 5 .2 4 5 V T h e "S IC " c h e c k is u s u a lly th e
s a m e a s th e " P lC 11 c h e c k e x c e p t a s in a le - e n o in e jL S a p p ro a c h is n o t r e q u ir e d a n d o n ly o n e
n o n p r e c i s io n a p p r o a c h is re q u ire d .

W h a t h a p p e n e d to t h e d u d e s t h a t s t a r t e d it a l l ?
♦ W ilb u r W r ig h t d ie d a s a r e s u lt o f ty p h o id in 1 9 1 2 a f th e a g e o f 4 5 .
O rv ille p a s s e d a w a y In 19 4 8 a t th e a g e o f 7 6 , o n e y e a r a fte r C h u c k
Y e a g e r b e c a m e th e firs t to fly fa s te r th a n th e s p e e d o f s o u n d .

306 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

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EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Profession ol Pilot 307

Chap fl — More C om m ercial Stuff]

IN IT IA L O P E R A T IN G E X P E R IE N C E — “ I O E ” : (185.244 121 ¿34)

1. N o c e r t if ic á is h o ld e r m a y u s e a n y p e rs o n a s a Pilot In Com m and o f a n a ir c r a f t o p e ra te d in a
C O M M U T E R o p e r a t io n u n le s s th a t p e rs o n h a s c o m p le te d , p rio r to d e s ig n a tio n a s P IC . o n th e m a k e
a n d b a s ic m o d e l a irc ra ft a n d in th a t c r e w m e m b e r p o s itio n , th e fo llo w in g o p e ra tin g e x p e r ie n c e in e a c h
m ake and b a s icm o d e l o f a irc ra ft be to flown;
a. S IN G L E e n g in e — 10 h o u r s Operating experience can be Transferred by the pilot to
b. M u lt ¡ e n g in e rfc c ip ro C a t in a — 15 h o u r s another certificate holder provided satisfactory
c. M u lle n o ir e t u r b in e — 20 h o u r s documentation is provided to the new certificate holder.
d . T u r b o je t — 2 5 h o u r s
2. T h e e x p e rie n c e m u s t be a c q u ire d a fte r s a tis fa c to r y c o m p le tio n o f th e g ro u n d a n d flig h t tr a in in g .
3. T h e e x p e rie n c e m u s t be a c q u ire d d u r i n g c o m m u te r p a s s e n g e r - c a r r y in g f l i g h t s o r d u rin g ‘ p ro v in g ”
flig h ts o r fe r r y flig h ts ,
4. T h e e x p e rie n c e m u s t be a c q u ire d w h ile p e rfo rm in g th e d u tie s o f P ilo t In C o m m a n d u n d e r th e
s u p e rv is io n o f a q u a lifie d c h e c k p ilo t.
5. T h e h o u r s o f o p e ra tin g e x p e rie n c e m a y b e r e d u c e d to n o t le s s th a n &()''/□ o f th e h o u rs r e q u ire d b y th e
s u b s titu tio n o f o n e a d d i t i o n a l t a k e o f f a n d la n d in g f o r e a c h h o u r o f flig h t

F L I G H T A T T E N D A N T R E Q U I R E M E N T S : (#1.533, si.1«7, s i .1105. m m 121.391)

{ a j N o p e rs o n m a y o p e r a te a n a irp la n e u n le s s a t le a s t th e fo llo w in g n u m b e r o f
flig h t a tte n d a n ts a re o n b o a rd th e a irp la n e .
(1 ) F o r a irp la n e s h a v in g m o r e t h a n 19 b u t le s s t h a n 51 p a s s e n g e r s an
b o a rd , O N E flig h t a tte n d a n t.
(2 ) F o r a irp la n e s h a v in g m o r e t h a n 50 b u t le s s t h a n 101
p a s s e n g e r s o n b o a r d , T W O flig h t a tte n d a n ts .
(3 ) F o r a irp la n e s h a v in g m o r e t h a n 1 0 0 p a s s e n g e r s o n b o a rd , T W O
flig h t a tte n d a n ts P L U S O N E a d d i t i o n a l flig h t a tte n d a n t f o r E A C H
u n i t (o r p a rt o f a u n it) o f 50 p a s s e n g e r s a b o v e 1 0 0 .
( b ) N o p e r s o n m a y s e r v e a s a re q u ire d flig h t a tt e n d a n t u n le s s th a t p e rs o n
h a s d e m o n s tr a te d to th e P ilo t In C o m m a n d fa m ilia r ity w ith th e
n e c e s s a r y fu n c tio n s to b e p e rfo rm e d in a n e m e r g e n c y o r a s itu a tio n
re q u irin g e m e r g e n c y e v a c u a tio n a n d is c a p a b le o f u s in g th e e m e r g e n c y
e q u ip m e n t in s ta lle d o n lh a t a irp la n e .

§ 1 2 1 . 3 9 1 F L I G H T A T T E N D A N T S : fi2i asm
F o r a irc ra ft w ith a s e a lin g c a p a c ity of;
2 0 t o 5D — O N E flig h t a tte n d a n t
51 t o 1 P 0 — T W O flig h t a tte n d a n ts
101 t o 1 5 0 — T H R E E flig h t a tte n d a n ts
F o r a irc ra ft w ith a s e a lin g c a p a c ity o f m o r e t h a n 1 0 0 p a s s e n g e r s — T W O flig h t a tte n d a n ts P L U S O N E
A D D I T I O N A L flig h t a tte n d a n t f o r e a c h u n i t ( o r p a rt o f a u n it) o f 5 0 p a s s e n g e r s s e a ts a b o v e a s e a tin g c a p a c ity
o f 1 0 0 p a s s e n g e rs .

P r o h i b i t i o n A g a i n s t C a r r i a g e O f . W E A P O N S : (#i.n, íasjja, 135.120, 121.53e, 121.507)

N o p e r s o n m a y , w h ile o h b o a rd Oh a irc ra ft b e in g o p e ra te d
b y a c e r tific a te h o ld e r , c a r r y o n o r a b o u t
th a t p e rs o n a d e a d ly o r d a n g e r o u s
w e a p o n , e ith e r c o n c e a le d o r
u n c o n c e a le d . T h is s e c tio n d o e s n o t
a p p ly to -
( a j O f f i c ia l s o r e m p lo y e e s o f a
m u n i c ip a l it y o r a S t a t e , o r o f th e
U n it e d S t a t e s , w h o a re a u t h o r iz e d
tQ _ c a rr^ a rm s : o r
<&) C re w m e m b e rs a n d o th e r p e r s o n s a u th o r iz e d b y th e
c e rtific a te h o ld e r to c a rr y a rm s .

308 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fe s io n a l Pilo!

 Chap fl — More C om m ercial Stuff)
A IR C R A F T R E Q U IR E D J*E S T S a n d IN S P E C T IO N S : (91.171.91.207. 91.215. 91.409. 91.411, 91.413)
1. A N N U A L In s p e c tio n (Part 91). M u s t be s ig n e d o f f b y an A & P w ith In s p e c tio n A u th o riz a tio n (a k a ¡A ).
2. 1 0 0 h o u r in s p e c tio n (ror N r*). C a n b e s ig n e d o f f b y a n y ¿ ir fr a m e & E o w e r p la n t M e c h a n ic { ¿ £ P ) .

T h e 1 0 0 - h o u r lim ita tio n m a y b e e x c e e d e d b y n e t m o r e th a n 10 h o u r s w h ile e n r o u t e to re a c h a p la c e

w h e r e th e in s p e c t io n c a n b e a c c o m p l is h e d . It is a c c e p t a b le to e x c e e d th e 1 0 0 - h o u r lim ita tio n d u rin g a
I F th e a ir c r a ft is IN A D V E R TE N TLY
c o m m e r c ia l o p e r a t io n d e la y e d (d u e to w e a th e r o r tra ffic ). H o w e v e r.
INTENTIO NALL Y d i s p a t c h in g a n a irc ra ft on a c o m m e rc ia l o p e ra tio n KNOW ING lh a i th e 1 0 0 - h o u r lim ita lio n
w il l b e e x c e e d e d is W O T l e g a l . C o m m e r c ia l o p e r a t io n s m u s t b e h a lt e d a t th e 1 0 0 - h o u r p o in t. T h e
e x c e s s tim e u s e d to re a c h a p la c e w h e re th e in s p e c tio n c a n b e a c c o m p lis h e d m u s t b e in c lu d e d in c o m p u tin g
th e n e x t 1 0 0 h o u rs o f lim e in s e rv ic e , " C A U T IO N * — " C A U T IO N * (a little F A A " g o l- c h a " ) — S o m e a irc ra ft
fijrw o r th in e s s Q ire c tiv e s re q u ire in s p e c tio n o f s p e c ific c o m p o n e n ts a t 100 h o u r (o r s o m e tim e s 25 o r 50 h o u r)
In te rv a ls . T h e s e [ADJ In te rv a ls n o rm a lly CANNOT be e x c e e d e d to r ANY m a s o n (u n le s s a fe rry p e rm it is is s u e d ).

A n n u a l o r 1 0 0 - h o u r i n s p e c t i o n s d o n o t a p p ly t o —
* A n a irc ra ft in s p e c te d in a c c o r d a n c e w ith an A p p r o v e d A ir c r a ft In s p e c tio n P r o g r a m (A A IP ■ u n d e r P a rt
1 2 5 ,1 2 7 , o r 155.
* A n a irc ra ft in s p e c te d in a c c o r d a n c e w ith a P r o g r e s s iv e I n s p e c t io n P r o g r a m .
* An aircraft Inspected Inaccordance with a Continuous Airworthiness Inspection Program
* S e v e ra l o th e r In s p e c tio n p r o g r a m s lis te d in 9 1 .4 0 9 .

3. A n A N N U A L in s p e c tio n is a c c e p t a b le to u s e a s a IQ Q - h o u r in s p e c tio n , b u t a 1 0 0 - h o u r In s p e c tio n

cannot be u s e d a s a n annual. A n a n n u a l is a b it m o r e in te n s e a n d m u s t be s ig n e d o f f b y a n A ir c r a ft
in s p e c t o r A n n u a l in s p e c tio n s h a v e n o g r a c e p e r i o d . If It's o u t o f a n n u a l, it's o u t o f a n n u a l, Y o u 'll
n e e d e ith e r a n e w a n n u a l o r a fe r r y p e rm it in o r d e r to m o v e th e a irc ra ft.
4. A p p r o v e d A ir c r a ft In s p e c tio n P ro g ra m (A A J P ) — U n d e r P a rts 1 2 5 , 1 2 7 o r 1 3 5 (135419).
5. P R O G R E S S IV E — C o m p le te In s p e c tio n b y s p e c ify in g in te rv a ls in h o u rs & d a y s w h e n r o u tin e & d e ta ile d
In s p e c tio n s w ill b e p e rfo rm e d d u rin g a 1 2 -m o n ih p e rio d (Vi .409).
6. O th e r In s p e c tio n p r o g r a m s a p p ro v e d b y th e a d m in is tr a to r fo r la rg e o r tu r b in e p o w e re d a ir c r a f t (91409).
7. A D s have no grace period u n le s s s u c h a g ra c e p e rio d is n o te d in th e A D its e lf.
8 T R A N S P O N D E R (M o d e C), A L T IM E T E R a n d P IT O T ,S T A T IC s y s te m s — M u s t b e c h e c k e d a n d r e ­
c e rtifie d e v e r y 2 4 calendar months ( t e c h n ic a lly th e a ltim e te r & p ito t/s la tic c h e c k is o n ly r e q u ire d fo r IF R
o p e ra tio n s ). (91411, s i . 413)
9. E L T — E v e r y 12 m o n t h s — B a tte rie s m u s t be r e p la c e d a ft e r 1 h o u r o f c u m u la tiv e u s e o r w h e n 5 0 % o f
th e ir u s a b le life h a s e x p ire d (91.207).
10. V O R le s t e v e ry 30 d a y s fo r IF R f lig h t < 9 i.i7 i). • The OW NER O P E R A TO R o f th e a ir c r a ft it *1
4
3
2
i p rim a rily r e s p o n s ib le fo r m a k t t a m l n f l a n
V O R C H E C K: (91.171, AIM 1-14, 2-3-6, fig 2-3-2D, FAA-H-8QB3-1 5> * a ir c r a ft in a n a i r w o r t h y c o n d i t i o n (9l.4c3),

1. R e q u ire d w ith in th e p re v io u s 3 0 d a y s fo r IF R f l i g h t
a . S u rfa c e V O R c he c k p o l n l — + 4 r
The P ILO T IN C O M M AND s
b. V O T s u rfa c e ( o r a ir b o rn e ) c h e c k — ±4°
r e s p o n s i b le fo r d e t e r m in in g
c. D u a l V O R s y s te m c h e c k — ± 4 ° b e tw e e n e a c h o th e r
w h e th e r th e a irc ra ft Is In a n
d. A ir b o rn e V O R c h e c k p o in t — i S 1
a i r w o r t h y c o n d i t i o n [917(b)).
e. A ir b o rn e o v e r p ro m in e n t la n d m a r k — +6°
f. R a d io r e p a ir s ta tio n — M a x p e rm is s ib le v a r la lio n ± 4 °
2. All c h e c k s m a y be p e r f o r m e d a n d s i g n e d o f f b y th e p i l o t except a ra d io r e p a ir s ta tio n c h e c k . A ra d io
re p a ir s ta tio n c a n u se a ra d ia te d te s t s ig n a l, b u t o n ly th e te c h n ic ia n p e rfo rm in g th e te s t c a n m a k e a n
e n tr y in th e lo g . L o c a tio n s o f a irb o rn e & s u rfa c e c h e c k s c a n be fo u n d in th e A /F D .
3. E a c h p e rs o n m a k in g a V O R c h e c k m u s t e n te r:
D E P S — D a le . E rro r. P la c e , a n d S ig n a tu r e in (h e a irc ra ft lo g o r o th e r re lia b le re c o r d .
4. T h e c o u r s e s e n s i t i v it y c a n b e c h e c k e d b y re c o r d in g th e n u m b e r o f d e g r e e s o f c h a n g e in th e c o u rs e
s e le c te d a s y o u r_o_tate_the_O BS to m o v e th e C D J J ro m _ c .e n te r_ tQ th e Las.t_d.o_tj3.n_&j.ther_s>de T h is
s h o u ld b e b e tw e e n IQ 0 a n d 1 2 ° <f a a - h -8033-15}.

VOT CHECK: (91.171, AIM 1-1-4, 2-3-6, FIG 2-3-20, FAA-H-B0B3-15)

V O R l e s t fa c ility . L o c a t i o n s a n d fr e q u e n c ie s o f V O T s a re p u b lis h e d in th e A /F D a n d J e p p e s e n a irp o rt
c h a rts . W ith th e G D I c e n te r e d , th e D B S s h o u ld re a d 1 8 (T T O & 360” F R O M (w ith in + 4 ").

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 309

C h a p 0 — M o re C o m m e rc ia l S tu ff
§ 1 3 5 ,4 1 5 S e r v i c e d iffic u lty re p o rts: mbs *is . 121.7031
(a ) E a c h c e r t if ic a t e h o ld e r s h a ll r e p o r t th e o c c u r r e n c e o r d e te c tio n o f e a c h fa ilu re , m a lfu n c tio n , o r d e f e c t in
a n a ir c r a ft c o n c e r n i n g —
(1) F ir e s d u r i n g f l i g h t a n d w h e th e r th e re la te d fir e - w a r n in g s y s te m fu n c tio n e d p ro p e rly :
(2) F ire s d u rin g flig h t n o t p ro te c te d b y re la te d F ire -w a rn in g s y s te m ;
<3) F a ls e f i r e - w a r n i n g d u rin g flio h t:
(4) A n e x h a u s t s y s te m th a t c a u s e s d a m a g e d u rin g l ig h t to th e e n g in e , a d ja c e n t s tru c tu re , e q u ip m e n t, o r
c o m p o n e n ts ;
(5) A n a irc ra ft c o m p o n e n t th a t c a u s e s a c c u m u la tio n o r c irc u la tio n o f s m o k e , v a p o r, o r to x ic o r n o x io u s
fu m e s in th e c r e w c o m p a r tm e n t o r p a s s e n g e r c a b in d u rin g flig h t;
(6) E n g in e s h u td o w n d u rin g flig h t b e c a u s e o f f l a m e o u t :
(7) E n g in e s h u t d o w n during flig h l w h e n e x t e r n a l d a m a g e to the f i r g g ? or a irc ra ft s tru c tu re o c c u r s ;
(8) E n g in e s h u td o w n d u rin g flig h t d u e to f o r e ig n o b j e c t I n g e s t io n o r I c i n g .
{9) S h u t d o w n o f m o r e t h a n o n e e n g in e d u rin g flig h l;
(10) A p r o p e lle r f e a t h e r i n g s y s t e m o r a b ility o f Ih e s y s te m to c o n tro l o v e r s p e e d d u rin g flig h t;
(11) A f u e l o r fu e l-d u m p in g s y s te m t h a t a ffe c ts f u e l f l o w o r c a u s e s h a z a r d o u s L e a k a g e d u rin g flig h t.
(12) A n u n w a n t e d la n d in g g e a r e x t e n s io n o r re tra c tio n o r o p e n in g o r c lo s in g o f la n d in g g e a r d o o r s d u rin g
flig h t;
(13) B r a k e s y s t e m c o m p o n e n ts th a t r e s u lt in lo s s o f b ra k e a c tu a tin g fo r c e w h e n th e a irc ra ft is in m o tio n o n
(h e g r o u n d ;
(14) A i r c r a f t s t r u c t u r e th a t re q u ire s m a jo r re p a ir;
(151 C r a c k s , p e r m a n e n t d e fo r m a tio n , o r c o r r o s i o n o f a ir c r a ft s tr u c tu re s , if m o re th a n th e m a x im u m
a c c e p ta b le io ih e m a n u fa c tu r e r o r th e F A A ; a n d
(16) A ir c r a ft c o m p o n e n ts o r s y s t e m s t h a t r e s u l t in ta k in g e m e r g e n c y a c t io n s d u rin g flig h t ( e x c e p t a c tio n to
s h u t- d o w n a n e n g in e ).
(b ) F o r th e p u rp o s e o f th is s e c tio n , d u rin g f l i a h t m e a n s th e p e rio d f r o m th e m o m e n t th e a ir c r a f t le a v e s th e
s u r f a c e o f th e e a rth o n ta k e o ff u n t i l it t o u c h e s d o w n o n l a n d in g .
(c ) In a d d itio n to th e re p o r ts r e q u ire d b y p a ra g r a p h (a ) o f th is s e c tio n , e a c h c e rtific a te h o ld e r s h a ll r e p o r t a n v
o t h e r f a i l u r e , m a lfu n c tio n , o r d e fe c t in a n a irc ra ft th a t o c c u rs o r is d e te c te d a t a n y tim e if, in its o p in io n , th e
fa ilu re , m a lfu n c tio n , o r d e fe c t h a s e n d a n g e r e d o r m a y e n d a n g e r th e s a fe o p e r a t io n o f Ih e a irc ra ft.
(d) E a c h c e r tific a te h o ld e r s h a ll submit e a c h r e p o r t r e q u ire d b y th is s e c tio n , c o v e rin g e a c h 2 4 - h o u r p e rio d
b e g in n in g a l 0 9 0 0 lo c a l tim e o f e a c h d a y a n d e n d in g a t 0 9 0 0 lo c a l lim e o n th e n e x l d a y , lo th e F A A o ffic e s in
O k la h o m a C ity . O k la h o m a . E a c h re p o r t o f o c c u rr e n c e s d u rin g a 2 4 - h o u r p e rio d s h a ll b e s u b m itte d to th e
c o lle c tio n p o in t w i t h i n th e n e x t 9G h o u r s , h o w e v e r , a r e p o r t d u e o n S a tu rd a y o r S u n d a y m a y b e s u b m itte d
o n th e fo llo w in g M o n d a y , a n d a re p o r t d u e o n a h o lid a y m a y b e s u b m itte d o n th e n e x t w o rk d a y .
(e ) T h e c e r tific a te h o ld e r s h a ll tr a n s m it th e re p o r ts re q u ire d b y th is s e c tio n o n a fo rm a n d in a m a n n e r
p r e s c r ib e d b y th e A d m in is tra to r , a n d s h a ll in c lu d e a s m u c h o f th e fo llo w in g a s is a v a ila b le :
(1) T h e t y p e a n d I d e n t if ic a t io n n u m b e r o f th e a i r c r a f t .
(2) T h e n a m e o f th e o p e r a t o r .
(3) T h e d a te .
(4) T h e nature o f th e f a i l u r e , m a lfu n c tio n , or d e fe c t,
(5 ) Id e n tific a tio n o f th e p a rt a n d s y s te m in v o lv e d , in c lu d in g a v a ila b le in fo r m a tio n p e rta in in g to ty p e
d e s ig n a tio n o f th e m a jo r c o m p o n e n t a n d tim e s in c e la s t o v e rh a u l, if k n o w n .
(6) A p p a r e n t c a u s e o f th e f a i l u r e m a lfu n c tio n o r d e fe c t (e .g ., w e a r, c ra c k , d e s ig n d e fic ie n c y , o r p e rs o n n e l
e rro r).
(7) O th e r p e rtin e n t in fo r m a tio n n e c e s s a ry fo r m o r e c o m p le te id e n tific a tio n , d e te r m in a tio n o f s e r io u s n e s s , o r
c o rr e c tiv e a c tio n .
(0 A c e rtific a te h o ld e r th a t is a ls o Ih e h o ld e r o f a ty p e c e r tific a te (in c lu d in g a s u p p le m e n ta l ty p e c e rtific a te ), a
P a rts M a n u fa c tu r e r A p p ro v a l, o r a T e c h n ic a l S ta n d a rd O r d e r A u th o r iz a tio n , o r th a t is th e lic e n s e e o f a ty p e
c e r tific a te n e e d n o t re p o rt a fa ilu re , m a lfu n c tio n , o r d e fe c l u n d e r th is s e c tio n if th e fa ilu re , m a lfu n c tio n , o r
d e fe c t h a s b e e n re p o r te d b y it u n d e r § 2 1 .3 o r § 3 7 .1 7 o f th is c h a p te r o r u n d e r th e a c c id e n t re p o r tin g
p re v is io n s o f p a r t &3Q o f th e r e g u la tio n s o f th e N a tio n a l T r a n s p o r ta tio n S a fe ly B o a rd .
(g ) N o p e rs o n m a y w ith h o ld a r e p o r t re q u ire d b y th is s e c tio n e v e n th o u g h all in fo r m a tio n re q u ire d b y th is s e c tio n
is n o t a v a ila b le ,
(h ) W h e n th e c e r tific a te h o ld e r g e ts a d d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n , in c lu d in g in fo rm a tio n fr o m th e m a n u fa c tu r e r o r o th e r
a g e n c y , c o n c e r n in g a r e p o r t r e q u ire d b y th is s e c tio n . It s h a ll e x p e d itio u s ly s u b m it it a s a s u p p le m e n t to th e
fir s t r e p o r t a n d re fe re n c e th e d a te a n d p la c e o f s u b m is s io n o f th e fir s t re p o rt.

310 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 Chap 9 — More C om m ercial Stuff

T IM E IN S E R V I C E (1.1) — with r e s p e c t to m a in t e n a n c e tim e

r e c o r d s , m e a n s th e t im e fro m th e m o m e n t a n a ir c r a ft le a v e s th e s u r f a c e o f
, U ie e a rth unlLLLLLojjch_e_s_i.Lat th e n e x t p o in t oJJLaütMünfl (a k a " a i O i f l î Ê ' ’ )-

EVERYTHING E X P L A I N E D fo r th e P ro fe s s io n a l P ilo t 311

Chao S — More C o m m ercial Stuff
M E C H A N IC A L IN T E R R U P T IO N S U M M A R Y R E P O R T : <135.417. 121.7ns. s i .u i t i

E a c h c e r t if ic a t e h o ld e r s h a ll m a il o r d e l iv e r , b e fo re th e e n d o f th e 1 0 th d a y o f (h e fo llo w in g m o n th , a
s u m m a r y r e p o r ( o f th e fo llo w in g o c c u r r e n c e s In m u ltie n y in e a ir c r a ft fo r th e p r e c e d in g m o n th to th e c e r tific a te -
h o ld in g d is tr ic t o ffic e :
fa ) E a c h i n t e r r u p t i o n to a f lig h t , u n s c h e d u le d c h a n g e o ' a irc ra ft e n r o u t e , o r u n s c h e d u le d s t o p o r d iv e rs o n
fr o m a ro u te , c a u s e d b y k n o w n o r s u s p e c te d m e c h a n ic a l d iffic u ltie s o r m a l f u n c t io n s th a t a re n o t r e q u ir e d
to b e r e p o r t e d u n d e r § 1 3 5 .4 1 5
(b ) T h e n u m b e r o f p ro p e lle r fe a th e r in g s in flig h t, lis te d b y ty p e o f p ro p e lle r a n d e n g in e a n d a irc ra ft o n w h ic h il
w a s in s ta lle d . P r o p e lle r fe a th e r in g s fo r tr a in in g , d e m o n s lra tio n . o r flig h t c h e c k p u rp o s e s n e e d n o t b e
re p o r te d ,

A pproved A ircraft I nspection P rogram — A A I P : 409,m m ac-im-ioa)

W h e n e v e r th e Administrator finds (h a t th e a ir c r a ft in s p e c t io n s r e q u ir e d o r a llo w e d u n d e r port $1 of th is
c h a p te r a re n o t a d e q u a t e to m e e t th is p a rt, o r u p o n a p p l ic a t io n b y a c e r t if ic a t e h o l d e r , th e A d m in is tra to r
m a y a m e n d th e c e r tific a te h o ld e r’s o p e r a t io n s s p e c i f i c a t i o n s u n d e r § 1 1 9 .5 1 , j f t r e q u ir e o r a llo w a n
A p p r o v e d A ir c r a ft In s p e c tio n P ro g ra m fo r a n y m a k e a n d m o d e l a ir c r a f t o f w h ic h th e c e r tific a te h o ld e r h a s
th e e x c lu s iv e u s e o f a t le a s t o n e a ir c r a ft (a s d e fin e d in § 13 5 .2 5 ( b )).

O P E R A T IO N A F T E R M A IN T E N A N C E ^ R E B U IL D IN G , o r A L T E R A T IO N : (S1407)
(a ) N o p e r s o n m a y o p e r a t e a n y a ir c r a f t th a t h a s u n d e r g o n e m a in te n a n c e , p re v e n tiv e m a in te n a n c e ,
re b u ild in g , o r a lte r a tio n u n l e s s —
(1 ) It h a s b e e n a p p r o v e d f o r r e t u r n t o s e r v ic e b y a p e rs o n a u th o r iz e d u n d e r 4 3 .7 ; a n d
(2 ) T h e m a in t e n a n c e r e c o r d e n t r y re q u ire d b y 4 3 .9 o r 43.111 h a s b e e n m a d e
(b ) N o p e r s o n m a y c a r r y a n y p e r s o n ( o th e r th a n c r e w m e m b e r s ) in a n a irc ra ft th a t h a s b e e n m a in ta in e d ,
re b u ilt, or a lte r e d in a m a n n e r th a t m a y h a v e a p p r e c ia b ly c h a n g e d its f l i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r
s u b s ta n tia lly a ffe c te d its o p e r a tio n in flig h t u n t i l an a p p r o p r ia te ly ra te d p ilo t w ith a t le a s t a p riv a te p i lo t
c e rtific a te F L IE S th e a i r c r a f t , m a k e s a n o p e r a tio n a l c h e c k o f th e m a in te n a n c e p e rfo rm e d o r a lte ra tio n
m a d e , a n d I o n s th e f l i g h t in th e a i r c r a f t r e c o r d s .
(c ) T h e a irc ra ft d o e s N O T H A V E T Q B E F L O W N a s re q u ire d b y p a r a g r a p h (b ) o f th is s e c tio n IF. p rio r to
flig h t, g r o u n d t e s t s , i n s p e c t i o n , o r b o th s h o w c o n c l u s iv e l y th a t th e m a in te n a n c e , p re v e n tiv e
m a in te n a n c e , re b u ild in g , o r a lte ra tio n h a s n o t a p p r e c i a b ly c h a n g e d (h e f l i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r
s u b s ta n tia lly a ffe c te d th e flig h t o p e ra tio n o f th e a irc ra ft.

M A IN T E N A N C E R E Q U IR E D :^ 4»)
T h is re g u la tio n o v e rla p s 9 1 .4 0 7 to p u t a d d itio n a l r e s p o n s ib ility o n (h e O W N E R o r O P E R A T O R . T h e
O W N E R o r O P E R A T O R s h a ll EN S U R E th a t m a in te n a n c e p e r s o n n e l m a k e a p p ro p ria te e n t r ie s in th e
a ir c r a ft m a in te n a n c e re c o r d s (th e a ir c r a ft m a in t e n a n c e l o a t in d ic a tin g th a t th e a ir c r a f t h a s b e e n a p p ro v e d
fo r return t o service. I f th e o w n e r o r o p e r a t o r d o e s n o t c h e c k fo r th is w ritte n , sloped a n d dated e n tr y fo r
r e tu rn to s e r v ic e — a n d a n in c id e n t h a p p e n s — (h e p ilo t c o u ld be h e ld in v io la tio n o f 9 1 .4 0 5 a n d th e c a tc h ­
a ll c a r e le s s a n d r e c k le s s ru le 9 1 .1 3 .
*
* P i l o t s , w h o a re r o t m e c h a n i c s , a r e a u t h o r iz e d u n d e r
P a r L 4 j^ A jjjL < ; n jjix A to p e rfo rm ' n j m a a i i i y ^ m a i n t c n a n c c '’
o n ite m s s u c h a s c h a n g in g o i l , t i r e s , b u l b s , b a t t e r i e s , s e a t
b e lts a n d m a n y o th e r Ite m s lis te d in ih e A p p e n d ix .
R e s p o n s i b i li t y fo r e n s u r i n g th a t
T h e p ilo t is r e q u ire d lo lo g e a c h I t e m t h e y p e r f o r m in th e a n a ir c r a f t is m a in t a in e d in an
m a in te n a n c e re c o rd s o f th e a irc ra ft in th e d e ta il re q u ire d b y a i r w o r t h y c o n d itio n is p r i m a r i ly
4 3 .9 (a ) — a n d th e p ilo t m u s t s ig n a lo g b o o k e n t r y a p p r o v in g th a t o f th e o w n e r o r o o e r a t o r j
t h e a i r c r a f t f o r r e t u r n t o s e r v ic e a fte r th e p r e v e n tiv e
m a in te n a n c e a s re q u ire d b y 9 1 .4 0 7 ( a ). ................................
p T h e N T S B h a s ru le d th a t a
I “ M E C H A N I C A L IR R E G U L A R IT Y " is
O P E R A R L E C O N D IT IQ N m e a n s in a l "a n y d e v ia tio n fro m th e n o rm a l
c o n d itiO n s o a s lo o p e ra te e ffic ie n lly a n d in th è ; fu n c tio n in g o f a n a ir c r a ft c o m p o n e n t
m a n n e d ntB p.ded_b.vLt h.e _m .a n u f a c t u r e r ■ n o m a tte r h o w S lig h t Or m c m e n la r y ."

312 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 C hap & — M o re C o m m e rc ia l S tu ff
A d d itio n a l IN S T R U M E N T S & E Q U IP M E N T R e q u ired :
(91.205,01.207,135.1*9 135.15» 135.159, 135.161, 135.163, 135.165, 135.167,121.301 Ifiru 121.310)
f in a d d it io n t o , b u t n o t r e q u ir in g d u p lic a tio n o f, th e r e q u ir e m e n t s o f 5 1 .3 0 5 a n d 5 1 .2 0 7 )
1. S e n s itiv e a l t i m e t e r a d ju s t a b le f o r b a ro m e trie p re s s u re (1 3 5 .1 4 9 )?
2. H e a tin g o r d e i c in g e q u i p m e n t fo r e a c h c a r b u r e t o r o r, fo r a p re s s u re c a rb u r e to r,
a n a lt e r n a t e a i r s o u rc e (1 3 5 .1 4 9 ).
3. F o r T U R B O J E T a irp la n e s , in a d d itio n to tw o g y r o s c o p ic A ttitu d e In d ic a to rs , a T H IR D A t t it u d e I n d i c a t o r
o p e ra te d b y its o w n s o u r c e o f e l e c t r i c a l p o w e r c a p a b le o f o p e r a lin g fo r 3 0 m i n u t e s . (121.355.135.1«)
4. T r a n s p o r t c a t e g o r y a irc ra ft a re r e q u ire d to h a v e a p i t o t h e a t in d ic a t io n s y s te m , ( i s s . i s b i

E Q U I P M E N T R E Q U I R E D — P A S S E N G E R S — V F R a t N IG H T o r V F R O v e r - t h e -
T o p : *138.1«. 135,151 121 ,323. 1 2 1 .325)
In a d d itio n lo , b u t n o t r e q u ir in g d u p lic a tio n of, th e r e q u ire m e n ts o f 0 1 .2 0 5 a n d 0 1 .2 0 7 — N o p e rs o n m a y o p e ra te
a n a ir c r a ft c a rr y in g p a s s e n g e r s u n d e r V F R a t n ig h t o r V F R o v e r - th e - lo p , u n le s s it is e q u ip p e d w ith ;
1. A g y ro s c o p ic r a t e - o f - t u r n in d ic a to r e x c e p t if th e a ir c r a ft is a lre a d y e q u ip p e d w ith a th ird A ttitu d e
in d ic a to r , .... ...................................................................
2 A s l ip - s k i d in d ic a to r.
■ P u b lic A d d re s s & In te rp h o n e :
3. A g y ro s c o p ic A t t it u d e I n d i c a t o r .
I No person may operate an aircraft with
4. A g y ro s c o p ic d ire c tio n in d ic a to r fD G I. l more 1han 19 passenger seats, unless it is
5. A g e n e r a t o r o r g e n e r a to r s a b le to s u p p ly a ll p ro b a b le lo a d s * equipped with a pubtic address system and
6. F o r M IG H T f l i g h t s : * a crewmember interphone system. (135.159)
a. A n a n t i c o l li s t e n l ig h t s y s te m . V w W ¥W W ¥»1W W W W W W
b. I n s t r u m e n t l ig h t s to m a k e all In s tru m e n ts , s w itc h e s , a n d g a u g e s re a d a b le .
c. A F L A S H L IG H T h a v in g a t le a s t t w o s iz e MD ’r c e lls o r e q u iv a le n t.
7. T w o - w a y r a d i o a b le , in flig h t, lo tr a n s m it a n d re c e iv e fr o m a g ro u n d fa c ility 2 5 m ile s a w a y ,
8. N a v ig a tio n a l e q u ip m e n t a b le to r e c e iv e ra d io s ig n a ls fr o m th e g ro u n d fa c ilitie s to be u s e d .

E Q U IP M E N T R E Q U IR E D — P A S S E N G E R S — IF R : nasna 121.325)
in a d d itio n ic , b u t n o t r e q u ir in g d u p lic a tio n of, th e re q u ir e m e n is o f 9 1 .2 0 5 a n d 9 1 .2 0 7 — N o p e rs o n m a y o p e ra te
an a ir c r a ft u n d e r IF R , c a r r y in g p a s s e n g e rs , u n le s s it h a s :
1. A V e r tic a l S p a e d In d ic a to r
2. A fr e e - a ir t e m p e r a t u r e in d ic a to r.
3. A h e a t e d p i t o t t u b e fo r e a c h a irs p e e d in d ic a to r.
4. A p o w e r f a ilu r e w a r n in g d e v ic e o r v a c u u m in d ic a to r to s h o w th e p o w e r a v a ila b le fo r g y r o in s tru m e n ts
fro m e a c h p o w e r s o u rc e .
5. A n a lt e r n a t e s o u r c e o f s t a t ic p re s s u r e fo r th e a ltim e te r , a irs p e e d a n d v e rtic a l s p e e d in d ic a to rs .
6. F o r S IN G L E - e n q in e a irc ra ft:
a. T w o in d e p e n d e n t e l e c t r i c a l p o w e r - g e n e r a t in g s o u r c e s
b. A s t a n d b y b a t t e r y o r an a lt e r n a t e s o u r c e o f e le c t r ic p o w e r c a p a b le o f s u p p ly in g 1 5 9 % o f th e
e le c tric a l lo a d s fo r e m e r g e n c y o p e ra tio n fo r a t le a s t o n e h o u r .
7. F o r M U L T I - e n g in e a irc ra ft, a t le a s t t w o g e n e r a t o r s o r a lte rn a to rs e a c h o n a s e p a ra te e n g in e c a p a b le
o f p o w e rin g a ll in s tr u m e n ts a n d e q u ip m e n t n e c e s s a ry d u rin g a n e m e r g e n c y .
8. T w o in d e p e n d e n t s o u r c e s o f e n e rg y , o f w h ic h a t le a s t o n e is e n g in e - d riv e n , e a c h o f w h ic h is a b le lo
d riv e a ll g y r o s c o p i c i n s t r u m e n t s .*1

SA F E T Y BELTS: (91.105. 91.197. 91.205. 9 1 .517. 91.519. 91.1035. 135.12S. 121.311. 121.571. AC 91-62A. A C 23.562-1)
1. E a c h re q u ire d flig h t c r e w m e m b e r s h a ll k e e p th e s a fe ty b e ll fa s te n e d w h ile a t th e c r e w m e m b e r s ta tio n .
2. D u rin g ta k e o f f a n d la n d in g e a c h r e q u ire d flig h t c r e w m e m b e r m u s t k e e p th e s h o u ld e r h a rn e s s fa s te n e d
(if e q u ip p e d ), u n le s s h e w o u ld b e u n a b le to p e rfo rm r e q u ire d d u tie s w ith th e s h o u ld e r h a rn e s s fa s te n e d .
3. E a c h p e r s o n o n b o a rd a n a ir c r a ft s h a ll o c c u p y an a p p ro v e d s e a t o r b e rth w ilh a s e p a r a t e s a f e t y b e l t
p r o p e r ly s e c u re d a b o u t h im o r h e r d u rin g m o v e m e n t o n th e s u rfa c e , ta k e o ff, a n d la n d in g (u n le s s it is a
p e rs o n p u s h in g o f f a s e a p la n e o r flo a t e q u ip p e d r o to r c r a ft fro m a d o c k }.
4. A c h ild m a y b e h e ld b y a n a d u l t w h o is o c c u p y in g a n a p p ro v e d s e a t o r b e rth , p r o v id e d th e c h ild h a s
n o t r e a c h e d h is o r h e r s e c o n d b i r t h d a y and the c h ild d o e s n o t o c c u p y o r u s e a n y re s tra in in g d e v ic e ; o r
5. A c h ild m a y o c c u p y a n a p p ro v e d c h ild r e s t r a i n t s y s t e m fu r n is h e d b y Ih e c e r tific a te h o ld e r o r b y th e
c h ild 's p a re n t, g u a rd ia n o r d e s ig n a te d a tte n d a n t p r o v id e d th e re s tra in t s y s te m is p r o p e r ly s e c u r e d t o an
a p p ro v e d fo r w a r d -fa c in g s e a t o r b e rth a n d th e c h ild is p r o p e r ly s e c u re d w ilh in th e s e a t (s e e 1 3 5 .1 2 8
a n d 1 2 1 .3 1 1 fo r R E Q U IR E D L A B E L I N G o f re s tra in s y s te m s ).

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 313

Chap ft — More C o m m ercial Stuff)
R A D IO & N A V IG A T IO N E Q U IP M E N T R E Q U IR E D — E X T E N D E D O V E R W A T ER
o r IF R : i'I.I. 135.165. 3t.509. 91.511. 121.325, 121.339. 121.351, 121.573, 121.515;
1 E X T E N D E D O V E R W A T E R D e fin it io n :
a. F ix e d w in g a ir c r a ft — A n o p e ra tio n o v e r w a te r a t a d is ta n c e o f m o r e th a n 50 N M fr o m th e
n e a re s t s h o re lin e . (Lmgti $ lurbine pflwnrah m ulttififlkla _ 3Qm ln u ia i (lying hmo ^ lflC J tM •ram nearest a tie re i
t>. Helicopters — A n o p e r a tio n o v e r w a te r a t a d is ta n c e o f m o re th a n 50 NM fro m th e n e a re s t
s h o re lin e a n d m o re lh a n 50 N M fro m a n o ffs h o re h e lip o rt f1 -1 )■
2. N o p e rs o n m a y o p e r a te a t u r b o je t a irp la n e h a v in g a p a s s e n g e r s e a tin g c o n fig u ra tio n , e x c lu d in g a n y
p ilo t s e a t, o f 10 seats o r m o re , or a multi E n g in e a irp la n e in a commuter o p e r a tio n u n d e r IFR or in
e x t e n d e . d jo v e r w a t e r o p e ra tio n s u n le s s it h a s a t le a s t t h e _ fo l.lo .w in CLCad >p_and n a y n a t i o n a l
e q u ip m e n t a p p ro p ria te fo r th e fa c ilitie s to be u s e d w h ic h a re c a p a b le o f tr a n s m ittin g to , a n d re c e iv in g
fro m , a l a n y p la c e o n th e ro u te , a t le a s t o n e g ro u n d fa c ility :
a. T w o t r a n s m i t t e r s . T w o m i c r o p h o n e s . & T w o h e a d s e t s o r o n e h e a d s e t a n d o n e s p e a k e r.
b. Two in d e p e n d e n t n a v i g a t io n r e c e iv e r s & Two in d e p e n d e n t c o m m u n ic a t io n r e c e i v e r s .
c. A m a rk e r b e a c o n .
3, N o tw ith s ta n d in g th e r e q u ir e m e n ts a b o v e , th e A d m in is tr a to r m a y a u th o r is e d e v i a t i o n s to th e re q u ir e ­
m e n t o f d u a l lo n g -ra n g e n a v /c o m s d e p e n d in g o n le n g th o f ro u te a n d d u r a tio n o f c o m m u n ic a tio n s g a p .

E M E R G E N C Y E Q U IP M E N T — EX TEN D ED O V E R W A T E R :
{1.1. 13S.1E7. 91.509. 121.359. 121.353, 121.615)
1. N o p e r s o n m a y o p e r a te a n a irc ra ft in e x te n d e d o v e rw a te r o p e r a tio n s u n le s s it c a rrie s , in e a s ily
a c c e s s ib le lo c a tio n s , th e fo llo w in g e q u ip m e n t:
a. A lif e p r e s e r v e r e q u ip p e d w it h a n a p p ro v e d s u r v i v o r l o c a t o r l ig h t f o r e a c h o c c u p a n t
b. E n o u g h l if e r a f t s t o a c c o m m o d a t e a ll o c c u p a n t s o f Ih e a ir c r a ft ...............................
2. E a c h l i f e r a f t m u s t b e e q u ip p e d w it h o r c o n ta in th e fo llo w in g E T P P S akn ER OPS
E/lumJ L'U-Range Iwin -b rlgine
a. O n e s u r v i v o r l o c a t o r l i g h t a n d o n e p y r o t e c h n ic s ig n a lin g d e v i c e .
O Derations >;ai4aEr>?na&lriming fir
....................... b - m m - tJMonnqrt B*Tnumnni
O n e s u rv iv a l kit, a p p r o p r ia te ly e q u ip p e d fo r th e ro u te : O R : A showing by the carrier arid
91.509(c} A
airframe,'engine manufacluner
fractional O n e c a n o p y (fo r sa il, s u n s h a d e , or ra in c a tc h e r) that enough rodundBnt snloly
ownership O n e ra d a r d e fle c to r exists lo extend the enroute
program
O n e life ra ft re p a ir k il alternate time with an engine
manegei
O n e b a ilin g b u c k e t tniiurs from the normal 60
under subpan
minules lo 90, 120, 190, 2-10
K may apply O n e s ig n a lin g m irro r □r 330 minuteE diversion time
•or q davialion O n e p o lic e w h is tle with one engine Inop.
from some of
O n e ra ft k n ife (AC 120-42B. 121.162)
ihie
equlpmenl tor O n e C O j b o ttle fo r e m e r g e n c y in fla tio n
a particular O n e in fla tio n p u m p
auerumier
T w o c a rs
operation
* O n e 7 5 -fo o t r e ta in in g lin e
O n e m a g n e tic c o m p a s s
O ne d y e m a rk e r
O n e fla s h lig h t h a v in g a t le a s t tw o "D " c e lls o r e q u iv a le n t
A 2 - d a y s u p p ly o f fo o d s u p p ly in g a t le a s t 1 ,0 0 0 c a lo rie s p e r d a y fo r e a c h p e rs o n
F o r e a c h tw o p e rs o n s , tw o p in ts o f w a te r o r o n e s e a w a te r d e s a ltin g k il
O n e fis h in g kit
k
O n e b o o k o n s u rv iv a l a p p ro p ria te fo r th e a re a o p e ra te d
A t le a s t o n e o f I h e l i f e r a f t s . r e q u ire d a b o v e , m u s t be e q u ip p e d w ilh an a p p ro v e d s u rv iv a l ty p e
E m e r g e n c y L o c a t o r T r a n s m i t t e r (E L T ).

P E R FO R M A N C E R e q u ir e m e n ts — LAND A irc ra ft O p e r a te d O V E R W A T E R :
{135.103)
N o p e rs o n m a y o p e ra te a la n d a irc ra ft c a r r y in g p a s s e n g e rs o v e r w a te r u n le s s : *
1. It is o p e r a te d a t a n altitude th a t a llo w s ¡1 lo reach land in th e c a s e o f engine failure.
2 . It is n e c e s s a ry fo r ta k e o f f o r la n d in g .
3. It is a m u l t i e n a in e a ir c r a f t o p e ra te d a l a w e ig h t th a t w ill a llo w it lo c l i m b , w ith ih e c r i t i c a l e n g in e
in o p e r a t i v e , a t le a s t 50 f e e t a m i n u t e , a t an a ltitu d e o f 1 ,0 0 0 f e e t a b o v e th e s u rfa c e , o r
It is a h e lic o p te r e q u ip p e d w ith h e lic o p te r flo ta tio n d e v ic e s .______________________________________________

314 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the PicfnsEtcn.il Pilaf

 Chap & — More Com m ercial Stuff
E XTEN D ED O V ER W A TER W E A TH E R : (121.615) *
A flig h t m a y n o t b e d is p a t c h e d fo r e x te n d e d
o v e r w a te r o p e r a tio n s u n le s s Ih e w e a t h e r re p o r ts
o r fo r e c a s ts in d ic a te t h a t th e w e a th e r c o n d itio n s
w ill be aL o r a b o v e th e a u th o r iz e d m i n im u m s at
th e E T A a t a n y a i r p o r t to w h ic h d is p a t c h e d o r
re le a s e d o r to a n y r e q u ire d a lt e r n a t e a irp o rt. ,

T H U N D E R ST O R M D E T E C T IO N E Q U IPM E N T: (135.173, 91.1Q45)

1. N o p e rs o n m a y o p e r a te an a ir c r a f t th a t h a s a p a s s e n g e r s e a tin g c o n fig u ra tio n , e x c lu d in g a n y p ilo t s e a t,
o f 1 0 s e a t s o r m o re in p a s s e n g e r - c a r r y in g o p e r a t i o n s , e x c e p t a h e lic o p te r o p e ra tin g u n d e r d a y V F R ,
u n le s s th e a ir c r a ft is e q u ip p e d w it h either a p p ro v e d t h u n d e r s t o r m d e t e c t io n e q u ip m e n t 0 / ?
a p p ro v e d a irb o rn e w e a t h e r r a d a r e q u ip m e n t.
2. T h u n d e r s to r m d e te c tio n e q u ip m e n t is a ls o re q u ire d fo r h e l ic o p t e r o p e ra tio n s , w ith 10 o r m o re
p a s s e n g e r s e a t s , u n d e r n i g h t V F R w h e n w e a t h e r r e p o r t s i n d ic a t e th a t t h u n d e r s t o r m s o r p o te n tia lly
h a z a rd o u s w e a lh e r c a n r e a s o n a b ly be e x p e c t e d a lo n g th e ro u te to b e flo w n .

A I R B O R N E W E A T H E R R A D A R ; <135 .175. 121.357. SI,1045)

1. N o p e rs o n m a y o p e r a te a la rg e , t r a n s p o r t c a t e g o r y a ir c r a ft in p a s s e r a e r -c a r rv in o o p e r a tio n s u n le s s
a p p ro v e d a ir b o r n e w e a t h e r r a d a r e q u ip m e n t is I n s t a lle d in th e a irc ra ft,
2. N o p e rs o n m a y o p e r a te JF R o r n i g h t V F R . if t h u n d e r s t o r m s a re e x p e c t e d , u n le s s th a t r a d a r is
in s ta lle d a n d a c tu a lly w o r k in g [|h e a irc ra ft’s M E L c o u ld a llo w th e a ir c r a f t to o p e r a te temporarily w ith
th e r a d a r i n o p e r a t i v e , if th e r e w e re n o c h a n c e o f t h u n d e r s t o r m s a lo n g th e ro u te ).

T ra ffic a le rt an d C o llisio n A v o id a n c e S y s t e m — “ T C A S ” :
(1.1,91.221, 135.169. 121.356.91.1045)
U n le s s o th e r w is e a u th o r iz e d b y th e A d m in is tra to r , a fte r D e c e m b e r 3 1 ,1 9 9 5 . n o p e rs o n m a y o p e ra te a
t u r b in e p o w e re d a irp la n e th a t h a s a p a s s e n g e r s e a t c o n fig u ra tio n , e x c lu d in g a n y p ilo t s e a t, o f 1Q t o 3 0
s e a t s u n le s s it is e q u ip p e d w ith a n a p p ro v e d T r a ffic a le rt a n d C o llis io n A v o id a n c e S y s te m .

T C A S I m e a n s a T C A S th a t u t i l iz e s i n t e r r o g a t io n s o f . a n d r e p lie s f r o m , a irb o rn e r a d a r b e a c o n
t r a n s p o n d e r s a n d p r o v i d e s t r a f f i c a d v i s o r ie s to Ih e p ilo t-
T C A S I I m e a n s a T C A S t h a t u tiliz e s in te rr o g a tio n s o f, a n d re p lie s fr o m a irb o rn e r a d a r b e a c o n tr a n s p o n d e rs
a n d p r o v id e s t r a f f i c a d v is o r ie s rand r e s o l u t i o n a d v i s o r ie s in th e v e r t ic a l p l a n e .
TCAS III m e a n s a T C A S th a t u tiliz e s in te rr o g a tio n o f, a n d re p lie s fro m , a irb o rn e ra d a r b e a c o n tr a n s p o n d e rs
a n d p r o v id e s t r a f f i c a d v is o r ie s a n d r e s o l u t i o n a d v i s o r ie s in Ih e v e r t ic a l and h o r iz o n t a l p la n e s

F L A S H L I G H T — F L Y I N G E Q U IP M E N T : (91.S03, 135.159, 121.319, 121.549. Ops Mined}

1. 9 1 ,5 0 3 — a ll flig h ts a b o a rd L A R G E a n d T J R B I N E - p o w e r e d m u l t i e n g in e a irp la n e s re q u ire a
“ F L A S H L IG H T h a v in g a t le a s t t w o s iz e “ D ” c e lls o r e q u i v a l e n t , th a t is in g o o d w o r k in g o r d e r ' 1
a c c e s s ib le fo r e a c h l ig h t " a i th e p i lo t s t a t io n o f th e a i r p la n e .'1
2. 1 3 5 .1 5 9 re q u ire s th e a ir c r a f t to b e e q u ip p e d w ith a F L A S H L IG H T w ith t w o s iz e ND " c e l ls o r e q u iv a le n t
fo r V F R n i g h t a n d V F R o v e r - th e - to p o p e ra tio n s w h ile c a r r y in g P A S S E N G E R S . F a r t 1 3 5 d o e s n o t
specifically r e q u ir e a f l a s h l i g h t fo r IE B n i g h t b u t Ih e F A A w o u ld c e r t a in ly in te rp r e t th e ru le to a p p ly to
A LL n ig h t f l i g h t s {a lth o u g h it m ig h t m a k e fo r a liv e ly a r g u m e n t d u rin g a ra m p c h e c k !) . In a n y c a s e , if
y o u ’re fly in g a la r g e o r t u r b in e - p o w e r e d m u llie n g in e a irc ra ft, y o u 'r e a ls o ru le d b y 9 1 .5 0 3 . In a d d itio n ,
fla s h lig h t r e q u ir e m e n ts a r e u s u a lly a d d r e s s e d In a c o m p a n y 's G e n e ra l O p e r a tio n s M a n u a l.
In o th e r w o rd s . M A K E d a m n S U R E v o n h a v e a F L A S H L IG H T (w ith 2 "D " c e lls ) t h a t W O R K S !
1 2 1 .5 4 9 — E A C H C R E W M E M B E R s h a ll, o n e a c h flig h t, h a v e re a d ily a v a ila b le fo r h is u s e a f l a s h l i g h t
th a t is in g o o d w o r k in g o rd e r." A ls o s e e 9 1 .5 0 3 (tw o ‘ D " c e lls ).

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 315

[ch a p ft — More C o m m ercial Stuff

A I R C R A F T A I R W O R T H I N E S S : (91.7)
(a ) N o p e r s o n m a y o p e r a t e a c iv il a irc ra ft u n le s s it is in a n a i r w o r t h y c o n d itio n .
(b ) T h e P ilo t In C o m m a n d o f a c iv il a irc ra ft is r e s p o n s i b le f o r d e t e r m in in g w h e th e r lh a t a ir c r a f t is in
c o n d itio n f o r s a fe f lig h t T h e P ilo t In C o m m a n d s h a ll d i s c o n t i n u e th e f l i g h t w h e n u n a ir w o r t h y
m e c h a n ic a l, e le c tric a l, o r s tr u c tu ra l c o n d i t i o n s o c c u r .

R E P O R T I N G M E C H A N I C A L I R R E G U L A R I T I E S : t i a i 553 135 55)

1. T h e P IC s h a ll e n s u r e th a t a ll m e c h a n ic a l i r r e g u l a r it ie s o c c u r r in g d u rin g a flig h t a re e n t e r e d in th e
m a i r ite n a n c e lo g o f th e a ir c r a ft a t th e e n d th a t f l i g h t .
2, B e f o r e e a c h f l i g h t , th e P IC s h a ll a s c e r t a in th e j l f l t U I o f e a c h i r r e g u l a r it y e n te re d in |h e lo g a l th e e n d
o f th e p r e c e d in g f l i g h t .

F L I G H T C R E W M E M B E R S a t S T A T I O N S — ( P I L O T S In t h e i r S E A T S ) —
SA FE T Y B E LTS — SEAT B E LTS — SHOULDER H ARNESS:
(91.105. 91.531. 135.138, 131.311. 131.543)
{a ) D u rin g t a k e o f f a n d l a n d in g , a n d w h ile e n r o u t e , e a c h re q u ire d flig h t c re w m e m b e r s h a ll—
(1 ) B e at th e c r e w m e m b e r s t a t io n u n le s s th e a b s e n c e is n e c e s s a r y to p e rfo rm d u tie s in
c o n n e c tio n w ith (h e o p e r a t io n o f t h e a i r c r a f t o r in c o n n e c tio n w ith p h y s i o lo g i c a l n e e d s , a n d
(2 ) K e e p th e S A F E T V B E L T f a s t e n e d w h ile a l Ih e c r e w m e m b e r s ta tio n .
( b ) E a c h r e q u ire d flig h t c r e w m e m b e r s h a ll, d u rin g t a k e o f f a n d l a n d i n g , k e e p h is o r h e r S H O U L D E R
H A R N E S S fa s te n e d w h ile a t h is o r h e r a s s ig n e d d u t y s ta tio n . T h is p a ra g ra p h d o e s n o t a p p ly if—
(1 ) T h e s e a t is n o t e q u ip p e d w ith a s h o u ld e r h a rn e s s ; o r
[2) T h e c r e w m e m b e r w o u ld b e u n a b le to p e rfo rm re q u ire d d u tie s w ith Ih e s h o u ld e r h a r n e s s
fa s te n e d .
“ P h y s io l o g ic a l n e e d s ” — u s in g th e j
r e s t r o o m f s tre tc h in g y o u r le g s b rie fly , I
P h y s i o l o g i c a l — fu n c tio n a l o r " o th e r” p h y s io lo g ic a l r e q u ire m e n ts . J
p ro c e s s e s in an o rg a n is m o r
a n y o f its p a rts .

9 1 .1 0 7 r e q u ire s (h a t y o u
b r i e f y o u r p a s s e n g e r s to
fa s te n th e ir s e a t b e lt s b e fo re
la x i, ta k e o f f a n d la n d in g .

316 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 Chap B — More C om m ercial Stuff

A irp la n e Flight Manual — AFM —

A p p ro v e d A irc ra ft F lig h t M a n u a l — A A F M —
P ilo t O p e rating H a n d b o o k — F O H —
L IM IT A T IO N S -
M A R K I N G S and P L A C A R D S :
(21 5, 23.1581.23.1583, 23.1585. 23.1587. 23.1509.f l i 135.81, 121.141, AC 6Q-6B)
1. F A R 9 1 .9 p r o v id e s th a t an a irp la n e m u s t b e o p e r a t e d in c o m p lia n c e
B t i li l th e o p e r a t in g L IM IT A T I O N S a s s e t fo rth In th e " A I R P L A N E
F L IG H T M A N U A L " A P P R O V E D M A N U A L M A T E R IA L S . M A R K IN G S ,
a n d P L A C A R D S fo r th e p a r tic u la r a irp la n e ty p e . T h e s e d o c u m e n ts , o r
a n y re q u ire d c o m b in a tio n , m u s t b e C U R R E N T a n d A V A I L A B L E in th e
a ir p la n e d u rin g o p e ra tio n .
2. A F M s a re r e q u ir e d fo r a ll a ir p la n e s c e r t if ic a t e d in th e T r a n s p o r t
c a t e g o r y . N o p r o v is io n e x is ts fo r a p p ro v a l o f an A F M fo r a irp la n e s ty p e
c e rtific a te d in th e n o rm a l o r a c ro b a tic c a te g o r ie s u n d e r C A R 0 4 .
3. A F M s a re a ls o r e q u ire d fo r a irp la n e s ty p e c e rtific a te d u n d e r C A R 3 a n d
F A R P a ri 2 3 a t g ro s s w e ig h ts o v e r 6 . POP p o u n d s , h o w e v e r. j | | j l a a f l
th a t w e re manufactured after March 1, 1979. m ust have a n AFM.
a irp la n e s , ty p e c e rtific a te d a t g r o s s w e ig h ts o f 6 .0 0 0 p o u n d s o r u n d e r, w h ic h a r e n o t r e q u ire d lo h a v e a n
A F M , m a y b e fu r n is h e d In a n a irp la n e flig h t m a n u a l o r In a n y c o m b in a tio n o f a p p ro v e d m a n u a l m a te ria l,
m a r k in g s , a n d p la c a rd s .
4. A F M s m a y b e re q u ire d fo r c e r ta in o th e r a irp la n e ty p e s w h ic h h a v e b e e n is s u e d s u p p le m e n ta r y ty p e
c e rtific a te s c h a n g in g th e o r ig in a l ty p e c e rtific a tio n . N o ta b le e x a m p le s a re n u m e r o u s D C ’ 3 s, w h ic h h a v e
b e e n a p p ro v e d fo r o p e r a tio n s in th e T ra n s p o rt c a te g o r y u n d e r a s u p p le m e n ta l ty p e c e rtific a te ,
5. S u p p le m e n ta l o p e ra tin g in fo rm a tio n , w h ic h h a s n o t b e e n fo r m a lly a p p ro v e d b y th e F A A , is u s u a lly
p ro v id e d in a n ' ' O w n e r 's H a n d b o o k .” " O w n e r 's M a n u a l " " P il o t 's O p e r a t in g H a n d b o o k " (P O H ) o r
s u p p le m e n ta l p a g e s in a n A F M . T h e P O H is s im ila r to th e A F M , b u t in c lu d e s m o r e g e n e ra l in fo rm a tio n .
6. T h e p r i n c ip a l s o u r c e o f I n f o r m a t io n fo r I d e n t if y in g r e q u ir e d a irp la n e (lig h t m a n u a l s , a p p ro v e d
m a n u a l m a te ria ls , m a r k in g s , a n d p la c a rd s is th e F A A “ T Y P E C E R T IF IC A T E D A T A S H E E T 11 o r A ir c r a ft
S p e c ific a tio n is s u e d fo r e a c h a irp la n e . T h is in fo rm a tio n m a y b e o b ta in e d fr o m ih e F A A , F A A a p p ro v e d
re p a ir s ta tio n s , a n d c e rtifie d m e c h a n ic s h o ld in g In s p e c tio n A u th o r iz a tio n s .
7. P r i o r to o p e r a t in g an a irc ra ft, p ilo ts m u s t a s s u r e th a t th e re is a v a ila b le in t h a t a ir p la n e e ith e r a
c u r r e n t A F M o r a p p ro v e d m a n u a l m a te ria ls , if re q u ire d , a lo n g w ilh n e c e s s a ry m a r k in g s a n d p l a c a r d s .
8. N p p e r s o n m a y o p e r a t e a c iv il a irc ra ft w it h o u t ; c o m p l y in g w it h th e o p e r a tin g L IM IT A T I O N S s p e c if ie d
in th e a p p ro v e d A ir p la n e ( o r R o to rc r a ft) F li g h t M a n u a l, m a rk in g s , a n d p la c a rd s ,
9. N o p e r s o n m a y o p e r a te a c iv il a ir c r a ft u n le s s th e re is a v a ila b le in th e a irc ra ft a C U R R E N T a p p ro v e d
A ir p la n e (o r R o to rc r a ft) F lig h t M a n u a l, m a r k in g s , a n d p la c a rd s , o r a n y c o m b in a tio n th e re o f.

L a n d i n g G e a r L e v e r M u s t N O T B e P l a c e d in t h e
U P P o s i t i o n W h i l e t h e A i r c r a f t is o n t h e G r o u n d .

*
A n a p p ro v e d ' ' C o m p a n y F l i g h t » S t ic k in g P ilo t's A rm O u t o f W in d o w
M a n u a l" { C F M } m a y b e is P r o h i b i t e d A b o v e 2 0 0 k n o t s .
a c c e p te d b y th e F A A a s a
s u b s titu te fo r an a p p ro v e d
A ir p la n e F lig h t M a n u a l.
I f an a p p ro v e d C o m p a n y F lig h t
M a n u a l Is o n b o a rd , It is n o t
In F l i g h t U s e o f R e v e r s e T h r u s t is
r e q u ire d to a ls o c a rr y a n NOT R ecom m en d ed .
a p p ro v e d A ir p la n e F lig h t M a n u a l.
' h i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i t i i " J

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 317

I c h a p B - - M o re C o m m e rc ia I S tu ff

EES F A A Approved Minimum Equipment List:

(91.213, 91.1115, 135.179, A C 91-67, OpSpac D09E)
1, P a r t 1 3 5 — N o p e rs o n m a y ta k e o f f a n a ir c r a f t w ilh in o p e r a b le in s t r u m e n t o r e q u ip m e n t in s ta lle d u n le s s
a n a p p ro v e d M in im u m E q u ip m e n t L is t e x is ts fo r t h a t a ir c r a f t (1 3 5 .1 7 9 ). W i t h o u t a M E L , a n a ir p la n e
c a n n o t b e d l a p a t c h e d w ith A N Y J n o tw r a t h r e c o m p o n e n t , e v e n if th o s e ite m s a re n o t re q u ire d fo r s a fe
f l i g h t T h is in c lu d e s th e c ig a r e t t e l i g h t e r , e v e n if y o u d o n 't s m o k e . R e m e m b e r th a t th e F A A h a s in fin ite
w is d o m — w h a L if y o u d e c id e to ta k e u p s m o k in g d u rin g th e flig h t— y o u ’d h a v e n o w a y to lig h t u p !
2, A P a rt 1 2 1 /1 3 5 c o m p a n y o p e ra tin g u n d e r an a p p ro v e d M E L w o u ld b e re q u ire d to o p e ra te u n d e r th a t
M E L e v e n w h e n c o n d u c tin g o p e r a tio n s u n d e r P a rt 91.
3. A M E L is a n e x a c t l i s t i n g o f e q u i p m e n t , i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d p r o c e d u r e s th a t a llo w s a n a ir c r a f t to fly
u n d e r s p e c i f i c c o n d i t i o n s a n d l im i t a t io n s (e .g .r w ealtier. d a y lig h t , etc.) w ith c e rta in e q u i p m e n t i n o p .
4, E a c h M E L is an o ffic ia l d o c u m e n t th a t m u s t b e a p p r o v e d b y th e F A A fo r a s p e c i f i c m a k e a n d m o d e l
a i r c r a f t b y s e r ia l a n d r e g i s t r a t i o n n u m b e r s .
5, A M E L c o n ta in s I t e m s a llo w e d to b e I n o p e r a t iv e on a n a ir c r a ft w h ile it is s lill c o n s id e r e d a irw o rth y ,
6. T h e M E L cannot include I t e m s th a t a re re q u ire d to b e o p e r a tio n a l b y — th e airworthiness
requirem ents u n d e r w h ic h th e a irc ra ft w a s ty p e c e rtifie d ; a n A irw orthiness Directive I AD); or by
Part 91 fo r a s p e c ificflig h t o p e ra tio n (9 1 .2 0 5 , 9 1 .2 1 3 ).
7. T h e M E L m u s t b e o n b o a r d th e a i r c r a f t a n d lo c a te d s o th e p ilo ts c a n re a c h it.
8. T h e M E L s ta te s w h a t f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s , l i m i t a t i o n s , c r e w o p e r a t in g p r o c e d u r e s , m a in t e n a n c e
p r o c e d u r e s , p l a c a r d s , a n d d u r a t io n l im i t s a re n e c e s s a ry in o r d e r to b e le g a l fo r l ig h t w ith a p a rtic u la r
c o m p o n e n t in o p e ra tiv e ,
9. A ll e q u ip m e n t N O T lis t e d in (h e M E L — M U S T b e O P E R A T IV E u n le s s it is lis te d in a n " a p p ro v e d 1'
C o n fig u r a tio n Q p v la tlo n L '$ t (CXLL.: fo r th e a irc ra ft a n d th e C D L re s tric tio n s o r lim ita tio n s (n o te d in th e
a p p e n d ix to th e A F M ) a re fo llo w e d . <f a a order eaa o .l)
10. M E L ite m s a r e c e d e d to s h o w h o w lo n g th e a irc ra ft m a y b e o p e r a te d b e fo re th e y a r e re p a ire d .
11. A M E L is c re a te d fr o m a M a s t e r M E L ( M M E L i is s u e d fo r th e s p e c ific a irc ra ft ty p e b y th e F A A . A n F A A
g ro u p c a lle d th e F lig h t O p e r a tio n s E v a lu a tio n B o a r d ( F O E B ) m e e ts p e r io d ic a lly lo d is c u s s w h ic h ite m s
s h o u ld b e in c lu d e d in th e M M E L , a n d w h a t lim ita tio n s a n d p r o v is io n s a re in c lu d e d to e n s u re a s a fe
o p e ra tio n w ith th a t ite m in o p e ra tiv e .
12, A P a rt 121 o r 1 3 5 o p e r a t o r a c q u ire s th e M M E L fr o m Ih e F A A i w w w . f a a . o o v j a n d p re p a r e s an M E L fo r
(h a t s p e c ific a irc ra ft o r fle e t o f a irc ra ft. T h e o p e r a to r 's M E L m u s t lis t th e a c tu a l e q u ip m e n t in s ta lle d a n d
q u a n tity o f e a c h ly p e o f e q u ip m e n t o n th e a irc ra ft. M E L t e m p la t e s c a n be fo u n d a t w w w . f a a . g o v . T h e
a irc ra ft's s p e c ific M E L m u s t th e n be a p p ro v e d b y th e F A A fo r u s e b y th e o p e ra to r.
13, P a r t 91 — R o to rc r a fl, n o n iu r b in e - p o w e r e d a irp la n e s , g lid e rs , a n d lig h ie r - ih a n a ir a ir c r a ft fo r w h ic h a n
M M E L h a s n o t b e e n d e v e lo p e d m a y b e o p e r a te d w ith in o p e r a tiv e e q u ip m e n t if th e e q u ip m e n t is n o t
e s s e n tia l to th e s a fe ty o f t h e flig h t a n d th e e q u ip m e n t is p la c a rd e d a s in o p e r a tiv e [9 1 .2 1 3 ( d ) ]. A P a rt 91
o p e r a to r a c q u ire s (h e M M E L fr o m th e F A A . th e n c re a te s a p ro c e d u r e s d o c u m e n t th a t te lls th e p ilo t o r
m e c h a n ic w h a t p ro c e d u re s m u s t be fo llo w e d fo r a n y M E L ite m s th a t re q u ire (M ) M a in te n a n c e o r (O )
O p e r a tin g p ro c e d u re s . T h e o p e r a t o r a ls o d e fin e s a s y s te m fo r re c o r d in g d e fe c ts a n d fo r p la c a rd in g th e
e q u ip m e n t. T h e F A A d o e s n o t a p p ro v e th e P a rt 91 o p e r a to r 's M E L a s th e y w o u ld fo r a n a ir c a rr ie r, b u t
is s u e s a L e tte r O f A u th o r iz a tio n I'L O A i. T h e M M E L , th e o p e r a to r 's p ro c e d u re s , a n d th e L O A m u s t b e
c a rr ie d a b o a rd th e a ir c r a ft a t all tim e s a lo n g w ith a lo g o f a n y D E F E R R E D ite m s .
14, W h e n a n ite m is fo u n d in o p e r a tiv e , th e p ilo t m u s t d o th e fo llo w in g ;
a. L o o k in th e M E L to s e e if Ih e ite m c a n be D E F E R R E D . T h e M E L w ill lis t th e n u m b e r I n s t a lle d a n d
th e n u m b e r r e q u ir e d f o r d i s p a t c h . I f not lis t e d in th e M E L . the Ite m M U S T bE r e p a ir e d o r a
* s p e c ia l flig h t p e rm it" ("fe rry p e r m it" ) m u s t b e o b ta in e d fr o m th e F A A in o r d e r to o p e ra te th e a irc ra ft,
b. T h e n lo o k in th e r i g h t h a n d c o lu m n — r e m a r k s s e c tio n — to s e e if a n y s p e c ia l p r o v i s io n s a p p ly .
c. A n “ ( M ) 11 o r ,f( Q ) " in th e re m a rk s s e c tio n in d ic a te s w h e th e r a M a in te n a n c e p ro c e d u re o r a s p e c ia l
O p e ra tin g p ro c e d u re is a p p lic a b le .
d. T h e ite m m u s t th e n b e p la c a r d e d a s i n o p e r a t i v e , a n d th e d e t a i l s r e c o r d e d in Ih e re c o rd s u p p lie d
b y th e o p e ra to r. If a n y m a in te n a n c e w a s p e rfo rm e d , it m u s t b e s i g n e d o f f b y a m e c h a n i c .
e. L o ft c o lu m n le t t e r s — A . B . C , o r D — lim it Ih e t im e th a t th e ite m is a llo w e d to be D E F E R R E D
u n d e r Ih e M E L ;
C a t e g o r y A is a tim e lim it d e t e r m in e d b y th e o p e r a t o r :
C a t e g o r y B is fo r 72 h o u r s i Id avs
C a te g o r y Q is fo r 2 4 0 h o u rs ! 10 d a v s ;
C a t e g o r y D is fo r 1 2 0 d a v s .
f. Lf re m a rk s s e c tio n s la te s “ A s r e q u ir e d b v F A R ” — ■th e o p e r a to r m u s t lis t th e F A R lim ita tio n s thaL
a p p ly o r p ro v id e th e F A R in c u rr e n t fo rm .

318 EVERYTHING E H P L A I N E D fg r t h e P io fn s E to n .il P ilo t

 Chap B — More C om m ercial Stuff

M EL Item N u m b e r
2 4 -2

F a lc o n 2 0F
L e n g e l W o rld A irlin e s M inim um Equipm ent List
Aircraft Falcon 2QF N123LW. Revision Number: Page:
24-1
SfN 334 Date:
3/20/XX

Repair category

Number Installed
Number Required for Dispatch
Maintenance Procedure Required
Operations Procedure Required
Remarks or Exceptions

O n e m a y be in o p e r a tiv e p ro v id e d th e
re m a in in g tw o o p e ra te n o rm a lly .

( 0 1 ) P il o t s s h a ll e n s u r e b o t h
r e m a in in g I n v e r t e r s o p e r a t e n o r m a lly
d u r in g p r e f li g h t c h e c k s .

D C V o ltm e te r M a y be in o p e r a tiv e p ro v id e d all o th e r

g e n e r a to r S y s te m c o m p o n e n ts o p e ra le
n o rm a lly .

3. B a tte rie s M O n e m a y be in o p e r a tiv e p ro v id e d ,

a ) B o th g e n e r a to r s o p e ra te n o r m a lly
b} In o p e r a tiv e b a tte ry is d is c o n n e c te d
in a c c o r d a n c e w ith a n a c c e p ta b le
m a in te n a n c e p r o c e d u r e , a n d
c) A g ro u n d p o w e r u n it is u s e d fo r
e n g in e Start.

( 0 1 ) P il o t s s h a ll e n s u r e t h a t b o t h
g e n e r a t o r s o p e r a t e n o r m a ll y d u r i n g
p r e f li g h t c h e c k s .

( M l ) P u t s w it c h " O F F ” f o r a f f e c t e d
b a t t e r y a n d le a v e ''O F F . 11
D is c o n n e c t a f f e c t e d b a t t e r y a n d
i n s u la t e t h e b a t t e r y c o n n e c t o r a n d
b a t t e r y r e c e p t a c le .

4. B a tte ry T e m p e r a tu r e In d ic a to r o M a y b e in o p e r a tiv e p ro v id e d b a tte ry

S y s ie r n te m p e ra tu r e w a rn in g lig h t o p e ra te s
n o rm a lly .

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 319

Chap fl — More C om m ercial Stuff

In o p e r a tiv e E q u ip m e n t W IT H O U T a MEL: [91.213(d), 135179. ac m .s t i

A n a irc ra ft rwAVLb.^Lftp.prgfo?.^ u n d e r E a r j i L M t l i l L l n f l i a a l l i a in s tru m e n ts o r e q u ip m e n t WLtb.gM.t_AD

a p p r o v e d M E L p r o v i d e d [01.213(d)] —
1 T h e flig h t o p e r a iio n is c o n d u c t e d in a -
a. R o lo r c r a ft, n o n t u r b ln e - p o w e r e d a i r p la n e , g lid e r o r lig h le r - th a n - a ir a irc ra ft fo r w h ic h a W a s te r
M in im u m E q u ip m e n t L i s t h a s n o t b e e n d e v e l o p e d ; O R . . ,
b. S m a ll r o lo r c r a ft, n o n t u r b ln e - p o w e r e d S M A L L a i r p la n e , -glider, o r lig h te r - th a n - a lr a irc ra ft fo r
w h ic h a M a s t e r M in im u m E q u ip m e n t L i s t h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d : A N D ...
2, T h e in o p e r a t i v e in s tru m e n ts a n d e q u ip m e n t a r e N O T -
a. P a rt o f t h e V F R - d a v t y p e c e r t i f i c a t i o n in s t r u m e n t s [ 9 1 .2 0 5 (b )] o r th e e q u ip m e n t p r e s c r ib e d in
th e a p p lic a b le a irw o r th in e s s re g u la tio n s u n d e r w h ic h th e a irc ra ft w a s ty p e c e rtific a te d :
b. L is te d a s KR E Q U IR E D " o n th e a ir c r a ft’s e q u ip m e n t lis t ( u s u a lly fo u n d in th e R O H o r A F M ), o r
o n th e K in d s o f O p e r a tio n s E q u ip m e n t L is t fo r th e k in d o f f l i g h t o p e r a t io n b e in g c o n d u c te d :
c. R e q u ir e d b y § 9 1 . 2 0 5 o r a n y o t h e r r u le o f th is p a r t fo r th e s p e c ific k in d o f flig h t o p e ra tio n b e in g
c o n d u c te d { n ig h t flig h t, in s tru m e n t n ig h t, h ig h -a ltitu d e flig h t, e tc .); O R .. .
d. R e q u ir e d to b e o p e r a tio n a l b y a n A ir w o r th in e s s D ire c tiv e ; A N D . . .
3. T h e in o p e r a t i v e in s tr u m e n ts a n d e q u ip m e n t a t £ -
a. R e m o v e d ‘ ra m th e a irc ra ft, th e c o c k p it c o n tro l p la c a r d e d , a n d th e m a in t e n a n c e r e c o r d e d in
a c c o rd a n c e w ith § 4 3 .9 o f th is c h a p te r ; O R . . .
b. D e a c t iv a t e d a n d p la c a r d e d '’ I n o p e r a t iv e .” I f d e a c tiv a tio n o f th e in o p e r a tiv e in s tr u m e n t o r
e q u ip m e n t in v o lv e s m a i n t e n a n c e , it m u s t b e a c c o m p lis h e d a n d r e c o r d e d in a c c o rd a n c e w ith
p a r t 4 3 o f th is c h a p te r ; A N D . . .
c. A d e t e r m in a t io n is m a d e b y a p i l o t , w h o is c e rtific a te d a n d a p p r o p ria te ly ra te d u n d e r p a rt 61 o f
Ih is c h a p te r , a t b y a p e rs o n , w h o is c e rtific a te d a n d a p p r o p ria te ly ra te d lo p e rfo rm
m a in t e n a n c e o n th e a irc ra ft, th a t th e in o p e r a tiv e in s tr u m e n t o r e q u ip m e n t d o e s n o t c o n s t i t u t e
a h a z a rd .

C o n f ig u r a t io n

(AC 25-7A. A C 25.1 5S1-1. 0000.1)

D e v ia t io n L is t ( C D L ) : \
Operating th e a ir p la n e w ithout c e r ta in secondary airframe a n d engine parts is allowed Ih ro u g h th e
u s e o f a n a p p r o v e d C D L . T h e C D L s h o u ld b e in c lu d e d In th e AFM a s a s e p a ra te append In , T h e CDL
s h o u ld b e p re p a re d In a c c o r d a n c e w ith th e g u id a n c e p ro v id e d in A d v is o r y C irc u la r 2 5 -7 , " F lig h t T e s t
G u id e fo r C e rtific a tio n o f T ra n s p o r t C a te g o r y A ir p la n e s ."

M a n y a irc ra ft h a v e in s ta lle d e q u ip m e n t th a t is n o t e s s e n t ia l f o r s a f e o p e r a t io n s u n d e r all o p e ra tin g

c o n d itio n s . M u c h o f th is e q u ip m e n t Is r e q u ire d f o r c e rta in k in d s o r o p e r a tio n s , s u c h a s n ig h t, in s tr u m e n t
flig h t ru le s (IF R ), o r o p e r a tio n in ic in g c o n d itio n s . O th e r e q u ip m e n t, s u c h a s e n te r ta in m e n t s y s te m s a n d
g a lle y e q u ip m e n t m a y b e in s ta lle d fo r c o n v e n ie n c e . If s o m e d e v ia tio n fr o m th e ty p e c e rtific a te d
c o n fig u r a tio n a n d e q u ip m e n t w e re n o t p e rm itte d , th e a ir c r a ft c o u ld n o t b e flo w n u n le s s all s u c h
e q u ip m e n t w a s o p e r a b le a n d /o r in s ta lle d .
1. A C D L w o r k s p r e tty m u c h lik e a M E L .
2. T h e M in im u m E q u ip m e n t L is t a n d th e C o n fig u r a tio n D e v ia tio n L is t s h o u l d b e c a r r ie d o n b o a r d
th e a irc ra ft,
3. N o f l i g h t c a n ta k e o f f fro m a n y a irp o rt w it h i n o p e r a t iv e e q u ip m e n t o t h e r t h a n th e It e m s
l p ro v id e d fo r in th e M in im u m E q u ip m e n t L i s t a n d /o r C o n f i g u r a t i o n D e v ia t io n L i s t .
v ^

IN O P E R A T IV E — m e a n s th a t a s y s te m a n d /o r c o m p o n e n t
h a s m a lfu n c tio n e d to t h e e x te n t th a t it d e e s n o t a c c o m p lis h its
in te n d e d p u rp o s e a n d /o r is n o t c o n s is te n tly fu n c tio n in g n o rm a lly
w ith in its a p p ro v e d o p e ra tin g lim its o r to le ra n c e s , (a c 9i-e7)
W W W W W V W W W VW W W VW S W W W w *

320 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 C hap B — M o re C o m m e rc ia l S tu ff
O p e ra tin g W ITH O U T a M in i m u m E q u i p m e n t List:<Acsi-67>
M E L R E S T R IC T IO N S — O p e r a to rs o f SM ALL ro to rc ra ft, N O N T U R B IN E P O W E R E D s m a ll s in g le a n d
m u ltie n g in e a irp la n e s [ 1 2 .5 0 0 p o u n d s o r l e s s l . a n d o lh e r a ir c r a ft f o r w h ic h a M M E L h a s b e e n d e v e lo p e d ,
m a y e le c t to o p e r a t e WITH a M E L — O f f — u n d e r (h e p ro v is io n s o f F A R S 9 1 .2 1 3 (d ) I W ITH O U T a M E L ] .
H o w e v e r, th e l a t t e r o p t i o n d o e s n o t a p p ly i f th e a irc ra ft h a s a n M E L a p p r o v e d u n d e r F A R F a r ts 1 2 1 ,
1 2 5 , 1 2 9 , o r 1 3 5 . F o r e x a m p le , a n o w n e r h a s le a s e d an a ir c r a ft to an a ir c a r r ie r o p e ra to r, a n d th e a ir c a r r ie r
o p e r a to r h a s a p p lie d fo r a n d re c e iv e d a n a p p ro v e d M E L fo r F A R P a rt 1 3 5 o p e r a tio n s . C o m p lia n c e w it h
s u c h a M E L is m a n d a t o r y , e v e n d u r in g F A R P a rt 91 o p e r a t io n s . If Ih e o p e r a t o r w a n ts Lo o p e ra te u n d e r
F A R § 9 1 .2 1 3 (d ), th e o p e r a to r w o u ld h a v e lo s u r r e n d e r th e M E L a u th o r iz a tio n .

D E C ISIO N P R O C E S S W H EN O P E R A T IN G W ITH O U T a M EL:

P r e f l i g h t I n s p e c t io n r e v e a ls a n I n o p e r a t iv e p ie c e o f e q u ip m e n t .

T L If th e a n s w e r is Y E S , th e a ir c r a ft is
Is th e Ite m r e q u ir e d b y 9 1 ,2 0 5 o r a n y o t h e r P a r t 91 r u le N O T a i r w o r t h y a n d m a in te n a n c e
(e .g ., 9 1 .1 0 7 , 9 1 .2 0 5 , 9 1 .2 0 7 , 9 1 .2 0 9 , 9 1 .2 1 1 . 9 1 .2 1 5 , e tc .)?
YES o r a S p e c ia l F lig h t P e rm it is
re q u ire d .

If yo u C A N N O T a c c e p t th e
I f th e ite m Is r e q u ir e d fo r c e r t a in c o n d i t i o n s , b u t n o t o t h e r
J im It a tJ o n s . th e n Ih e a irc ra ft is N O T
c o n d i t i o n * ( d a y V F R o n ly ? ), a n d y o u C A N a c c e p t Ih e
a i r w o r t h y a n d m a in te n a n c e o r a
lim i t a t io n s , th e n P R O C E E D t o th e N E X T S T E F
S p e c ia l F lig h t P e rm it is re q u ire d .

If th e a n s w e r is YES, th e a ir c r a ft is
Is th e ite m r e q u ir e d b y a P a r t 91 r u le - a n d th e re is n o w a v t o N O T a i r w o r t h y a n d m a in te n a n c e
YES o r a S p e c ia l F lig h t P e rm it is
o p e r a t e w i t h o u t It ?
re q u ire d .

If Ih e a n s w e r is Y E S , th e a ir c r a ft is
Is ih e te ll- R E Q U IR E D n L".e u r c u r t E Q U IP M E N T L IS T c N O T a i r w o r t h y a n d m a in te n a n c e
K in d s o f O p e r a t io n E q u ip m e n t L i s t ?
t»> o r a S p e c ia l F lig h t P e rm it is
re q u ire d .

NO

If (h e a n s w e r is Y E S , th e a ir c r a ft is
Is th e ite m R E Q U IR E D b y a n y A ir w o r t h in e s s D ir e c t iv e (A D ) N O T a ir w o r t h y a n d m a in te n a n c e
to be o p e ra tiv e ? o r a S p e c ia l F lig h t P e r m it is
re q u ire d .

NO

9 1 .2 1 3 (d )(3 ) r e q u ir e s th a t y o u
You got this fa r, a n d y o u still want to ao f l v . .. you [th e p ilo t) either — R E M O V E th e in o p ite m
er a mechanic m u s t determ ine th a t th e in op item does not a n d p la c a r d th e c o c k p it c o n tro l, or
constitute a hazard a n d it is safe to operate w ithout It 3 Ê J D E A C T I V A T E th e ite m a n d
p la c a r d (h e c o c k p it c o n tr o l.

If y o u d e c id e to R E M O V E a n ite m , it will u s u a lly require an a u th o r iz e d m echanic to d o (h e w o rk . A

supplemental W eight & Balance re p o r t m u s t be c re a te d a n d signed fry mechanic: a n d th e equipment
lis t m u st be m odified to re fle c t th e r e m o v a l. T h e te m p o r a r y W & B a n d e q u ip m e n t lis t m o d ific a tio n s h o u ld be
k e p t in th e A ir c r a ft F lig h t M a n u a l. If y o u d e c id e lo D E A C TIV A TE th e ite m , y o u c a n ju s t sw itch JL p ff. o r pull
and collar the c ircu it breaker. P la c a rd (h e c o c k p it c o n tr o l " I N O F " a n d record th e maintenance a s p e r 4 3 .9 .
EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 321
Chap fl — More C om m ercial Stuff

“ S P E C I A L F L I G H T P E R M I T 11 o r “ F E R R Y P E R M I T ": pi 21.197.21.1* O pS f»c dq sh ;

1, N o tw ith s ta n d in g a n y o th e r p ro v is io n o f th is s e c tio n { 9 1 .2 1 3 ). a n a ir c r a ft w ith in o p e r a b le in s tr u m e n ts o r

e q u ip m e n t m a y b e o p e ra te d u n d e r a s p e c ia l flig h t p e rm it is s u e d in a c c o r d a n c e w ith S e c s . 2 1 .1 9 7 a n d
2 1 .1 9 9 .
2. A 's p e c ia l flig h t p e rm it" a k a 'f e r r y p e rm it" m a y b e is s u e d b y th e F lig h t S ta n d a rd s D is tric t O ffic e (F A A
F o rm 8 1 3 0 - 6 1 fo r a n a irc ra ft th a t m a y n o t c u rr e n tly m e e t a ir w o r th in e s s re q u ire m e n ts b u t is c a p a b le o f
s a fe flig h t.
3. N o rm a lly a n a u th o r iz e d m e c h a n ic m a k e s th e d e te r m in a tio n a s to th e s a fe ty o f th e a irc ra ft.
4. A " ferry permit" is typically issued for;
a. R e p o s it io n i n g a n a ir c r a ft to a p la c e w h e re re p a irs o r m a in t e n a n c e is to b e p e rfo rm e d o r to a
p la c e o f s to r a g e .
b. F lig h t- te s tin g o r d e liv e ry o f a irc ra ft.
c. C u s to m e r d e m o n s tra tio n Flights fo r n e w p r o d u c tio n a irc ra ft.
d. E v a c u a tin g a irc ra ft fr o m a n a re a o f im p e n d in g d a n g e r
e. O p e r a tin g a n a ir c r a ft a t a w e ig h t in e x c e s s o f m a x im u m g r o s s w e ig h t fo r a lo n g -ra n g e flig h t s u c h
a s c r o s s in g th e A tla n tic .
5. A " S p e c ia l A ir w o r t h in e s s C e r t i f i c a t e ” (F A A fo rm 3 1 3 0 - 7 ) is a ls o re q u ire d if th e a ir c r a ft is
“ A M lflU n n u H ” .
u m i c o s it a r t i o r M n u
M M T M C P iT O f J W u *0 fO K T M T ^ ■f T M W i * U T « h J M K l ' V Ç I i

e »i[a s p r w i w p .i * i n m r u tm r m e t
*
PuRPOfif ka ! liïifeBÂJV.** t

O P E R A B L E CO N D ITIO N m e a n s th a t th e B
1M W
H flU I

■ m i
W.'ilt

*/ l

in s tru m e n ts a n d e q u ip m e n t re q u ire d to c o m p ly t
r y jU EJJJAR1 . iiEJUUHOt

i i w m C3TT. a
w ith th e a irw o r th in e s s r e q u ir e m e n ts u n d e r w h ic h
D c - im
th e a ir p la n e is ty p e - c e rtific a te d s h a ll b e in a SRMCa!" CURD. h e u

DMT p r H ü m t l-U -lt • * i-* lt *

condition so as tooperate efficiently and in Ihe t
O n a w m I M Î » " • & « [ » i t ’d' 1 ) l ì PI k m A i i « T f l F T W C i ^ a ,*.* "1

m a n n e r in t e n d e d oy th e m a n u f a c t u r e r .
V

li
* *

Tj
■ ■ a im m :

,
— — apj 1 Tfc-t. m M * V u «* H H P . M !• ** I P H # ! h 4£». M i ' * U fP 't a a P M i *
K l W f MM ■j'W’rPI ■■ !h l ?n

A. Tony flight or li 3 or A
turbine engine aircraft ™ih
one sngine inoperative to a
repair station may 6a made
in V FR conditions with only
required flight crewmsmtiers
onboard. (91.611)
..........................
322 EVERYTHING EK P LA JH ED for the Professional Pilot
 C hap 8 — M o re C o m m e rc ia l S tu ff
i i;;m i :h aw i i U A W I : .v.v; I : n w n ; : .v .;....................;
E x a m p le o f a “ F e rry P e rm it” ;
U.S. Department
Of Transportation Flight Standards District Office 6433 Bryan Bivri
Greensboro, NC 27AÙÌ
Federal Aviation 33G-G62-1Ü25 Fax: 33G-Ge2-10&C
Administration

F A X - S P E C I A L F L IG H T P E R M IT
This permit is for the following aircraft for the purpose of MAINTENANCE.

R EG . NO. MAKE: M O DEL: S E R IA L N O :

N 4Q 53U CESSNA C E -4 Q 2 B 4Ü 2BQ 447

FROM : TO: V IA :
RDU C LT D IR E C T N O S T O P S

T h is a u th o r iz a tio n m u s t be d is p la y e d in th e a irc ra ft In a c c o rd a n c e w ith 14 C FR § ii. 2 0 3 ( b )

T h is a u th o risa tio n oKpires upon a rriva l a t designation o r N o vem ber 20, 2QXX.

These Operating Limitations are a part of the Special Flight Permit issued to the aircraft described above. Flight crew
members must be properly certificated and rated in accordance with i4 CFR Part 81.

1. The flight described above shall be made under VFRfVMC dav conditions only, (unless the additional limitation
below authorizes differently). The flight shall be made by the most direct and expeditious route consistent with
the aircraft operating limitations and weather.

2. O ccupation of the aircraft is lim ited to the p ilo t, essential flig h t crew required to operate the aircraft and its
equipment and personal baggage.

3. F light over congested areas is p ro hib ited , and lakcoffs and landings shall be conducted to avoid congested
areas in the vicinity of any of the airports used in conjunction with this authorization. Flight over a foreign
country must have special permission from that country.

4. P rior to flig h t, the aircraft m ust be inspected by a certificated m e d ia n ic or repair station to determine the
aircraft is safe for the intended flig h t The result of ih.at inspection will be entered in the perm anent aircraft
records wi1h the following similarly worded statem ent: " This aircraft has been inspected a rd has been
found safe for the intended flig h t In accordance with Special Flight Permit d a te d __________

5. Operation or (his aircraft is subject to the approval of the registered owner. The aircraft must display U.S.
registration identification marks and have a registration certificate issued to its owner on board. This Permit is
valid for one flig h t only (Direct) wi1h necessary fuel stops.

6. Any Airworthiness Directive pertinent to this make and model of aircraft that requires compliance must be
complied with before the ferry flight is initiated unless the AD specifies that the aircraft can be ferried to a
location where the requirements of that specific AD can be accomplished.

Additional Limitations:

1. MUST FLY WITHOUT USE OF AUTO PILOT

2. MUST FLY BELOW 10,000 FEET

R o n a ld 7 % c V $ K < U d
Ronald McDonald
ASI Date Issued: November 15. 20XX

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 323

Chap fl — More C om m ercial Stuff

PILO T R E C O R D SH A R IN G — P ilo t Records improvement A c t (P R I A ):

JAC 1ZQ-6HE. 91.1051. Title V of Public L hw 104-234. 119 Stef. 3259 (1996). 91.1951|
F IV E -Y E A R b a c k g r o u n d c h e c k s a re re q u ire d fo r a ll P a r t 1 3 5 P a r t 121 a n d S u b p a r t K o f P a r t 91 p ilo ts b y th e
P ilo t R e c o rd s Im p r o v e m e n t A c t o f 1 9 9 6 i'F R I A ):
1. A c h e c k o f all p r e v i o u s a v ia t io n e m p lo y e r s w ith in th e p a s t f i v e y e a r s fo r r e c o r d s o f t r a i n i n g :
q u a l i f i c a t i o n s : c h e c k r ld e r e s u l t s in c lu d in g c o m m e n t s a n d e v a lu a tio n s o f c h e c k a ir m e n : a n y
d i s c ip l in a r y a c t i o n t h a t w a s n o t s u b s e q u e n t ly o v e r t u r n e d : a n d r e s u l t s o f d r u g a n d a l c o h o l te s tin g .
F li g h t t i m e a n d d u t y re c o r d s a re s p e c ific a lly e x c l u d e d . P rio r e m p lo y e r s h a v e 30 d a y s t o r e s p o n d
o n c e th e y re c e iv e th e re q u e s t fo rm .
2. An FAA r e c o r d s c h e c k o f th e p ilo t's c e r tific a te a n d m e d ic a l in c lu d in g a n y v io la tio n s , a c c id e n ts o r
in c id e n ts , S o m e a ir c a rr ie rs a ls o c h e c k th e p ilo t’s “ C o m p le t e A ir m e n F ile ” th a t in c lu d e s m u c h m o r e
d e ta ile d in fo r m a tio n in c lu d in g k n o w le d g e te s t re s u lts , 8 7 1 0 A ir m a n C e rtific a te a n d /o r R a tin g
A p p lic a tio n s , e tc .
3. A c h e c k o f th e p ilo t's d r i v i n g r e c o r d th ro u g h th e in d iv id u a l S ta t e a n d /o r th e N D R fo r a n y d ru g o r
a lc o h o l re la te d “ m o t o r v e h ic le a c t i o n s 1'
4. O p e r a to rs m a y p u l p ilo ts to w o r k d o in g “ o n d e m a n d o p e r a t io n s “ { n o t s c h e d u le d ) in a ir c r a ft w ith
m a x im u m p a y lo a d c a p a c itie s o f 7 .5 0 0 lb s o r le s s { o r h e lic o p te r s ), pending receipt o ' h ie r background
c h e c k in fo rm a tio n , fo r n o lo n g e r th a n 90 d a y s . B e fo re th e e n d o f th e 9 0 - d a y p e rio d , th e a ir c a r r ie r s h a ll
o b ta in a n d e v a lu a te s u c h in fo rm a tio n . A n a ir c a r r ie r m a y a ls o u s e a p ilo t if th e ir p r e v io u s e m p lo y e r n o
lo n g e r e x is ts b u t a d b a c-u rog ja ia ri g o o d fa ith a t t e m p t to o b t a i n Ih e i n f o / m a t i o n h a s b e e n m a d e .
5. A p ilo t c a n n o t s u e a fo r m e r e m p lo y e r fo r fu r n is h in g th e s e re c o rd s , h o w e v e r a ( v e r y w e a lth y ) p ilo t c o u ld
file a la w s u it If th e fo r m e r e m p lo y e r k n o w in g ly s u p p lie s fa ls e in fo m n a iio h . It’s a g o o d Id e a lo s ta y o n
g o o d te r m s w ith a ll p re v io u s e m p lo y e rs . D o n 't b u rn a n y b rid g e s a s th e y sa y.
6. B a c k g r o u n d d a ta fr o m c o m p a n ie s th a t n o lo n g e r e x is t w ill b e w a iv e d a s lo n g a s a d o c u m e n te d g o o d
fa ith a tte m p t to g a m th e in fo rm a tio n is m a d e .
7. FAA PILOT RECORD b y s e n d in g a le tte r re q u e s tin g y o u r
Y o u c a n g e t a c o p y o f y o u r p e rs o n a l
"C O M P LE TE A IR M A N FILE In c lu d in g a l l M E D IC A L re c o rd s a n d re c o rd s o f
IN C ID E N T S , A C C ID E N T S , a n d E N FO R E M E N T p r o c e e d i n g s ” In c lu d e y o u r n a m e : a d d r e s s
date and place o f b irth : social security a n d /o r airman num ber: a n d y o u r signature. Y o u m u s t a ls o
p ro v id e a c h e c k fo r $ 1 0 p a y a b le to th e U .S. T r e a s u r y . Y o u w ill o n ly be c h a rg e d fo r th e c o s t o f th e
c o p ie s , s o ty p ic a lly yo u w ill re c e iv e a re fu n d f o r th e p o rtio n o f th e $ 16 th a t is n o t u s e d {a n o th e r o p tio n is
to s e n d a c h e c k w ith th e a m o u n t b la n k a n d a n o te o n th e c h e c k s ta tin g " NOT TO EXCEED $ 1 0 ,0 0 " )
M a il th e c h e c k a n d in fo rm a tio n to:

IF A A F A A P ilot R ecords are divided into three '

categories:
A ttn : A v ia tio n D a ta S y s t e m s B r a n c h 1. A irm a n certification records
2. M e d ica l records
A F S — 6 2 0 {P R IA ) 3. La w e n fo rce m e n t records
PO B o x 2 5 0 3 2 {vio la tion s, a ccid e nts, incidents)
A pilot wanting a ''complete file" must
O k la h o m a C ity , O K 7 3 1 2 5 -0 0 8 2 request all three categories.

F A X (4 0 5 ) 9 5 4 -4 6 5 5
F o rm s a v a ila b le a t h t t p : / f w w w . f a a . g o v / lic & n s e s c e r t if ic a t e s / a i r m e n c e r t i f i c a t i o n / .
V ir tu a lly E V E R Y s c ra p o f in fo rm a tio n e v e r e x c h a n g e d b e tw e e n y o u a n d th e F A A w ill b e in c lu d e d .
8. A p ilo t in te re s te d in a c o p y o f th e ir D R IV IN G R E C O R D c a n c o n ta c t th e D M V o f th e ir in d iv id u a l S ta te o r
th e N a t io n a l D r iv e r R e g is t r y a t 4 0 0 71h S t r e e t S .W .. W a s h in g t o n . D .C , 2 0 5 9 0 — (2 0 2 ) 3 6 6 -4 8 0 0 .
T h e N D R w ill n e e d a N O TA R IZED le tte r in c lu d in g : y o u r n a m e ; d a te o f b irth ; S o c ia l s e c u rity n u m b e r;
h e ig h t, w e ig h t, a n d c o lo r o f h a ir a n d e y e s .
9. T h e P R IA la w gives yo u th e opportunity to correct e rroneous information in a n y O f y O u r re c o rd s ,
Y o u h a v e th e r ig h t to s u b m it w ritte n c o m m e n ts to c o r r e c t in a c c u ra c ie s b e fo re th e a irlin e m a k e s a fin a l
h irin g d e c is io n {g o o d lu c k w ith th a t o n e !).
10. T h e a irlin e m u s t k e e p a n y in f o r m a t i o n it r e c e iv e s c o n f i d e n t i a l . T h e y m a y n o t u s e th e in fo rm a tio n fo r
a n y p u rp o s e o th e r th a n to r m a k in g a h irin g d e c is io n . D e trim e n ta l in fo r m a tio n d o e s n o t a u to m a tic a lly
p re v e n t a n a irlin e fro m h irin g a p ilo t, b u t if y o u c o n s id e r (h e le g a l im p lic a tio n s o f a p o s s ib le fu tu re
in c id e n t th a t m ig h t in v o lv e p a s s e n g e rs a n d la w s u its , u n fo r tu n a te ly th e r e ’s a lo t m o r e fis h in th e s e a .

324 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.nl Pilaf

 (ch a p & — More C om m ercial Stuff

A C C E S S I N V E S T I G A T I O N C H E C K — “ A I R P O R T B A D G E " ; ( m a , 1544.2»)
1. A n o th e r { s e p a r a te fro m P R IA ) — “ A C C E S S IN V E S T IG A T IO N C H E C K ” — is
re q u ire d to s c r e e n p ilo ts fo r a c c e s s to s e c u r e a r e a s o f a i r c a r r ie r a i r p o r t s
m a n d a te d u n d e r F A R 1 0 8 .3 3 .
2. It r e q u ire s a n F B I c rim in a l f i n g e r p r i n t c h e c k th a t lo o k s b a c k 10 y e a r s fo r c e rta in
f e l o n y c o n v i c t i o n s (lis te d in (h e ru le ).
3. I f y o u 'r e c o n c e rn e d a b o u t a p o te n tia l s k e le to n th a l m ig h t b e lu rk in g in y o u r c lo s e t
( w h a t e x a c tly did h a p p e n a ft e r (h a t f r a l p a rly ? ), fo r a s m a ll fe e y o u c a n g e t y o u rs e lf
fin g e rp r in te d a t y o u r lo c a l p o lic e s ta tio n o r F B I o ffic e a n d c h e c k th e re s u lts
p e rs o n a lly .

CLOSING and LOCKING of FLIGHTCREW COMPARTMENT POOR: <121,597)

{a ) E x c e p t a s p r o v id e d in p a r a g r a p h f b l o f th is s e c tio n , a pilot in c o m m a n d o f a n
airplane t h a t has a lockable N ig h tc re w c o m p a r tm e n t door in a c c o r d a n c e w ith
§ 1 2 1 ,3 1 3 a n d (h a t is c a rm ncL&ass e tm & r s shall e n s u r e th a t th e d o o r s e p a ra tin g
(h e flig h tc re w c o m p a r tm e n t fr o m th e p a s s e n g e r c o m p a r tm e n t is closed a n d
locked a t all tim es w h e n th e a irc ra ft is b e in g o p e ra te d ,
{b) T h e p ro v is io n s o f p a ra g r a p h (a) o f th is s e c tio n do not apply at a n y tim e
w h e n it is necessary to p e rm it access and egress b y persons authorized
in a c c o r d a n c e w ith § T 2 1 .5 4 7 a n d p ro v id e d th e p a rt 1 1 9 o p e r a t o r c o m p lie s
w ith F A A a p p ro v e d p ro c e d u re s re g a r d in g th e o p e n in g , d o s in g a n d lo c k in g o f
th e flig h ld e c k d o o rs .

E YE L O C A T O R — S e a t A d ju stm e n t: (0900.1 Para 4 - 2 1B)

A n e y e lo c a to r Is o fte n m o u n t e d o n Ih e c e n t e r w i n d s h i e ld p o s t to e n a b le s e a t a d j u s t m e n t fo r c o r r e c t
e y e - t o - w h & e l h e i g h t. T h e e y e lo c a to r is c o m m o n ly m o u n te d in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e w e t c o m p a s s .

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 325

Chap fl — More C o m m ercial Stuff)
A ir c r a ft D ISP A T C H E R :
[P a n 65 Subpdrt C — 65.51 -65.70. 121.99,151.335, 121.404. 121.415, 121.403, 121.405, 121.533, 131.535, 121.557, 121.901, 1 2 1 6B3)
1, A n F A A c e rtific a te d p e rs o n w h o , a lo n g w ith th e P ilo t In C o m m a n d , is r e s p o n s i b le in th e o p e r a t io n a l
control o f a f l i g h t
2 P a r t 121 D O M E S T IC a n d F L A G o p e ra tio n s m u s t u s e C E R T IF IE D a i r c r a f t D IS P A T C H E R S (o c o n tro l
flig h t o p e ra tio n s .
3. T w o - w a y a ir/g r o u n d r a d io c o m m u n ic a t io n s m u s t be a v a ila b le b e tw e e n e a c h a ir p la n e a n d its
a p p ro p ria te d is p a t c h o f f ic e o v e r th e e n t i r e r o u t e o f e a c h H igh!,
4. A p ilo t m a y n o t in itia te o r c o n tin u e a flig h t u n le s s b o th th e d is p a t c h e r AN D th e P il o t In C o m m a n d
a g r e e th a t th e flig h t c a n he c o n d u c te d s a fe ly a n d le g a lly . T h e P IC a n d th e a irc ra ft d i s p a t c h e r a re
j o in t ly r e s p o n s i b le fo r p r e flig h t p la n n in g a n d d is p a tc h re le a s e o f a flig h t.
5. P a rt 121 S U P P L E M E N T A L a n d P a r t 135 operators are N O T r e q u ir e d t o u s e c e r tific a te d a irc ra ft
d is p a t c h e r s to e x e rc is e c o n tro l. T h e P lC m a y a c t u a l l y d i s p a t c h h i m s e lf if th e a u th o r ity h a s b e e n
d e le g a te d b y th e c o m p a n y ( O p e ra tio n s M a n u a l).
6 . Responsibilities of the dispatcher normally include:
W h ile o p e r a tio n a l c o n tro l is
a. A ir c r a ft p e r fo rm a n c e lim ita tio n s , b a s e d o n s u c h th in g s a s
th e r e s p o n s ib ility o f th e
ta k e o ff w e ig h t, d e p a r tu r e ru n w a y , e n ro u le , e n g in e - o u t a n d
a irlin e , th e f in a l a u t h o r it y to
a rr iv a l ru n w a y .
p la n a n d o p e ra te a P a r t 121
b. W e ig h t a n d B a la n c e c o m p u la tio n s ,
f l i g h t ( D o m e s tic o r F la g }
c. F lig h t p la n n in g , in c lu d in g ro u te , flig h t tim e , a n d fu e l
re s ts w ith th e C a p t a in AND
re q u ire m e n ts ,
th e D is p a t c h e r , j
d. C re w b rie fin g , in c lu d in g w e a th e r, M O T A M s , e tc.
e. F lig h t m o n ito r in g .
f. A T C a n d in s tr u m e n t p ro c e d u re s , in c lu d in g g ro u n d h o ld a n d flo w c o n tr o l.
g. M in im u m E q u ip m e n t L is t (M E L ) a n d C o n fig u r a tio n D e v ia tio n L is t (C D L ) p ro c e d u re s .
h. E m e r g e n c y p ro c e d u re s . aam................
i. D is p a tc h re le a s e p re p a r a tio n .
121.557 — In a known
EM ERG EN CY situation arising
D IS P A T C H R E L E A S E — a k a — F L IG H T R E L E A S E : during flight IhaL requires
immediate <:■ ■■i' . i . iim
(FAA Ordtf 0900,1, 121,533. 121.535. 121,593, 121.597. 121.599. 121.603, 121,619, 121,621,
action by (fie dispatcher and
121.629, 121.641, 121.563, 121.537, 121.693, 121.695, 135.63, AC 26-7A)
iF rot in communicalian with
1. P a r t 121 D O M E S T IC o r F L A G o p e r a tio n s m a y n o t d e p a r t u n le s s a
lha PIC, Via dispatcher shall
d i s p a t c h r e le a s e c o n ta in in g s p e c ific a u t h o r iz a t io n fo r th a t s in g le flig h t declare an B M B lflQ B t
o r s e rie s o f flig h ts is p r e p a r e d a n d s ig n e d b y B O T H th e D is p a t c h e r a n d [communicate di racily with
(h e P il o t In C o m m a n d (e x c e p t 121 S U P L E M E N T A L j.
ATC] and talyi an ■/■action mat
he considers necessary undai
2. A d i s p a t c h r e le a s e m u s t c o n t a i n a t le a s t: h Ihe circurrstances.
a. Id e n tific a tio n n u m b e r o f th e a irc ra ft.
____
b. T rip n u m b e r ( F lig h t n u m b e r ).
C. D e p a rtu r e a irp o rt. In te rm e d ia te s to p s , d e s tin a tio n a irp o rts , a n d a lte r n a te a irp o rts .
d. A s ta te m e n t o f th e ty p e o f o p e ra tio n (e .g ., IF R , V F R ).
e . M in im u m fu e l q u a n tity re q u ire d .
f. L a te s t a v a ila b le w e a th e r f o r a ll a irp o rts in v o lv e d .
3. D O M E S T IC — E a c h f l i g h t m u s t b e d i s p a t c h e d , unless th e o r ig in a l d is p a tc h w a s a m u l t b l e a flig h t a n d
ih e a irc ra ft d o e s ricT_sc_gn4i_m_c_r_fc_t.h.3 nJ_h_c_u,r_on th e g r o u n d a t a s to p
4. F L A G — E a c h f l i g h t m u s t be d i s p a t c h e d , u n le s s th e o r ig in a l d is p a tc h w a s a m u l t i - l e a flig h t a n d th e
a irc ra ft d o e s n o t s p e n d m o r e th a n 6 h o u r s on th e a r o u n d a t a s to p (la y o v e r).
5. S U P P L E M E N T A L — N o r e q u i r e m e n t fo r a n a irc ra ft d i s p a t c h e r . T h e P IC o r s o m e o th e r a u th o r iz e d
(b y th e c e r tific a te h o ld e r ) p e rs o n is a llo w e d to c o m p le t e th e f l i g h t r e le a s e , T h e p ilo t m a y s ig n th e
flig h t re le a s e o n ly w h e n h e a n d th e p e rs o n a u th o r iz e d to e x e rc is e o p e r a tio n a l c o n tr o l a re s a tis fie d th a t
th e flig h t c a n b e m a d e s a fe ly . A n e w f l i g h t r e le a s e m u s t b e g e n e ra te d if th e a ir c r a ft h a s b e e n o n th e
a r o u n d fo r m o r e t h a n 6 h o u r s . T h e P ilo t In C o m m a n d m a y , o n h is o w n , o b ta in all n e c e s s a ry
In fo rm a tio n a n d he a lo n e m a y s ig n Lhe flig h t re le a s e if a u th o r iz e d to d o s o b y th e c e r tific a te h o ld e r.
6 D O M E S T I C , F J -A G a n d S U P P L E M E N T A L o p e ra tio n s a re r e q u ire d to c a r r y o n b o a rd th e a ir c r a ft c o p ie s
o f Ih e lo a d m a n i f e s t , d i s p a t c h r e l e a s e , a n d a c o p y o f th e f l i g h t p la n (c o p ie s m u s t be k e p t fo r 1
m o n t h s !. A d d itio n a lly S U P P L E M E N T A L c a rrie rs a re r e q u ire d to c a rr y o n b o a rd th e p i lo t r o u t e
c e r t i f i c a t i o n a n d th e a ir c r a ft’s a i r w o r t h i n e s s r e le a s e c e r t if ic a t e (c o p ie s m u s t b e k e p t f o r 3 m o n t h s L
7, P A R T 1 3 5 flio h ls d o n o t re q u ire a d is p a tc h e r o r a d is p a tc h re le a s e a lth o u g h th e c e rtific a te h o ld e r m u s t
h a v e p r e c is e “ F L IG H T L O C A T IN G P R O C E D U R E S ’ o u tlin e d in th e ir o p e r a tio n s m a n u a l. T h e P IC is
r e s p o n s ib le fo r a ll in fo rm a tio n a n d m u s t c a rr y o n b o a rd a c o p y o f Ih e lo a d m a n if e s t O nly.

326 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D fqr the Prof et »¡anal Pilot

 Chap & — More C om m ercial Stuff
A G E 6 5 a n d P a r t 1 2 1 ; ici.m 121 ae3. 121.440]
1 2 1 .3 6 3 A irm a n : L im ita t io n s o n u s e o f s e r v i c e s .
1 2 1 .3 S 3 td ) - H o c e r t if ic a t e h o ld e r m a v :
{ 1 ) U g g th e s e r v ic e s o f a n y p e rs o n a s a p i lo t 0 0 a n a irp la n e e n g a g e d in o p e r a t io n s u n d e r (h is p a r t ! f th a t
p e rs o n h a s r e a c h e d h is o r h e r 6 5 th b i r t h d a y .
( 2 ) U s e th e s e r v ic e s o f a n y p e rs o n a s a ¿ ¡lo t in c o m m a n d in o p e r a t io n s u n d e r (h is p a rt b e t w e e n th e
U n it e d S ta te s a n d a n o t h e r c o u n t r y , o r in o p e r a tio n s b e tw e e n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , i f th a t p e rs o n h a s
r e a c h e d h is o r h e r 6 Qth birthday u n le s s (h e re is a n o t h e r p i l o t in th e flig h t d e c k c re w w h o h a s n o t y e t
a t t a in e d 6 0 y e a r s o f a g e .

Congress Actually Does Something! \

[H.R.4S43.61.3(|), 121.Ua, 121,440]
1. S id e - s te p p in g th e c r e a k y w h e e ls o f th e F A A , b o th h o u s e s o f C o n g r e s s u n a n im o u s ly p a s s e d , a n d (in a
r a r e d is p la y o f s a n ity ) El P r e s id e n ts B u s h s ig n e d “ T h e F a ir T r e a t m e n t f o r E x p e r ie n c e d P ilo t s A c t '*
m a k in g it (h e la w o f th e la n d D e c e m b e r 13, 2 0 0 7 ; e n d in g th e n e a rly h a lf- c e n lu r y o ld a g e
d is c rim in a tio n ru le . T h e p o lic y o f o u t w ith th e o ld {e x p e r ie n c e d , h ig h s e n io rity ) h ig h ly p a id p i lo t s . . . a n d
in w it h th e y o u n g e r c h e a p e r d u d e s h a s s a v e d th e a ir lin e s c o u n tle s s m illio n s d u rin g th o s e 5 0 y e a rs .
2. T h e la w fo rc e d Ih e F A A to r a is e th e m a n d a to r y r e t ir e m e n t a a e fo r P a r i 121 p ilo lS t o a g e 6 5 . (121.303)
3. T h is is a ll w e ll a n d g o o d if y o u h a v e a c u r r e n t jo b w ith a n a irlin e t h a t w ill re m a in in b u s in e s s a s you
p a s s a g e 6 0 . B e a w a re t h a t r e g a r d le s s o f ih e n e w r e p u t a t i o n a n d th e s u p p o s e d ly lo o m in g ‘ p ilo t
s h o rta g e " e v e r y o n e a lw a y s ta lk s a b o u t A g e d i s c r im in a t io n is s t i l l r a m p a n t . I f y o u 're o v e r 55 a n d
lo s e y o u r j o b fo r a n y re a s o n , Li’s a to u g h w o rld o u t th e re . U n le s s y o u a re u n iq u e ly ta le n te d , m o s t
o p e ra to rs w ill o p t to in v e s t th e ir tra in in g d o lla rs in y o u n g e r a lb e it le s s e x p e rie n c e d {a n d c h e a p e r )
p ilo ts . It's a n u n fo r tu n a te fa c t o f life a n d I'm ju s t tell In ’ it lik e it is. B e s u re to h a v e a d d itio n a l s k ills
a v a ila b le u n le s s y o u ’re w illin g to S ta rt o v e r a l Ih e b o lto m o f Ih e s e n io r ity lis t a t a r e g io n a l, o r y o u k n o w
s o m e o n e in a c o rp o r a te o r 13 5 o p e ra tio n th a t c a n g e t y o u a jo b . It's a ll a b o u t w h o y o u k n o w !
4. F lig h t s d e p a r t in g U & a irp o rts fo r fo r e ig n d e s tin a tio n s r e q u ir e a t le a s t f l f l l p i l o t u n d e r th e a g e o f M
to b e p a rt o f th e c re w . T h is p ro v is io n p u ts it in lin e w ith In te r n a tio n a l C iv il A v ia tio n O r g a n iz a tio n
iflC A Q I s ta n d a r d s a d o p te d in 2 3 3 6 - [61,30), lilS W - , 12"I.<m q |
5. T h e la w g iv e s p ilo ts w h o h a v e lo s t m u c h o f th e ir p e n s io n s lo a irlin e b a n k ru p tc ie s (o r n u m e r o u s e x -
w iv e s !;o ) fiv e m o r e y e a r s to re c a p tu re lo s t In c o m e ; a n d h e lp s th e a irlin e s d e a l w it h th e th e o r e tic a l
g ro w in g s h o rta g e o f e x p e rie n c e d p ilo ts ,
6. T h e e x te n d e d c a re e r s o f th e o ld e r p ilo ts m e a n m o re tim e w ith lo w e r s e n io r ity fo r th e y o u n g e r o n e s ;
h o w e v e r it a ls o m e a n s lo n g e r c a re e rs fo r all p ilo ts . I th in k E V E R Y O N E w i n s ! IM H O .
7. O p i n i o n : Im m e d ia te ly a ft e r s ig n in g th e b ill in to la w . .. B u s h w e n t b a c k to fig h tin g h is p e rs o n a l p riv a te
w a r w ith Ira q , O b a m a w e n i b a c k lo p lo llin g w a y s to ta k e m o re m o n e y fr o m th e ric h { a k a — p e o p le
w h o a c tu a lly h ir e p e o p le ) a n d (h e n (a fte r d e d u c tin g a h u g e p e rc e n ta g e to fu n d th e g r o s s ly b lo a te d
government b u re a u c ra c y ) re d is tr ib u te w h a t's le ft to th e p o o r a n d u n e m p lo y e d . G r e a t jo b R o b in H o o d if
T o o b a d y o u c o u ld n 't fig u re o u t h o w to d e a l w ith th e s e v e ra l g a z illio n d o lla rs o f d e b t th e p o lic y c re a te d
a n d th e h u g e g ro w in g c la s s o f fo lk s w h o s e e n o re a s o n to w o r k b e c a u s e th e y 'v e b e c o m e c o m fo rta b le
w ith g o v e rn m e n t h a n d o u ts . B y ih e w a y ... d o e s a n y o n e k n o w a n y o n e e v e r h ire d b y a p o o r p e rs o n ?
O r a p o o r p e rs o n w h o h ire d a p o o r p ilo t? J u s l m y h u m b le o p in io n h o ).

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 327

Chap B — More C o m m ercial Stuff

1. The FAA's latest buzzphrase created to promote safety by adding several thousand words 1o their website and
maybe some to your Ops Manual. "SMS is an approach to improving safety at the organizational level."
■ 2. Basic concept — "^n a fyscs show that accidents are rarefy caused by one ovent. Occidents are the result i
• of a chain of events. If any of the events had no t occurred, an acciden t may have been prevented." !
2 3. The FAA w ants operators to develop a SMS program to a 'courage re porting of even the el ightest possi bility of j[
J a safety issue by every employee from the janitor on up to upper management. The object being to hreakthe
; chain of events that lead to an accident — aka — basic common sense (IMHO}. >
. 4. The FAAfs H ypothetical S c e n a rio — Tug driver notices hydraulic flu id on a tire... but doesn't point ¡tout'cause |
2 he's really busy. Janitor deans up hydraulic fluid or hangar floor... wonders about it. but fails to report it. Fueler ¡E
i notices puddle of red fluid under a tire... but ha3 several others to fuel, so he fails to say anything. Pilot gets
* distracted during the walk-a-round so he fails to notice it. Airplane departs. At the destination airport, the pilot !
I executes a perfect landing and applies the brakes. The leaking hydraulic fluid heats up and ignites. The right j[
J main landing gear is engulfed in flames and the plane burns to the ground soon after everyone dives for the exits, j
■ 3. The con coot is — if any one of these people had taken the time to report the abnormal presence of fluid It might i
■ have prevented the accident. Oh and by the way,.. the pilot is fired for failure to perform an adequate preflight jE
I inspection. Great story, eh? SMS is essentially about prom oting attitudes of paying a tte n tio n .
; 6. IM H O this is baste c o m m o n sens*. D u h ... o f co u rse e ve ry e m ployee should be encouraged (and re w a rd e d !) to ■J
report any and all possible safely issues no matter how annoying or trivial they might seem at the time. OK all I
1 y o u C h ie f pilot? and D .O .s out th e re ... now that we understand the c o n c e p t.., le t's g e t busy and g e n e ra te cop io us |E
2 amounts of great sounding (but totally bonng) words about iti.o). Sounds like a great opportunity fora PowerPoint 1
■ presentation don't it? Sorry for being so irreverent folks, sometimes I just can't help myself;o). i
V (FAA.gov, AC 120-92A. AC 120-100. AC 150/5200-37. 3900.1] S
* ' * ....................................................................... .......................* .......................' A * ................. ....................... .......................* .......................*
Z2B EVERYTHING E H P L A I N E D fg r t h e P io fn s E to n .il P ilo t

It m a y s u r p r is e y o u 1
to k n o w th a t S u lly
n e v e r d id b o th e r to
d e c la re a n
e m e rg e n c y and
ATC n e v e r asked.
A fo rm a l d e c la ra tio n
w a s s im p ly n o t
^ n e c e s s a ry . j N A S A R e p o r t s — A v i a t i o n S a f e t y R e p o r t i n g P r o g r a m . .................. ............... .. 3 4 0
"Ah.,, this is ah,-,
C a c tu s fiftoon thirty
nine [sic}, hit birds,
wo fost thrust in both
engines, w * 're turning
beck towards
LaGuardia."
" -J
Without a dou
THE most
expensive
goose hunt
of ell Lime.
Chapter 9
Emergency & Legal
“...G ive us a v e c to r for the nearest airport...
We are landing N O W !”
C o m p lia n c e w ith A T C C le a ra n c e s a n d I n s t r u c t io n s ........................................................................3 3 0
D e v ia t in g fr o m a R u l e d u e t o a n E M E R G E N C Y ....................................................... 3 3 0
C o n firm I t f ............................................................................................................................................................. 3 3 0
D o N o t M u m b le ..................................................................................................................................................3 3 0
E M E R G E N C Y — A l l o w e d t o I M M E D I A T E L Y D e v i a t e .................................................3 3 0
E M E R G E N C Y ................................................................................................................................. 331
R e s p o n s ib ility a n d A u th o r ity o f th e P ilo t In C o m m a n d ..................................................................331
E n g i n e F a i l u r e ............................................................................................................................. 3 3 2 , 3 3 3
C ritic a l E n g in e .....................................................................................................................................................3 3 3
A c c e le r a te 'S T O P t A c c e le r a t e - G O ......................................................................................................... 3 3 3
A re a o f D e c is io n ................................................................................................................................................3 3 3
S in g le - E n g in e S e rv ic e C e ilin g ................................................................................................................... 3 3 3
S in g le - E n g in e A b s o lu te C e ilin g ..................................................................................................................3 3 3
D r if td o w n ............................................................................................................................................................... 3 3 3
V mc ( R e d L i n e ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 334
L e tt E n g in e is C ritic a l B e c a u s e ................................................................................................................. 3 3 5
H o w t o C R A S H a n A ir p la n e E q u ip p e d w i t h a
P e r f e c t l y G o o d S p a r e E n g i n e .......... .................................... -............................................... 3 3 6
E m e r g e n c y E q u ip m e n t................................................................................................................................... 3 3 7
M in im u m F u e l A d v i s o r y .......................... 337
Im m e d ia te ly , E m e rg e n c y , P rio rity . iM a y d a y , P a n , P a n , P a n ...................................................... 3 3 7
E m e r g e n c y L o c a to r T r a n s m itte r ( E L T i .................................................................................................3 3 5
E L T C h a n g e s in th e W o r k s ......................................................................................................................... 3 3 9
C a r e le s s o r R e c k le s s O p e r a t io n .............................................................................................................. 3 4 0
E n fo r c e m e n t A c t io n ............................................................................................................................. 3 4 2 , 3 4 3
A c c i d e n t o r I n c i d e n t ............ ..................................... 344
M a jo r o r M in o r D a m a g e ................................................................................................................................ 3 4 4
N o tific a tio n o f A c c id e n ts , In c id e n ts & O v e r d u e A ir c r a f t ................................................................3 4 5
N T S B P h o n e N u m b e r s .................................................... 345
P re s e rv a tio n o f W r e c k a g e : R e p o r ts ........................................................................................................ 3 4 5
A e r o n a u t i c a l I n f o r m a t i o n M a n u a l — O n l y a n A d v i s o r y ? ................... . . . . . . . 3 4 5
C o p i e s o f A T C T o w e r f C e n t e r — A u d i o 1R a d a r T r a c k T a p e s ........................... 3 4 6
F A A " H o t L in e ", A G P A “ H o f L in e ” ............................................................................................................3 4 5
EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 329
[Chap 9 — E m e rg e n cy & Legal
C O M P L IA N C E w it h A T C C L E A R A N C E S a n d IN S T R U C T IO N S ! o i .i m .iaaia.izi.atTi
(a ) W h e n a n A T C c le a ra n c e h a s b e e n o b ta in e d . n o p i l o t in c o m m a n d m a y d e v ia te f r o m th a t c le a r a n c e
UN LESS a n a m e n d e d c le a r a n c e is o b ta in e d , an E M E R G E N C Y e x is ts , o r th e d e v ia tio n is In r e s p o n s e lo
a tr a ffic a le r t a n d c o llis io n a v o id a n c e s y s te m re s o lu tio n a d v is o ry . H o w e v e r, e x c e p t in C la s s A a irs p a c e ,
a p ilo t m a y c a n c e l an IFR flig h t p la n If th e o p e r a tio n is b e in g c o n d u c te d in V F R w e a th e r c o n d itio n s .
W h e n a p i lo t is U N C E R T A IN o f an A T C c le a ra n c e , th a t p ilo t s h a ll im m e d ia t e ly r e q u e s t
C L A R IF IC A T I O N fr o m A T C .
<t>) E x c e p t in a n E M E R G E N C Y . no p e rs o n m a y o p e ra te a n a ir c r a f t c o n tr a r y to an A T C in s tr u c tio n in an
a re a in w h ic h a ir tra ffic c o n tr o l is e x e rc is e d .
(c) E a c h p ilo t in c o m m a n d w h o , in a n E M E R G E N C Y , o r in r e s p o n s e to a tr a ffic a le rt a n d c o llis io n a v o id a n c e
s y s te m re s o lu tio n a d v is o ry , d e v ia te s fro m a n A T C c le a r a n c e o r in s tru c tio n s h a ll n o t i f y A T C o f th a t
d e v ia tio n A s S o o n A s P o s s ib l e . {E d N O T E : It d o e s NOT s a y y o u m u s t d e c la re BEFO RE d e v i a t i n g .f
(d) E a c h p ilo t in c o m m a n d w h o (th o u g h n o t d e v ia tin g fr o m a ru le o f th is s u b p a rt) is g iv e n PRIORITY by
A T C in an E M E R G E N C Y , s h a ll s u b m it a d e ia ile d r e p o r t o f t h a t e m e r g e n c y w ith in 4B h o u r s to th e
m a n a g e r o f th a t A T C fa c ility , IF R E Q U E S T E D b y A T C .
M U n le s s o th e r w is e a u th o r iz e d b y A T C , n o p e r s o n o p e ra tin g a n a ir c r a ft m a y o p e r a t e th a t a irc ra ft
a c c o r . d ir if ljQ a n y d s a r a n c e _ o r jn s .t r u c ti.o n _ that_has_b_ee n is s u e d to th e p ilo t o f a n o t h e r . aircraft fo r
ra d a r a ir tr a ffic c o n tro l p u rp o s e s .

It y o u 'r e o p e ra tin g u n d e r P a r t 1 3 5 o r P a r t 1 21 a n d h a v e to deviate fr o m a rule d u e to a n em ergency

Or re c e iv e p r io r ity , th e p e rs o n w h o de cla res th e e m e rg e n cy m u s t s u b m it a c o m p le te re p o rt to th e !
c e r tific a te h o ld e r ’s F lig h t S ta n d a rd s D is tric t O ffic e w ith in 10 d a y s . i'35.ie. 121.557. 121.559. i2i.5«5)

P a y A T T E N T I O N — If th e re is e v e n th e slightest doubt th a t a n e w c le a ra n c e w a s fo r y o u — a s h t h e m t o

C O N F IR M I T !
It's v e r y e a s y lo think, you hear new i n s tru c tio n s fo r yo u — w h e n th e y a c tu a lly w e re fo r a n a irc ra ft w ith a
s i m il a r j c a lI s i g n .

Y o u a n d th e o th e r a irc ra ft m i g h t r e a d b a c k th e c le a r a n c e s i m u lt a n e o u s ly — th e c o n tr o lle r m a y o n ly
h e a r th e c lo s e r a ir c r a ft {o r th e o n e w ith th e b ig g e r ra d io ) — w h ic h m a y NOT be y o u — H e c a n ’t c o r r e c t y o u
b e c a u s e he d id n 't h e a r y o u — and — Y O U R re a d b a c k Is NOT o n th e ta p e — Y o u c h a n g e a ltitu d e —
YO U a r e B U S T E D , w ith o u t a le g lo s ta n d o n !

D_o_N-ClT_A_C_CEP_T_ a new CLEARANCE or in s tru c tio n s unless yo u 're AB_SQLILTELX, POSITIVELY.

100% fo r SU RE it w as fo r YOU
Do NOT ACCEPT a new C LEARANCE or In s tru c tio n s unless yo u 're A B S O L U T E L Y ; P O S ITIV E L Y
10 0 % fo r SURE w h a t th e EXA C T in s tr u c ti o n s a r e .

A L W A Y S c o n f i r m v o u r i n s t r u c t i o n s b y r e a d in g b a c k th e n u m b e r s c l e a H y a n d d i s t i n c t * l y s o Ih e
c o n tr o lle r c a n c o r r e c t y o u if y o u s c re w e d up. I f y o u s lu r y o u r w o rd s , a b u s y c o n tr o lle r m a y ju s t a s s u m e
th e re a d b a c h w a s c o rr e c t a n d m o v e o n to th e n e x t g u y , T h e re s p o n s ib ility is y o u rs , A t le a s t g e t it c le a r ly
o n th e ta p e w h a t y o u t h o u g h t he s a id . It m ig h t h e lp a litUe a t th i E N F O R C E M E N T H E A R IN G !

D u rin g re a d - b a c k - Do NOT mumble - s a y y o u r w o r d s CleaHv a n d diS *tincH v

E s p e c ia lly th e im p o r ta n t o n e s lik e heading, a ltitu d e , routing o r frequency

In a n EMERGENCY y o u a re a llo w ed to IM M ED IATELY deviate fro m any clearance a n d d o

w h a te v e r n e e d s lo b e d o n e in o rd e r to d e a l w ith t h a t e m e r g e n c y . ( S i. 3 , 135.19, 121.557, 121.559)

You ARE re q u ire d lo notify A T C o f th a t d e v ia tio n A s S o o n A s P o s s ib le . B u t th a i m e a n s w h e n y o u

g e l a c h a n c e , w h e n y o u g e l a ro u n d to it, AFTER y o u g e t a ll th o s e c u s s w o rd s o u t o f y o u r s y s te m .
Do what you have to do FIR S T lo p re v e n t a n y p o s s ib ility o f e n d a n g e r in g y o u r life .
T h e n — a s s o o n a s y o u g e l a ro u n d to it — g iv e A T C a ca ll.
F L Y th e a ir p la n e F I R S T — T A L K a b o u t it L A T E R !

330 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the P ro fit stanai Pilot

 C h a p 9 — E m e rg e n c y & L e g a l
......................................................................... ..................................
EM ERGENCY J u s t like S u lly d id — TE LL them th e p ro b le m ,
(91.3, 91.123, 135.19. i T E LL them w h a t y o u ’re d o in g a b o u t It ( e . g . , " W e a re d e s c e n d in g / tu r n in g NOW')
1 2 1 .8 », 121,635, 121.637.1
TELL them w h a t y o u n e e d th e m to d o — DO NOT “R E Q U E S T " A D AMN THING1
121,667. 121.559. 121.555.,
AIM 6-1-1 a 6-1-21 i TAKE CHARGE — YOU ARE t h e BOSS,
DO N O T L E T A T C C R A S H Y O U R A IR P L A N E !

D u r in g ANY EM ERGEN CY:

1. Do NOT “ request” a damn thing! T E L L T H E M WHAT YOU’RE DOING
2. D o N O T t r y lo m a in ta in an a ltitu d e o r h e a d in g th a t y o u c a n n o t m a in ta in w h e n th e r e Is a p ro b le m .
3. E x a m p le — D o N O T w a it Tor a " re q u e s t" to be g ra n te d b e fo r e tu r n in g b a c k to th e a ir p o r t w ith a n e n g in e
p ro b le m o r F IR E ! J u s l STAR7JTURNIN_G_BACKJi0jbe_AIRPORT. D o w h a t y o u h a v e to d o
IM M E D I A T E L Y ! T a lk a b o u t i t l a t e r .
4. A n u n c o u n t a b le n u m b e r o f p i lo t s a n d p a s s e n g e r s h a v e b e e n K I L L E D w a it in g f o r a “R E Q U E S T "
t o b e g r a n t e d !!
5. J U S T D O ITf T & ll t h e m a b o u t I t L A T E R !
6. T a k e c h a rg e o f th e s itu a tio n — YOU b e c o m e th e BOSS — ATC becom es vour ASSISTANT.
7. E x a m p le —
f f f f l Falcon 123T has a FIRE in the rig h t engine we are d escend ing and tu rn in g back to the
a irp o rt NOW. Need v e c to rs fo r the I LS as clo se in as po ssib le .
IB B 1 2 3 T u n d e rs ta n d — a re y o u d e c la rin g a n e m e r g e n c y ? {T h e c o n tr o lle r w ill never a s k th is q u e s tio n —
____ A T C a u to m a tic a lly g o e s In to e m e r g e n c y m o d e w h e n e v e r anything o u t o f th e o r d in a r y h a p p e n s .)
f f f f l C a ll it w h a t y o u w a n t — W e n e e d PR IO R ITY — p le a s e g iv e u s t h a t h e a d in g NOW,
'■ BOTH 1hi- Dispatcher A N D (he Captain j " PRIORITY1’ w ill g e t you exactly w h a t you w a n t R IG H T N O W !
: have the responsibility and authority lo j
" E m e r g e n c y ' a n d " P r io r it y ' m e a n th e s a m e to a c o n tro lle r, Sea M .l£ 3 frq
! dacfare an EM ERG EN CY. 121.557 i

9 1 . 3 R e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d A u t h o r i t y o f t h e P ilo t In C o m m a n d :
{a ) T h e P il o t In C o m m a n d is d ire c tly r e s p o n s ib le to r, a n d ] s th e f i n a l a u t h o r it y a s to (h e o p e r a t io n o f t h a t
a i r c r a f t . (N o tic e it s a y s n o lh in g a b o u t after th e p ilo t d e c la re s a n e m e r g e n c y ,)
{ b ) In a n in - flig h t e m e r g e n c y r e q u i r i n g I m m e d ia t e a c t i o n , th e P ilo t In C o m m a n d m a y d e v ia t e f r o m a n y
r u le to th e e x t e n t r e q u ir e d t o m e e t t h a t e m e r g e n c y , (A g a in , n o th in g a b o u l after s a v in g th e "w o rd ")
{c ) U o o n th e r e q u e s t o f th e A d m i n i s t r a t o r , yo u m a y be r e q u ire d to s u p p ly a w ritte n re p o r t o f th e in c id e n t
[U s u a lly , o n ly w h e n th e y th in k y o u m ig h t h a v e h a d s o m e p a r i in causing th e in c id e n t].
V * .....................................- i
T h e fa c t th a t a p ilo t d o e s n o t fo r m a lly d e c la re a n e m e r g e n c y o n h is ra d io d o e s n o t T h a p o in t Is :
!
p re c lu d e re lia n c e o n 9 1 ,3 {b ) a s a d e fe n s e [N T S B 2 0 1 5 ], D o n ’t b e a fra id to
Y o u d o N O T h a v e t o F O R M A L L Y D E C L A R E a n E M E R G E N C Y b e fo re d e v ia tin g s a y th e " E -w o r d ”
fr o m a c le a r a n c e w h e n d e a lin g w ith a p o te n tia lly life th r e a te n in g s itu a tio n , b u t a ls o d o n 't b e
J u s l d o w h a t h a s lo b e d o n e to g e t th e a irc ra ft o n th e g ro u n d a s s c o n a s p o s s ib le . a fra id to do what
Y o u h a v e (h e p o w e r to Ig n o re e v e r y r e g u la tio n In Ih e b o o k If y o u n e e d lo, Is necessary
Do w h a t you have to d o . ¡fill them a b o u t It as soon as you get a ch a n c e . B EFO R E p e ltin g
C h e t a b o u t s e m a n tic s la ie r w h e n y o u g e t o n th e g ro u n d — A LIVE!!I p e rm is s io n .

W hen it b ecom es nece ssa ry to SHUT-DOWN an ENGINE, a LA R G E AIRPORT w ith a LO N G RUNWAY

and an (L S p ro v id in g GLIDE SLOPE in fo rm a tio n is d e fin ite ly an im p o rta n t c o n s id e ra tio n w ith a large
a irc ra ft a n d /o r bad w e a th e r in any a ircra ft.
H o w e v e r , o n e m u s t a ls o c o n s id e r 91.7(b), w h ic h h a s b e e n in te r p r e te d to m e a n ; "th e p ilo t, in a n e m e r g e n c y
s itu a tio n , m u s t la n d a t th e fir s t A V A IL A B L E a n d 'S U IT A B L E ' a irp o rt a t w h ic h a s a fe la n d in g c a n b e m a d e . B u t
h e is N O T R E Q U IR E D lo la n d a l t h e firs t A V A IL A B L E a irp o rt if i l is n o t 'S U IT A B L E A c c o r d in g lo th e F A A ,
safety is th e p a ra m o u n t c o n s id e r a tic n. C onvenience and co m fo rt are not co n s id e ra tio n s at a ll.

T h e p ilo l is r e q u ire d lo la n d a l Ih e “ FIRST A V A ILA B L E ” lo c a tio n “ CONSISTENT w ilh SAFETY ”

do n o t s h u t an engine d o w n , then f ly anothe r 100 m ile s , p a ssin g several “ s u ita b le ”

S o , In o th e r w o rd s ,
a irp o rts a lo n g th e w a y . iu s L tS L n a t the; a tr.p la n c J i a c k A p m ^ I S o m e b o d y a t th e lo c a l
F S D O m a y n o t c o n s id e r t h a t " c o n s is te n t w ith s a fe ty ," a n d y o u ’ll p ro b a b ly be h e a r in g th e s e w o r d s —
' Y O .u :r_e Jn _a _h e .a p ^o M ro .u b .le _B p ^t ’f

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 331

C h a p 9 — E m e rg e n c y & L e g a l
E N G IN E FA ILU R E (typical small recip twin): S to p th e yaw w ith fu ll ru d d e r a n d a
1 M ix t u r e s ...............................F U L L m inim um a m o u n t o f a ile ro n . M ore than
2. P r o p s .................................... F U L L 3° o f bank might lo w e r Vur but could
3. T h r o t t le s ............. „................F U L L a ls o r e s u lt in a lo ss o f a ltitu d e .

4. F la p s ...................................... U P
5. ( P o s itiv e ra te ) G e a r .......U P Level the W ings
Step on the Ball
I d e n t if y . , ..... ........... ........... .................. ...................... .......
Dead Foot - Dead Engine
7. V e r if y ...................................... C L O S E T H R O T T L E
e. T r o u b le s h o o t...................... F u e l. M a g s , A ir film # porrmtting)
3. F e a t h e r ................................. M ix tu re to Id le C u t- O ff - P ro p to F E A T H E R

10 2" - 3* B a n k ....................... T o w a r d O PER A TIN G E n g in e V e rify — CLOSE THROTTLE

11. % - V * B a ll O u t .................. T o w a r d O PER A TIN G E n g in e ! Significant change in y a w — wrong engine. -
12. B lu e L in e ............................. B e s t ra le s in g le e n g in e (V tSE) : Slight change in yaw — c o rre c t e n g in e but
13. C h e c k lis t ..............................F L Y F IR S T . .. re a d it la te r. I it's still producing some power.
; No change in yaw — correct engine, and it's
» not producing any power — feather it.
IN F L IG H T T R O U B L E S H O O T :
1. F u e l F lo w ..........................................C H E C K - F U E L P U M P S — O N
2. F u e l Q u a n t it y ................................. C H E C K — S W IT C H T A N K S
3. O il P re s s & T e m p ........................C H E C K — S h u l d o w n e n g in e if o il p re s s is lo w
4. M a g S w it c h e s ................................ C H E C K — O N
5. A lte rn a te A i r .................................... C H E C K — E s p e c ia lly d u rin g ic in g c o n d itio n s

C L E A N UP D EA D E N G IN E : REM E M B E R
1 P r o p ................. ... C H E C K fo r F E A T H E R V i s u a ll y
2, T h r o tt le ............ .. .C L O S E D A GOOD la n d in g is o n e
3 M ix t u r e ............ .. .O F F y o u c a n w a lk a w a y fr o m .
4. F u e l S e le c to r . OFF
5. F u e l P u m p .... .. .O F F A G R E A T la n d in g is o n e
6. M a g s ................ ...O F F a fte r w h ic h y o u c a n s till
7. A lt e r n a t o r ...... OFF u s e th e a irp la n e .
e. C o w l F la p s .... ...C L O S E D

»»W A R N IN G “
P ro p e lle rs (h a t u s e s p rin g s , c o u n te r w e ig h ts a n d o il p re s s u r e (o r a c tu a lly la c k o f o il p re s s u r e ) f o r fe a th e rin g
(a la rg e p o d io n o f lig h t tw in s ) m o s t be fe a th e re d BEFO RE th e p ro p e lle r is a llo w e d lo d ro p b e lo w SOD to
1 ,0 0 0 R P M . F o r s o m e r e a s o n th is is s o m e tim e s a v e ry w e ll k e p t s e c re t b y c e r ta in c o m p a n ie s . {N o t to
m e n tio n a n y n a m e s lik e C e s s n a a n d M c C a u le y !)

I f th e R P M d r o p s b e lo w th is le v e l, th e " p in s ” { t h a t k e e p th e p re p fr o m fe a th e rin g o n th e g ro u n d d u rin g

s h u td o w n ) w ill s e t. p r e v e n tin g a n y h o p e o f f e a th e r in g th e e n g in e in flig h t!

D o N O T d ra g a ro u n d a w in d m illin g p ro p e lle r fo r v e r y lo n g le ttin g th e R P M d r o p b e lo w 1 ,0 0 0 R P M ,

D o N O T le i th e a irs p e e d g e t to o lo w b e fo re fe a th e rin g th e p ro p e lle r . T h e lo w e r Ih e a irs p e e d th e s lo w✓er me

e r th ,
p ro p e lle r w ill w in d m ill.

O P E R A TIV E E N G IN E :
1. P o w e r ..................................................A S R E Q U IR E D — D O N 'T B U R N IT U P ( It’s th e o n ly o n e y o u g o t le f t ! )
2. M ix t u r e ...............................................A D J U S T F O R P O W E R (u s u a lly fu ll R IC H )
3. F u e l P u m p .......................................O N
4. F u e l S e le c t o r ................................. M A IN T A N K
5. C o w l F la p s .......................................A S R E Q U IR E D

332 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 Chap 9 — Em ergency & Legal
E N G IN E F A IL U R E S T U F F :
AND #4
R u le # 1 , # 2 , # 3

J
1. A lig h t tw in w ill lo s e a p p r o x im a te ly 6 0 % o f its c lim b p e rfo rm a n c e .
D O WOT L E T IT S T A L L
2. L ig h t tw in s (b e lo w 1 2 ,5 0 0 L b s .) u n d e r F A R 2 3 a r e not required to
h a v e s in g le e n g in e ta k e o ff a n d a p p ro a c h c lim b c a p a b il i t y .
3. S ta n d a rd j o k e " ... th e s e c o n d e n g in e ju s t g iv e s y o u a little lo n g e r rid e to th e s c e n e o f th e c r a s h . ..." T h is
s h o u ld n e v e r b e tru e . An airp la n e w ith a s p a r e e n g in e sh o u ld N E V E R b e allo w e d to c ra s h , th a t is
th e p u rp o s e o f th e s p a re e n g in e .
4. F o r s ta r te r s — u s e AT L E A S T - th e m a n u fa c tu r e r 's r e c o m m e n d e d lifto ff s p e e d o r V M C + 5 k n o ts
w h ic h e v e r is g re a te r. A c c e le r a te to A T LEAST V v c r b e fo re le a v in g th e ru n w a y e n v ir o n m e n t. I f la c k o f
ru n w a y , tre e s , h ills o r b u ild in g s p r e v e n ts y o u fr o m d o in g t h is . . - y o u 're d e p a rtin g fro m th e w ro n g a irp o rt!
5. A dd p le n ty o f fudge fa c to rs to th e p e r fo rm a n c e fig u re s . A ro llin g ta k e o ff (ra th e r th a n h o ld in g th e
b ra k e s till m a x im u m p o w e r), c o u ld a d d 5 0 0 fe e t to th e r e q u ire d A c c e le r a ie /S to p d is ta n c e .
6 SINGLE ENGINE GO-A-ROUNDS a re v ir tu a lly IM PO SSIBLE fr o m lo w a ltitu d e a n d lo w a irs p e e d in a
s m a ll tw in . D u rin g a la n d in g a p p ro a c h o n o n e e n g in e , k e e p y o u r s p e e d u p a n d m a k e s u re y o u d o It
r ig h t th e fir s t tim e . K e e p in m in d it's b e lte r to b e a little fa s t a n d g o o f f th e e n d a t 2 0 k n o ts , th a n to
a tte m p t a s in g le e n g in e g o -a - ro u n d a n d s c r e w it in to th e g ro u n d a t 1 0 0 k n o ts .
CR ITICAL ENGINE (1.1 > — The engine whose failure would most
C R I T I C A L E N G I N E: adversely affect Ihe performance or handling qualities of an aircraft.
j
T h e L E F T e n g in e is c o n s id e re d to b e th e “ C R IT IC A L E N G IN E *' o n m o s t lig h t tw in s s im p ly b e c a u s e at h ig h
a n g le s o f a tta c k th e d e s c e n d in g b la d e p r o d u c e s th e m o s t t h r u s t (" P -F a c to r") a n d b o th p r o p e lle r s a lm o s t
a lw a y s tu r n in th e s a m e d ir e c tio n (c lo c k w is e a s v ie w e d fro m b e h in d th e e n g in e ) , T h is p u ts th e " th r u s t l in e '
o f th e right e n g in e fu r th e r a w a y fr o m th e c e n te r lin e o f th e fu s e la g e th a n th e " th r u s t lin e ” o f th e left e n g in e ,
w h ic h te n d s to t u r n th e a irc ra ft to th e left (w h e n th e le ft e n g in e is in o p ) q u i c k e r t h a n to th e r i g h t ( w h e n th e
rig h t e n g in e is in o p )(s e e n e x t p a g e ). D u rin g an a c tu a l e n g in e fa ilu re , th e E N G IN E th a t Is N O T R U N N IN G IS
A L W A ¥ S _ C _ Q N .$ J D E R E D E X T R E M E L y _ C flf.n .C jL _ n p _ m a tto _ r_ w h a j s i d c it h g p p o n s _ to _ b c o n t

A C C E L E R A T E - S T O P / A C C E L E R A T E - G O D I S T A N C E (Also S e e Chapter 4):

(23.55, 23.1583, 25.109. 91.605, 135.367 Ifvu 135.399, 121.177 llva 121.199, FAA-P-8740-19, FAA-H-8083-3A, AC 120-02. PIC GlMMryj
1. A c c e le r a te - S to p a n d A c c e le r a te - G o d is ta n c e is r e q u ir e d fo r a ll F a r t 121 & F a r t 1 3 5 r e v e n u e flig h ts
exceat s m a ll n o n ( r a n s p o r t c a t e g o r y a ir c r a f t w ith & s e a t s o r le s s d o n o t re q u ire a c c e le ra te -s to p o r -g o .
2. A C C E L E R A T E - S T O P — D is ta n c e r e q u ire d to a c c e le r a te to V . ( o r lifto ff s p e e d — d e p e n d in g o n th e
P Q H ) a n d . a s s u m in g fa ilu r e o f a n e n g in e a t th e in s ta n t th a t lifto ff s p e e d is a tta in e d , to b rin g th e a irp la n e
to a fu ll s to p o n th e r e m a in in g ru n w a y a n d /o r s to p w a y . F o r m o s t lig h t, p r o p e lle r - d r iv e n tw in s th is is th e
o n ly o p tio n if Ih e a irc ra ft is s till o n th e ru n w a y o r th e g e a r is s lill d o w n im m e d ia te ly a ft e r lifto ff.
3 A C C E L £ R A IE _ -G Q . — D is ta n c e r e q u ire d to a c c e le ra te to lifto ff s p e e d (o r V i — d e p e n d in g o n th e P O H )
a n d , a s s u m in g fa ilu re o f a n e n g in e a i th e in s ta n t lif t o f f s p e e d ( o r V i } is a tta in e d , to c o n tin u e th e ta k e o f f
o n th e re m a in in g e n g in e a n d c lim b to c le a r a 5 0 - f o o l o b s ta c le . A c c e le r a te - g o d is ta n c e d o e s n o t a p p ly to
m o s t lig h t, p r o p e lle r - d r iv e n tw in s b e c a u s e — a s s u m in g fa ilu re o f a n e n g in e a t th e in s ta n t lifto ff s p e e d (o r
V i ) is a tta in e d — m o s t lig h t tw in s c a n n o t c o n tin u e a ta k e o ff ro ll, a c tu a lly lif t o f f , a n d c lim b o n o n e
e n g in e ; th e r e is n o c h o ic e b u t to a b o rt.

A R E A o f D E C I S I O N f o r M U L T I ^ E N G IN E _ A I R P L A N E S :
1. T h e a re a ju s t a ft e r lifto ff to th e p o in t w h e re th e a irp la n e a tta in s V * s e .
2. A n e n g in e fa ilu re in th is z o n e re g u ire s a n im m e d ia te d e c is io n to a b o rt o r c o n tin u e .
3. W h e n a c c e le r a te - s to p /g o d is ta n c e is q u e s tio n a b le o r ju s t p la in n o t a v a ila b le , a n d th e a irc ra ft is h e a v ily
lo a d e d , m o s t e x p e rie n c e d p ilo ts w ill d r iv e th e a ir p la n e to V x SE on th e g ro u n d b e fo re lifto ff. A
c o n tr o v e r s ia l b u t e ffe c tiv e w a y o f s ta y in g a liv e .

S IN G L E -E N G IN E S E R V I C E C E IL IN G — th e m a x im u m d e n s ity a ltitu d e th e a ir c r a f t c a n m a in ta in a
50 fp m c l im b w ith o n ly o n e e n g in e o p e ra tin g . F o u n d in th e P ilo t's O p e r a tin g H a n d b o o k o r a p p ro v e d
A ir c r a ft E lig h t M a n u a l.

S IN G L E -E N G IN E A B S O L U T E C E IL IN G — T h e d e n s ity a ltitu d e th e a ir c r a ft c a n m a in ta in w ith th e

c ritic a l e n g in e fe a th e re d a n d th e o th e r e n g in e a t m a x im u m p o w e r.

D R I F T D O W N (A ls o S ee P a g e T59>:
1. I f an e n g in e fa ils a t an a ltitu d e a b o v e th e s in g le -e n g in e a b s o lu te c e ilin g , th e a ir c r a ft w ill d e s c e n d .
2. T o m in im is e s in k ra te , m a in ta in th e s in g le - e n g in e b e s t ra te o f c lim b s p e e d ( V ™ ) ,

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 333

C h a p 9 — E m e rg e n c y & L e g a l
V MC (R E D Line) — Minimum speed directional control can be maintained
w ith the follow ing “w o rs t case” scenario. W hen you use full rudder and the
aircraft still rolls tow ard the dead engine, you have allowed the airspeed to drop below
“ V MCn. V MC Is d e te rm in e d fo r c e rtific a tio n p u rp o s e s :
(23.14 9 Mlmmu m Control S p e a d j
fa) V.uc is the calibrated airspeed at which, when (he critical engine is suddenly made Inoperative, it is
possible to maintain control of Ihe airplane with that engine still inoperative, and thereafter maintain
straight flig h t at Ihe same speed with an angle of bank of nol more than 5 degrees. The method used to
simulate critical engine failure must represent the m ost critical mode of powerpiant failure expected in
service with respect to controllability {normally the left).
fb) V mc for takeoff m ust not Exceed 1 2 Vs«, where VSi is determined at the maximum takeoff weight
VMC must be deiemnined with (he m ost unfavorable w eight and
«
center o f gravity position and with the airplane airborne and Lhe 5 ° of bank towards the good engine
around effect negligible for the takeoff configurations) with — is a certification limit.
1. Maximum available takeoff power initially on each engine. Banking more than 5 ° into the
2. The aircrafl trim m ed for take o ff. operating engine ca n lower V m c but
3. Flaps (and cowl fla ps! in takeoff p o sitio n . can also result in a loss of altitude.
4. Landing gear U P . ‘'»^■VWWVWWWWWWVWWWtWTWT-TVTVV1
5. All propeller controls in the recommended takeoff position throughout.
6 . C r i l i c a l e n g i n e ( n o r m a l l y t h e le f t ) I N Q P a n d WllMDMlLLllMG ( o r f e a t h e r e d if e q u i p p e d w i t h a u t o - f e a t h e r ) .
7. Full takeoff power on the remaining engine [normally the right).
8. At Vwc, rudder pedal force required to maintain control must not exceed 150 Lbs and It must not be
necessary to reduce power of (lie operative enginc(s). During the maneuver, the airplane must not
assume any dangerous attitude and it must be possible lo prevent a heading change of more than 20°.

CAN an A IR C R A F T be FLO W N B E LO W the P U B LIS H E D V u^ (RED L IN E )?

The answer in almost all cases is Y E S Published Is determined under specific criteria {23.149).
Actual Vwc can be much different. In almost all oases you will N O T be at your full aft CG and In all cases
you will cerlainly be smart enough to F E A T H E R the correct engine won’t you? The W INDM ILLIN G
P R O P E L L E R is by far the largest cause of d ra g. Once It is feathered. V », is reduced by an unspecified I
but significant am ount. Flow much you ask? You are now lhe test pilot, if you want to avoid hitting the
ground before getting lo the runway, you will find out. JUST P G W T STALL IT!! The only lime an aircraft
will snap roll Into the ground Is if you let it!f That is why you practiced detecting the o n s e t of a stall during [
your Commercial Pilot training, This Is not to advise you to fly below published V HCf but just to let you know J
that a brief excursion below V yc m ig h t be possible to get over the lop of that last tree and onto the runway. ;
DO N O T L E T IT S T A L L 11 \

V MC R E D U C E D B v :
1. Feathering the propeller Much less drag and much better climb performance
2. M oving CG forw ard. Distance from CG to rudder is Increased — Longer rudder moment arm.
3. Reducing power (R eng). Less P factor, torque, etc. (however LE S S clim b performance).
4. Other than critical engine inop. Less effect of P-factor. torque, etc.
5. Higher than sea level. Typically less engine power available (also less climb ability available).
6. G ear down will reduce VMe slightly {'keel effect" of drag created by the main gear located aft of Ihe CG)
but dramatically Increase drag and DECREASE clim b perform ance.
7. Banking more than 5 »w ill reduce V »^ but will also dramatically R E D U C E clim b performance.
8. VORTEX GENERATORS (small vanes affixed to the upper wing surface) can significantly reduce V MC.

V MC IN C R E A S E D Bv:
1. Less than 5" bank. In cre ase s rudder deflection required but also IN C R E A S E S climb performance
Best clim b performance will be attained somewhere between 1.5J to no more than 3J of bank.
2. Less than '/* lo % ball-width out toward operating engine. Increases rudder deflection & drag.
3. Using aileron to ease the need for pressure on rudder. D rag penalty of adverse yaw.
4. Low temperature E ngin e and prop of Ihe operating engine Is m ore efficient (however belter climb).
5. Less than max weight will Increase slightly but also greatly IN C R EA S E climb performance.
6. G e a r U P greatly reduces drag but slightly in creases Vye. D o y o u want to C L IM B or G O S T R A IG H T ?

334 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

 IChap 9 E m e rg e n c y & Leg a ll
. Mi it Amgricpn JTiide aircrafl

3
L E F T E N G I N E IS C R I T I C A L B E C A U S E * .,
• angines turn clockwise as
■ viewed from Ihe coctpil
P -F A C TO R :
1 DESCENDING BLADE has more thrust at high
angles of attack.
2 Descending blade on the R I G H T engine has a
LONGER ARM therefore creeling greater
asymmetrical thrust (further from the centerline of
the aircraft).

TO R Q U E:
1. OPPOSITE REACTION to the spinning
(clockwise as viewed from the rear) PROPELLER
tends to rail the aircraft to the L E F T
2 More pronounced with the right engine because of
LO N G ER ARM.

■ Stop the yaw with full rudder and a m inim um amount of aileron.
; A downward deflected aileron will attempt to lift a wing, but it will | ■
- also create significant drag, making a bad situation even worse.

A C C E L E R A T E D S L IP S T R E A M :
1 Propeller slipstream over the wings and tail causes
asymmetrical lift and control effectiveness.
2 The RUDDER is more effective with L E F T Engine
running because more slipstream flows by the left
side of the rudder making it easier to prevent the
aircraft from turning to the right.
3. The center of lift created by propeller-induced
slipstream is closer to the center of the aircraft
with the L E F T engine running.

S P IR A L ING S L IP S TR E A M :
1. Spiraling Slip&lream from the L E F T engine AIDS
in DIRECTIONAL CO NTRO L
2. That is, if the L E F T engine fails, rudder
effectiveness is greatly diminished. If the R I G H T
engine dies, propwash from the L E F T engine
actually enhances rudder effectiveness,

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 335

 H O W T O C R A S H A N A IR P LA N E
E Q U IP P ED W IT H A P E R F E C T L Y G O O D SPARE E N G IN E

Single engine airplanes fall out of the sky all (he time. Here's the scenario. engine quits — the pilot realizes
immediately he forgoi lo bring along a spare engine — pilot Immediately says two words — " O h S U IT
An O F F airport landing is u s u a lly inevitable and may or may not be survivable.

Multiengine airplanes always bring along a spare engine. In (he event of an engine failure there may be some
screamin’ goin’ on, but an O N airport landing should a/ways be Inevitable and survivable. A spare engine is
the cheapest life insurance you can buy. Plus, YOtJ get to collect on this type of insurance. _UnJ ike jh a l other
insurance only your wife benefits from! »** „ V
accident did not
happen — you
never near about
(he uncountable
times that twins
lose an engine
and land safely

b . j ■ lb ■ ■ um i n ■_ ■ a a m a a m r i v a a* i m a v a aa~a a a a w u a

1. Pilot continues VFR flight into INSTRUM ENT CONDITIONS — without any instrument skills!
2. Pilot RUNS OUT OF G AS! Usually two miles from the destination airport, after passing several others.
3. Pilot becomes PARALYZED at the controls. FAILS to FEATHER the ailing ENGINE — Complacency
can lead to a brain meltdown when trying to remember all those "proper procedures”. Every takeoff
should be viewed as an em ergency. Before every takeoff discuss with yourself what you’re gonna do
if ya lose one right after liftoff. By the way, there's only ONE 11procedure” to feather an engine in
virtually any airplane - E.LLLL or EUShL Ihe C O R R E C T FEATHER LEVER or R IG H T N O W '
Everything else will usually take care of itself if you have the gear up and maintain at least Vxse.
4. Pilot FEATHERS the W RO NG ENGINE — Take that extra few seconds to VERIFY you are preparing to
feather the engine N O T running as opposed to the engine that is running.
Rem em ber STEP ON THE BALL - DEAD FOOT = DEAD ENGINE
Also: - * LOOK at the ENGINE GAUGES (but be conscious lo the fact that a completely dead piston
engine will show approximately 30" of manifold pressure).
5. P-lot EAU-SJ p_RAJ.SE the GEAR after losing one at lift off - G kEAM JiE the DRAG !
6. Pilot FAILS to MAINTAIN AIR S P E E D , airplane falls out of the sky — Airspeed is everything when low
and slow. Especially when hot, high and heavy — carry a little extra speed before liftoff sc you have an
airspeed "cushion” to work with while sorting things out if you suddenly become single. Do N O T allow
(he airplane to stall. Any excursion below Vxse or V^c may be your Iasi! Once the propeller is
feathered. TRIM for % to V* ball-width out and 3° bank towards the O P E R A T I N G engine.
7. Pilot uses EXCESSIVE BANK while turning ■— As bank angle increases; stall speed increases and
climb decreases, Use conservative bank angles when low, slow and single (sspsdaiiy into the dead engine).
a. Pilot gets TOO LOW and TO O SLOW cn final, airplane does net make it to the runway — Always slay a
Jjrrfe hich and a tittle fast on the elide oath during final approach. Do NOT allow yourself to get
below the “power curve.r' Do not put the gear down or Flaps down until you're p o s it iv e you can make
the runway. It'S almost always better to land a little long than land a little short.
B. Pilot LANDS LONG and GOES OFF the END of the RU NW A Y, airplane is banged up but pilot OK — If
you are much T O O F A S T on FIN A L, the lack of drag from Ihe feathered propeller can contribute (o a
"floater" landing that can consume a lot of runway and could put you off the end. If you have some
altitude to work with, try to find a L A R G E A IRPORT wilh a L O N G RUNW AY and an IL S or V A S f
providing GLIDE SLOPE information. Flying that few extra miles to a larger airport is usually a good
Idea. Plus (he larger airport will probably have a much nicer hotel and a better restaurant.
10. Pilot attempts SINGLE ENGINE GO-AROUND — Single engine landings in a relatively small twin
should be considered a one-shot deal. Make your approach as precise as possible. A host of factors
including type of airplane, weight, temperature, elevation, pilot skill and good old fashioned luck make
(he single engine go-around a hair-raising choice of action. Do N O T SCREW UP the APPRO A CH!])
KEEP YOUR SPEED DP - DO NOT GET BEHIND the POWER CURVE — PICK a BIG AIRPORT,

336 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 C h a p 9 — E m e rg e n c y & Legal

E M E R G E N C Y E Q U IP M E N T : rai.sis. 121.309,121,310.121.353. 135.177)

No person may operate an airplane with a passenger seating or more Lhan 19 passengers unless it is equipped
with the emergency equipment listed below:
1. Hand FIRE EXTINGUISHERS must be provided for use in crew, passenger and cargo compartments:
a, Type and quantity of extinguishing agent must be suitable for the Kinds of fires likely to occur
in the com partm ent where the extinguisher is to he used.
b. At least one hand firs extinguisher must be provided on or near Ihe flio h t deck accessible to
the flight crew and at least one located in the passenger compartment for every 30 passenuer
seats.
2. FIRST AID KITS for treatment of injuries likely to occur in flight.
3. CRASH AXE carried so as to be accessible 10 the crew but inaccessible to passengers during normal
operations.
4. One MEGAPHONE (located in the rear) for more than 60 hut less than 100 passenger seats and two

* " FUEL R EG A IN IN G ' — Tha approxim ate num ber o1 m in y h jj

: th» flig ht can continue unlil flctu.nl fo o l e a tia u s tio ri
“M INIM UM F U E L A D V IS O R Y ": (a im 5 .5.1 sj
-*■ After stating your call sign, the term “Minimum Fuel" should be used. " Falcon 48A — Minimum Fuel.”
^ This is N O T an em ergency—but an A D V IS O R Y that an emergency is possible should any undue
delay occur.
■> This term does not Imply (he need fo r Iraffic " p rio rity.1'
Really getting nervous? Tell them you need " PRIORITY1'— or declare an " EMERGENCY"(maansu-is
aam*).
-#1 N E V E R use this as a ploy to cut in front of other traffic when you really don't have a problem.*1
3
2

IM M E D IA T E L Y : (P/c Glossary)
1. Used by ATC or pilots when such action compliance is required to avoid an im m inent situation
2. Used by p ilo ts to communicate an u rgent situation w ithout form a lly declaring an em ergency.
3. Weather problems Such as th u n d e rs to rm avoidance. Icing and deteriorating weather that creates the
need for an IFR clearance "immediately'1w o u ld all q u a lify.

E M E R G E N C Y — Means EMERGENCY — A distress cr an urgency condition — PRIORITY handling is

necessary R IG H T N O W ! (91,i23. P^C Gloiaary)
P R IO R I T Y - as in " We need PRIORITY" — Means
EMERGENCY t PRIORITY handling is necessary
R IG H T N O W ! (S1.123>
I E M E R G E N C Y _F R E Q U E N C J.E S
: s 121.5 MHi and 243,0 MHi — Monitored by civil ; j
i and military towers., FSS and radar facilities.
■ => 2182 kH^ — Monitored by Coast Guard Rescue.!!
n *

M AYDAY — When repeated three tim es is the international OlSTRESS signal. It indicates IMMINENT and
GRAVE DANGER and that IMMEDIATE ASSISTANCE is requested. This distress call has absolute
p rio rity over alLother com m unications and com m ands radio silence. (AIM 6-5-1, PIC Glossary)

PA N -P A N — When repealed three times is Ihe international URGENCY signal. It indicates uncertainty or
alert and w arns other stations not to interfere with u r g e n c y tra nsm issio ns. Urgency communications
have p rio rity over all other communications except d istre ss. (AIM 6-3-1. PfC Glossary)

EVERYTHING E X P L A I N E D for th e P ro fe s s io n a l P ilo t 337

C h a p j — E m e rg e n c y & L ea a l l
E m e rg e n cy Lo cator Tra n sm itte rs — E L T : (91.207,, aims-z-t M-2.FAA-H-floa3-is. aosa-as)
1. Required by all U.S. civil aircraft except as provided below [91 _207(e)&(f)].
2. Transmits on 121.5 or the newer 406 MHz (highly recommended).
3. Batteries most be replaced after 1 hour of c u m u la tiv e use or when 50% of their osable life has expired.
4. Expiration date for replacing for recharging) ihe battery most be legibly marked on the outside of the
transmitter and entered in the aircraft maintenance record.
5. Must be inspected every 1^-calendar m onths.
6. Testing of an analog 121.5 ELT can only be done within the first 5 minutes after the
hour and you may listen to no more than 3 audible sweeps.
7. B l a l i i U M ELTs should snly be tested in accordance with the manufacturer's
Instructions.
6. Airborne tests ^re not authorised for a ny E LT.

O p e ra tin g W IT H O U T a n E L T — A P e r s on M ay : [Si aiiTi.i]

1. Ferry a newly acquired airplane from the place where possession of it was taken to a place where the
E L T is to be installed; and
2. Ferry an airplane with an inoperative ELT from a place where repairs or replacements cannot be
made to a place where they can be made.
3. IMo person other than required crewmembers may be carried aboard an airplane being ferried for the
purpose of ELT installation or repairs. t .................................. ...................
• The 51.207 ELT rulos apply to
A ir p la n e s T h a t Do NOT R E Q U IR E an E L T : pi 207<f)| i _ “?W ***-
— - ~ 1 ^ 1 -. . — ' i Rotorcraft. gtider; hghter-than-air;
The E L T requirements of 91.207(a) do not apply to : ■ etc are EMmpt
1. Aircraft while engaged in scheduled air carrier flights:
2. Aircraft while engaged in training operations conducted entirely within a 50-NM radius of the airport
from which such local flight operations began;
3. Aircraft while engaged in flight operations incident to design and testing:
4. New aircraft while engaged in flight operations incident to their manufacture, preparation, and delivery;
5. Aircraft while engaged in flight operations incident to the aerial application of chem icals and other
substances for agricultural purposes;
6. Aircraft certificated by the Administrator for research and developm ent purposes;
7. Aircraft while used for showing compliance with regulations, crew training, exhibition, air racino.
or market surveys:
6. Aircraft equipped to carry not more than one person and
9. An aircraft during any period for which the transmitter has been temporarily removed for inspection.
repair, modification, or replacement, subject to the following:
a. No person may operate the aircraft unless the aircraft records contain an entry which includes
the date of initial removal, the make, model, serial number, and reason for removing the
transmitter, and a placard located in view of the pilot to show " E L T not installed."
b. No person may operate the aircraft more then 90 days after the ELT is initially removed from
the aircraft.
11, Aircraft with a maximum payload capacity of more than 1B.000 lbs when used in air transportation.

338 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 [c h a p 9 — E m e rg e n c y & L e g a l

E LT CH AN G ES

121.5 MHz is O U T — 406 M Hz is Mlfauar.AIM8-2-4.a-3-2.e/cabssav.faa-h-ho&3-15.eo«3-25;

1. As of February 1=\2 0 Q 9 . satellite-based monitoring of 121.5/243 MHz distress alerts terminated.
Cospas-Sarsat satelliles now o_nlj>Lrji_Q_njlar the new 406 MHz. digital signal.
2. Presently the only monitoring of 121.5 transmissions are ground based facilities or over-flying
aircraft lhat might happen lo be monitoring the frequency,
3. It now could take days before anyone detects a 121,5 signal especially if the aircraft was not on a
flight plan.
4. The unprotected 121.5 MHz frequency was never intended for space-based monitoring and
interference causes up to 98% of the false alerts {406 MHz will reduce false alerts by at least 95%}
5. Aircraft owners faced with replacing or installing a new ELT must decide whether to Install a chea
(S500) 121.5 M Hz ELT or the m uch more expansive ($2,500) 406 M Hz ELT

A
6. The FAA has no plans to require the installation of 406 MHz ELTs at this time
bul Congress could mandate it in future legislation. 1
7. By the lime you read this, 406 MHz ELTs will almost certainly be required for
flights into or over C anada. M exico, and the Baham as.
8. The goal of the Search And Rescue (SAR) Community is to elim inate the
usage of all 121,5 M Hz devices on land, sea, and in the air.

9 S V
A D V A N T A G E S of th e 4 0 6 M Hz E L T :
1. More transmitter power (Vs second, five-watt bursts every 50 seconds).
2. Dedicated and protected frequency designed specifically for detection by satellites.
3. Near instantaneous satellite detection by low orbit and geostationary satellites.
4. More accurate location calculations resulting in a smaller search area (1 to 3 miles}.
5. Faster search-and-rescuo response [approximately 45 minutes to pinpoint an exact location).
6. Positioning data and owner data encoded (the satellites can track up lo 90 signals simultaneously).

B U S IN E S S J E T S — E L T s :
1. Business Jets are now required to havE ELTs installed as of January 1 , 2004.
2. The new ruling is by order of Congress mandated Public Law 106-1811 — aka — the Wendell H. Ford

7
Aviation Investment and Reform Act for the 2 4 11 Century (A IR -2 4 )
3. The ruling requires installation of an ELT using 121.5 MHz or 406 M H z.
4. The FAA is urging operators to install ELTs operating on Ihe 4D6-MHz frequency
5. Motivation for the requirement of ELTs on bizjets was the Christmas Eve 1996 crash of a Lear 35A
shooting an approach to the Lebanon, N,H. Municipal Airport. Despite extensive search efforts, the
crash was shrouded in mystery until someone stumbled across the wreckage three years later

Yeah, if s gonna be great.

They'll find this sm okin’
hole in the ground in no timet

By the way, It’s probably a

good time to bend over and
kiss your ass goodbye Wendell.

EVERYTNtNG E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 339

C h a p 9 — E m e rg e n c y & L e g a l!
“NASA REPORTS41— Aviation Safety Reporting Program: (si.25.acocmce)
1. A * NASA Report" cart be your "pel out of jail (almost) free card.”
2. 91.25 — The Administrator of the FAA will nol use reports submitted lo
ihe National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) under the
Aviation Safety Reporting Program (or information derived there from) in
any enforcement action except information concerning accidents or criminal offenses which are
wholly excluded from the program
3. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration acts as a third party to receive and de-identify the
report, by removing and/or deleting all information that could be used to identify (he reporter. Therefore
prelecting the anonymous nature of the program, which is lo provide a free flow of safety information,
4. The portion of the report that identifies the person is removed, time/date stamped, and returned to the
reporter. This is the proof ihe FAA will be looking for if the case lums into a formal enforcement action,
5. The person must prove that, “within 10 days after the violation, o r date w hen the person became
aware or should have been aware of the violation, he or she completed and delivered or mailed a
written report of the incident or occurrence to N A S A ."
6. You can do it on line — http://asrs.arc.nasa.aoy (read the instructions carefully) — or send it by
C£BTIEIED_MA1L. BETL),BMz BE,C£IET requested.
7. If more than one pilot is involved, each pilot must subm it an individual report.
8. Immurnly will be granted only if Ihe violation was inadvertent not deliberate and did not involve a
criminal act or aircraft accident {about 90% of all cases).
9. There is no limiiation as to how often a pilot may submil a report,
10. Im m unity will not be pranted if the pilot was involved in an enforcement action and found in violation
of any part of the FARs in the pr&yio us _5_yaa rs .
11. Immunity is only a waiver of disciplinary action, i.e.. no fine or suspension. The FAA will still fully
investigate the incident— if a violation is found — it will remain as part of the pilot's record and will
bar against further immunity for 5 years.
12. NASA forms can be obtained from your local FSDQ : directly from NASA via snail-mail to —
N A S A / A S R S , PO Box 189, Moffett Field NAS. Mountain View, C A 94035; or downloaded from —
http://flsrs.arc.nasa.flov.

»W A R N IN G *
The anonymous nature Of the program only goes SO far. If you report an accident, a criminal offense, or a
deliberate-action — N A S A will send Ihe repp ft. along WITH your name and address directlYJo the
E M . the N T S B . and/or possibly the Department of Justice as appropriate.
M W W VW W VW W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W VW V

CARELESS or RECKLESS Operation; ($1 1 3)

{a) Aircraft operations for the purpose of air navigation. No person may operate an aircraft In a careless
or reckless manner so as to endanger the life or property of another.
{b) Aircraft operations other than for the purpose ef air navigation. No person may operate an aircraft,
other lhan for the purpose of air navigation, on any part of the surface of an airport used by aircraft for
air commerce {including areas used by those aircraft for receiving or discharging persons or cargo), in a
careless or reckless manner so as to endanger Ihe life or property of another,

D E F IN IT IO NS:
1 CARELESS — inadvertent, lack of forethought or thoroughness,
a cene/ess mi slake.
2. RECKLESS — deliberate, indifferent to or disregardful of the
consequences

EX A M P LES :
1. Landing at the wrong airport would probably be considered careless.
2. A gear-up landing may be considered careless if the pilot inadvertently forgot lo pul the gear down.
3. Failure to discover a pitot lube cover or an improperly installed fuel cap during preflight would probably
be considered careless.
4. Running out of fuel would probably be considered careless, if not reckless.
5. Flying an aircraft under a bridge, and then landing on a highway next to a rest stop to pick up a Pepsi —
would probably be considered reckless no metier how thirsty you are.

340 EVERYTHING E H P L A I N E D fg r t h e P io fn s E to n .il P ilo t

Well they say a good lending 1$ one you can w alk aw ay from...
I guess this falls In the catego ry of not so good.

“Great landing C apt’n Bozo...

h o w ‘b o u t if w e a im a little c l o s e r to t h e c e n te r lin e n e x t t i m e ? ”

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 341

C h a p 9 — E m e rg e n c y & L e g a l
If You Do Become Involved In Art E N F O R C E M E N T A C T IO N :
1. The “Pilot’s Bril of Rights” (S. 1335) was signed into law in August of 2012 giving pilots a teeny-tiny sliver of
nghts. In general it says that the FAA shall provide a timely, written notification to an individual who is the
subject of an investigation. Of course the FAA may delay (hat notification If they determine It "may threaten
the integrity of the investigation’1{really?}. That notification must inform you that {1} a response to a Letter of
Investigation is not required (2) no adverse action can be taken against you for declining to m ipand: (3> any
response to the LOI may be used as evidence against you: {4} ''releasable portions” of the investigative
report will bo available to vou: and {5} you are entitled to obtain air traffic data {i e.. ATC tapes, radar plots, air
traffic controller statements, etc.]. Basically Miranda Rights for pilots. In reality though, not a whole lot has
changed. If the FAA cops...er. Inspectors... truly want your ass... you're still screwed!;o) (IMHO). And... when in
pursuit of your ass the FAA breaks their own rules, they can simply change the rules.
2. Many enforcement actions start with a request by a controller to call the tower after you re an the ground. You
can be absolutely positive they do not want to invite you to lunch; this is serious business. You either didpriiid
not do something that made someone very angry — aka ‘' pilot deviation.”
You are NOT legally obligated to make this call; HOWEVER — mm
a. I.lw u d.o_NO_T_ca ll — you will ttli&s your one opportunity to put forth an ¿ F ■, /
explanation that could very easily end the entire matter right then and there.
Maybe he does just want to talk to you and discuss your actions. If you haven't done
anything too ridiculous you can probably fix it on the telephone with a little dose of “puppy dag". If
you Ignore him you can bet the farm he'll be letting the BIG dogs loose to track you down,
If you DO call — you'll provide your identity and probably some corroborating information that could
later be used against you, especially if yeu say something incredibly STUPID!
If you do N O T call—if you just try to fun away and hide—be assured that a large posse will mount-
up. They'll ride through the badlands for as long as it takes to hunt you down^and they got some
REALLY good dogs. Once they do find their man, they don't usually give out spankings for
punishment. They'll have several ropes with them and they WILL find a tree!
3. Another due that you might be suspect of an enforcement action is If an FAA Inspector makes inquires about a
previous flight [i.e., an occurrence in the past).
4. Immediately fill out and send In a N A S A report hy certified or registered mail with return receipt (Aviation
Safety Exporting Erogram — 91.25) (as long as it does not involve an accident or any criminal actiViLy).
5. Take it upon yourself to K t i Q W l h c R E G U L A T I O N S so you don't get yourself into even more trouble dunng your
initial contacts wilh the FAA. Do N O T trust Y O U R interpretation of the regulations. Even many high-time
"professional pitots don't really knpw the regs. Find an AVIATION LAWYER who R E A L L Y knows the
regulations to handle it for you. These lawyers are V E R Y difficult to find and require BIG bags of money to keep
up wilh their boat payments and alimony checks. Talk to the A G F A on their hot line — 600-372-2672 — you A R E
a member aren't you? Remember, the FAA considers vou GUILTY until you somehow prove voursolf
innocent {typically requiring a miracle!;o).
6. A serious violation most certainly needs a GOOD aviation lawyer, however the pilot can undoubtedly handle
most minor infractions if he does his homework and goes in with a good attitude.
7. Do not be intimidated by the inspector—he's |ust a guy doing his job—trying to keep you from killing yourself or
running an airplane into that hypothetical schoolyard full of kids, A great deal of discretion is given to the
individual inspector in most cases. Any reasonably down to earth guy will do his best to not violate a cooperating
pilot who understands the regulations but simply became confused or disoriented. Of course there is the
occasional inspector who became one |uSt to have the power to make other people's lives miserable. They
probably pulled the wings off butterflies when they where kids. Remember though... even □ good lawyer can't
help much if you're truly guilty of a mapr infraction.
3. A pilot has no legal obligation to respond to the FAA's phone calls or letters, but failure to do so will almost
certainly guarantee pursuit of a violation. It's up to YOU o & i to say something so Incredibly STUPID that the
inspector will be forced to take a heading down Violation Boulevard.
9. Exhibit a friendly, cooperative: “constructive attitude" (I like to call it the “puppy doanj] and you may go home
with a verbal reprimand, or at worst, an '‘administrative action" in the form of a “warning notice." a "letter of
pjUXfiiiUUi,1’ ar some remedial training. An administrative action is possible if the situation was not significantly
unsafe, no lack of competency or qualification was involved, and Ihe violation wasn't deliberate. Worst case could
be a reexamination — “TCg-ride’’ — to determine if a perceived airmanship weakness has been
corrected
10. An administrative Action does not suspend or revoke your license but wifi be a matter of record
against the pilot until il is “pxpungocj" after two years
11. The FAA s “ Letter of Investigation" [LOI] Or “1Q day letter" warns that the FAA is investigating
an incident and would "appreciate receiving any evidence or statements you might care to make
regarding the matter within 10 days of receipt of the letter. . . If we do not hear from you, (he report will be
processed without benefit of your statement." If "remedial training" is an option, the letter will state something to
that effect. It Is no guarantee that remedial training will be used as your "out." but if you pursue it with a friendly.
cooperative and constructive attitude it is by far the best option. It is important to remember that this letter is
342 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot
 C ha p & — Em e rg e n c y A L eg aï]
not a statement of charges but simply a way for the FAA to gather more information (i.e. evidence — i.e
against YO U i You re under no obligation to answer this letter but the FAA does not look kindly on stonewalling.
In fact you may g u a r a n t e e a violation if you don't, answer — of course — you could g u a r a n t e e a violation if you
answer by supplying Information that incriminates yourself. Time lo contact an aviation lawyer If you don't know
exactly what you 're do mg.
12. If the FAA decides to pursue a ''certificate action/ ' it will issue a "Notice of Proposed Certificate Action11'
(MPCA} usually within 6 months of the incident. This letter will detail the fads of the violation and requires you to
respond in writing or face on order of suspension. Once this letter has been received, you can make a formal
request under the '‘Freedom ol Information_Act" {FO lAi and get the FAAs "Enforcement Investigative Report1’
(EIR), that will show all the information held against you. If it looks like the FAA lu ; a GOOD case, you might
want to request an "informal hearing'1during which the possibility of a settlement can be discussed The
majority of enforcement actions are settled at an informal hearing. Be advised however that an Informal
Conference conducted on the folephono is usually NOT a good option. McoJ with these people face to face.
Have a good aviation lawyer at your side, and your chances of dismissal or favorable settlement are far greater.
13. If the '‘Enforcement Investigative Beport” shows that the F A A has a LOUSY case, you might want to forget
about the informal hearing, and ask the FAA to go ahead with the suspension or revocation order so you can start
the "appeal" process. The FAA must issue the “Order of Suspension or Revocation1" before you are
allowed to appeal the decision to the NTSB
14. Until you get the ‘ Order of Suspension or Revocation" you could have ignored all previous letters. The "Order"
is different. It clearly states that you have 20 days, from the date Uiey mailed the letter to respond with an
appeal to the NTSB or the "order" will become effective — therefore suspending or revoking your certificate.
15. An appeal to the NTSB prevents the FAA from taking your license until the appeal process is
complete.
ie. When the appeal is (lied to the NTSB. one of the five regional Administrative Law Judges is
assigned to your case, It could take sin months or longer for him to travel to a location near the
majority of the witnesses for the hearing.
17. A ' hearing11 is very much like a trial, except you do not have the civil rights of even the lowest of
common criminals. There is no jury (he rules of evidence are almost non-existent and hearsay is
permissible. First the FAA will present its evidence and witnesses, and your dreadfully over paid lawyer will
have a chance to cross-examine. Then your lawyer will present your evidence and witnesses. If your team can
convince the judge that the violation is erroneous, the enforcement action will be dropped. Reversals are possible
but unfortunately rare, A not guilty verdict is even less likely If you failed to respond to the "Letter of investigation"
LOI] — or you did respond — but with evidence that incriminated yourself. Most often the judge will announce
his or her decision on the spot.
18. If you or the FAA are not happy with the judge's ruling, you or the FAA can appeal again to the full board. Be
advised, as a matter of record, the board usually sides with the FAA (really?).
19. If you are again disappointed with the decision, you can appeal to the U.5. Court of Appeals This Court will
uphold or reverse the Board based on something called the "arbitrary and capricious" standard, In other words
the Court will decide If the Board's decision was fair, reasonable, and historically consistent with
policy.
20. If all else fails, that frjflS A report you sent in could still prevent the suspension or revocation
from taking plate, but the violation will still be on your record.
21 . Expunction policy:
a. Cases that are closed without an enforcement action are expunged after 90 days
b. Violations resulting in an "administrative action" llettcr of correction or warning notice! should be
expunged automatically after two years.
C. Violations resulting in suspension or civil penalty used to be erased from your record after five years.
FAA chief Randy Babbitt ended that silly expunction policy on Nov 1,2010.
I wonder what his NBAL" {Blood Alcohol Level) was that day!;o}.
d. The record is NEVER expunged if it involved a certificate revocation, or for records pertaining to an
airman application, medical record*, or records of the NTSB.
&. To check on vour record — Request a copy of your L'EI5HJ (Enforcement Information Subsystem) and/or
your ‘‘AID1’ (Accident / Incident database) file Write a statement requesting a copy of your " EIS i AfD”
file, including your full name, date of birth, certificate number and address. FAX the request to the FAA
- 4Q5.-9M 4 6 55: Attn,: AFS-624
22. “ EM ERGENCY R EV O C A TIO N 1’ of your certificate can occur if you have managed to convince the FAA that you
are a total and complete fruitcake, or—as in the famous Bob Hoover case—an inspector |ust feels like pulling your
wings off for the hell of It. Don't EVER trip over your own feet when you get out of an airplane—especially after
you've just completed one of your best air show routines .ooping and rolling your Shnke Commander to a
perfect dead-stick landing in front of a cheering crowd!:o}.
23. Even though some violations or administrative actions may eventually be erased from your record, many job and
insurance applications ask if you h^ve EVER had a violation or action, it would be foolish to lie.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 343

C h a p 9 — E m e rg e n c y & L e g a l
ACCIDENT or INCIDENT?: (mtsb Pausa®
1. In the case of aircraft accidents, the FAA is NOT the controlling agency— The NTSB is — Part 830.1.
You do NOT have to notify the FAA Based on its findings, the N T S B mav or may not notify the FA A
2. Y o u a re required to report jii c r a ft A C C ID E N T S a n d IN C ID E N TS (i.e., aeeidanis « m eidsnis listed on me nem
page; B3D.5) expeditiously to the NTSB.
3. INCIDENT — An occurrence other than an accident, associated with the operation of an aircraft, which
affects or could affect the safety of operations {see next page and 830.5).
4. ACCIDENT — An occurrence that takes place between Ihe time any person boards an aircraft with the
intention to fly and the time they disembark — And must involve death or " serious Injury” or result in
‘ substantial dam age" lo the aircraft,
5. SERIOUS INJURY — any iniurv which:
a. Requires hospitalization for more then 48 hours within 7 davs from the date of the injury:
b. Results in a fracture of any bone (except simple fractures of fingers, toes, or nose);
c. Causes severe hem orrhages, nerve, m uscle, or tendon damage;
d. Involves any internal organ; or
e. Involves 2 _ or 3rd d o g reeb u rn s. or any burns affecting more than 5% of the body surface.
6. FATAL INJURY ■— Any injury which results in death within 3Q davs of the accident.
7. S U B S T A N T IA L D A M A G E IS — Anything that adversely affects the structural strength.
performance or flight characteristics of the aircraft and would normally require major repair or
replacement of components. If in doubt, seek the opinion of an A & F mechanic (in writing if possible).
8. S U B S T A N T IA L D A M A G E is N O T — Engine failure Or damage limited to an engine if only one engine
fails or is dam aged, bent fairings or cow lings, dented skin, small punctured holes in the skin or
fabric, ground damage to rolor or propeller blades, or damage lo Ihe landing gear, w heels, tires.
flaps, engine accessories, brakes, or wing tips are N O T considered ‘substantial dam age' for the
purpose of this part. If in doubt, seek the opinion of an AAR mechanic fin writing if possible).
9. A G E A B ü üF LA N D IN G — Generally, is N O T considered substantial damage
10. If the mishap does not involve substantial damage or serious
bodily injury. iflcorefica/fr, you do /VO T have to report anything
lo the N T S B or FA A . Of course if someone decides later that in
Iheir opinion it was substantial damage, you could be In a heap of
trouble. The F A A often hears about i ncidents from sources other
lhan the pilot or the NTSB — such as A T C . FS S or even local
police. Hopefully the incident was not caused by the violation of an
FAR {see "Careless or Reckless" — 91.13).
11- The regularly us_e_sjL\cjdenLr_ej>crts. as a so_urc_eJor
enforcement actions. A violation could constitute a warning, Den'! IcrgeL la put 1hE
suspension, revocation and/or recertification — (he dreaded " 703 gear handle in lha
r id e ” ■ down position belo-ra
■ Exiling IhH airgrefliicl.

MAJOR & MINOR DAMAGE: (1.1, AC 43.13-1 A, FarMS Appendi* A)

1. "Maior" and "minor" do not refer to the extent of damage as related to cost. They do reflect lo Ihe
extent of damage as if affects the airworthiness of
Ihe aircraft.
2. M A JO R repair means a repair:
a. Thai, if improperly done, mighl appreciably
affect weight, balance, structural strength,
performance, powerpiant operation, flight
characteristics, or other gualities affecting
airworthiness; or
b. That is not done according to accepted
practices or cannot be done by elementary
operations.
c. NOTE An A&P with Inspection
Authorization {]£) must approve major
repairs.
3. M INOR repair means a repair other than a major
repair. Any normal A&P mechanic can do a minor repair and return the aircraft to service without ihe
approval of an “IA."

344 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEion.il Pilaf

 Chap 9 — Em ergency & Legal
NOTIFICATION OF ACCIDENTS. INCIDENTS & OVERDUE AIRCRAFT: i;a3o.5>
The operator of an aircraft shall im m ediately notify the nearest National Transportation
Safety £oard field office (N O T the FAA) when an aircraft accident or any of the following
listed incidents occur:
1 Flight control malfunction;
2. Inability of a flight crewm em ber to perform flight duties as a result of injury or illness:
3. Failure of any internal turbine engine component that results In the escape of debris
other than out the exhaust path;
4. In-flight fire.
5. Aircraft collision m flight:
6. Damage to property, other than the aircraft, estimated to exceed S25,000 for repair;
7. For lame rnultlenoine aircraft (more than 12.500 lbs max takeoff weight);
a. In-flight failure of electrical system s requiring sustained use of an emergency bus...
b. In-Flight failure of hydraulic system s that results In sustained reliance on.., ;
c. Sustained loss of power produced by two or more engines:
d. An evacuation of an aircraft in which an emergency egress system is utilized.
6. Release of all or a portion of a propeller blade excluding release caused solely by ground contact;
9. A complete loss of Inform ation, excluding flickering, from more than 50% of an aircraft's cockpit
displays known as EFIS, EICAS, ECAM, PFD, FND, and other integrated displays:
10. Airborne Collision and Avoidance System (AC A S ) resolution advisories issued when operating IFF? or in
Class A airspace and compliance with the advisory is necessary lo avert a substantial risk of collision.
11. Damage to helicopter rotor blades, including ground damage, that requires major repalr/replacement;
12 Any event in which an aircraft operated by an air carrier lands or departs on a taxiw ay, incorrect
runw ay, or other area not designated as a runway: or experiences a runway Incursion that requires
the operator of another aircraft or vehicle to take immediate corrective action to avoid a collision.
13. An aircraft is overdue and is believed to have been involved In an accident

Board offices:
I R e g io n a l N T SB P h o n e N u m b e rs l ...............................
Popular Phrases
v
Pilot Error: STATE C IT Y PHONE # that have the potential .
it an oartliquoko Alaska Anchorage (907)271-5001 1o get you involved <,
wllh lha NTSB. ¡1
suddenly opened a California Gardena fLos Angeles) (310) 380-5660 " W a s th a t f o r u s ? ” ,
Fjeeutb in a runway
Colorado Denver (303)361-0600 ' W hat d ho s a y ? " i \
that eiLHd an -Oh stir
accident, ir might (aka District of Columbia Washinoion (DC) (202) 314-6000 " H o l y S ttft’1
a year, bul (he N TS B I Florida Miami (305)597-4610 ■m ro in d o e p S t il t " <|
would hnd a way Lc Georgia Atlanta (404) 562-1666 And now that
blame the pilot.
(And oltan they'd Illinois West Chicago (630) 377-3177 computers are j 1
mvolvad —
ba correct.] New Jersey Parsippany {NY area) (973) 334-6420 'Wftal tha hell is it
Texas Arlington (Fori Worth) (817)085-6300 doin’ now?”
Washington_________ Seattje (206) e70-22ÖÖ~1

PRESERVATION of WRECKAGE: isso.ic)

1. Aircraft w reckage, ca rgo , mail, and all records shall not be
disturbed until the N TS B takes custody.
2. Aircraft w reckage, cargo, mail, and records can be m oved to
remove persons injured or trapped, protect wreckage from further
damage, or protect the public from injury {take pictures if possible).

R E P O R T S : (B3G.15J
1. The operator of an aircraft shall file a report within 10 days of an
A C C ID E N T, or after 7 days if an overdue aircraft s still
m is s in g ,
2. An INCIDENT report shall be filed only If requested by
I he NTSB.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 345

 Chap 9 — Em ergency & Legal
N O T IF IC A T IO N O F A C C ID E N T S . IN C ID E N T S & O V E R D U E A I R C R A F T : i;a3o.5>
The operator of an aircraft shall im m ediately notify the nearest National Transportation
Safety £oard field office (N O T the FAA) when an aircraft accident or any of the following
listed incidents occur:
1 Flight control malfunction;
2. Inability of a flight crewm em ber to perform flight duties as a result of injury or illness:
3. Failure of any internal turbine engine component that results In the escape of debris
other than out the exhaust path;
4. In-flight fire.
5. Aircraft collision m flight:
6. Damage to property, other than the aircraft, estimated to exceed S25,000 for repair;
7. For lame rnultlenoine aircraft (more than 12.500 lbs max takeoff weight);
a. In-flight failure of electrical system s requiring sustained use of an emergency bus...
b. In-Flight failure of hydraulic system s that results In sustained reliance on.., ;
c. Sustained loss of power produced by two or more engines:
d. An evacuation of an aircraft in which an emergency egress system is utilized.
6. Release of all or a portion of a propeller blade excluding release caused solely by ground contact;
9. A complete loss of Inform ation, excluding flickering, from more than 50% of an aircraft's cockpit
displays known as EFIS, EICAS, ECAM, PFD, FND, and other integrated displays:
10. Airborne Collision and Avoidance System (AC A S ) resolution advisories issued when operating IFF? or in
Class A airspace and compliance with the advisory is necessary lo avert a substantial risk of collision.
11. Damage to helicopter rotor blades, including ground damage, that requires major repalr/replacement;
12 Any event in which an aircraft operated by an air carrier lands or departs on a taxiw ay, incorrect
runw ay, or other area not designated as a runway: or experiences a runway Incursion that requires
the operator of another aircraft or vehicle to take immediate corrective action to avoid a collision.
13. An aircraft is overdue and is believed to have been involved In an accident

Board offices:
I R e g io n a l N T SB P h o n e N u m b e rs l ............................... v
Popular Phrases
Pilot Error: STATE C IT Y PHONE # that have the potential .
Alaska Anchorage (907)271-5001 1o get you involved <,
it an oartliquoko
wllh lha NTSB. ¡1
suddenly opened a California Gardena fLos Angeles) (310) 380-5660 " W a s th a t f o r u s ? ” ,
Fjeeutb in a runway
Colorado Denver (303)361-0600 ' W hat d ho s a y ? " i \
that eiLHd an -Oh stir
accident, ir might (aka District of Columbia Washinoion (DC) (202) 314-6000 " H o l y S ttft’1
a year, bul (he N TS B I Florida Miami (305)597-4610 ■m ro in d o e p S t il t " <|
would hnd a way Lc Georgia Atlanta (404) 562-1666 And now that
blame the pilot.
(And oltan they'd Illinois West Chicago (630) 377-3177 computers are j 1
mvolvad —
ba correct.] New Jersey Parsippany {NY area) (973) 334-6420 'Wftal tha hell is it
Texas Arlington (Fori Worth) (817)085-6300 doin’ now?”
Washington_________ Seattje (206) e70-22ÖÖ~1

P R E S E R V A TIO N of W R E C K A G E : isso.ic)
1. Aircraft w reckage, ca rgo , mail, and all records shall not be
disturbed until the N TS B takes custody.
2. Aircraft w reckage, cargo, mail, and records can be m oved to
remove persons injured or trapped, protect wreckage from further
damage, or protect the public from injury {take pictures if possible).

R E P O R T S : (B3G.15J
1. The operator of an aircraft shall file a report within 10 days of an
A C C ID E N T, or after 7 days if an overdue aircraft s still
m is s in g ,
2. An INCIDENT report shall be filed only If requested by
I he NTSB.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 345

C h a p 9 — E m e rg e n c y & L e g a l

A e ro n a u tica l Inform ation M a n u a l — O N L Y an A D V IS O R Y ?:

1. FAA slalemenl concerning the AIM — ‘ T h is ju b lic ^ tio n . while N O T R E G U L A T O R Y . provides
information which reflects examples of operation techniques and procedures which may be
requirements in other federal publications or regulations It is made available solely to assist
pilots in executing their responsibilities required b y other publications." The FAA has a similar
attitude relative to Advisory Circulars and other FAA publications.
2. The FAA can view statements in these publications as "interpretations" of the regulations and therefore
binding to the pilot. The MTSB is also bound hy the FAA's interpretations unless the interpretation is
proved to be "arbitrary, capricious, or otherwise illegal."
3. The AIM provides basic flight information, recommendations, explanations of procedures and factors
affecting safety — that are got N E C E S S A R I L Y , binding — but where applicable, Ihe AIM refers
to regulations that AR E legally binding.
4. Furthermore — You CAN be cited under FAR ^1.13 - careless and reckless operations — for failure
to follow the “advisory“ procedures in the AIM. Especially if it contmbutes to an accident or incident,
in other words, you could receive a VIOLAT ION for not complying w ith FAA <3 UiDANQE

C O P I E S o f A T C T o w e r / C e n t e r — A u d i R a d a r T r a c k ( d a t a p lo t) T A P E S :
Let's say you have a little"problem" with ATC — or just want to amuse yourself with what you sounded like the
day you almost crashed. A copy of the tape is available to you under the freedom fit Information ficl:
1 . A sk on the air for the tape to be saved — Tapes are required to be kept for only 15 days.
2. You can also ask on the air for the " sector identifier“ and/or the " oueratina initials" of the controller
(and maybe even his home phone number if you really want to slir up a hornet’s nest!).
3. Note the exact tim e, altitude, and Ihe frequency you're on.
4. After landing — you will have to make a “form al request" for the tape:
a. Look in Ihe Airport Facility Directory or call Flight Service for the phone num ber of Ihe
Tower or Center. An alternative is to call the local FSDO for assistance.
b. Call Ihe facility — get the address of Ihe “Air Traffic Division" for that region and the name
of the person responsible for freedom Qt Information Act requests. The proper procedure
and contact information is available at http:/Jww w .faa.aovffoiaf or by calling the FAA-FOIA
headquarters at 202-267-9165.
c. Your le tte r s ho uId ope n with th e statem en t:
“ Under the federal Freedom of Information Act, I am requesting a copy of... "
d. Include A LL the details and be sure to mail it certified return receipt— As Soon As Possible—
remember you only have 15 days before the tapes are erased.
5. ATC audiotapes will cost $3Q to over a 5 100 depending on length, while data plots (radar iratks) may
cost significantly more,
6. A formal tape request gels a lot of attention—it be listened to— if it's entertaining enough, it could
make it all the way up lo legal counsel at the regional level.

FA A “H O T L IN E ":
8 0 0 -2 5 5 - 1 1 1 1 Provided to repart unsafe practices er
conditions that affect aviation safety. T h e call can rem ain confidential.

Official F A A M otto:
We're not happy,
’til you're not happy.
AO PA “ H O T LIN E ":
8 0 0 - 8 7 2 - 2 6 7 2 (M ust be an A O P A M em ber) — A team of experts w ill answ er any
aviation related question pertaining to the regulations, m edicals, legal, etc.
( w w w .a o p a .o rg )

346 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

 C h a p te r 1 0

Miscellaneous, Definitions,
Aerodynamics & Trivia
tteatory.'’1J FR E E Extra Stuff
Piper — Num bers & N a m e s .......................................... ....... 340
B e e ch era ft — N u m b e rs & N a m e s ........................ .......345
Hypoxia: Hyperventilation; Carbon Monoxide; Ear Block .........350
Air Ambulance Flights — "Life G u a rd '................................. ......... 350
A e ro d yn a m ics.............................................................. 351-353
Flaps/Slots/Slals........................................................................ 354, 355
Laminar Flow............................................................................... .......... 356
Boundary Layer.......................................................................... ...356
Reynolds Num ber.................................................................... ...356
A dverse vs. Pro verse Y a w ............................................................ . 357
Dutch Roll......................................................................................................................... ...357
Y a w D a m p e r.............. ................ .......... .......... ................ ........ ............. . . 357
Trim T a b s ......................................................................................................................... ...357
Service Ceiling — All Engine Service Ceiling — Single-Engine Service Ceiling ...353
Certified Ceiling — Maximum Certified Ceiling — Maximum Certified Altilude.. .„356
Absolute Celling — Single-Engine Absolute Ceiling — Drlfldown......................... ...353
Fastest and Highest Flying Aircraft................................................................................ ...353
Contrails................................................................................................................................ ...353
Pilot In Com m and . 355
Pilot In Com m and Seating Position ..................................................
A ctive Pilots In the United S ta te s ...................................................... ...................... 355
English Language: Wilco: Tango, Flight C heck........................................... ........................359
Manifold Pressure & the Constant Speed P ro p e lle r .............. ...................... 360
Supercharged / Turbocharged Engines.......................................................... ....................... 361
Horsepower............................................................................................................ .............. 36?.353
Time In Service; PMA: FAA 337 Form— Maior Repair and Alteration.... ........................363
T B O ; S T C ; T S O ................................................................................................. ...................364
Preventive M aintenance.................................................................................... ........................365
O il- Mineral, As hi e s s D is p e rs a n t................................................ ...................366
O il— V is c o s ity ..................................................................................................
Piston Engine Smoke; Backfiring..................................................................... ........................366
Cl e arw ay, S to p w a y .......... ......................................................... .............
Flight Visibility, Visibility end Ihe Earth's Horizon; Radar Reflectors...... ........................367
Notice of Eroposed Rule Making (NPRItfl)..................................................... ........................368
Shadows; Mountains; Empire State Building................................................ ....................... 363
Chads; Sectional Charts— Runways Longer than 8,069 f l ....................... ........................369
Night— Four Definitions....................................................................................... ....................... 370
Aircraft Lights...........,..... ,.........,.................. ,.........,..... ,.........,..... ,.........,......... ....................... 371
H y d ro p la n in g ...................................................................................................
T e s t to Detect Contam ination of J e t F u e l ................................ ...................373
Specific Gravity (S G )........................................................................................... ....................... 373
Control Towers: Aircraft (weight] Classes: Crosswmds............................. ........................373
Sim ulators — Four Le ve ls.................................................................
Gold Seal Flight Instructor Cerlificate............................................................. ........................375
EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 347
C h a p 1Q — M is c e lla n e o u s , D e fin itio n s , A e ro d y n a m ic s & T riv ia

PIPE R — N U M BERS & NAM ES:

A Piper J-3 is a Cub — everyone knows that. But unless you’ve had extensive contact with Pipers, attaching
the names to the numbers is not an easy task for most people. Here’s a partial list:
J -2 ..............................................................................Cub
J-3... ............... Cub
J -4 ... .. Cub Coupe
J -5 ... . Cub Cruiser
P A -11 ...Cub Special
P A -12 Super Cruiser
P A -14 Family Cruiser
P A -15 .Va gaband Trainer
PA-16 ......Clipper
P A -17 . Vagabond
PA-16 Super Cub
PA-20 ........ Pacer
PA-22 Tri Pacer. Colt, Caribbean
PA-23 ........Apache 150/160
PA-24 ................ Comanche
PA-25 ( 4 3 6 ) (crop duster) Pawnee
PA-27 ...Aztec /Turbo Aatec
PA-28- A l40/l5lrfieiCherokee, Cruiser Flight Liner
PA-28- A-151 (161 Warrior [II) (Cadet)
PA-26- 181 ..........Archer (ll)(lll)
PA-28- B-201T (235/236) Dakota, Turbo Dakota, Charger, Pathfinder
PA-28- R-200 (201 )(T) Arrow I & II (Arrow HI)(Turbo)
PILL... .............................................Pi IIan PA-2&R-300
P A -28-T............Cherokee Arrow 4, Turbo Arrow 4
PA-30 (& 3 9 T )................................. Twin Comanche
PA-31 (31T) Navajo/Chiettain/Mcjave (Cheyenne)
PA-32-260 or 30 0 .................................... Cherokee 6
PA-32 R-3QQ........................................................ Lance
PA-32-300 R T .........................................T-Tail Lance
P A -3 2 T ................................... Lance 2, Turbo Lance
PA-32R-301 HP or T ....................................Saratoga
P A -3 4 ......................................................... Seneca 2/3
P A -3 6 ..... (crop duster) Pawnee Brave, Super Brave
P A -3 8 ....................................................Tomahawk (II)
PA-42 (4 3 1 T )............................................ Cheyenne
P A T 4 ...................................................................T-1040
P A Y 1 .............................................................. CheyenneJ\
P A Y 2 ................................................................................. Cheyenne 2
P A Y 3 ................................................................................. Cheyenne 3
P A Y 4 .....................................................Cheyenne 400
P A -4 4 ............................. Seminole, Turbo Seminole
P A -4 6 .....................................Malibu, Malibu Mirage
P A -4 6 T ............................................... Malibu Meridian
PA-ÖO(AEST) (nolongor niMcintad wich Pipar) Aero&lar
S108.... ni™iipsinniin0in:.Voyager, Station Wagon 103

348 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot

 C h a p 10 — M is c e lla n e o u s , D e fin itio n s , A e ro d y n a m ic s & T riv ia

BEECH CR A FT — N UM BERS & NAM ES:

Different company — Same problem:
BE-9L.......... King Air 90, A90 to E90 {T-44. V-C6) © e e c h c ra fit
B E -9T........................................................ King A irF90
B E -10.........................King Air 100 fiJB (U-21F Ute)
B E -D 17S......... Stagger Wing 17 (UC-43 Traveler)
BE-18 [C -45],. Twin Beech, Beech 18, Super H 18
B E -1 9 .................................................................................Sport 19, Musketeer Sport
BE-2G.................................Super King Air 200, 1300
B E -23.........................Sundowner 23, Musketeer 23
B E -24............................Sierra 24, Musketeer Super
B E -30.................................................................................Super King Air 300/300LW
B E -33.................................................................................Bonanza 33, Debonair (E-24)
B E -F33C ......... .................... (aerobatic) Bonanza
B E -T 34P ...................... Mentor, D45, T34A/B, E-17
B E -T 34T ................................... Turbo Mentor T-34C
B E -V 35B .......................................................................... (V-tail) Bonanza 35
BE-A3Ei..................................................... (stretched) Bonanza 38
BE-40 (B E -4 00 )..........Beechjet 400JT-1 Jayhawk
B E -50........................................................ ...Twin Bonanza 50
B E -55.................................................................................Baron55/Chachise
B E -56..............................................Baron 58, Foxstar
B E -60.................................................................Duke 60
B E -65...................... Queen Air 65 (U-BF Seminole)
B E -76..........................................................Duchess 76
B E -77..........................................................Skipper 77
B E -80....................................................... Queen Air 80
BE-95 (D 95).............................................. Travelair95
B E -99.............(smFiii commuter) Airliner 99, Beech 99
B19 0 ...................(sms* cnrmnuier) Beech 1900/C-12J
B350 ..........................................................Super King Air 350
B200C (S T A R )......................... (now hrstoryt) Starship
BE-400 (B E -4 0)......... Beechjet 40077-1 Jayhawk

EVERYTHING EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 349

C h a p 1 0 — M is c e lla n e o u s , D e fin itio n s , A e r o d y n a m ic s A T riv ia
H Y P O X IA : (aim s-1 -z)
1. Insufficient oxygen.
2. SYM PTOM S Sense of well-being, euphorie, impaired judgment, increased brealhing rate,
lightheaded or dizzy, tingling or warm sensation, perspiration, reduced eyesight,
sleepiness, blue coloring of the skin, Fingernails, and lips.

H Y P E R V E N T I L A T I O N : m m s i a;
1. An excessive increase in breathing rale brought on by tension from a stressful situation in
flight, anxiety, or apprehension.
S Y M P T O M S ; Sensation of lighlheadedness, suffocation, drowsiness, tingling in the
extremities, coolness, disorientation, muscle spasms and eventual unconsciousness.
3. Sometimes mistaken for hypoxia.
4. Consciously bring the breathing rale back under control and/or breath into a paper bag.

C A R B O N M O N O X ID E : (aim
1. Odor of exhaust,
fC ^ o W
2. S Y M P TO M S : Headache, drowsiness or dizziness.

E A R B L O C K : (Aim e-i-z)
1. As |he aircraft cabin pressure decreases during CLIM B the expanding air in the
middle ear pushes the Eustachian tube open— and by escaping down the nasal
passages— equalizes with cabin pressure.
2. During O ESCENT, pilot must periodically open the Eustachian tube to equalize
pressure
3. Pressure can be equalized by sw allow ing, yaw ning— or if these do not work—
by a combination of closing the mouth, pinching the nose closed, and
ATTEM PTING to BLOW THROUGH the

A IR A M B U L A N C E F L IG H T S — “M E D E V A C ” (fo rm e rly L ife g u a rd ): |AJM 4-2-J(b>]

1. Because of the priority afforded air ambulance Flights in the ATC system, E X TR E M E discretion is
necessary when using the term ‘'M E D E V A Q ." It is only intended for those missions of an U R G E N T
medical nature and to be utilized only for that portion of the Flight requiring expeditious handling.
When requested by the pilot, necessary notification to expedite ground handling of patients, etc., is
provided by ATC; however, when possible, this information should be passed in advance through non-
ATC communications systems. NOTE: It's been said that a grandmother going in for hip replacement
(elective surgery) is not likely to warrant the "MEDEVAC" call sign unless she's unstable for some
reason. Of course I flew medical transport and organ procurement for years... IMHO most all of those
patients {and organs) looked dreadfully unstable when riding in that little Citalion,
2. Civilian air am bulance flights responding to medical emergencies (first call to an accident scene,
carrying patients, organ donors, organs, or other urgently needed lifesaving medical material) will be
expedited by ATC when necessary. When expeditious handling is necessary, add the word
“M E D E V A C " in Ltie- remarks section Of the flight plan. In radio communications, use Ihe call sign
“M E D E V A C " followed by the aircraft registration letters/numbers.
3. Similar provisions have been made For the use o f “ AIR E V A C " and “ H O S F Mby air ambulance flights,
except that these flights will receive handIira onlv when soecificallv reauesled

EXAMPLE:
"MEDEVAC Two Zero Five Charlie M ike"
4. Air carrier and Air Taxi flights responding to medical em ergencies will also be expedited by ATC
when necessary. The nature of these medical emergency flights usually concerns the transportation of
urgently needed lifesaving medical materials or vital organs, it is imperative that the company/Pi l o t
D E T E R M IN E , by the nature/urgency of the specific medical cargo, if P R IO R ITY ATC A S S IS TA N C E :s
R E Q U IR E D Pilots shall ensure that the word "MEDEVAC" is included In the remarks section oF the
flight plan and use the call sign "MEDEVAC" followed by the company name and flight number for all
transmissions when expeditious handling is required. It is important for ATC to be aware of
"MEDEVAC" status, and it is Ihe pilot's responsibility to ensure that this information is provided to ATC.
EXAMPLE.
M E D E V A C Delta Th irty-Se ven "

350 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PicfnsEtcn.il Pilot

 C h a p 10 — M is c e lla n e o u s , D e fin itio n s , A e ro d y n a m ic s A T riv ia
FO R CES A C T IN G ON AN A IR C R A F T IN F L IG H T : [f a a -H-5Q83-3. FAA-H-flQ83-S5)

□RAG
(FAA)

. ___ __ , , ._
____________. „ , . WEIGHT jGRAVItY)
PJ* T f T ~ ^ FL IG H T PATH (Irwvttablft)
A N G L E O F A T T A C K is the angle between the w ing chord and the flight path. The angle of attack is
always based on the flightpaih, not lhe ground. The angle between the chord line of the wing and the direction
of the relative w in d .
Tailing Edge

A N G L E O F IN C ID E N C E

A N G L E O F INC ID EN C E — |he angle formed by the chord line of the wing and the longitudinal axis
of the airplane {Imaginary line from the nose to the tail}. It Is determined during the design of the airplane and is
Ihe angle al which the w ing is attached to Lhe fuselage. IL is a fixed angle and cannot be changed by Ihe
pilot. Angle of incidence should not be confused with angle of attack. „

C A M B E R — (he curvature of the airfoil from (he leading edge to the trailing edge. ‘‘Upper cam ber" refers to
Ihe curvature of the upper surface: " lower cam ber" refers lo Ihe curvature of the lower surface: and “moan
camber11 refers to the mean line which is equidistant al all points between (he upper and lower surfaces.

C H O R D o r C H O R D L I N E — an imaginary straight line drawn from the leading edge to the trailing edge of a

wind for an airplane in flight flows in a direction parallel with and opposite to the direction of flight. Therefore,
(he actual fli ah loath of lhe airplane determines the direction of the relative w in d .

W IN G P LA N FO R IU I — the shame or form of a wing as viewed from above. It may be long and tapered, short
and rectangular, or various other shapes (e.g,, straight wing, sweplback wing, della wing, straight leading edge
w/tapered trailing edge, etc.).

A S P E C T R A T I O — ratio of wingspan lo wing chord {width). The primary factor In determining liftfdrag ratio.
L O N G W ING with high aspect ratio is more efficient in producing lift (gliders) with the least drag (Piper
Mendian = 10.3). SHORT W ING — low aspect ratio but cheaper to build (Cessna 182 ■ 7.4).

L D E U M A i L B A D J i — L fD — Maximum L/D alio determines the airspeed al which the most lift is
produced for the least amount of drag At this point the lea${ amount of power is required for both m axim um
lift and minimum total d ra g, This will determine max endurance, max range and best glide speed.

EVERYTHING EX P LA IN ED for H ip Professional Pilot 351

(c h a p IQ — M is c e lla n e o u s , D e fin itio n s , A e ro d y n a m ic s & T riv ia

Stall $ Stick Pusher Training

(N 8900.2Ù5, A C 120-109)
Due Fa the Calgan Air and Air France crashes
(lie FAA in tMlr infinita wisdom hai ftrmtfv
realised lhaL immediately reducing the angle j F
fltlfliJs ?d (he first indication of 3 -steli should ¿e
lha primary means of stall recovery. Emphasis
is no longer on minimal altitude less.

G R A V I T Y is (he downward force (hat tends to draw all bodies vertically toward the center of the Earth. The
airplane s center of gravity (CG) is |he point at which all weight i$ considered lo be concentrated.

C E N T E R O F G R A V IT Y is located along the longitudinal centerline of the airplane (imaginary line from the
nose to the tail) and somewhere near the center of lift of the wing. The location of the center of gravity depends
upon the location and weight of the load placed in the airplane.
The cause of lift is somewhat irrelevant,
L IF T has nothing lo do * a barn door will fly if you put a
With Bernoulli. big enough engine on it.
L IF T is created with M
" MflflEK
m\
Given enough m oney, ANCLE
ATTACK (
f\
you can L IF T just about R E L A T IV E WIND
A JV VTW N G ;' CENTER OF
PRESSURE
Lift acts upward and perpendicular to the relative wind and to the wingspan. Although lift is generated over the
entire wing, an imaginary point is established which represents the resultant of all lift forces. This single point is
the C E N T E R O F L IF T, sometimes referred to as the C E N T E R O F PR ESSUR E.

D R A G is the rearward acting force, which resists the forward m ovem ent of the airplane through the air.
□ rag acts parallel to and in the same direction as the relative w in d .

IN D U C ED DRAG is the undesirable but unavoidable byproduct of lift, and increases in direct proportion to
increases in angle of attack. The greater Ihe angle of attach (up to the critical angle), the greater the am ount
of lift developed, and the greater the induced d ra g. The airflow around the wing s deflected dow nw ard,
producing a rearward com ponent to the lift vector, which is. induced d ra g. The amount of air deflected
downward decreases greatly at higher angles of attack, therefore, the higher the angle of attack or the slower
the airplane is flow n, the greater Ihe induced d ra g. As airs pflfld IN C R E A S E S , induced drag D E C R E A S E S

E F F E C T of AIR D E N S IT Y on L IF T and DRAG:

Lift and drag vary directly with the density of the air. As air density IN C R E A S E S , lift and drag Increase and
es air density D E C R E A S E S , lift and drag decrease. Air density is affected by pressure, temperature, and
hum idity. At an altitude of 18,000 feet, (he density of the air is half the air density at sea level. Therefore, if an
airplane is lo maintain the same lift at high altitudes, the amount of air flowing over the winfl must be Lhe
same as at lower altitudes. To do this the speed of the air over the wings must be increased. This is why
an airplane requires a longer takeoff distance to become airborne at higher altitudes than with similar
conditions at lower altitudes. Because air expands when heated warm air is less dense than cool air When
other conditions remain the same, an airplane will require a longer takeoff run on a hot day than on a cool day.

Effect of A L T IT U D E . TE M P E R A TU R E , and H U M ID ITY on T A K E O F F and R A TE of C LIM B !

Because water vapor weighs less lhan an equal amount of dry air. moist air [high relative humidity) is less
dense than dry air (low relative humidity). Therefore, when other conditions remain the same, the airplane will
require a longer takeoff run on a humid day than on a d ry day. This is especially true on a hot, humid day
because the air can hold much more water vapor than on a cool d ay. The more moisture in the air, the less
dense the a ir Less dense sir also produces other performance losses beside the loss of lift Engine
horsepower (thrust) falls off and propeller or turbine blade efficiency decreases because of power loss and
propeller or turbine blades, being airfoils, are less effective when air is less dense. Since the blade is nol pulling
with the force and efficiency it would were the air dense, it fakes longer to obtain the necessary forward
speed to produce the required lift for takeoff, thus the airplane requires a longer takeoff run. The rate of climb
will also be less for the same reasons.

352 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEtou.il Pilaf

 C h a p 10 — M is c e lla n e o u s , D e fin itio n s , A e r o d y n a m ic s & T r iv ia
** ’l * A reduction nr angle of attack is
: An airmail a n stall .¡i any atlitudo or
airs-pged il Ms Critical Angle Of Attack required Lu initiale stall recovery and
is exceeded Of ccurse al vary hi-oh will likely rasull in a ''minimal Ices of
; al repaid*. Uh» vmiiuìs may dopart :lio jlliliu ln." Tho P TS does not mandiiltt
; aircralL before the stall actually occu rs. ; bow much altitude loss is acceptable as
it is affacled by many variables
Form Drag Skin Friction Drag
P A R A S I T E D R A G is the resistance of the air produced by any part of the airplane that does not produce lift..
Parasite drag can be further classified into form d ra g, akin friction, and Interferonca d ra g. As airspeed
increases — induced drag decreases and parasite drag increases.

F O R M D R A G is caused by the frontal area of the airplane com ponents being exposed to the airs b e a m . A
similar reaciion is where the side of a Flat plate is exposed lo the airsiream. This drag is caused by the form of
the plate, and is the reason streamlining is necessary to increased airplane efficiency and speed. When (he
face of the plate is parallel lo the airsiream, the largest part of the drag is skin friction.

S K IN F R I C T I O N D R A G is caused by air passing over Ihe airplane's surfaces and increases considerably
if the airplane surfaces are rough and dirty.

I N T E R F E R E N C E D R A G is caused by interference of ihe airflow between adjacent parts of the airplane such
as the intersection of wings and taM sections with the fuselage. Fairings are used to streamline these
intersections and decrease interference drag.

R e la tio n s h ip B e t w e e n A N G L E O F A T T A C K a n d L I F T :
At small angles of attack, most of the wing's Ijft is a result of the difference in pressure between the upper
and lower surfaces of the wing {Bernoulli's Principle), Additional lift is generated by the equal and opposite
reaction of the alrstream being deflected downward from the wing {Newton's Law). As the ancle of attack is
increased, the airstrEam is forced to travel faster because of the greater distance over the upper surface
of the wing, creating a greater pressure differential between the upper and lower surfaces. At the same time,
the airsiream is deflected downward at a greater angle, causing an increased opposite reaction (d ra g)
Both the increased pressure differential and increased opposite reaction increase lift and also drag, Therefore
as angle of attack is increased, lift is Increased up to the C R ITIC A L A N G L E O F A T T A C K (S T A L L ).

W h e n t h e a n g le o f a t t a c k is in c r e a s e d to a p p r o x im a t e ly 15° to 20° [c r it ic a l a n g le o f a t t a c k )
Ihe airs (ream can no longer follow (he upper curvature of Ihe wing because of the excessive change in
direction. As the critical a ngle of attack is approached, the alrstream begins separating from the rear of the
upper wing surface. As the angle of attack is further increased, the separation moves forward in ihe area of
the highest camber. This causes a swirling or burbling of the air as it attempts to follow the upper surface of the
wing. W hen the critical anole of attack is reached, the turbulent airflow, which appeared near the trailing
edge of the wing at lower angles of attack, quickly spreads forward over the entire upper w ing surface This
results in a sudden increase in pressure on the upper wing surface and a considerable loss of lift. Due to the
loss of lift and increase in form drag, the remaining lift is insufficient to support the airplane, and the wing stalls.

L O A D F A C T O R — ratio of the total air-load to gross w eight. Any force applied to deflect an aircraft from
flight in a straight line produces an additional toad on the structure. In order to maintain altitude in a tu rn, a
60°-bank will produce a load factor of 2 G 's : an SO0-bank will produce 5.76 G fs

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 353

(c h a p IQ — M is c e lla n e o u s , D e fin itio n s , A e ro d y n a m ic s & T r iv ia l

F L A P S . S L O T S . S L A T S , and B O U N D A R Y L A Y E R C O N T R O L :
(FAA-H-SQ83-3. FAA-H-&063-25. NAVW EPS M-SOT-flQ >

Basic Section

Full Flaps!

Autom atic Slot

Boundary Layer Control

by Flap A ugm entation

354 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilaf

 Chap 10 — M iscellaneous, Definitions, Aerodynam ics & Trivia
P la in F la p — A simple hinged portion of Ihe trailing edge. The effect of Ihe camber added well aft on the
chord causes a significant Increase in Cimax {w ing section maximum lift coefficient!. In addition, Ihe
zero lift angle changes to a more negative value and the drag Increases greatly

S p lit F l ap — Consists of a plate deflected from the lower surface of the section and produces a slightly
greater change in Cimaa than the plain flap. However, a m uch larger change in drag results from the
great turbulent wake produced by this type flap. The greater drag may not be such a disadvantage when if
is realized that it may be advantageous to accomplish steeper landing approaches over obstacles or
require higher power from the engine during approach (lo minimize engine acceleration time for go-
around),

S lo tte d F la p — Similar to the plain flap but the gap between the main section and flap leading edge is given
specific co n to urs. High energy air from the lower surface is ducted to the flap upper surface. The high
energy air Tnom the accelerates the u pper surface boundary layer and delays airflow separation to
some higher lift coefficient. The slotted flap can cause much greater Increases in Cim ax than the plain or
split flap and section drags are much lower.

F o w le r F la p — Similar to the slotted flap. The difference is that ihe deflected flap segment is m oved aft
along a set of tracks, which increases the chord and effects an increase in wing area. The Fowler flap is
characterized by large increases in Cimax with m inim um changes in drag.

N O TE : Aerodynam ic twisting moments caused by the flap. Positive camber produces a nose-down
twisting moment especially great when large camber is used well aft on the chord. The deflection of
a flap causes large nose-down m om ents, which create important twisting loads on Ihe structure and
pitching moments that must be controlled with the horizontal tail. Unfortunately, the flap types producing
the greatest Increases in Cimax usually cause the greatest twisting m om ents. The Fowler Flag causes
the greatest change in twisting moment while the Split Flap causes the least.

F ix e d S lo t — Conducts flow of high energy air into the boundary layer on the upper surface and delays
airflow separation lo some higher angle of attack and lift coefficient. Since the slot alone effects no
change in camber, the higher maximum lift coefficient will be obtained al a higher angle of attack, thal is. Ihe
slot simply delays stall to a higher ancle of attack.

A u t o m a tic S lo t — Consists of a leading edae segment (slaty which is free to m ove on tracks . Al L O W
angles of attack the slat is held flush against the leading edge by the high positive local pressure.
When the section is at HIGH angles of attack, the high local suction pressures al ihe leading edge create
a chordwise force forward to actuate the slat. The slot formed then allows the section to continue to a
higher angle of attack and produce a S lu m greater than thal of the basic section,

Slot* or Slats arc usually used n conjunction with flaps sncu t"u flaps provide reduction in the maximum lift
angle of attack. The use of a ¿lot has Iw£ important advantages: there is only a negligible change in the
pitching moment due to the slot and o fl significant change m sedion drag at low angles of attack In fact, the
slotted section will have less drag than the basic section near the maximum lift angle for the basic section.

B o u n d a r y L a v e r C o n tro l b y U p p e r S u rf a c e S u c t io n — Application of a suction through ports to

draw off low energy boundary layer and replace it with high velocity air from outside the boundary
layer. The effect is similar to that of a slot because the slot is essentially a boundary layer control device
ducting high energy air to the upper surface.

Boundary Layer Control by Flap Augm entation — Another method of boundary layer control is
accomplished by Injecting a high speed jet of air Into the boundary layer. This method produces
essentially the same results as the suction method and is the more practical installation. The suction type
BLC requires the installation of a separate pump while the "blown" BLC system can utilize the high-
pressure source of a jet engine compressor (B L E E D A IR 'i. The typical installation of a high pressure BLC
system would be the augmentation of a deflected flap, Since any boundary layer control lends lo increase
the angle of attack for maximum lift, it is Important to combine the boundary layer control with flaps
Since Ihe flap deflection tends to reduce the angle of attack for maxi mum lift.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 355

C hap 10 — M is c e lla n e o u s , D e fin itio n s , A e ro d y n a m ic s & T riv ia

LA M IN A R FL O W :
The flow of air over a surface in smooth layers without turbulence.

B O U N D A R Y LA Y E R :
1, The extrem ely thin laver o f air between the surface, such as an airfoil or other object, and the
surrounding free-flowing stream of air.
2, At the surface of an airfoil (or any other part of an aircraft), the air molecules are slowed to a velocity
of near zero relative to (he object due to the viscosity of (he air.
3, As you move away from the surface, the fllr gradually increases in speed until it reaches the velocity
of (he free-flowing stream of air at a given distance from (he surface.
4, The airflow In the boundary laver can be either laminar (smooth), turbulent or a comblnallon of both.
5, At the leading edge of the wing — the flow pattern is normally very smooth (laminar), and the
boundary laver is comparatively shallow . As the air continues rearward the boundary layer becomes
thicker and (he airflow more turbulent.
Ë. An abrupt change from laminar to turbulent in the flow pattern of the boundary layer causes more
drag than a gradual transition.
7. V O R TE X G E N E R A T O R S is ma 11vanes affixed to the upper wing surface) are sometimes used to
prevent this abrupt change in flow pattern and prevent the air from separating from the surface of the
wing loo early- thus decreasing d ra g. Air spilling over the generators forms swirls, or vortices that
force the high-energy air to resist separation, and stay down at_the surface o fjh e wing longer This
same pr r:ciple s Lue reason for the dimples on a golf ball and the fuzz on a tennis ball. Vortex
generators can result in reductions in stall speed and V^t: and an increase in allowable gross takeoff1

1, The combined effects of velocity, viscosity, distance from the leading edge, density, etc.; determine
whether a laminar or turbulent boundary layer exists. The effect of the most important factors is
combined in a dimensionless parameter called the "Reynolds Number" (RN). If is a dimensionless ratio,
which portrays the relative magnitude of dynamic and viscous forces in the flow.

R N * Reynolds Number (a dimensionless ratio)

V = Velocity (feel/second) K in e m a t ic v is c o s it y — the ;
x = Distance from leading edge (feet) absolute viscosity of the fluid (air) j
v - Kinematic viscosity (square feet/second) divided by its density.

R e y n o ld s N u m b e r B o u n d a r y L a y e r F lo w
Less than SOD,000 Entirely Laminar
1 Million to 5 Million Com bination Laminar & Turbulent
Greater than 10 Million Mostly Turbulent

2, LOW RNhs — A sudden shift in boundary area flow from laminar to turbulent will occur which has the
tendency to create excessive drag. Small surfaces, low flight speeds, or very high altitudes provide the
regime Of low Reynolds Numbers The golf ball operates at low RN and w ould ha y e vje ry ji ig h form
drag without dim pling. The surface roughness from dimpling disturbs the laminar boundary layer
forcing a premature transition to turbulent. The forced turbulence in the boundary layer reduces the
form drag by providing a higher energy boundary layer to reduce (he intensity of separation.
3. HIGH RN's — Airflow in the boundary area makes a gradual and controlled transition to turbulent, which
energizes the boundary area resulting in reduced drag. High RNs are obtained with large chord
surfaces, high velocities, and low altitude.

356 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the P ro fe s io n a l Pilot

 C h a p 10 — M is c e lla n e o u s , D e fin itio n s , A e ro d y n a m ic s & T riv ia

ADVERSE vs. PROVERSE YA W :

(FAA-H-aaea-a, FAA-H-B0B3-15, FAA-H-B0B3-25. Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators)
1. An airplane rolled into a turn produces yawing moments, which require rudder deflection to maintain
zero sideslip, that is, coordinate the turn. W hen the airplane is subject to a rell to the left, the
DOW N-going wing win experience a new relative wind and an increase in angle of attack. The
inclination of the lift vector produces a component force FORW ARD on the DOW N-ooino w ing. The
UP-aoing wing has its lift inclined with a component force A FT. The resulting yawing moment due to
rolling motion is in a direction OPPOSITE to the ROLL and is hence "ADVERSE yaw ." The yaw due to
roll is primarily a function of the wing lift coefficient and is greatest at high coefficients of lift.
2. In addition to the yaw due to rolling motion there will be a yawing moment contribution due to control
surface deflection. Conventional AILERO NS usually contribute an “ ADVERSE yaw " while SPOILERS
may contribute a favorable or " PROVERSE y a w ." The high wing airplane with a large vertical tail may
encounter an influence from inboard ailerons. Such a configuration may induce flow directions at the
vertical tail to cause preverse yaw,
IncrsasDd lifl

D U T C H R O LL — a coupled oscillation in roll and yaw that becomes objectionable when roll, or lateral
stability is reduced in comparison with yaw or directional stability. A stability augmentation system f‘ vaw
dam per") is required to be installed on the aircraft to dampen the Dutch roll tendency when it is
determined to be objectionable, or when it adversely affects the control stability requirements for
certification. Swept wing jet aircraft are especially prone to senous Dutch roll and therefore are almost
always equipped with a "yaw dam per ” (This dalimLion is pertaining 1a swept wing aircraft and is 1aken From AO 61-107A
— "Opafalions of Aircraft ad Altitudes Above 25.000 Feet..,") (N O T E — Other definitions appear In FAA-H-8Q83-3, FAArH-80B3-Z5.
AC 23-9B. AC 2 5 -M .a n d Aerodynamics for Naval AviaLoTS. ‘'A combination of rolling and yawing oscillations that normally
occurs when the dihedral effects of an aircraft are mors powerful than the directional stability. Usually dynamically stable but
objectionable In an airplane becam e of the oscillatory nature.";

Y A W PAM PER - a gyro operated stability augmentation autocontrol system installed to provide
rudder input and aid in canceling out yaw tendencies such as those in “ Dutch roll." Basically an autopilot
for the rudder that automatically cancels out the yaw so you can keep your feet on the floor. Be sure to turn
it off before landing... especially a crosswind landing!

T RIM T A B S :
1. CONTROL TAB — used on some transport aircraft as a "manual reversion" backup lo flight controls
Ihat are normally operated hydraulically. Manual reversion unlocks the tabs allowing the pilot to
operate the tabs by moving the control wheel and thereby causing the flight controls to move
2. ELEVATORJTRIMJTAB — normally used to balance the elevator load to reduce Or eliminate control
pressures. Elevator (rim remains fixed for all positions when the flight controls are moved.
3. SERVO TAB — moves in the opposite direction from the primary control surface lo reduce the
control force that needs to be provided by the pilot in order to move a primary control surface. The
servo lab reduces control forces by deflecting in the proper direction to help move the primary surface.
4. ANTI-SERVO T A B — moves in the same direction as the prim ary control surface in order to
increase required control force pressure. It also acts to prevent the control surface from moving to
full deflection.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 357

j Chap_JiQ ^ ^ l2 is c e N a n e £ u s ;J > e fln ltio n £ i ^ e ^ ________________________________

S E R V IC E C E IL IN G — aka — A L L -E N G IN E S E R V IC E C E IL IN G - W i t h ALL ENGINES

RUNNING, it is the maximum density altitude the aircraft can maintain a 100 fpm rate of climb at near
gross weight and standard temperature.

S IN G L E -E N G IN E S E R V IC E C E IL IN G — aka — E N G IN E -O U T S E R V IC E C E ILIN G
The maximum density altitude the aircraft can maintain a 50 fpm climb with only cne engine operating.
Found In the Pilot's Operating Handbook or approved Aircraft Flight Manual.

C E R T IF IE D C E IL IN G — aka — M AX IM U M C E R T IF IE D C E IL IN G or M AXIM UM
C E R T IF IE D A L T IT U D E — Some turbine-powered and a few turbocharged piston-powered aircraft
flight manuals restrict operations above a certain altitude even though the actual service ceiling might be
above that altitude.

A B S O L U T E C E IL IN G — The maximum height (density altitude) above sea level at which an aircraft
can maintain level flight under standard atmospheric conditions with all engines running. There is no
excess of power or thrust, the airplane produces zero rate of climb and only onejjie&d_will allow steady
level flig h t. V K and V T become the same V* decreases with altitude, V* increases with altitude. When V*
and V v merge, the aircraft has reached its absolute altitude and will no longer climb. A ‘ zero" rate-of-climb
occurs at the airplane's absolute celling — V*. V y, V u n , and V^ ax are all the same speed at this point.

S IN G L E -E N G IN E A B S O L U T E C E ILING — The density altitude lhe aircraft can maintain with lhe
critical engine feathered and the other engine at maximum power.

DRI_FTDOWN fAlso See Page 15S1:

1. If an engine fails at an altitude above the single-engine absolute celling, the aircraft will descend.
2. To minimize sink rate, maintain the single-engine best rate of climb speed ( V y $ e ).

F A S T E S T a n d H IG H E S T F L Y I N G A I R C R A F T — I n t e r e s t i n g H isto ry :
The rockel powered X -1 5 achieved a speed of 3,940 knots in 1 967. In 2004, Space Ship One became lhe
first private manned spacecraft to exceed an altitude of greater than 323,000 feet twice in 14 days, thus
claiming the ten million dollar Ansan X-Prize. It also broke the 1963 the X-15 altitude record (67 miles) by
reaching €9.6 miles above the Earth's surface. At press time SpaceShipTw o was preparing for operations
that will carry 6 passengers and 2 crewmembers at 2,260 knots to an altitude of approximately 68 m iles.
Designer Burt Rutan remarked that it will be ‘at least as safe as a 1920s airliner." Time to buy a ticket?
An 5R-71 Wlffh a lop speed of 1,905 kts (M ach 3.3) is faster
than a 30.96 b a lle t which leaves the- m uzzle at 1,71 & kts.

C O N T R A IL S :
1 Contrails are ice crystal clouds formed by wa.terjvaAor and ii>i_cnp_s_c_ojjLc^ariicles emitted from (he
high temperature exhaust of jet (or large piston) engines usually in c o ld , m oist air.
2. Most of the contrails you see are caused by jet engines, but if the airplane you normally fly everyday is a
B-f 7 or B-29 — and you do it at high altitude — you’ll have the same problem.
3. High altitude c o ld , hum l d alr is the most likely place for lhe formation of contrails. Under these
conditions the energy and water vapor added to the atmosphere is enough to saturate the air.
condensing out to form lhe icE crystal cloud . This scenario can produce super long contrails that
could last for several hours
4. In warmer, drier air the contrail may not form at all, or may form just briefly and only last a few minutes.

358 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the PicfnsEtcn.il Pilaf

 C hap 10 — M is c e lla n e o u s , D e fin itio n s , A e ro d y n a m ic s & T riv ia .

P IL O T IN C O M M A N D in*
Means Ihe person who:
(1 ) Has final authority and responsibility for the operation and safety of the flight,
(2) Has been designated as pilot In com m and before or during the flight; and
{3} Holds the appropriate category, class, and type rating, If appropriate, for Ihe conduct of Ihe flight

P IL O T IN C O M M A N D S E A T I N G P O S IT IO N :
1 . a i r p l a n e s — The PIC normally siis on the L E F T — Evolved from the mariUme rule that slates
vessels approaching head-on must pass to (he right of each other. Sitting on the left provided the best
view when passing at close qcarters such as In a harbor. It is curious that most all present-day pleasure
boats seat the driver on the right.
2. H E L I C O P T E R S - The PIC normally sits on the R IG H T — The first successful helicopters (developed
by Igor Sikorsky) had a single “collective* / throttle control located between the two pilots. Both pilots
were provided a control stick ("cyclic1 Since It was more desirable to operate
ihe slick with the right hand and the collective with the left hand, the PIC
would normally sit on the right. Most modern helicopters have a collective
installed on the left side of both pilot seals, but the custom
continues. Many manufacturers also place slightly more fuel on
the left side of the helicopter to help balance the load when the
pilot is the only one on board.

A C T I V E P I L O T S in t h e UN ITED S T A T E S : (faaj
1. Approximately 627.566 total certificated pilots in the U.S
(The most current FAA data available at press time)
Approximate breakdown:
■ * 119,119 Student Pi lots According to the FAA the
■ * 3,682 Sport Pilots average age uf pilots as a
-*■ 212 Recreational Pilots whole is 45.6 years. The
202,020 Private Pilots (airplane) average age of snort pilot
■4 123,705 Commercial Pilots (airplane) holders was 52.9 years.
- * 96.47 3 F light I nsiruc tors
142,196 Airline Transport Pilots (airplane)
36,652 "Other'' includes helicopter (only) and glider (only)
2. The number of active pilots peaked at 820.000 in 1980
3. As a rule of thumb approximately 20% of all pilots are actually employed as full-time pilots (124,800).

E N G L IS H - Th e U N IV E R SA L L A N G UAGE:
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), Annex 10 (Aeronautical Telecommunications)
Chapter 5.2.1.1.2 — "... pending the development and adoption of a more suitable form of speech for
universal use in aeronautical radiotelephony communications, the English language should be used as such
and should be available at all stations on the ground serving designated airports and routes used by
international air services."

W IL C O : (P/C Glossary)
I have received your message, understand it, and will comply with it.

T A N G O : (AIM 4-2-4)
Air Taxi or other commercial operators not having FAA authorized call signs should prefix their normal
identification with the phonetic word “Ta n g o ."

F L IG H T C H E C K : (PIC Glossary)
A call-sign prefix used by FAA aircraft engaged in flight inspection/certif¡cation of navigational aids and flight
procedures. The word '’recorded" may be added as a suffix: e.g.. ‘Flight Check 320 recorded" to indicate
that an automated flight inspection is in progress in terminal areas.

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M A N IF O L D P R E S S U R E a n d t h e C O N S T A N T S P E E D P R O P E L L E R : a i)
1. The Manifold Pressure Gauge measures the absolute pressure existing in ihe
intake manifold of an engine. It is a simple aneroid barometer and is
actually used as a combination suction and/or pressure gauge. It
measures the vacuum (or pressure) of the alr/fuel mixture in the intake
manifold that is being sucked — or... in the case of a turbocharged
engine — sucked and pushed into the cylinders when an intake valve is
open and the piston is on a down stroke (IjS., suck stroke — as
associated with (he suck, squeeze, bang and blow concept). It is an
indication of the performance that can be expected from the engine.
2. When the engine is NO T RUNNING — the gauge records the existing
atmospheric pressure in Inches Of mercury (usually about 30").
3. When the engine is RUNNING — the reading obtained on the manifold pressure
gauge depends on the engine's RPM and the power being produced al a given propeller pitch angle.
4. A HIGHER than normal m anifold PRESSURE at ID LE, is a good indication of an induction leak or an
otherwise sick engine. At least one cylinder may be defective (cracked) and that cylinder will certainly
be running extremely lean. Upon noticing this discrepancy the appropriate response should be to —
shut down the engine; go back Into the FBG: and ask this question — '‘do v'alJ have a M EC HANIC?”
5. The manifold pressure of an engine thal Is MOT supercharged or turbocharged can never be higher
than the pressure of the surrounding air, however SUPERCHARG ING or TURBO CHARG ING can
increase the manifold pressure to well above that of the atmosphere.
6. The Manifold Pressure Gauge contains an aneroid diaphragm and a linkage for transmitting (he motion
of ihe diaphragm to the pointer. The pressure existing in the intake manifold enters the sealed chamber
of the diaphragm through a dam ping lube (a short length of ea&illarv tubing). This damping tube acts
as a safety valve to prevent damage to the instrument from an engine backfire. The sudden surge of
^ ^ ^ m s s u r ^ a u s e ^ ^ ^ a c k f ir ^ ^ o n s id e r a b l^ e d u c e ^ ^ h ^ e s ^ r ic t e ^ a £ iN a r ^ u b in ^ ^ ^ _
7. Within a given power setting, when using a CONSTANT-SPEED PRO PELLER, the pilot can
set the propeller control to a given RPM and Ihe propeller governor will automatically change
(he pitch (blade angle) to counteract any tendency for the engine to vary from this RPM.
For example, if the manifold pressure (i.e.. engine PO W ER ) is INCR EASED, the propeller
GOVERNOR automatically INCREASES Ihe PITCH of Lhe blade (more propeller drag) to
maintain Ihe same R P M .
S A CONTROLLABLE-PITCH PRO PELLER permits the pilot to select the blade angle thal will
resull in Ihe mosi efficient performance for a particular flight condition:
a. For TAKEOFF or CLIM B, a low blade angle or decreased pitch, reduces the
propeller drag and allows more engine power (think low gear — increased RPM).
b. For CRUISE flight, the propeller blade Is changed (o a higher angle or Increased
pitch. Consequently, lhe blade takes a larger bite of air at a lower power setting,
and therefore increases efficiency. 1his process is similar to shifting gears in an
automobile from low gear to h igh gear {decreased RPM).
9. For any given RPM there is a manifold pressure that should not be exceeded.
If manifold pressure is excessive for a given RPM . the maximum allowable
pressure within Ihe cylinders could be exceeded thus placing undue stress
on them. If repeated loo frequently, this stress could weaken the cylinder
Components and eventually cause engine failure.
10. The COMBINATION to AVOID Is a high m anifold pressure indication and a low R P M .
11. When the POW ER setting needs to be DECREASED — reduce manifold pressure before
reducing RPM . If RPM Is reduced before manifold pressure, the manifold pressure will
automatically increase and possibly exceed the manufacturer's tolerances.
12. When the POW ER setting needs to be jNCREASEO — Increase RPM FIRST — shift to "low
gear"— and then increase the manifold pressure. If lhe manifold pressure Is Increased before
increasing RPM, il is possible lo “oyerboost" (he engine by exceeding the maximum
allowable pressure within the cylinders.
13. In most cases, especially with turbocharged or radial engines. It is always preferable to keep
(he MANIFOLD PRESSURE value at least slightly HIGHER THAN lhe first two numbers of
the RPM [called keeping the power above “SQ UAR E” ) until va ry short final during the landing
approach. This avoids ''supercooling" of the cylinders or the possibility of the " propeller
driving the engine'' (instead of the engine driving the propeller), either of which could be
extremely DETRIM ENTAL to ENGINE LIFE
360 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the PiofnsEton.il Pilot
 Chap 10 — M iscellaneous, Definitions, Aerodynam ics & Trivia
S U P E R C H A R G E D E N G IN E :
1. A supercharger uses a system of gears to mechanically com press the ajr supplied to the intake
manifold.
2. This increase in air pressure allows (he burning of more fuel, which in turn results in more available
power as air density decreases with altitude (or temperalure). Superchargers can supply sea level
horsepower well above 10,000 feet.
3. Superchargers are a somewhat older design that sometimes incorporates dual speed 'lo w blow er" and
‘Lhigh blower" mechanisms,

T U R B O C H A R G E D E N G IN E S
1. A turbocharger uses exhaust oases passing over a turbine wheel lo com press the air supplied to the
intake manifold,
2. This increase in air pressure allows (he burning of more fuel, which in turn results in more available
power as air density decreases with altitude (Or temperalure). Turbochargers can supply Sea level
horsepower well above 10,000 feet.
3. Turbocharged engines usually are equipped with a manual or automatic “waste gate1’ which limits ihe
amount of available pressure to prevent overboos tine and therefore damage to the engine.

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HORSEPOW ER: Electrical Watts ;
One horsepower equals the amount of work required to lift.
-*■ 550 pounds one foot per second; or... W atts = volts x amps
+ 275 pounds two feel per second; or... « * * « -■■■■■■ x iin a W
-*■ 1,100 pounds one foot in two seconds.
If you multiply by 60 you pel (he amount of work done in one minute.
33,000 foot-pounds = 1 Horse P o w er = .7457 Kilow atts = 745.7 W atts

per
sec

550
Lbs
W A T T A G E v s - K I L O W A T T S v s - H O R S E P O W ER:
1. Horsepower and Walls measure ihe same thing (lhanks to our pood ol’ buddy James W all).
2. Light bulb watiage tells you how much work is required ic liphl the bulb for one hour.
3. 1000 watts = 1 kilowalt - 1.341 horsepower.
4. Many countries use kilowatts to rate engine power...
So a 100 horsepower engine would produce about 74.7 kilowatts (1 0 0 + 1.341}.
5. One horsepower could keep len 75-watt light bulbs lit for about an hour (1000 + 1.341 = 747 watts}

P O W E R a n d W EIG H T: (AC6S-12A — Airframs and Powerplanl Mechanic'E RdwerpJanl Handbook)

1. The useful output of all aircraft powerplanls is thrust, the force which propels the aircraft. Since the
reciprocating engine is rated in bhp [brake horsepower} and the gas lurhine engine is rated in pounds of
thrust, no direct comparison can be made. However, since the reciprocating engmefpropeller
combination receives its thrust from the propeller, a comparison can be made by converting the
horsepower developed by the reciprocating engine to thrust.
2. If desired, the thrust of a gas turbine engine can be converted into thp [thrust horsepower}. But it is
necessary to consider the speed of the aircraft. This conversion can be accomplished by using the
formula;

thp = thrust x aircraft speed (m ph) 1 375 m ile-pounds per hour

The value 375 mile-pounds per hour is derived from the basic horsepower formula as follows;

1 hp = 33,000 ft-lb per minute.

33.000 x 60 = 1,930,000 ff-Jb par hour.
1.930.000 I 5,260 = 375 m ile-pounds per hour.

One horsepower equals 33,000 ft-lb per minute or 375 mile-pounds per hour. Under static conditions, thrust is
Figured as equivalent to approximately 2.6 pounds per hour. If a gas lurbine is producing 4,000 pounds of thrust
and the aircraft in which the engine is installed is traveling at 500 mph, the thp will be;

{4000 X 500) I 375 = 5,333.33 thp

362 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the PiofnsEton.il Pilaf

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B R A K E HORSEPO W ER:
The actual horsepower of a PISTON engine, measured by a brake attached to the driveshaft and
recorded on a dynam omete r

SH A FT HO RSEPO W ER;
The actual horsepower of a TURBINE en g ine, measured on the power turbine shaft, normally mounted at
the rear of the engine.

A N O TH ER t TO R Q U E
H O R S EP O W ER FO R M U LA
Torque = Force x Distance
Torque x RPM «
H P --------- S2SÔ----------- ;

T IM E IN S E R V IC E : (i i)
With respect to m aintenance time records, means the tim e from the moment an aircraft leaves the
surface of the earth until It touches it at the next point o f landing (aka “airtim e'").

P M A — P a rts M a n u fa ctu re r A p p ro v a l:
Part 21 approval, granted by the FAA, which allows a person or company to manufacture a replacement
part or modification with the intent to sell for Installation on a type-cerllficated aircraft.

F A A 3 3 7 Form — M a jo r R epair_and A lte ra tio n :

(FAA-H-B0B3-1, FAA-H-B083-16. FAA-H-0083-19, AC 00-2.1 3, A C 21-40, AC 43-9C. AC 43-16A, A C 43.'9-lE)
Rules Of Thumb —
t. If an item is hardwired into (he electrical system — a 337 form :s required
2. If a tool is used to mount an item — a 337 form is required.
3. If an item is plugged into the cigarette lighter — a 337 form is uof required
4. If an item is attached to the airplane with a simple clam p or Velcro — a 337 form Is no t required.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 363

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T B O — T im e B e tween O ve rh au ls: utmost), 135411 135.421 135,425 ac 2mo]

1. For Part 91 operations — Time Between Overhauls is a R E C O M M E N D E D time (for reciprocating
engines) that can be exceeded as long as a mechanic with 'Inspection Authorization" (an '’lA'1) has
inspected the engine — during its normal annual or in some cases 100-hour inspection — and approves
it to be returned to service, However it is not legal lo fly even a low-time engine If It does nol pass this
inspection. NOTE: Insurance requirements sometimes have a large bearing on whether or not the
airplane may be operated with an engine beyond ‘ normal" TBO.
2. TBO recommendations also have a calendar lim it in addition lo the flight hour's limit. After a certain
number of months the engine is recommended for overhaul no matter how many flight hours have been
flown. Usually determined by dividing the TBO flight time by 40 hours a month. So a 1,600-hour TBO
will be 1.300 flight hours — O R — three years and nine m onths, whatever comes First.
3. For Part 135 operations — Engines must be maintained under an FAA approved plan that normally
calls tor overhaul at the m anufacturers recom m ended TBO 1135.421 ) — the FAA may also allow an
extension based on that specific operator's experience with the engine type end the engine shows little
wear during inspection at recommended TBO — in some circumstances the FAA may approve an “on
condition” overhaul, meaning the engine must be overhauled when it shows signs of wear.
4. For Turbine Engines — TBO (or replacement of life-limited engine components) is a R E Q U I R E M E N T .
not a recommendation, w hether it is operated under Part 91. 135 or 121. Certain highly stressed
components have “ hard tim e” life-limits and MUST be replaced or overhauled when that limit is
reached. ‘ Hard times' can he expressed in terms of Flight hours or cycles. The manufacturer
establishes the definition of a "cycle" during the type-certification process. Typically a cycle Includes
an engine start, acceleration to some high power setting (usually lakeoFf power), and then a shutdown.
Under this definition, multiple takeoffs and landings could be made, and only one cycle would occur.
Engine cycles (or hours) are counted for engine life-limited parts, landings are usually only counted for
airframe life-limits, It all depends on the manufacturer's definition of "cycle,"
5. “ Life-lim ited” components have life-limits determined by the manufacturer and approved by the FAA.
Those life-limits cannot be exceeded (except when an alieretion is made by the manufacturer and the
FAA gives its approval).
6. Inspection and overhaul intervals are defined in the m aintenance program selected by the operator
of the aircraft. It can be the manufacturer's program, or a program developed by the operator and
approved by the FAA (e.g. Approved Aircraft Inspection Program). Life-limited item intervals will alw ays
be as per the limits defined in the manufacturer's type certificate as approved by the FAA. However,
engine total overhaul times may be extended with enough in-service reliability data collected by the
operator (or by another operator). Typically, a small operator will have to rely on the holder of an STC
(Supplemental Iy p e Certificate) for TBO modification. The operator pays the holder of the STC for the
use of the data and must comply with specific trend monitoring and dale analysis — and of course the
FAA must grant approval. A well-known example is the "MORE” program for Pratt 5. Whitney engines.
7. The FAA may also approve a TBO Extension if there is a scheduling problem with the maintenance
facility that is lo perform the overhaul. Again, data from (rend monitoring will be required and (lie
manufacturer may have to concur before approval can be granted.
6, For Part 135 or 121 operations, the FAA approves an overhaul and maintenance plan for each
operalor. Praclically all airlines have some kind of approval to maintain their engines “on condition."
but for certain components, "hard lime" life limits are strictly enforced.

S T C — S up p le m e n ta l T y pe C ertificate: 1 2 1 1 9 . 2 1 .3 3 . 2 1 . 113 , A C 2 M 0 . f a a Form 0 1 1 0 - 1 2 )

1, The Supplemental Type Certificate is issued For major design changes to type certificated products
when the change is not so extensive as lo require a new Type Certificate. An example would be
installation oF a powerplanl different from what was included in the original type certificate.
2, An FAA certificate attesting to the fact that modifications to the respective aircraft, engines, or ether
components meet airworthiness requirements of the FAR.*12

T S O — T e c h n ic a l S ta n d a rd O r d e r : (21.601 IhfU 21,621. AC 20-1I X )

1. An approval by the FAA for the manufacture of a component for installation on a certificated aircraft.
2. A le c h nice I Standard Qrder is issued by the Administrator and is a minimum performance standard for
specified materials, parts, processes, and appliances used on civil aircraft.

364 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PicfnsEton.il Pilaf

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P R E V E H T I V E M A I N T E N A N C E : («xA.e - Append,, a b> p»n 43)
Preventive maintenance is limited to the following work, provided it does not involve complex
1. Removal, installation, and repair of landing gear tires
2. Replacing elastic shock absorber cords on landing gear.
3. S e rvicin g la n d in g near sh o ck s tru ts by adding o jj. air. or both.
4 Servicing landing gear wheel bearings such as cleaning and greasing
5. Replaerng defeetive safety wiring or cotter keys.
6. Lubrication not requiring disassembly other than removal of non structural
items such as cover plates, cowlings, and fairings.
7. Making simple fabric patches not requiring nb stitching or the removal of
structural parts or control surfaces. In the case of balloons, Ihe making of
small fabric repairs to envelopes (as defined in, and in accordance with,
the balloon manufacturers' instructions} not requiring load tape repair or
replacement.
a. Replenishing hydraulic fluid in the hydraulic reservoir.
9. Refini5hing decorative coating of fuselage, balloon baskets, wings, tail group
surfaces (excluding balanced control surfaces), fairings, cowlings, landing gear,
cabin, or cockpit interior when removal or disassembly of any primary structure or
operating system is not required.
10. Applying preservative or protective material to components where no
disassembly of any pnmary structure or operating system is involved and where
such coating is not prohibited or is not contrary to good practices,
11. Repamng upholstery and decorative furnishings of the Cabin, cockpit, or
balloon basket intenor when the repairing does nat require disassembly of any
primary structure or operating system or interfere with an operating system or
affect, the primary structure of the aircraft.
12. Making small simple repairs to fairings, nonstructural cover plates, cowlings, and
small patches and reinforcements not changing the contour so as to interfere with proper airflow.
13. Replacing side? windows where that work does not interfere with the structure or any operating system such
as controls, electrical equipment, etc.
14. Replacing safety belts
15. Replacing seats or seat parts with replacement parts approved for the aircraft, not involving disassembly of
any primary structure or operating system.
16. Trouble shooting and repairing broken circuits in landing light wiring circuits
17. Repl aerng bulbs, reflectors, and lenses of position and landing lights.
16. Replacing wheels and skis where no weight and balance computation is involved.
19. Replacing any cowling not requiring removal of the propeller Or disconnection of flight controls.
20. Replacmg or cleaning spark plugs and setting of spark plug gap clearance.
21. Replacing any hose connection except hydraulic connections.
22. Replacing prefabricated fuel lines
23. Cleaning or replacing fuel and oil strainers or fitter elements
24. Repl aerng and servicing batteries.
25. Cleaning of balloon burner Pilot and main nozzles in accordance with Ihe balloon manufacturer's
Instructions.
26. Replacement or adjustment of nonstructural standard fasteners incidental to operations.
27. The interchange ol balloon baskets and burners on envelopes when the basket or burner is designated as
interchangeable rn the balloon type certificate data and the baskets and burners are specifically designed for
quick removal and installation,
28. The installation of antimrsfuelinq devices to reduce the diameter of fuel tank filler openings provided the
specific device has been made a part of the aircraft type certificate data by the aircraft manufacturer, the
aircraft manufacturer has provided FAA approved instructions for installation of the specific device, and
installation does not involve the disassembly of the existing tank filler opening.
29. Removing, checking, and replacing magnetic chip detectors

A non-m echanic ownerfooerator. Who perform s

pr&yentiy&_m3intef\3nce on his aircraft, mustjojg (he
work in the aircraft maintenance records and include the
date, his bib nature and pilot certificate num ber. (43.91

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O IL: (AC S5-12A.AC 65-15A>
1. M IN E R A L O IL — Also known as non-detergent oil because it contains no additives. Normally used
in a new or over-hauled engine for break-in.
2. A S H L E S S D IS P E R S A N T — Mineral oil with additives that give it high anti­
wear properties and is available in multi^viscositv formulas. Ashless dispersant
oil picks up contamination and carbon (ash) particles and keeps them
EU5 pended so buildups Of sludge do not form .
3 V IS C O S IT Y : ife / V O ff/ J G
a. V iscosity is internal resistance to flo w . A liquid such as oasollne flows
easily (has a low visco sity] while a liquid such as tar flows slow ly (has a high
vis c o sityv V isco sity increases as tem perature decreases.
Generally, oils of lower visco sity are used in colder weather and oils of higher
visco sity are used in warmer w eather.
C. Commercial aviation oils are classified numerically, such as 80, 100, 120, etc.,
which are an approximation of their viscosity as measured by a testing instrument called the
Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter, In this instrument a tube holds a specific quantity of the oil to be
tested. The oil Is brought to an exact temperature by a liquid bath surrounding the tube. The time in
seconds required for exOCUy 60 cubic centimeters (about 2 oun ce s! of £][ to flow through the
accurately calibrated orifice is recorded as a measure of the oil's viscosity.
d. 120 (Commercial Aviation no.) = The approximate number of seconds it takes for exactly 60cc of
oil {heated to 210°R to flow through the outlet orifice of the Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter.
The letter "W " occasionally is included in the SAE number giving a designation such as SAE 20W.
This letter "W " Indicates that the oil. in addition to meeting the visco sity reguirem ents at the
testing temperature specifications, is a satisfactory oil fo r w inter use in cold climates
Although each grade of oil Is rated by an SAE number (Society of Automotive Engineers),
depending on its specific use, it may be rated with a co m mercial aviation grade number or an
Army and N a w specification number. The oorreiaiion between these grade numbering systems
is shown below. HFATING 'UNIT
ThFRHOMFTfft

Saybolt Universal V isco sim e te n

G ra d in g S y s te m C o rre la tio n
A u to m o tiv e A rm y & N avy
C o m m e rcia l
E q u iva le n t S p e c if ic a t io n
A v ia tio n No,
(S A E ) (A N )
65 30 1065
30 40 1080
100 50 1100
120 60 1120
140 70

RESERVOIR

Piston Engine S M O K E :
1 BLUE Smoke — Oil burn in the cylinders most likely due to worn or broken piston rings.
2, BLACK Smoke — Resi dual carbon granu le s ex hauslrng d ue to an excess ¡ve Iy nc h m ixture ca usi rig
some of the fuel to not be burnt, turning it into carbon granules.
3. WHITE SmokQ — High water content in the combustion chamber exhausted as ~sleam" smoke.

B A C K F IR IN G of a reciprocating engine is caused when the fuel-air m ixture in the induction system is
ignited by gases that are still burning in a cylinder when its intake valve opens. This is usually an
indication of a mixture that is too lean, which can be caused by any number of reasons.

366 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

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C L E A R W A Y : (i.i,AN4-a-i)
1. For turbine engine powered airplanes certificated after A ugust 29,1959. an area beyond the
ru n w ay, not less than 500 feet w id e , centrally located about the extended centerline of the runway,
and under Lne control of die airport auth oritie s. Tne c earway is expressed in terms o'" a clea1way-
plane. extending from the end of the runway with an upward slope not exceeding 1,25%. above which
no object nor any terrain protrudes. However, threshold lights may protrude above the plane if their
height above the end of the runway is 26 inches or less and if they are located to each side of the
runway.
2. For turbine engine powered airplanes certificated after September 30. 1953. but before August 30.
1959. an area beyond the takeoff runway extending no less than 300 feet on either side o f the
extended centerline of the runway, at an elevation no higher than the elevation o f the end of the
runw ay, clear of all fixed obstacles, and cmder the
control of the airport authorities I---------5 5 arwayf
[Siopwoy
I
S TO P W A Y : (i.i, aim 44-6} LDA J
-> — ........
I ■
Means an area beyond the takeoff runw ay, no less wide
than the runway .and centered upon the extended ---------------
centerline of the runway able to su p p o jp the airplane ------------------ TODA — ►!
during an aborted ta ke o ff, w ith o u t causing structural damage to the airplane, and designated by the
airport authorities fo r use in decelerating the airplane during an aborted takeoff.

F L IG H T V IS IB IL IT Y : n . i , 9 1.155. 91.157, 91.17 5 , 91.303, 135.205. aim 4-*-s . 5-4- 5, 5- 1-20, 5-4 -24. 5-5-31
1. The average forward horizontal distance, from the cockpil in_flight, at which prominent unlighted objects may
be seen and identified by day and prominent lighted objects may be seen and identified by night.
2. For the purposes of Special VFR (only) during operations from a S A TE LLITE AIRPO RT that does not
have weather reporting — If ground visibility is not reported, 1 5M flig h t v isib ility may be used. For the
purposes of Special VFR (only), flight visibility includes the v is ib ility from the cockpit of an aircraft in
takeoff p o sitio n , operating under Part 91, at a satellite airport that does not have weather re p o rtino
capabilities.

V IS IB IL IT Y a n d t h e E a r th ’ s H O R IZ O N :
1. At sea level on a clear day you can see about 3 SM before the horizon curves away.
2. At 5,003 feet AGL on a dear day you can see about 95 miles.

RUNW A Y RADAR R EFLEC TO R S:

Positioned at the approach ends of specilic (mostly military) runways. Reflectors are used for
runway alignment utilizing the aircraft's targeting or ground m apping radar. The reflectors help
h ig h lig h t (he runway edges as displayed on the radar’s scope. The symbol resembles a triangle
balanced on top of another triangle. One of the few examples found on civilian approach charts is at
Washington Dulles (IAD) runway 30.

C A M P — C o n tin u o u s A ir w o r t h in e s s M a in te n a n c e P ro g ra m :
(43J&, 43.11. 91.401, 91.409, 91.1411, 121.374, 121.379, 145.205)
A method of tracking maintenance that allows for continuous analysis, inspection and
surveillance of all aircraft repairs and preventative maintenance. The continuous
airworthiness maintenance program must be sufficiently comprehensive in scope and
detail to fulfill its responsibility to maintain the aircraft in an airworthy condition In
accordance with applicable Federal Aviation Regulations and standards prescribed and
approved by the Administrator. The program must be included in the certificate holder's
manual.

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N otice of Proposed R ule Makihg — N P R M » (CFKUPami.s)

1. There are three main ways a new regulation comes about or an existing one changes.
a. The FAA determines there is a need for a rule change, often because of an accident or a series
of accidenis/incidenis,
t>. A company, association or even an individual private citizen petitions the FAA for a rule change.
c. The Aviation Rulemaking Advisory Council [ARAC) suggests a change.
2. After considerable deliberation, the FAA publishes a "Motice of Proposed Rule Making" (NPRM) in the
Federal Register, available on the web at w w w . g p o a c c e 5 s . g o v f f r f i n d e K . h t m l or in book form by
subscription. The Federal Register contains all proposed rule changes for the FAA and the entire
Federal Government.
3. A Notice of Proposed Rule Making is a ‘' public notice" of proposed new rules and is an invitation for
individuals or associations (such as ALPA, AOPA or EAA) to enter comments on how the rule would
impact aviation.
4. Customarily, the NPRM allows the public (o review the proposal for 30, 60 or 90 day$ and s^n d written
comments to the FAA,
5. At the end of the time period, the FAA analyzes the remarks it has received. They must address every
subject of concern especially if a safety issue is brought to light or there is a significant difference In ihe
projected cost to the aviation community than what the FAA has estimated. The Feds don't really care
how many people like or dislike the new rule.
6. If the agency can address all ihe comments in a reasonable fashion — a “final rule" Is published.
7. If the FAA has to make a major change to ihe proposal because of problems uncovered during the
feedback process, it will have to be published again as a new proposal.

SHADO W S
can be a good way of gauging distance from other aircraft while taxiing or parking on a light
ramp. If Ihe shadows don’t touch, then neither can the winotios [theoretically!!. Another good policy is
to look (briefly) for vour shadow while in the traffic pattern at an uncontrolled Field. If there’s another
shadow that's dose lo yours, it might be time to lake a little evasive action!

MOUNTAINS on sectional charts are shaded to appear as though the sun is positioned in the northwest.
NOAA has slated that Iheix studies have shown most people's visual perception has been conditioned to
this view, You will also notice lhat ail shaded text boxes in this book appear as though the light is coming
from the northwest. This is quite a coincidence don't ya think?

E M P IR E S T A T E B U IL D IN G was originally designed with a lower on top intended for use as a

mooring mast for transatlantic airships (what a great idea). After several unsuccessful docking attempts, in
the gusty winds above 1,300 feel, the plan was scrapped (fortunately, before they scraped an airship).

368 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fit stanai Pilot

 C h a p 10 — M is c e lla n e o u s , D e fin itio n s , A e ro d y n a m ic s & T riv ia

CH ARTS: si.soaj
1. The FAA believes all pilots should use currant charts even If the regulations
do not expressly require them for certain operations.
2. § 91.103 does say, "...each pilot in command shall, before beginning a flight,
become fam ilia r w ith all available Inform ation concerning that flight,.."
However, it does not say you m ust carry a chart,
you could just memorize everything before you
leave.
3. Old charts are not forbidden in an aircraft An
old chart is better than no chart at all.
4. However, if the pilot has an accident or makes an
error such as busting Class B airspace, the question
of did the p ilo t have all available inform ation will be
asked, which may become an element of any
subsequent enforcement proceedings.
5. $ 91.503 REQUIRES pilots of all LARGE and TURBINE-
powered mulli-engine aircraft to carry current charts.
6. All .Pg.rj_1_2_t nnd Part 135 operations
charts.

The IPad h.as beto-ma (he most popular way to- carry inos-a
charts. A Ccmmarcial operator's OpSpecs must include the
authority to uso an Electronic Ei>gM gag, ( i i . i i . A C 91-21 .IB ,
A C S I -78, A C 120-76B . B90Q.1— "Electronic Flight &ag
Operational A u th o riza tio n Q p S p e c AQ04 a AOG1)

S e c t i o n a l C h a r t s — R u n w a y s L o n g e r t h a n 8 .0 6 9 f e e t :
1. The scale of a Sezionai chert is 1:500.000 — this means one inch = 500.000 inches.
2. The circles used to depict airports (with runways 8,069 feet or less) are of a fixed size, and the
runways are illustrated in proper scale.
3. The longest runway that can fit to scale in the fixed circle Is 11.069 fe e t. Therefore if the longest
runway is more than 3.069 feet, a more appropriate graphical representation is used. This method is
also used for m ultiple runw ays, if the maximum distance between the tw o furthest points between
the opposite ends of two runways exceeds 8069 feet even if the longest runway is less than 8069 feet.

© © Hard surface runways 1,500 feet to 8,069 feet long.

s Hard Surface runways greater than 8,069 feet long orm the case of multiple runways,
the maximum distance between the two furthest points between the opposite ends of
two runways exceeds 8,069 feet, even if the longest runway is less than 8.069 feel.

E V E R Y T H IN G EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 369

C hap IQ — M is c e lla n e o u s , D e fin itio n s , A e ro d y n a m ic s & T riv ia
N IG H T — F O U R D e fin it io n s :
11.1.61.57(b), 91.209, AIM 4-3-23, AC 120-74A. PtC Glossary)
1, NIGHT (general definition 1.1 & PIC Glossary) means
«he time between [he END of EVENING CIVIL
TW ILIG H T and the BEGINNING of MORNING CIVIL
TW ILIG H T, as published in the Air A lm anac.
converted to local time.
2. NIGHT [ICAQ1 — The hours between the END Of \
EVENING CIVIL TW ILIGH T and (he -- ---------
BEGINNING of MORNING CIVIL TWILIGHT X /fr
or such other period between sunset and
sunrise as may be specified by the appropriate \
a uth ority, ^ \
NOTE: Civil tw ilig h t ENDS in the evening when the center of the ^
sun's disk is 6 degrees below the horizon and BEGINS In the morning
when the center o f the sun's disk Is 6 degrees below the h orizon .
3. § 61.57(b) NIGHT TA K E O FF and LANDING experience. (1) Except as provided in paragraph (e) of
(his section, no person may act as pilot in command of an aircraft carrying passengers during the period
BEGINNING 1 hour A FTE R SU N SET and ENDING 1 hour BEFORE S UN RISE, unless within the
preceding 90 days that person has made at least THREE TAKEOFFS and THREE LANDINGS to a full
stop during the period beginning 1 hour after sunset and ending 1 hour before sunrise, and — (i) That
person acted as sole m anipulator of the flight controls: and — (ii) The required takeoffs and landings
were performed in an aircraft of the same category, class, and type (If a type rating is required).
NOTE: § 61.57(e) This section [three takeoffs and landings at night| does not apply lo a pilot in
command who is employed by an air carrier certificated under Part 121 or 135 and is engaged in a
flight operation under Part 9 1 .121. or 135 for that air carrier if the pilot is in compliance with §§
121.437 and 121.439. or §§ 135.243 and 135.247 as appropriate.
4. $ 91 20T. AIR CR AFT LIG H TS No person mav:
(a) During the period from S U N S ET TO SUNRISE
[or, In Alaska, during the period a promineni
unlighted object cannot be seen from a distance t
3 statute miles or the sun is more than 6 degrees
below the horizon) -
[1) Operate an aircraft unless it has lighted
position lights.
[2) Park or move an aircraft in. or in dangerous
proximity to, a night flight operations area o f;
the aircraft -
(I) is clearly illuminated:
(ii) Has lighted position lights; or
(ill) Is in an area that is marked by obstructs
(3) Anchor an aircraft unless the aircraft -
(i) Has lighted anchor lights; or
(ii) Is In an area where anchor lights are not
(b) Operate an aircraft [day or night] that is equippe
light system, unless it has lighted anticollision I
anticollision lights need not be lighted when the pilot-in-com m and determines that, because
of operating conditions, It would be In the Interest o f safety to tu rn the lights o ff.

*
Sunset T im e s :
1. The Wealher Channel
2. Local newspaper
3. Wundorground.com
4. Weather.com

1. The "Air Almanac" published by the

370 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED fg r the P ro fit stanai Pilot

 C h a p 1 0 — M is c e lla n e o u s , D e fin itio n s , A e ro d y n a m ic s & T riv ia
A I R C R A F T L I G H T S : ( a im 4-4-23,FAA-H-WB3-21,acbo -42,acbo -bsa . a c fli-73,AC 120-74A)
1. RED — On the L E F T wing. If you see a red light, it means the other aircraft is to your right, which
means if has the right of way.
2. GREEN — On the RIGHT wing. If you see a green light, you are 10 the right of (he other aircraft and
you (theoretically) have Ihe right of way. However, don't count on the other guy knowing that!
3. W HITE — On the T A IL . The taillighl is most oflen on the rudder but can be rear-facing while lights on
the wingtips.
4. ANTICOLLISION LIGHTS - Normally you would turn on the anticollision lights before starling an
engine whether day or night. About the only time you'd want to turn off the anticollision lights would be
while flying in (be clouds or while lading at night — if you ever get the urge to be concerned about (he
sensitive eyes of your fellow pilot In the next airplane — or when your fellow pilot starts yelling al you!
5. LANDING LIGHT — Only required on aircraft for h ire . The f a a has a voluntary pilot safety program,
" Operation Lights O n.11 to enhance the see-and-avoid concept. Pilots are encouraged to tu rn on
their landing lights during take o ff: i.e., either after takeoff clearance has been received or when
beginning takeoff roll. Pilots are further encouraged to turn on their landing lights when operating below
10,000 fe e t, day or nioht. especially when operating w ithin 10 m jle s o f any a irp o rt, or in conditions of
reduced v isib ility and in areas where flocks of birds may be expected, i.e., coastal areas, lake areas,
around refuse dumps, etc.

Birds reportedly have a tendency to dive

so if a collision seems Imminent the best
option Is to start an immediate climb,
Ducking is also approved! (aim 7^ - 2)

‘'Operation Lights O n " (a i m 4- 3- 23) encourages (he use of landing lights when operating
bolow 10,000 'net. day or right especially w t v r ....... i -=i within 10 miles of :i-.y airport nr
in conditions of reduced visibility, coastal areas lake areas, and especially around refuse
riumfll - how wel1 '^e lactic worked for the crew of this British Airways flight!

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 371

C hap 10 — M is c e lla n e o u s , D e fin itio n s , A e ro d y n a m ic s _ & T r iv ia
H Y D R O P LA N IN G : ¿A C 9 1 -b a . a c 25-7A. f a a -h - s o s 3-3. f a a - h -s o b b - z s i

1 Hydroplaning occurs when there is a film of wafer on the runway. As the speed of the aircraft and depth
of the water increase, the result is the formation of a wedae of water beneath the tire. This water-
wedge progressively lifts the tire away from contact with the runway to the point where directional
control and braking action is nil:
a. DYNAMIC — Occurs when there is standing water on Ihe runway of at least one-tenth o f an
in c h . This amount of water acts to lift the tire off the runway surface and can result in complete
loss of braking effectiveness.
b. VISCOUS — Associated with a thin film of water and relatively low tire speeds. Anything
more than genlle braking could lock the wheels, This can occur at a much lower speed than
dynamic hydroplaning, but requires a very smooth surface.
C. REVERTED RUBBER — re q u ire s a prolonged locked wheel skid and a wet runway S urface.
The reverted rubber acts as a seal between the lire and the runway, and delays water exit from
the tire footprint area. The water heats and is converted to steam . The steam supports the
tire , lifting it o ff the runw ay.
2. HYDROPLANE SPEED — The minimum speed at which dynamic hydroplaning occurs differs for
takeoff and landing and can be approximated with the following formulas;
a. Takeoff {tires have spun up) — fl.B times (approximate, normally rounded to §¿0) the square
root of the (main wheel) tire pressure (PSI),
b. Landing {because tires have not spun up) — 7,7 tim es (approximate) the square ro o t of the
(main wheel) f lu u m iiiC fl (PSI).
3. Even though hydroplane speed is predicted using tire pressure alone, hydroplaning and deceleration
performance on wet runways must lake into account many variables, such as:
a. Varying inflation pressures.
b. Tire tread design and condition;
c. Runway surface texture [Grooved or Eorous Friction bourse (RFC.) overlay];
d. Depth of water, and
e. A nti-skid System efficiency.
4. A ny runway which is not dry is considered to bo wet. Standing water, puddles, or continuous rain
are not necessary for a runway to be considered wet. Runway braking friciion can change when there
is a light drizzle. In some oases, even dew or frost which changes the color of a runway will result in a
significant change in runway friction. The WET to DRY STOPPING DISTANCE RATIO on a well
m aintained, grooved, w et runway is usually around 1.15 to 1. On a runway where the grooves are
n ot maintained and rubber deposits are heavy, the slopping distance ratio could be as high as
1.9 to 1 On ungrooved runw ays, the slopping distance ratio is usually about 2 to 1 In the case of a
runway with new pavement or where rubber deposits are present, the ratio could be as high as 4 to 1.
Some newlv surfaced asphalt runway surfaces can be extrem ely slippery when only slightly wet
(FAA Order 0900.1}

Did you want the runway hazard

warranty included with these Capt'n Bill?

Hydroplane — An airplane
designed to land long on a
short and wet runway,

372 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 [chap IP — Miscellaneous. Opflnltlor», Aerodynamics & T r ivia
TEST t o DETECT CO NTAM IN ATIO N o f JE T FUEL: (a c
1. Obtain an urrchipped, spotlessly clean, white enamel bucket (approximately ten
quart size).
2. Drain about four to five Inches of fuel, from the sump to be tested, Into the
bucket
3. With a clean mixing paddle, stir the fuel into a swirling LLtornado shaped'1cone.
Remove the paddle. As the swirling stops, the solid contaminants will gather
at the center of the bucket bottom.
4. Add several drops of household RED FOOD DYE. The dve w ill m ix w ith water
and the solids in Ihe bottom of the bucket. It w ill not mix w ith fuel. If no w ater is
present, the dve w ill settle in the bottom of the bucket. j ........
; Be sure to perform this test
SPECIFIC G R AVITY (SG): jg jy ? j? ¡ ¡ ¡ S S S lS L
The ratio of the weight of a unit volume of a Substance to the weight of the same volume of fresh water
under equal conditions of temperature and pressure.
* 1 liter of water weighs 1 kilogram = SG 1.0
* 1 liter of Jet A1 weighs 0.8 kilograms = SG 0.8
This is why water goes to the bottom of the tank.

CONTROL TOWERS:
Only about 350 of the more than 16,000 airports in the United Stales have control towers
manned by FAA air traffic controllers.

AIRCRAFT CLASSES (Also see Rage 40) — For the purposes of Wake Tu rb u ^ncc SRParaticn
Minima, A T C classifies aircraft as Super. Heavy. Large, and Small as follows:
a. S U P E R - Airbus A380-80Q {A36B)(MTOW may be as much as 1,433.01)0 IbsKN JO 7110.582)
b. H E A V Y — Aircraft capable of takeoff weights of 300,000 pounds or more whether or not they are
operating at this weight during a particular phase of flight. NOTE: a b -757 actually weighs less than
255.DOC pounds, but is (essentially) considered heavy for wake turbulence separation purposes.
0. L A R G E — Aircraft of mere than 41.000 pounds, maximum certificated takeoff weight, up to but
not including 300,000 pounds.
d. S M A L L — Aircraft of 4_1J_00_jyo_ur)ds orJess maximum certificated takeoff weight.

H E A V Y — Civilian and military aircraft will add the word 11HEAV Y" to their call-sign when the aircraft is
cajaabfe of a takeoff weight that is greater than 300.000 pounds whether or not they are operating at this
weight during a particular phase of flight, (ptc Glossary jAircrait ci«sas")

C R O S S W IN D S :
1. Max DEM O N STR ATED — The maximum crosswind component that the manufacturer has tested.
This figure may be exceeded based on technique or pilot ability.
2. Max A LLO W A B LE — The maximum component allowed to be attempted. A limitation specified by
the manufacturer to limit the operation of the aircraft {can you apell ‘ï-i-a-b-i-l-l-t-y''?). Some airline
Operations Specifications may also specifically limit the allowable crosswind component for certain
aircraft or for operations when the runway is contaminated with snow, ice or water.
CRO SSW INDS Remember — Aileron (first letter of the alphabet) into the wind
W in d C ro s s w in d then as much opposite rudder as necessary to align with the centerline
ne]
*“ *
A N G LE CO M P O N E N T
90° 100% (of wind)
60° 90%
45° 70%
30° 50%

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 373

C h a p 10 — M ls c e lla n e o u s .J te fln itlo n s , A e ro d y n a m ic s & T riv ia

Flight Training Davice (F T P )— Relalivaly accurate aerodynamic and system controls. Often full-
size cockpit mockupc with visual presentations. Some have impressive moticn capability.
Pt rtro.nal.Cpmp.W.rB.ntred.Avj atloriTrai riipj.Device (PCATDj A porgorwl computer-bn nod
Simulation package. An approved F C A l □ may be used to accomplish Up to 1b hours ol
inslrumenl baining lor an instrument rating.
B.ASl£-6xt4H(MlJjtalrilrifl Oo.vJ.e.Q (B A Ifi)— Similar to RCATDs but botlcr hardware ;md software.
Actual aircraft system controls. Approved lor legging up tr> it.5 hours toward a piivate pilot
certificate ■;5 hours at fj Purl 1-12 school} and 10 hours toward mslrument rating including
approaches, holds and tracking for instrument currency.
Advanced Aviation Training Device fAATD'I— Comparable to- whal used to toe called a Level 3
FTD . Replicates a certain category and class of eircrafl. Some like ihg "Radbird FMft" system
feature an enclosed cockpit and six degrees of motion. May use to log up to 20 hours toward
inslrumenl rating; 50 hours toward commercial; and 25 hours toward an A TP . (AC 61-130)

S IM U L A T O R S — F O U R L E V E L S :
(61.1, 61-4, 61,64, 01.65.. A C 120-4QB, A C 61-136)

Level 4 — Flight Sim ulation Tra in in g Device (F S TD ):

1. The most basic. A fuJJ-scale replica of the cockpit including
the Baals instruments controls and circuit breakers.
1. Programmed to hava the flight characteristics and the
corresponding visual display of the real airplane including
representative crosswinds.
3. Must be able to simulate the effect of aerodynamic changes for various
combinations or drag and thrust.
4. Wight visual system with ±45“ horizontal and 30° vertical! field o f vision.
5. Cannot replicate takeoffs or landings, therefore approved only for in­
flight checks and instrument reFresher training.

Level B— Flight Sim ulation Tra in in g D evice (F S T D ):

1. Can simulate takeoffs, landings and taxi, Can also reproduce (be feel (airframe
buffet) of configuration changes such as flaps, gear and airbrake extensions:
and a very convincing stall buffet.
S im u F iit e
2. Most of these sims still have n ig h t visuals because (hose few points of light are much easier (and far cheaper) to
reproduce than a daylight scene.
3. Level B is approved for instrument compoiency and recurrent landing experience requirements

Level C— Flight Sim ulation Tra in in g Device (F S TD ):

1. A much more sophisticated motion system: with six-degrees-of-freedom convincingly fools you into thinking you're in
the real airplane most o f the time (except maybe when in a steep turn).
2. ±75° horizontal and 30° vertical field of vision reproduces night and dusk visual conditions. The dusk scene will
enable identification of a visibíe horizon and typical terrain characteristics -such as fields, road's, and bodies of water.
3. Can be configured for Line On anted Flight Training i LOFTi. simulating a flight from one airport to another airport
including a straight-in or circle-to land approach.
4. Windshear. crosswinds and runway contamination such as rain, snow and ice: along with tire and brake failures
(including anti-skid) can bo introduced.
5. Realistic audio reproduces the sounds of precipitation, windshield wipers, and other significant airplane noises; and
the sound o f a crash whan the simulator is landed in excess of the landing gear limitation.
6. Leveí C is certified for Part ÍMf I21f 135 type ratings (with certain limitations) and Part 121F135 recurrent, transition,
and differences training. " V V " " V ” Y 1 T V ..... ...... ...............I " " " 1\ ,
* When liking n (light lest in n simulator, neither Ihe pick taking the
- test nor (ha examiner would need any medical certificate al all.1 4
3
2
Level D— Flight Sim ulation Tra in in g Device (F S TD ):
1. Full daytime VFR visuals arc possible, however you won't need your Ray-Bans. You can watch the mountains go
by. other airplanes trying to run into you. thunderstorms develop, etc. Virtually no difference can be perceived
between fantasy and reality (according to the sales brochures anyway).
2. H S actually possible to do a circling approach in daylight conditions that actually looks and feels like a circling
approach to- a real airport, in a real airplane (flying in a fantasy world of course).
3. Level D is approved for all phases of training with essentially no exceptions. It's possible to get a type ratine >n a
Level D (or C) simulator, and immediately walk out to the real airplane and legally fly it (if the owner iis dumb
enough to let you do it). Not extremely safe or very smart, but perfectly legal.
4. If you have no prior jet type ratings and little p rior jut or turbino tim e , after you pass your type ride in a simulator
you will need to log 25 hours of Supplemental Operating Experience in the aircraft with someone who is type rated
without restriction before you can act as pilot In command. [61 64}

374 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Prof et »¡anal Pilot

 C h a p 10 — M is c e lla n e o u s , D e fin itio n s , A e ro d y n a m ic s & T riv ia

G O LD S E A L F L IG H T IN S T R U C T O R C E R T IF IC A T E S : iac grbsE)
The specific requirements for the gold seal flight instructor certificate are contained in AC B1-65E, 3900.1
Para 5-538 thru 5-5B7 and 3900.2. Flight instructor certificates bearing distinctive gold seals are issued to
flight Instructors who have maintained a high level of flight training activity and who meet special criteria.
Once issued, a gold seal flight instructor certificate will be reissued each time the instructor's certificate is
renewed. Applicants for gold seal flight Instructor certificates must meet the following requirements:
a. The flight instructor must hold a commercial pilot certificate with an instrument rating {glider flight
instructors need not hold an instrument rating) or an ATP certificate,
b. The flight inslruclor musi hold a around instructor certificate with an advanced or instrument ground
instructor rating: and
c. The flight instrucior musi have accomplished the following within the previous 24 months:
(1) Trained and recommended at least 10 applicants for a practical test, at least fl of whom passed
their tests on the first attempt:
(2) Conducted at least ZO practical tests as a designated pilot examiner, or graduation tests as
chief instructor of a 14 CFR part 141 approved pilot school course: or
(3) A combination of the above requirements. (Two practical tests conducted equal the credit given
for one applicant trained and recommended for a practical test.)

u s anvf nmi«ir«t mvHir it

Looky here Sonny,., FLIGHT
Luck is a great subslilute for msmijniOH
skill... bul it just ain't consistent ONnim
iiiH ijiiinn
enough for flying airplanes.

L.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 375

C h a p 1 0 — M is c e lla n e o u s t D e fin itio n s , A e ro d y n a m ic s & T riv ia

"11says here all we need lo do is deliver'

a suitcase to America and we get
72 virgins and a new car!
Sounds like a tell of a deal don't il?

376 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 Chapter 11

Reference V Rules of Thumb,

Conversions
Getting close to.,. More FR EE Extra Stuff!
end of the story. __
ICAO A ir p o r t I d e n t if ie r C o u n try P r e f ix ............................................................ 370
Aircraft Country Registration Number C o d e s.................................................................378
Airport Identifier Logic............~........~.......~..... ................................ ................. .............379
Z U L U T i m e ................................... .......................... . 380
Pitot-Static Malfunctions; Effects of Forward / Aft CG; Fuel & Fluid Colors................381
D raining Fuel Sumps; Crosswinds.................................................................................... 381
Cutouts (placards}.............................................................. 382
aC t o °F ( p la c a r d ) ........................................................................... ................. ........ 3 8 2
Reciprocals (placard)......................................................................................................... 382
TA K E O F F M n e m o n ic ..................................................................................................3 8 2
Flight Plan (wall el-si zed); Measurements <1/6d-1/32-3/64-1/16. etc.).......................... 3&2
Spin Recovery; SHUTDOW N Mnemonic..........................................................................382
Quickie Conversions.......................................................................................................... 383
Liquid Measures (ounce, cup, pint, quart, etc.)................................................................383
Radio Call............................................................................................................................ 383
Acre................................................................................................. 383
Reciprocals— 22 Rule........................................................................................................383
F uel W e ig h t....................................................................................................................3 8 4
C o n v e rs io n s , C o m p a ris o n s , F o rm u la s & W a lg llt l ........................... 385
F o rm u la s & R u le s o f T h u m b ......... .............................................................3 8 6 -3 8 9
Conversion Tables.........................................................................................................390-394

I:; » "~ í * *
Thi nDsDuDet rie
1
Knuckle o iuu I - n eh

RULES OF
THUMB
EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for H ip Professional Pilot 377
 C hap 1 1 — R e fe re n c e , R u le s o f T h u m b , C o n v e rs io n s

ICAO Airport Identifier COUNTRY PREFIX

h t t p ^ w w w .f a a .g D vfa irtra ffici'p u b li ca t ¡0ns.1jfl m l

A Nauru, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands

B Greenland, Iceland

C Canada, Haiti

D Algeria, Benin, Burkina, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Niger, Nigeria, Togo

E Belarus, Belgium, Denmark. Finland. Germany, Lithuania, Luxemburg, Netherlands, Norway. Poland.
Sweden, United Kingdom
F Angola, Botswana, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad. Comoros, Congo. Lesotho,
Madagascar. Mozambique. Namibia. Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland. Zaire. Zambia. Zimbabwe
G Cape Verde, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Morocco, Sierra Leone, Spain, Western Sahara

H Burundi, Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia, Jamahiriya, Kenya, Rwanda. Somalia. Susan, Tanzania, Uganda

K United Slates — except Alaska and Hawaii which use a UP" (for Pacific!

L Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, BosniaMHerzegovina. Cyprus, Croatia. Czech Republic, France. Gibraltar,
Greece, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Macedonia, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain,
Swiizorland, Yugoslavia
M Bahamas, Belize, Cayman Islands, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala.
Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica. Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama
N Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Kiribati. New Caledonia, New Zealand, Pago Pago, Samoa, Tahiti,
Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu
O Afghanistan, Arab Republic, Bahrain, Iran. Iraq. Kuwait, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syrian.
United Arab Emirates, Yemen Jordan
P Alaska. Hawaii, New Zealand, Guam. Mariana Island. Micronesia. Saipan. Micronesia, Johnston Island.
Marshall Islands, Wake Island
R Japan, Philippines, Taiwan, Korea

S Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Falkland Islands, French Guinea, Guyana,
Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, Venezuela
T Antigua, Aruba, Barbados, Barbuda, Dominica, Grenadines, Netherlands Antilles. Puerto Rico, Saint
Lucia, Saini Vincent, Tobago, Trinidad, Virgin Islands
U Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus Latvia, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russian
Federation, Tajikistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan
V Bangladesh, Cambodia. Hong Kong, India, Laos, Macao, Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Vielnam
w Brunei, Darussalam, East Timor, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore

Y Australia, Christmas Island

Z China

A IR C R A F T C O U N T R Y R E G IS T R A T IO N H U M B E R C O P E S
Aircraft national! ly/registralion marts can be found in " FAA O rder 7i40.1V. Chapter 4.
C ontractions" or “ ICA O Annex 7, A ircra ft Nationality and Registration Marks .”
A few selected countries - N = United States. fi_gr CF = Canada XAorXB orXC = Mexico;
CU = Cuba; D = Germany. G = United Kingdom. HZ = Saudi Arabia: I ■ Italy: JA = Japan.
¥1 - Iraq: 4X - Israel; B - China; EP - Iran; JY - Jo rd an ; RA - Russian Federation;
CCCP = Union of Soviet S ocialist R epublics: 5E = Sweden: SU = E gypt: VT = India
Also sec: httD:/fwww.icaoJnt>5flfetv^airnaviaationyPaaesf nationality, asox

378 EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

 C hap 11 — R e fe re n c e , R u le s o f T h u m b , C o n v e rs io n s ]
A J R P O R T ID E N T IF I E R L O G IC : (FAA Order WW.7)
1. Originally, airports in the 1930’s came to be known by toe tw o-letter idenlifier the FCC had assigned to
their local weather station.
2. When three-letter identifiers became necessary, some airports (like LA) simply added another letter
(LAX). There are approximately 18,000 possible combinations of the three letters and mere than
19,000 airports in the United Stales today.
3. Exceptions — Airport identifiers in the United Stales could not begin with the letters ft. Bi. Q, y, Y or £.
K and )N were already secured by the FCC for radio stations. Q is used for international
communications. N by the Navy. Y and Z earmarked for Canada.
There are many exceptions to these rules,
4. For international operations, U.S. airports within toe contiguous 48 slates have the prefix K added.
However Alaskag and Hawaiian airports get the prefix P (for Pacific) (along with New Zealand, Guam,
Saipan, Wake Island, etc.). Examples. Anchorage {ANC) Is PANC and Honolulu (HNL) is PHNL.
Three-letter designations already assigned to overseas airports are avoided if possible.
6. Similar Identifiers for airports within 200 miles of one another are avoided {with exceptions of course).

A FEW IN T E R E S T IN G ID E N TIF IE R S
ABE Serves the cities of Allentown, Bethlehem and Easton, Pennsylvania.
ACY Atlantic CilY. New Jersey,
BDL BraDLey International. Windsor Locks, C T — very similar name only 60 miles north of BDR.
BDR BriDqepoRt. C T — Igor Sikorsky Memorial — very similar name only 60 miles south of BDL,
BED BEQford, Massachusetts — Laurence G. Hanscom Field.
BET BEThel Alaska — nol Las Vegas.
BNA Nashville Inti — Originally named Berry Field, then Berry Nashville Airport in honor of Col Harry Berry.
BRO BROwnsviile/South Padre Island International. Texas,
CAR CARibou Municipal, Maine.
CLT ¡LharLoIte. North Carolina — Charlotle/Douglas International
CVG CoVinGton, KY — Cincinnati Ohio's main airport is actually located in Covinqton, Kentucky.
DFW Dallas-Fort Wurth International. Texas.
D TW Detroit MeTro Wayne County. Michigan.
EAR KEARney Municipal, Nebraska.
EG! WEllinGTon Municipal. Kansas.
EYW KEY West FL — K. W. Q , N , Y and Z were not to be used: some airports used their 2nd or 3rd letters.
FA T Fresno, California — Original airport name — Fresno Air Terminal,
GAL GALena, Alaska.
GAS GAIlipoliS. Ohio— Galka-Meigs Regional.
GUY GUYmon. Oklahoma
HOT H O T Springs, Arkansas
HPN Westchester County, NY — Serves the cities of Harrison, Purchase and North Castle, New York
HSI He&Unqs. Nebraska — Ha&tinqs County
IRS Sturqis, Michigan — KIRSch Municipal
JF K Formerly NYC’s IDLewild Airport — changed in 1964 to John E Kennedy International
LAX Los Angeles. C A — L A plus X.
MCO Orlando, Florida — Formerly known as MuCOv Air Force Base.
MIA Miami International Airport, Florida
MCI Kansas City — Formerly known as Mid Continent International
MSY New Orleans International — Formerly known as MoiSant Field {plus a Y)
NEW Lakefronl Airport, NEW Orleans (the N prefix predated the Navy's claim and they got away with it)
ORD O'Hare International. Chicago IL — Formerly known as ORcharD Field.
PHF Newport News/Williamsburg International, Virginia — Formerly known as Patrick Henry Field
PIE St. Pete-Clearwaier, Florida (They used to have a restaurant on the field that served good apple pie??)
SEA SEAttle-Tacoma International. Washington.
SKY SanduSKY Ohio
STC ST. Cloud, Minnesota — St. Cloud Regional
SUN Hailey. Idaho — Friedman Memorial (SUN Valley. Idaho)
TN T Miami. Florida — .Dade-Collier TraiN.ng and Transition
TYS McGhee TYSori, Knoxville, T N — Tyson family donated the land in memory of a Son killed in World War 1

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for thi? Professional Pilot 379

C hap 11 — R e fe re n c e , R y le s off Thum b» C o n v e rs io n s

LO CAL ZU LU LO CAL
EASTERN CENTRAL Sum m er W in te r M O U N T A IN P A C IF IC
12 Midnight 11 PM 0400 0500 10 PM 9 PM
1 AM 12 Midnight 0500 0600 11 PM 10 PM
2 AM 1 AM 0600 0700 12 Midnight 11 PM
3 AM 2 AM 0700 0800 1 AM 12 Midnight
4 AM 3 AM 0800 0900 2 AM 1 AM
5 AM 4 AM 0900 1000 3 AM 2 AM
6 AM 5 AM 1000 1100 4 AM 3 AM
7 AM 6 AM 1100 1200 5 AM 4AM
3 AM 7 AM 1200 1300 6 AM 5 AM
9 AM BAM 1300 1400 7 AM 6 AM
10 AM 9 AM 1400 1500 8 AM 7 AM
11 AM 10 AM 1500 1600 9 AM 8 AM
12 Noon 11 AM 1600 1700 10 AM 9 AM
1 PM 12 Noon 1700 1800 11 AM 10 AM
2 PM 1 pm 1800 1900 12 Noon 11 AM
3 PM 2 PM 1900 2000 1 PM 12 Noon
4 PM 3 PM 2000 2100 2 PM 1 PM
5 PM 4 PM 2100 2200 3 PM 2PM
6 PM 5 PM 2200 2300 4 PM 3 PM
7 PM 6 PM 2300 5 PM 4 PM
8 PM 7 PM 0000 0100 6 PM 5 PM
9 PM 3 PM 0100 0200 7 PM 6 PM
10 PM 9 PM 0200 0300 8 PM 7 PM
11 PM 10 PM 0300 0400 9 PM 8 PM
tar a*-
C o n v e rt Sum m er W in te r
Eastern lo Zulu +4 +5
Central to Zulu +5 +6
Mountain to Zulu +6 +7
Pacific to Zulu +7 +8
C o n v e rt Sum m er W in te r
Zulu to Eastern -4 -5
Zulu lo Central -5 =0
Zulu to Mountain -6 -7
Zulu to Pacific -7 -8

Z U L U T im e
1. Slang for “ Greenwich Mean Tim a" (GMT) or ''Coordinated U niversal
Tim a" (aka Universal Time Coordinated — UTCV
2. Solar time at (he prim e m eridian (O1) of longitude, which passes through
the Royal O bservatory at G reenw ich. England.
3. There are actually 25 time zones (ihu iniurrviiionni Onto Lino lime zono a
broken down into 2 lime zones, one day apart) spaced approximately TS" of
longitude ^part tadiusiad for political i economic reasons). Each is assigned
a letter of the alphabet (leaving out J).
In the US... Eastern Time is actually “Romeo": Central is “Sierra":
Mountain is Tango"; and Pacific is "Uniform".
+. England was determined the reference time zone and given the last letter
— “ Z " — therefore, 'Z ulu" time.

380 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Pro toss ¡anal Pilot

 C h a p 11 — R e fe re n c e , R u le s o f T h u m b , C o n v e rs io n s .
P IT O T -S T A T IC S YS TE M M A L F U N C T IO N S
S IT U A T IO N A IR SP E E D A L T IM E T E R VSl
Blocked pitot tube with
Drops lo Zero Normal Normal
open drain hole
Blocked pitot tube and High in climb
Normal Normal
drain hole Low in descent
Blocked static line, Low in climb
Freezes Freezes
normal pitot pressure High in descent
Using alternate static
Reads high Reads high Momentarily shows climb
source
Blocked static source
with no alternate static Reads high
source. Break the VSl Pdf IIFRTllulit FAR 23132S j Reads high Reversed
ilBOulf&Stltlwr haalad itUhc *»nlh j
glass {do not buKik In {or41- illtrrult »UHikSP.iiict
pressurized aircraft)
Broken static line in
Reads low Cabin altitude Fails
pressurized aircraft

E FF E C T S o f F O R W A R D CG <f a a - h -BQB3-Z5)
1. Increased longitudinal stability — As angle of attach is increased, the airplane
lends lo reduce that angle (higher stick Forces).
2. Lower cruise speed — Increased drag, greater angle of atiack required to
maintain altitude. More elevator down force to drag around.
3. Higher stall speed — Stalling angle of atiack reached at a higher speed due lo
increased wing loading.
4. Greater elevator back pressure required — More airflow Will he required over
the elevator in order to raise the aircraft's pitch attitude — therefore you'll need
more speed For takeoFf. a longer takeoff roll, higher approach speeds, and more
elevator back pressure will be needed for the landing flare, It is possible, that
with the power off, full up elevator will not be sufficient to keep the nose pitched
up high enough for a safe landing.
5 Good stall/spin recovery
E F F E C T S o f A F T CG
1. pecreased longitudinal stability — As angle of attack is increased it tends to
result in additional increased angle of attack {very light slick forces). The aircraft
will lend to pitch up toward stall during takeoff, and may require full-down
elevator at slow speeds to counteract the nose-up tendency, May attempt to
pitch-up toward a stall on landing.
2. Higher cruise speed — Reduced drag, as a smaller angle of attack is required
lo maintain altitude. Less elevator down force to drag around.
3. Lowcr statLsjiecd — Less wing loading.
4. Poor stall/spln recovery.

F U E L & F L U ID C O LO R S< ac
BLU E RED GREEN PURPLE CLEAR RED
100LL 80 100 115 Jet Fuel 5606 Hydraulic Fluid

♦ Infroquunity used fuel tanks should have 1heir sumps drained before
filling. A gitation action of fuel entering the tank may suspend or entrain
liquid water or other contaminants - which can remain suspended for
many minutes and may not settle out until after the aircraft is airbo rne .
■* After fueling - wait er Joast 15 minuius per foot depth of the tank
before sumping 1he tank.
Drain a generous sample of fuel - considerably more than just a trickle -
Into a transparent container from each of the fuel sumps and From the
main fuef straineris) or qascolatorisj.

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 381

C h a p 11 — R e fe r e n c e R u le s o f T h u m b , C o n v e rs io n s

VFR/IFR Flight Plan — AIM S-1-4 4 5-1-8

International Flight Plan — AIM 5-1-9 M e a s u re m e n ts
° c °F Reciprocals
1/64 - 1/32 - 3/64 - 1/16
360 ° - 180°
38 100 5/64 - 3/32 - 7/64 * 1/8
010° -190° 9/64 - 5/32 - 11/64 - 3/16
35 95
020° - 200° 8 0 0 -9 9 2 -7 4 3 3 13/64 - 7/32 -15/64 - 1/4
32 90
030° - 210* IF R .: v f r ) 17/64 - 9/32 - 19/64 - 5/16
29 85 040 *- 220 * 21/64 - 11/32 - 23/64 - 3/8
(Ta il# )____
27 30 0S0&- 2301* (AC TypH )__ /U/A/G 25/64 - 13/32 - 27/64 - 7/16
24 75 060 ° - 240 ° Knots 29/64 - 15/32 - 31/64 - 1/2
21 70 (Where am I7) 33/64 - 17/32 - 35/64 - 9/16
070* - 250* departure lim e ic a w i 37/64 - 19/32 - 39/64 - 5/8
18 65 030 * - 260 * thousand 41/64 - 21/32 - 43/64 - 11/16
15 59 090* -270* D-* D * i. Lndg 45/64 - 23/32 - 47/64 - 3/4
13 55 100* - 280 * hours enroute 49/64 - 25/32 - 51/64 - 13/16
10 50 110* *290* Remarks 53/64 - 27/32 - 55/64 - 7/8
____ hours fuel 57/64 - 29/32 - 59/64 - 15/16
7 45 120* - 300 *
A lternate? 61/64 - 31/32 - 63/64 -
4 40 130* -310* N a m e ___ spelled
1!
2 35 140* - 320 * Based in ____ Phone #■_______

150* -330* on board

D 32 (calOr)________ & _________
-4 25 160* - 340 * PG
-7 20 170* -35Q*
Transponder
-9 15
-12 10 ..................................................... ... *<
T h is T A K E O F F m n e m o n ic w ill k e e p y o u Pu m ps t Props
-15 5
a liv e in v ir t u a lly a n y a irp la n e . V acu u m
-18 0
-21 -5 Trim
-23 -10
-26 -15 Always do the real checklist FIR S T, and F laps / Fuel
-29 -20 then back it up with this- mnemonic, Lights
You'd be amazed how often a checklist item
-32 -25 inadvertently gels omitted, even In a 737
Attitude / Altitude
Doors
E ngines
Keep lookin' -around... Ihaia
hara'S ■ Controls
SPJN R e c o v e ry always somethin' you missed
issed. „
PARE Igniters
m a s te r
Power - IDLE
ALT BAT
Ailerons — NEUTRAL
Rudder — OPPOSITE direction of spin
Elevator — Briskly FORWARD
SHUTDOWN
Radios
M ags
IMHO — An airplane only does what
you tell It to dor but ¡1 keeps doing L ig h ts
that until yog tell it not to. M A S TE R

382 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilaf

 C hap 11 — R e fe re n c e . R u le s o f T h tirn b . C o n v e rs io n s !
QUICKIE CONVERSIONS
POUNDS of J e t A into GALLONS \ : P O U N D S or J e t A into L IT E R S
■ -------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------

Drop the zero then add 5 0 % Pounds needed + 1 0 % = Liters

Examples:
4.000 lbs of Jel A needed
400 + 200 = 600 gallons • Examples.:
I 4.Q00 lbs of Jet A needed

J
10.000 lbs of Jel A needed I 2000 + 200 - 2200 liters
* 1000
I u\ t 500 = 1500 gallons ■
■

V ; 10.000 lbs of Jet A needed

** 5000 + 500 = 5500 liters
C e ls iu s to
F a h re n h e it ■
(ballpark) ■ Liquid Measures I
JC times 2 L (Ju s t in case you plan on baking some cookies up there on a long flight) j
Add 32
a 1 ounce = 2 tablespoons = 6 teaspoons = 23.316 grams - 29.57 ml I
Example: b 1 cu p = 8 o i = 227 grama - 0,237 liters ■ 237ml \
15°C x 2 = 30
+ 32 = 62“F , 1 p in t = 16 oz = 2 cups = 453 grams = 0.473 liters = 473ml \
a 1 qu a rt = 32 oz = 2 pts = 1.25 fifths = 906 grams = .946 liters = 946ml \
Zero degrees Fahrenheit B 1 ga llo n = 123 oz = 4 qts = 6 pts • 16 cups ■ 3G24 grams = 3.7853 liters a
is the temperature at which
! 1 lite r = 1.D567 quarts = 0.26418 U.S. gallons = 1000ml = 953 grams a
sell no longer prevent
water from freezing. \ 1 Fifth = 25.6oz = 757rnl = ,8 q l= 17,067 jiggers fl.S oi/shot) "m

R E C IP R O C A L S — 22 R U L E ACRE
To the 13i digit of the original three-digit number, add or 1 a c re 43560 sq ft or
subtract 2 Whether you add or subtract depends on the approximately 208 ft x 209 ft
answer, which must be a 0 .1, 2. or 3.
640 a c re s 1 sq mile
To the 2nd digit of the original number, again use 2, but A 6,000 ft long runway that Is 100 ft wide
perform the opposite function Jf you added the 1 time. will cover approximately 13.8 acres.
r,i iLil r n n l feIt.j-v I ■n 11n n i m r n il n n n n i
subtract the 2" - time. I i nsin T h jn .
The third .digit never changes.

Examples:
a. The reciprocal of 236° Is 056°. 2 is subtracted from
the 1"' digit therefore 2 must be added to the 2rti digit,
b. The reciprocal of 027° Is 207°, Add 2 to the 1Bl
number and subtract 2 from the 2nd.
c ^ T h e reciprocal or 1,&6!J.s_36fi1> or SflS° ^

R a d io C a ll:
^ Who you are?
4 Where you are?
*■ What do you want?

EVERYTHING EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 383

C h a p 11 — R e fe re n c e , R u le s o f T h u m b , C o n v e rs io n s 1

F U E L W E IG H T
(FAA-H-8083-1 Aircraft W A B HWdtwoM
af ■P Jet A 100LL
V ■C
=
L b s/G a l Lbsj'G al
40 104 6 .6 4 5 .56
35 95 6.67 5 .62
30 30 6.71 5 .6 6
25 77 6 .74 5 .70
20 68 6 .7 7 5 .75
15 59 6 .6 0 5 .6 0
10 50 6 .6 3 5 .84
5 41 6 .8 6 see
0 32 6 .6 9 5 .9 3
-5 23 6 .9 3 5 .96
-1 0 14 6 .9 6 6 .03
-1 5 5 6 .9 9 6 .0 7
-2 0 -a 7.02 6 .12
-2 5 -1 3 7.05 6 .16
-3 0 -2 2 7.03 6.21
-3 5 -3 1 7.12 6 .26
-4 0 -4 0 7.15 6 .30

384 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot


C o n v e rs io n s , C o m p a ris o n s , F o rm u la s
A e ro n a u tic a l C h a rt
S ca le s
M IL E S / K IL O M E T E R S
SPEED
S p ee d of So u nd
{k n o ts }
TE M P ER A TU R E
W E IG H T
[Excellent and FREE
conversion software can
be Found at:
www .i oa hmad ¡son, com
U .S . to M E T R IC
^ G a llo n s x 3 .7 8 5 =
L ite rs
L it e r s x .2 6 4 = j
G a llo n s
M E T R IC to M E T R IC
C hap 11 — R e fe re n ce , R ules of T h u m b , C o n ve rs io n s
& W e ig h ts
Sectional............ ..............................................................8 SM or? NM per inch
WAC and ÛN C .. ......................................................... 16 SM or 14 NM per inch
Terminal Area.... .......................................................... 4 SM or 3.5 NM per inch
1 NM = 1.15070 SM = 6.076.12 Feel = 2025.3733 yards = 1.852 kllornelers
1 SM = .86898 NM ■ 5,280 feet = 1760 yards = 1.6098 kilometers
1 Kilometer = 3,281 feel = 0.62137 SM ■ 0.53996 NM = 1093.6666 yards
1 SM Per Hour ■ 86 Feet Per Minute = 1.40 Feet Per Second
1 NM Per Hour {1 Knot) = 101.200 Feet Per Minute ■ 1.69 Feel Per Second
1 >|'"| l i 3 9 NM r'li^r mjn rtr“ R f l“l 1r'l tif1 in ittilM ............ .
240 knols = 4 NM per min or 2:30 to go 10 miles | ef Sonet) >
480 knots = 8 NM per min or 1:15 to go 10 miles j ggi 7 knots cr
.spa-ed of sound to- within 1 knot, 39 x 'y OAT ill Kelvin
-C to "F ! Kelvin = "Celsius + 273 ■ Double Itie number of °C and ;
30'ilwt, 30's nice, l 0 ¡S cold ‘ (“C X 1-8) + 32 = °F : arid 30.
and D's ice : iDF - 32} 5/9 = °C \ 2xie*C-3C*ao-e&*F .
"Rankin = "Fahrenheit + 459.7
100LL Av Gas = 6.0 Ibs/gal (2.72 kg] (1 liter = 1.6 lbs or .719 kg)
(Av Gas - G Jbs/qal @ +20°F - 6.3 Ibs/gal @ -4CPF = 5.56 bs/gal (S +104°F)
5UVV url = /.& ibs/gal {l.tf/5 lbs/ql = 1,381 ibs/llter)
Jet A - 6.75 Ibs/gal (3,06 kg) [1 liter =1.8 lbs or .6 kg)
Kerosene = 6.75 Ibs/gal
riu p Miiunui - u.-o lu&JUdJ
5606 Hydraulic Fluid * 7.2 Ibs/gal
Water = 3.33 Ibs/gal
Methanol ■ 6.62 Ibs/gal
1 quart...... ........ .............................0.95 liter = 906 grams = .95L = 946ml
1 U.S. gallon...,.
1 U.S. gallon..... .............................0.83268 Imperial gallons
1 Inch................. .............................25.4 millimeters (mm) or 2.54 centimeters
1 fool 0 3046 meters or 30 48 centimeters
1 yard................. .............................0.9144 meters
1 Statute Mile ... .............................1.fi kilometers-{6200 feet)
1 Nautical Mile.. .... ............ 1.85 kilometers or 6076 feel
1 ounce.... ........ .... ....................... 28.36 Grams
1 pound.............. .............................0.45359 kilogram
1 horsepower..... .............................0.75 kilowatt
1 liter........ . .............................0.26413 U.S, gallons {1.0567 qls)
1 Imperial gallon ............................ 1.2 U.S, gallons
1 millimeter....... .............................0.04 inch
1 centimeter....... ............................ 0.39 inch
1 meter..... ........ .............................3.2303 feet or 39.37 inches or 1.0936 yds
1 kilometer....... .............................0.62 SM or 0 54 NM or 32B1 teet
1 gram fl {135 ounce
1 kilogram.........
1 kilowatt............ .............................1.3 horsepower
1 centimeter...... .............................10 millimeters
1 meter 100 centimeters (1 000 millimeters)
1 kilometer........ ............................ 1,000 meters
1 liter................. 1 000 milliliters
1 kiloliter............ ............................. 1.000 liters
1 gram ............. .... ....................... 1,000 milligrams
1 kilogram.......... .............................1,000 grams
1 metric ton....... ............................. 1,000 kilograms
EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 385
C h a p 11 — R e fe r e n c e R u le s o f T h u m b , C o n v e rs io n s

FO R M ULAS & R ULES O F TH U M B

J E T — A ltitu d e P la n n in g
f a r S h o rt T rip s
W e ig h t & B a la n c e
W e ig h t & B a la n c e
W e ig h t & B a la n c e
W e ig h t & B a la n c e
T A K E O F F D IS T A N C E
T A K E O F F D IS TA N C E
T A K E O F F G R O UND R O LL
TAKEO FF
T A K E O F F & H U M ID IT Y
TAKEO FF
TAKEO FF
T A K E O F F o n GRASS
t AV P n c c
U P -S LO P IN G R U N W A Y
(ru n w a y g ra d ie n t)
R O T A T IO N SPEED (V R)
T IM E to C L IM B
C L IM B G R A D IE N T in % ..... Rise over Ru n * %
; fla iljrd Llinil.' uradiiTil Isaoott w UH J 0070 (ft In a NM)
■i-fiii idtriiliHiii isspe-ClI ÌLI ynHl flii H
C L IM B G R A D IE N T : \ h jf'Mud to dlrrfc al laaa J(KHt_prrriM. j
FEET p e r N M to FEET p e r Groundspeec I x feet per NM (climb
M IN U T E
T o re d u c e e ffe c ts o f a
H E A D W IN D d u rin g c lim b
T o ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f a
T A IL W IN D d u rin g c lim b
S T A N D A R D RATE o f
TURN
A N G LE o f B A N K f o r a
S T A N D A R D RATE TU R N
D IA M E TE R o f a
S T A N D A R D RATE TU R N
10% of the distance + 5 = FL Ex. 200 MM use 20 + 5 = FL25C
Weight x Arm = Moment
Total Moment + Total W eight» C G (inches)
CG Distance Aft of LEMAC + MAC = C G in % MAC
Weight Shifted _ Distance CG Shifted
Total Weight Distance Weight Shifted
Increases 10% for each 1.000 ft Density Altitude above Sea Level.
10% chanqe in aircraft weight will result in a 20% chancre in takeoff distance
'
Increases or decreases by 10% for every 10°C
change in temperature from ISA (1% change for each T C ).
A headwind equal to 10% of takeoff speed will reduce ground roll by 20%.
A tailwind of 10% takeoff speed will Increase roll by 20%.
HIGH HUMIDITY conditions — add 10% to the computed takeoff distance
and anticipate a reduced climb rate.
If 70% of takeoff speed is not reached by 50% of the available runway
A B O R T the T A K E O F F .
Runway contamination such as mud, deep grass, wet snow or slush can
more than double takeoff distance or make takeoff Impossible.
DRV grass adds 25% to the takeoff disiance, W E T grass adds 30%.
.............. A S O F T SU R FA C E adds 25% to the above
! QEHERALLY * s
m t e d unalmofi 0.5% up-slope — takeoff roll increased by 2% : Consult the
: up.....doatMifrdnil 1.0% up-slope — takeoff roll increased by 4% i ¿¡tcraft Ellqht
=
i mlfwtnd. j 1.5% up-slope — takeoff roll increased by 6% : Manual
(2.0% up-slope = 120 foot rise for a 6,000 fool runway)(120/6000 = 2.0%)
Typically equal to 1.1 5 times Va (stall speed clean).
Altitude to gain ^ =8 minutes
Rate of climb = Time to Climb 1,000 fpm
440 ft ocr N =7 ,2% Climb Gradient
140 kts * 200 ft/NM - 466 ft/mln
60
gradianl from OF1 then divide by 60
Climb at cruise climb airspeed
Climb at V r (best rate)
180° in 1 minute
3° per second
360° in 2 minutes
10% Of the TAS + 5 180)1,1 = 16 -r 5 = 21r
TA S ■ 150 kls
1% of the airspeed
Diameter of Turn = 1.5 NM

386 EVERYTHING EX PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot


A LT IM E T E R
A LT IM E T E R
PRESSURE A L T IT U D E
PRESSURE A L T IT U D E
IS A (°C)
T e m p e ra tu re L a p se R a te
(Rule al Thumb}
(InlernHligrml Standard Almosohere)
IS A (“F)
T e m p e ra tu re L a p se R a te
(Rule al Thumb}
(Intemalianal Standard Atmosphere)
D E N S IT Y A L T IT U D E
(Rule af Thumb}
R E L A T IV E H U M ID IT Y
TR U E A L T IT U D E
( In d ic a te d A lt it u d e
c o r r e c te d fo r n o n ­
s ta n d a rd te m p e ra tu r e )
(Rule of Thumb}
TR U E A IR SP E E D (TA S )
b a s e d o n In d ic a te d
A irs p e e d (IA S )
C hap 11 — R e fe re n c e , R u le s o f T h u m b , C o n v e rs io n s
One inch is equal to 1,000 ft
If your altimeter is set to 30.11, but
actual local altimeter setting is 29.11,
you will actually be 1.000 ft lower than
you think you are!
Move Ko Usman numbers UP — Indicated Altitude goes UP
Move Kollsman numbers DOWN — Indicated Altitude goes DOWN
The difference between 29.92 and the
current altimeter settino charass
pressure altitude at the rale of 10 ft
for everv .01 inches of change.
If you must ADD the difference to
eaual 29.92, then vou must ADD to
Ihe field elevation to obtain the
pressure altitude.
Set the altimeter to 29.92 and read
the Pressure Altitude from the dial.
ISA = 15"C @ sea level
ISA decreases 2"C per 1,000 ft
increase In altitude.
(-2* x each 1,000 ft MSL) + 15°= ISA
ISA = 59"F @ sea level
ISA decreases 3.5°F per 1,000 ft
increase In altitude.
(-3.5 x each 1,000 ft M SL) + 59"= ISA
Increases or decreases 120 ft for
each 1"C difference from ISA.
(wwvi.wahiduddin.nelicale/cale da.him)
(O A T—ISA) x 120 + Pressure Altitude
■ Density Altitude
Dew point 1Temp - %
Multiply by 4 ft per 1,000 ft fer each
f C the temperature varies from ISA
at that altitude.
Increase Indicated Airspeed by 2%
for each 1,000 feet above sea level
|L£^i' HUH] mlgMbomora-Kcurafla hurt2%It clai# armuphl
30.11
.15x1,000 ft = 150 ft lower
: Far evary ;
Field elevation = 800 ft 1d inches, \
Altimeter Setting ■ 29.75 i f*M*‘jt* j
E altituds
i change s by :
29,92 - 29,75 = ,17" :. lot** i
.17 x 10(per .01) = 170 ft ..............J
000 ft + 170 ft =
970 ft Pressure Altitude
Much easier method, Plus you gel
the added benefit of that exercise
walking out to the airplane.
Altitude = 6,000 ft
{-2* X 8) +■ 15 = 3®C
ISA @ 6,0 00 fl b 3"C
Altitude = 6,000 ft
(-3.5* X 6)+ 59 = 30"F
ISA @ 6,0 00 ft = 38°F
Pressure Altitude = 6,000 ft
Outside Air Temp - 13*C
ISA = 3aC (from rule of thumb)
(13—3) x 120+ 6000 =
7,200 ft Density Altitude
9 * C M y C =47%
Indicated Altitude = 5,000 ft
Outside Air Temp = -2Q"C
ISA @ 5,000fl = 1 5 " -1 0 " = 5 ^
-20° - 5* ■ -2 5 a colder than ISA
5(thousand) X 4 ft = 20 ft
20 ft x -2 5 = -500 ft
5,000 - 500 - 4,500ft Trua Altitude
125 ktS IAS @ 10,000 feet MSL
10 x 2% = 20%
125 kts IAS x 1.20 = 150 kts TA S

Speed of Sound 39 x V O A T in Kelvin 39 x • Jim = 662 knots

(knots) Kelvin = "Celsius + 273
Speed #1 Sound @ 1S'C x square roo! of the
□ A T at your altitude (K) divided by standard
I 238.5 K i-34 5*C ©FL2501
(emperaiure (K) 661.7 kls “Y 288.0 K (eis*C)
Speed of Sound
(k n o ts )
/ Q A T(K )@ ya u r altitude = 602,2 kts @-34.5°C
” 1. f KIS X y s tandar[i Temp(K)(15°C) (standard temp @25,000feet)

A p p ro x im a te T R U E Mach = ,72
A IR SP E E D in K N O T S Multiply the Mach number by 570
fro m MACH fl ,72 x 570 = 410 knots

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 387

C hap 11 — R e fe re n c e , R u le s o fT h u m b * C o n v e rs io n s ]

An airplane Mill kill you quick...

a woman takes her time,

M a n e u v e rin g S p e e d (V A)
D e te rm in e M a n e u v e rin g
S p e e d f V J a t le s s th a n
m a x la n d in g w e ig h t
(V A d e c re a s e s as w e ig h t
d e c re a s e s )
M a n e u v e rin g S p e e d (V J
E s tim a te H E IG H T o f
CLO UD B ASES f F }
E s tim a te H E IG H T o f
CLO UD B ASES (°C)
D ry A d ia b a tic Lap se R ato
D e w P o in t L a p s e R a te
FR E E ZIN G L e v e l
T IM E E n ro u tc
G RO UNDSPEED
Stall speed times the square root of the
load limit factor:
Normal category = 3.8 G's
.. / Current weight
** A * yMax Landing weight
Subtract 1 knot for each 100 pounds
under gross landing weight (approx
number for most light twins)
Temperature (SF ) - Dewpoint =
Spread x 227 = Height AGL
Temperature (°C) - Dewpoint =
Spread x 400 = Height AGL
S.5°F per 1000 feet
1°F per 1000 feet
°C * 2 x 1000 = Freezing Level
Distance + Groundspeed ■ Time
Distance * Time = Groundspeed
Square root of 3,8 G's = 1,95
Flaps-up stall speed = 72 knots
72 knots x 1.95 = 140.4 knots (VA)
/ 5000 Lbs
= 140 kts x y 6200 Lbs
Vw = 125.7 kts
Gross wt 6200 Lbs - Op wt 5000 Lbs
Gross wt Va = 140 kts
Operating wt VA = 128 kts
5 9 ° -4 6 = 13 x 227 ■ 2,951 feet
AGL
15 - 10 - 5 x 400 = 2000 feet AGL
5 .5 x 5 = 27.5ttF lower
@5000 fl above
1 x 5 = S’ F lower @5000 ft above
15°C + 2 x 1000 = 7,600 feet
500 NM + 160 kls = 3.125 hours
500 NM +■3.125 hours = 160 kts

FU E L B U R N ra te Fuel burned + time = Burn rate 100 gals * 3.125 hours = 32 gph

E N D U R AN C E Total fuel quantity + Bum rate = Time 140 gals + 32 gph = 4,375 hours
until you die!
FU E L O U A N T IT Y USED Time x Bum rate = Fuel used 3.125 hours x 32 gph = 100 gals
NM p e r G a llo n NM flown + Gallons used = NM 1gal 300 NM + 75 = 4 NM per gal

D IS T A N C E Time x Groundspeed = Distance 3.125 hours x 160 kts = 500 NM

Nautical M ii*s p e r M in u te True Airspeed t 60 = NM per minute 240 kts + 60 = 4 NM per minute
Round the airspeed to the nearest 10 177 kts = 180 kls
Nautical Mite» p e r M in u te
— drop the zero — divide by 6 18 + 6 = 3
Nautical Mites p e r M in u te Multiply indicated Mach # by 10 .80 x 10 = 8 NM per min
M in u te s p e r NM 60 + Groundspeed = Minutes per NM 60 + 120 = .5 Minutes per NM
60 x Time between hearings 60 x 6 min _ 3Q m|n to
T IM E to S T A T IO N Bearing change = Time 105
TA S x Min flown 160x6 min = 96 mi|es
D IS T A N C E to S T A T IO N
Degree of bearing change = Distance 10*

388 EVERYTHING EX PLAIN ED fg r the Professional Pilot

 C h a p 11 — R e fe re n c e , R u le s o f T h u m b , C o n v e rs io n s

TIM E t o DESCEND ft = 16 minutes

“ : sLr , c 500 fpm
M IL E S to DESCEND Flight Level = Nautical Miles — = 103 NM — =27 NM
{3° D escent} 3 3

M IL E S to DESCEND Altitude to Lose (in thousands) 3II1thousand]- X 3 = S3 MM + 10 = 103 m m

(3* Descent)
RATE o f D E SCENT
3° R ATE o f D E 5C E N T
3 s R ATE o f D E SCENT
y R ATE o f D E SCENT
fr o m th e V is u a l D e s c e n t
P o in t (VDP) to la n d in g
L A N D IN G
L A N D IN G
L A N D IN G
L A N D IN G (jo t)
L A N D IN G
L A N D IN G
L A N D IN G (s m e ll a ir c r a ft)
L A N D IN G
(la rg e o r je t a ir c r a ft)
L A N D IN G
D y n a m ic H Y D R O P LA N E
S p e e d T A K E O F F ( tir e s
h o v e s p u n up)
D y n a m ic H Y D R O P LA N E
S p e e d L A N D IN G ( tir e s
h a v e n o t s p u n up)
-K_3.
Bi.lfuxnand) X 3 s 24 MM + 3 = 2? MM
NM (add 10%)
Altitude to Lose = Rate of Descent 24 ''m fl = 3.000 fpm
Time to Fix 6 minutes
Ground speed = 300 kts
Half your ground speed & add a zero Descent angle = 3r
(300 + 2) x 10 - 1.500 fpm
Ground speed = 300 kts
Multiply ground speed times 5 Descenl angle ■ 3°
300 x 5 = 1,500 rpm
Divide (he aroundsneed bv 2. then 100 kts (GS) + 2x 10 =
multinlv the result bv 10 500 fpm descent
Approach speed = 100 kts
A HEADWIND of 10% of your
approach speed will decrease your Headwind = 10 kts
Normal landing distance = 2,500 ft
landing distance by 20%
2.500 x .BO ■ 2,000 ft
Approach speed = 100 kts
A TAILW IND of 10% of your
Tailwind = 10 kts
approach speed will increase your
Normal landing distance = 2,500 ft
landing distance by 20%
2.500 x 1.20 = 3.000 ft
A 10% change in airspeed will result in a
20% change in stopping distance
For each knot above V ^ f —
The touchdown point will be 100 ft further down the runway
A 1,000 ft change in field elevation will cause a 4 % change In stopping
distance (greater the altitude, greater the landing distance)
A 10°C deviation from standard temperature will cause a 5% change in
stopping distance (higher temperature, longer stopping distance)
G USTLNG Conditions — Add 5 to 10 kts to VftEF on final approach
O U STIN G Conditions —
Typically add Vi the headwind component & all the gust factor
(for a maximum total of 20 knots] to V REF for final approach speed (V ap)
A slippery or wet runway can increase landing distance by 50% or more
0.6 x *\jMain wheel tire pressure fPSI)
7.7 x^/ Main wheel tire pressure (PSl)

W in g L o a d in g Gross weight (lbs) = Wing Loadlng

™ J b 5 „ = 32.2 Ib/sq It
Wing area (sq ft) 193.6 sq ft ^
P o w e r L o a d in g Gross weight (lbs) = Pow(fr Loadi e30Q lb5 - 10.5 Ibs/hp
Brake HP 600 HP K

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 389

 C hap 11 — R e fe re n c e , R u le s o f T h u m b , C o n v e rs io n s

CONVERSION TA B LES
TO C O N VER T FROM : IN T O : M U L T IP L Y B Y :
Ac r«t Square feel 43560

C e ntim e te rs Feet 0.03261

' \ Inches 0 3937
Extallailt and F R E E ecmv-arsiori
Meters 0.01
Eoftwa'a can ba lound art:
m w .¡05 h m adispn. com Mllll meters 10
Yards 0.01004
C m / tic Feet/min 1.96S5
Feet/sec 0.0326
Km ihr 0.036
Knots 0.0104
Miles/hr 0.02237
Feet Centimeters 30.43
Inches 12
Meters 0.3048
Miles (nautical) 0.000165
Miles (statute} 0.000169
Yards 0.333333333
Fe e t/ s e c Kilometersihr 1.09726
Knots 0.5921
Meters/sec 0.3048
M lk iih r 0.681818
Mites/min 0.011364
F ifth Milliliters 757
Ounces 25.6
Pints 1.6
Quart 0.30
Shots 25.6
G a l l o n s (British-Imperial) Gallons (US) 1.2009
Liters 4.546
G a l l o n s (US) Gallons (British-Imperial) 0.03267
Liters 3,7354
Ounces 128
Pints S
Quarts 4
G ram s Kilograms 0.001
Milligrams 1000
Ounces 0.0327
H orsep ow e r Foot pound-force/min 33000
Feet pcund-foreeysec 550
Kilowatts 0.7457
Walts 745.7
Inc he s Centimeters 2.54
Millimeters 25.40
In c h e s of M e rc u ry Millibarsi'HectoPascals 33.864

Jig g e rs Ounces 1.5

390 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PicfnsEtcn.il Pilot

 C hap 11 — R e fe re n c e , R u le s o f T h u m b , C o n v e rs io n s
TO C O N V E R T FR O M ; IN T O : M U L T IP L Y B Y :
K ilo g ra m s Ounces 35.27395
Pounds 2.20452
Tons (long) 5.00098
Tons (metric) 0.001
Tons— US {short) 0.001102
K ilo m e te r s Feel 3260.64
Miles {nautical) 0.53996
Miles {statute) 0.62137
Yards 1093.51
K ilo w a tt s Fool pound-force/sec 737.56
Horsepower 1.341
Watts 1000
K n o ts Feet/sec 1 688
Meters/sec 0.5144
Miles {nauiicalj/hr 1
Miles (statute)/hr 1.150&
L ite r s Gallons (US) 0-20417
Gallons (British-Imperial) 0.220
Ounces 33.61402
Quarts 1 0567
M e te rs Cenlimelers 100
Feet 3.28084
Inches 39.3701
Kilometers 6.001
Millimeters 1QQ0
Yards 1.0936
M e te rs /s e c Feet/sec 3.2606
Knots (nautical miles/hr] 1.9438124
Miles {statute /hr 2.2369
M ile s { n a u tic a l} Feel 6076.12
Kilometers 1 352
Meters 1852
Miles (statute) 1.1507B
Yards 2025.3733
M ile s { s ta tu te ) Feet 5230
Kilometers 1.609344
Meters 1609.344
Miles (nautical) 0.86898
Yards 1760
M ile s P e r H o u r Feet/sec 1 4667
Kilometers/hr 1.6093
Knots (nautical miles/hr) 0.668976
Meters/sec 0.4470555
Miles/min 0.01667
M i II i b a rs /H e c t o P a s c a 1s Pound-force/sq inch 0.0145
Inches of Mercury 0.0295287

M illilit e r s Liters 0.001

Ounces 0.0333
Pints 0.00211

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 391

C h a p 11 — R e fe re n c e , R u le s o f T h u m b , C o n v e rs io n s

T O C O N V E R T FRO M : INTO: M U LTIPLY B Y :

M illim e te r s Centimeiers 0.1
Decimeters 0.01
Dekemeiers 0.0001
Feet 0.00326
Inches 0.03937
Meters 0.001
Micrcmeters 1000
Microns 1000
Mils______________________________ 39.37
M ils Inches 0.001

O u n c e s (US weight)(avoirdupois) Grams 26.3495

Pounds 0.0625
O u n c e s (US fluid) Cups 0.125
Fifths 0.039
Gallons 0.00761
Liters 0.02957
Pints 0.0625
Quarts 0.031
Shots 1.0
Teaspoons 6.0
Tablespoons 2.0
P aces Centimeters 76.2
Feet 2.5
Inches 30
Meters 0.762
P in ts Cups 2
Fifths 0.525
Gallons 0.125
Liters 0.473176
Milliliters 473 176
Ounces 16.0
Quarts 0,5
Shots 16
Pounds Grams 453.59
Kilogram s 0,4536
Ounces 16
Tons (long) 0.0004464
Tons (metric) 0.0004536
Tons— US (short) 0.0005
Q u a rts Fifth 1.25
Gallons 0.25
Liters 0.94635
Ounces 32
Pints 2

392 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 C hap 11 — R e fe re n c e , R u le s o f T h u m b , C o n v e rs io n s

T O C O N V E R T FROM : INTO: M U LTIPLY B Y :

T a b le s p o o n « Cups 0.0625
Drops 180
Ounces 0.5
Teaspoons 3
Teaspoons Cups 0.0206333
Drops 60
Ounces 0.16667
Tablespoons 0.3333333

Tonnes Kilograms 1000

T o n s {lo n g ) Kilograms 1016.65

Pounds 2240
Tons (metric) 1.01665
Tons-US (short) 1.12
T o n s (m e tric ) Kilograms 1000
Pound« 2204.62
Tonne 1.0
Tons Oorqj 0.93421
Tons-U S (short) 1.1023
T o n s -U S (s h o rt) Kilograms 907,135
Pounds 2000
Tons (long) 0.39236
Tons (metric) 0.9071B
W a tts BTU/hr 3.41214
Foot pound-force/sec 0.737562
Horsepower 0-00134
Kilowatts 0.001
Y a rd s Centimeters 91.44
Feet 3
Inches 36
Meiers 0.9144
Miles (nautical) 4.937 x 10"1 -
Miles (statute) 5.632 x IQ 1*
Millimeters 914.4
Y e a rs Days {mean solar) 365.242
Weeks (mean calendar]_ 52.17746

EVERYTHING E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 393

A s m a ll g i f t f o r th e B o y S c o u ts , G irl S c o u ts , a n d e s p e c ia lly th e PC P o lic e ...
m a n y o f w h o m a re g o in g to th o r o u g h ly d e s p is e t h e n e x t c h a p te r .
I s in c e r e ly h o p e n o b o d y 's h e a d e x p lo d e s !

394 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED fg r the PiofnsEton.il Pilot

 Chapter 12

Lengel’s Radio Manual

Com m unicating in the “ Real W orld” of the Professional Pilot,..
... N O T the “ Student Pilot W orld” of the AIM
Introduction ... ... 396
Clearance..... ...39S
Taxi, Takeoff. ...401
Enrou le.......... ...402
Approach....... ...405
Emergencies. ...410
Miscellaneous ...412

Hello down there on the ground.

It's me op here in the sky.
Do you hear me? Over!

W e hear you up there in the sky.

Mow W h o are you , . W here are you,
c
and W hat the hell do you want?
Over!

E V E R Y T H I N G E X PL A IN E D for t h e P r o f e s s io n a l P ilo t 395

C h a p 12 — L e n g e l's R a d io M a n u a l]
I S a v e d M y P e rs o n a l P e t P e e v e f o r L a s t!
C o m m u n ic a tin g In th e R e a l W o r l d — Q u ic k ly , S a fe ly , L e g a lly a n d P ro fe s s io n a lly ...
. „ W O r t h e “ S tu d e n t P ilo t W o rld " o f th e A IM

W A R N IN G — You are aboijl lo enier a subject area that is highly controversial. If you’ve been clogging up
(he airwaves with useless redundant bullsfl!+ for many years; you may be totally set in your ways and totally
beyond hope. Those individuals will lake issue with many or these concepts claiming the AIM says you
M U S T say all those extra redundant words. Trust me... you don't! But I may never convince you.
Now for the rest of you. If you approach this chapter with an open mind I guarantee you will learn a lot.
I also guarantee:
1. The CO N TR O LLER S will appreciate it and you'll be given preferential treatment more often than
you realize, A few seconds here and there add up to major time in the controller's world,
2. Your FELLOW PILOTS will appreciate the fact they ggn now flej g word in edgewise.
3. YOU will appreciate your new found freedom to communicate In a more logical and safer manner.

L e t’s G e t S ta r te d :
Survival in the hioh traffic environment of a Class B airspace during rush hour or even enroute in certain
areas is an an form usually developed only from years of experience. The guidelines given in the Aeronautical
Information Manual do-nat-work when the controller is spitting out instructions like a machine gun. Seconds,
even milliseconds are crucial In getting the job done safely and efficiently. If everyone expressed themselves
precisely as the AIM recommended every time they spoke, the entire A TC system would come to a
crashing halt at many high volume locations! There simply Is not enough time available to say all those exlra,
redundant words every time you speak.

The AIM (4-2-1) also says — L,The single most important thought is understanding “ «'Brevity is important
and contacts should be keep as brief as possible.” AIM (4-4-7) — “ Pilots should read back 'those parts'of
A TC instructions containing altitude assignments or voctors. read-back of Ihe 'num bers' serves as a double
check."

Pilots who " babble" on the radio, especially when traffic is extremely busy, are tying up valuable air-time
potentially needed by someone with something important to say— for example:
-#1 The controller— needing to turn another aircraft immediately to avoid a conflict.
■* Another pilot — with a "PROBLEM” or just trying lo get a word in edgewise. ___________________
Even many so-called “professional pilots" are guilty and most certainly picked up
the habit early in their careers from a 250-hour flight instructor (with zero real world Old FAA proverb:
experience), a 500-hour "menior’ friend (with lillle real world experience), or from Controller say,..
one of the multitude of books WRITTEN for student pilots that teach you how to "He who sou/itf like
TALK like a student pilot. They certainly don't teach you to talk like on airline pilot bonehead shall be
gui-iy into JFK <Jj' ny a pus'i. Sue-id tome true iste-i ng Lo www.LiveATC.net. treated like bonehead."
Hopefully, you'll soon figure out who is getting their message across clearly and Buneheads ¿re u'Leri
directed to spend lime in
distinctly... and who Is eating up copious amounts of air lime entertaining
themselves but annoying the hell out of the controllers and other pilots. (he Penalty Box.
Old habits are hard to break and are passed on from generation to generation. Yup, it does exi&l!

Also— IN ORDER T O G E T IN ALL TH O SE EXTRA WORDS they feel they must Say— most 'babblers" speak
too rapidly, inarticulately, and usually unintelligibly when it comes to the IM PORTANT
WORDS such as HEADING, A L TITU D E , R O U TIN G , or FR E Q U E N C Y. This ha& also
been known to cause a PROBLEM... a very BUG PROBLEM.

The vast majority of pilot violations start with (he misunderstanding of instructions
aggravated by an unacceptable read-back given by you the pilot. When you mumble a
caaridkadi. a busy CfllUCflllat may assume you r_e_ad_Lt_b_a_c_k_c_o_rro_cll^ and move on...
even when your read-back may be totally bogus. Your next (rip may be an annoying
and expensive ride down ihe FAA’s Violation Boulevard (in a rental car with your lawyer on
board!;o).

Puleeeze... dump the babble and concentrate on e -nun-ci-a-tino the words that really
matter clear-1y and dis-tinct-ly with the area-test de- qree of clar-i-ty.
Do NO T m um *b le !

396 EVERYTHING EH PLAIN ED h r the Pnrfes sronal Pilot

 [ c h a p 12 — L e n g e l's R a d io M a n u a l

K e y W ords to A void — List of T ru ly Silly W ords & Phrases

1. D O N O T clog up air-time with extra "verbiage" {or as some might say... garbage") A V O ID — like a
festering ease of heroes— using the words:
{a) “G ood morning" — A very touchy subject. Some feel they must say these words in order to be friendly
and courteous. FINE — If things aro really quiet and you feel you must say these words then go ahead
and say them. Make yourself happy. But; when traffic is busy, and the controller is spittino out
instructions like a tobacco auctioneer on amphetamines — then shut the hell up by golly gosh darn it —
be professional— slick to the facls. Use the extra 1.3 seconds to aMic»U’late your calhsign &
a h trtude a IIM Ie more cfe a H y You can be just as ‘friendly'1with the tone of your voice and a
professional altitude.
{b} “This is'T - Let's hope it is Mr. Student Pilot!! Just state your call sign and your request.
{c) “Ready to (copy/taxi)" — Another impressive term, It lels them know you're ready lo clog up Iheir
frequency with copious amounts of extra, redundant, student pilot bull s#|ll!
(d) “Standing by for..." — Jusi loll them whai you want!
(e) “With you at” — Is this opposed to being "not with you?” He has a strong suspicion you’re "with him"
'cause he hears you babbling on his radio.
(f) “Checking in at" — Spend your time checking your heading and altitude pleaseM
{g) “ Level at” — Let's hope you're not in a 45* bank!! You've likely been “level af FL 330 for Ihe Iasi 200
miles. So there's a damn good chance he already knows you're level.
{h) “Out of" — Just read back your Tail# and the Altitude you're climbing or descending to when given a
new altitude assignment, “Out of 5 for 8" or "Leaving 5 for 8" is kind of poor taste (5 for 8 what?).
He knows you're going to be "out of' or "leaving" 5000 'cause he just gave you a new
altitude— you told him you were climbing to it— and he’s gonna be monitoring you to
make sure you actually comply! THAT'S L I K E . HIS JOB!!
{i) “ Leaving" — Something trees do in the fall. Just as redundant as "out of."
(j) “Ah... ah... ah... a h ...11 etc., etc. — Ah... no smart ass remark deemed necessary—
think before you talk.

2. Do N O T clog up air-time calling the facility or next controller by its “n a m e "** — T H E Y

A L R E A D Y K N O W W H A T TH E IR - N A M E " [S and they will most certainly tell you what
their "name" is when they answer your call. And by the way. W H O G IV E S A R A T 'S ASS
what their “name" anyway? What matters is you have the proper frequency Or
information. Expend your minuscule brainpower concentrating on that!! I've flown with
num erous professional ' pilots who iust can't seem to get oast this II drives mo
crazy when a copilot asks me “who are we talkin’ to?" My response: "W ho gives a
crap? We re talkin' to som e dude on 134.75 Tha t’s all that really matters ain't it?”

3. In other words... Do N O T say**— Charlotte Clearance, Charlotte Ground, Charlotte Tower, Charlotte
Departure, Atlanta Center, Indianapolis Center, Detroit Approach, etc., etc. Trust me... they already know
who they are. That’s why they get the big bucks!

“ E X C E P T IO N S :
When you’re VFR— IN FLIGHT and nobody knows you’re up there... and
you need to:
1 . Pick up your IFR clearance.
2. Request VFR flight following: or
3. Request VFR clearance Into Class B. C. or D airspace.
In these three scenarios... you should first introduce yourself to them as a
new aircraft by calling the facility its “n a m e 1
1followed by your full call sign —
lo get their attention — wait for a response — then say your request.
The Goal — Pack the maximum amount of meaning into the m inim um amount of band-w idth.
Extra words cost time — There’s no place for wasted time regardless of how calm the frequency may seem.
[|J^|

When one w ord will d o ... don't use three!

Flush the garbage! Say more, talk less. Less filling, tastes great!,-).
Politeness does count, but only so far. A quick “Th a nk s" gets the message across with only one syllable.
Always be 110% certain as to exactly what your clearance is — You as a pilot should know that a violation
is the kiss of death, whereas Ihe controller will not gel fired for making a simple mistake on a clearance or
failing to catch a read-back error. They screw it up all the lime so be ready to correct them!

E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 397

 Chap 12 — LengeEs Radio Manual
N O M EN CLA TU RE
Dafmilion (for dll you unsophislit-aletl slobs oui there] — Corvwfllans, systam of principles, procedures, and (arms.

U N D E R L IN E D T E R M S — usually H EA D IN G A L T IT U D E and F R E Q U E N C Y changes — need to be verbalized

with the greatest degree of dis-tinc-tion and clar-l-ty to avoid any possibility of a m is‘un»der»stand»inp.
S LO W D O W N .., A n ti c-u-late your words quickly but clear-Iv. Do N O T m U I T l *b lfe .

jF R C L E A R A N C E — L a rg e , E x tre m e ly B u s y A irp o rt
C la s s B or C w ith a d e d ic a t e d C le a r a n c e F re q u e n c y
C l e a r a n c e — IF R :
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike to New York (or JFK) with Novem ber
{ihem} Citation 123 Charlie Mike is cleared to JFK as filed— HORNET SIX departure— MERIL transition—
maintain BCflO— departure frequency 124.0— squawk 5637— and did you say you had November?
(you) H O R N E T SIX— M ER IL— 8000— 124.0 & 5637 for 3 Charlie Mike— we do have Novem ber

Actually— at most Class B airports— you only need to read back

Ihe squawk and your call sign (It usually says So on Ihe ATIS).

Best Example;
(you) 5637 for 3 Charlie Mike—we do have November

{them; 3 Charlie Mike read back correct— contact ground on 121.8 for taxi
(you) Point 8— thanks {No need for your call sign here, this is just a friendly reminder to call the ground guy
next)
Notice that we did N O T call them "Charlotte Clearance," because THEY ALREADY KNOW
T H E Y 'R E uCharlotte Clearance." Those dudes in the To w e r are real smart.

You do N O T have to say the words “IFR" or “ IN S TR U M E N TS " or that cute {and nauseating) phrase
‘ S TA N D IN G B Y FO R IFR C L E A R A N C E ." They assume EVERYONE is "instruments" unless you tell
them you're not instruments. 95% of all the traffic leaving any Class B or C airport will be on "instruments."
All they reafly need to know is your Tail # and Where you're going so they can locale your strip.

At a smaller Class D airport without a dedicated clearance frequency or late night

at Class BfC airport when the controller may be monitoring several frequencies
you might want to include the word "clearance" or “IFR" In your Initial call.
Example:
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike “clearance" to New York (or JFK ) with Mike, or
Citation 123 Charlie Mike “IFR" New York (or JF K ) with Mike

y_p.u_p.nlv_n.ecd to re.a.d_back the S Q U A W K and your GALL .SIGN unless you have a queslion.
If you listen closely to the A T IS you'll find that most only want a read back of the
S flU A W K and C A L L 5 IQ M — QNLX (unless vou have a question).
They just don't have the time to listen to full read backs from every aircraft especially during busy periods.
Try it... you'll like ill©.

All that being said... I must add (hat at smaller airports, where
Ihey have plenty of time, it's best to do a full read b a ck.

398 E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

 Chap 12 — Lenders Radio Manual

V F R C L E A R A N C E — L a r g e , E x tre m e ly B u s y A irp o rt
C le a ra n ce —V F R :
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike— V FR — RaleJgh (or RDU)— 9,500 r •

or... Citation 123 Charlie Mike VFR to Raleigh (or R D U )— 9 ;50D— j

“flight-following all the w ay” if you have the time

(themj Citation 123 Charlie Mike is cleared out of the Class B airspace—
maintain at or below 4000 — departure frequency 124.0— squawk 0345
(you) 0345— 3 Charlie Mike
(diem) 123 Charlie Mike read-back correct— contact ground on 121.8 for taxi
(you) Point 8— thanks (No need for your call sign here, this is just a friendly reminder to call the ground guy
next)
During an exlremely busy time — it might be better to G E T TH E IR A T T E N T IO N F IR S T , staling Just your
callsign and VFR — before you blurt out all your Information (e.g.: " Citation 123 Charlie Mike— V F R n or...
“Citation 123 Charlie Mike— V FR — R a le ig h ’t — or you'll Just end up having Lo repeat everything all over
again. Remember, YOU are the oddball VFR departure . everyone else is IFR. When you call, he will
actually have to— find a pencil— pick up the pencil— possibly have lo sharpen Ihe pencil— then write down the
information. So.,, if it's extremely busy.,, get his attention F/RST, so he can start looking for that pencil©

Remember, for VFR, what they need to know Is— Where you want to go— at what Altitude — and the Aircraft
Type. If you’re going a long distance, they may also need your inijial headlrm, so try to have that handy.

Flight Following:
VFR "Flight Following all the w av” Is a great idea if you're going more than a hundred miles or so. If the
clearance dude or dudelte isn’t loo busy, they'll create a “atrip" for you and you'll be handed off from
controller lo controller a/mosi like you're l£R- That Is until you start to approach the Northeast portion of the
country — they go by a different set of rules up there than the rest of the country — In fact it IS a different
country — It's called “YANKEE LAND]" (I affectionately call it that because I'm originally from that oountry.
I hale it when the PC Police send me those threatening email a!;o).
Gel used to the term " squawk 1200 cleared from Center frequency. I ain't got time to mess with you're
ass” just as you're finin’ to enter somebody's Class B airspace!? I love those guys. I bet they have a great
time watching you do " 360s” trying to sort things out after they dump v o u ll
Now you know ihe reason W H Y you spent all that lime practicing steep turns when you were learning to fly!(
Seriously folks,., always be aware of your location.,, controllers can dump you out of the system at any time.
It doesn't necessarily happen that often. Baton the rare occasion that you are dumped... It can be a little
startling if you're not prepared for It.

Im p o rtan t N O TE:
Remember that “Flight Follow ing” does N O T automatically clear you into or through anyone's Class B o r
£ (or D) airspace. You must get clearance directly from the facility that controls that airspace. It also
doesn’t guarantee passage through one of those delightful TF R s that have a habit of popping up at
random. Legally that’s your responsibility. You know how important those TFRs are... they pretend lo
"protect" El Señor Presidente and his entourage from a Skyhawk loaded with high explosives.

Another Important note about Flight Following:

You should pick up on the fact that you were assigned a transponder code starling wilh 03 Codes that start
with Q2 (for Charlotte anyway. 0-som ethm ' else at other locations) are local V FR codes This implies (he
controller may be too busy (at the moment} to enter you in Ihe "flight following" system . That means.., for
the time being anyway... you have WOT been entered into the "flight following" system... and you will N O T be
handed off to Center or the next controller automatically as you leave Charlotte's airspace. That being said...
Departure Control (or sometimes even Ground) m ay very well give you a new code (that starts with a
number other than 03). If that happens... you will know you are now IN the “flight following' system and
handed qff automatically as you leave the area.

E V E R Y T H IN G EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 399

C hap 12 — L e n g e T s R a d io M a n u al")

C L E A R A N C E — S m a ll. U n c o n tro lle d A irp o rt

— T w o S ce n a rios—
# 1 ■— Getting your IFR cle a ra n ce w hile you’re still O N th e G R O U N D (before
departure) at a sm all uncontrolled airport:
FYI — If the weather is truly IFR you have absolutely no choice but to get your clearance before you depart,
HOWEVER... If the weather is VFR you should know that getting your IFR clearance before departure can
often be a very time consum ing pro ce ss. For starters it usually involves a middleman — i.e_; Lockheed
Martin A FSS (not necessarily the most reliable outfit on the planet;o}. You will have to call them and ask for
your clearance — they m ust then call A T C to &et your clearance — then they call you back to give you the
cle a ra n ce — then you read It back lo them After departure you'll have to establish contact with A T C on
the frequency FSS has given you. If there is any other IFR traffic inbound to that airport that might conflict with
required separation... your IFR clearance cannot be issued until that other aircraft has canceled. This could
take a L O O O N G time in many situations even if the weather is clear and a million. If possible, I also suggest
asking someone at the FBQ what the local procedures ore. So,., if you choose to get your clearance while
you're still on the ground... here are the normal options:
1. Call Lockheed Martin A F S S on their dedicated IFR clearance n u m b e r— 888-766-8267; or
2. If available — Call FSS on the advertised "RCQ" {Remote £ommunications Outlet) frequency: or
3. If available — Call A T C directly on the advertised “RTR" (Remote Transmitter.''Receiver) frequency; or
4. If available — Call ATC/FSS on the advertised "GCO" {ground Communication Sutlet) frequency.
5. W A R N IN G * — Please be aware that in virtually all cases you will be issued a “Clearance Void tim e.'r
You must N O T depart after the "Void time" or you will be in yjglation of FAR 91.173 Quite simply
because your clearance is “V o id '1after (hat time. (Duh... thank you Captain ObviousLo)

# 2 — P ic k in g up y o u r IFR c le a r a n c e A F T E R D E P A R T I N G V F R (a ir b o rn e ) fro m a
s m a ll u n c o n tro lle d a irp o rt: (Example— Rocky Mount. NO — RWI)
1. This type Of clearance is totally different, from the one you get when you're still on the a rou nd .
2. Is it more expeditious? Usually... almost always. It cuts out the middle man and almost always gets
you in the system and on ihe road to your destination quicker. Then again... if you’re getling paid by
the hour.,, maybe you should revert back to Scenano_#1 and get it while you're still on the ground;o).
3. Qf course it must actually B E V FR in order to do this.
4. Also I H IG H L Y recommend C U M B tN G while C IR C L IN G over the top of the airport
5. I do N O T recommend striking out cross-country while trying to raise ATC for your clearance unless you
are extremely familiar with Ihe surrounding airspace and terrain. Also... are you 100% confident one of
(hose delightful little T F R s didn't just pop up nearby?!;o).
6. NOTE; l must mention there may be a rare occasion when deparling from a small airport in a high traffic
area when it may take a few minutes to get a word in edgewise to get your clearance.
7. Anyway... here's how you do It:
H ow to Pick U p T o u r IFR Clearance in the air after departing V F R :
(you) Washington Center— Citation 123 Charlie Mike [A L W A Y S get their attention F I R S T !)
(them) Citation 123 Chadie Mike go ahead
(you) 123 CharlJe Mike is O F F the artiurtd from Rocky Mount— IFR to New York
(them) 123 Charlie Mike can you maintain your own terraln/obstructlon clearance through 3000 feet?
(you) No problem sir
(them) 123 Charlie Mike is cleaned to JFK as filed— climb and maintain 8000 for now— squawk 6453
(you) A s filed— 6000— 6453— 123 Charlie Mike
—- ------- _ _ _ _ _ _ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
GET THEIR A TTENTION FIRS T Introduce yourself to them as a new aircraft by calling them
''W ashington Center.” or whatever their "name’ is, and your full call sign, before you blurt out all your
information — or you'll just end up having lo repeat everything all over again. If you're not sure of their
“name," then just call them “Center" or " A pp roach.11 Let them figure out who they aret;-).

The controller Is accustomed to most pilots getting their IFR clearance while they're still “O N the a rou nd .”
usually a very time consuming process. They must be made to understand that yeu are in fact “ O F F the
around” aka " airborne.11 An “ O FF the around” clearance is completely different from one given when
the aircraft is still " ON the around.” Personally I've found that the words "off the ground" work better than
the word "airborne."

400 E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

 Chap 12 — Len gel's Radio Manual

TAXI
— r ____
mammpmu,
T a x i (C L T ): ^ -v_
(you) 123 Charlie Mike taxi from Wilson
(them) 123 Charlie Mike expect 36R— taxi via left turn on Delta— hold short of runway 36R at Delta 2
(you) H o ld short of 36R nt Delta Z — 123 Charlie Mike {no need toread back 'expect 3AFV this Is only an advisory al
tills point)
Notice we did not call them "Charlotte Ground" because they already k n o w they're " Charlotte G ro u n d ."
What they n e e d to know is— W ho Y O U are— What Y O U want to do— and Where the hell you're at

Notice we did not say ''ready to1’ taxi [ v e ry student pilot); or ''standing by for" taxi i v e r v . v ery student pilot);
or the very entertaining "'standing b v w ilh clearance for" taxi ( ve ry. v e ry , v e ry student pilot).
Just say your “full call sign"— 'taxi from ” the “ location” you're at. Yup, that's ill

They M U S T hear the words “Hold Short” and the location you're going to hold short in your read back.

Taxi {continued}:
(ihom) Citation 123 Charlie Mike cross 3BR at Delta 2, and taxi to 36R
(you) 123 Charlie Mike is crossing 36R— (he ll understand you're going to the end of 36R)
Remind Iherr thal you are crossing the runway in your read back lust to confirm . “ Runway incursions”
are a VERY big deal, fn addition like yo’ mama used to say, regardless of your clearance, always took both
ways before you go charging across any. runway. Make damn sure no one’s on short final. It happens!

T A K E O F F & D e p a rtu re
Take Off — You're ready and w aiting at the end of the runway—# 1 for departure—
and nobody se em s to flive a dam n;
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike “ ready when vou are'1(Onto again — he already Knows h-e's; Charlotte Tower!}
(ihem) Citation 123 Charlie Mike after departure turn right heading 090— maintain BGGQ— cleared for takeoff
(you) Zero Nine Zero— 8000— 3 Charlie Mike rollin'
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1
If you are #6 in line for takeoff (Or even If you re #2), do N O T sa v “123 Charlie Mike is ready in sequence "
That statement is ABSURDLY meaningless and stupid. DO NOT SAY IT!

After Take Off:

(ihom) Citation 123 Charlie Mike contact departure
(you) Departure— 3 Charlie Mike
(or... “OK well see ya, thanks,” or even ,. "Departure, thanks" (tail# is not very Important here)
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike — 2.6 for 3000 (they must verify your Mode C readout at this point)
(ihsm) Citation 123 Charlie Mike — turn left heading 060— climb and maintain One Zero thousand
(you) Zero Six Zero and One Z e ro , Ten Tho u sa n d — 123 Charlie Mike (left or right is not important here,
unless it doesn't make sense)
On your first call to departure they M U S T confirm your Mode C read out. Thai’s why you need to mention the
altitude you're passing through 2.6 is a little quicker and cleaner than saving 2.600 feet It's not
necessarily extremely important to tell them what altitude you are cleared to... but it’s probably a good idea.
Actually— what usually happens— they'll give you a new altitude and/or heading at this time.

NO TE #1 : NO TE # 2 :
Do N O T mumble - say your words c le a H v and If they ask you a question that requires a yes
dia 'tinct'ly. Especially the importuni ones like or a s answer - the words affirmative or
heading, altitude, routing or frequency. negative are the appropriate responses.

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Chap 12 — Lengel’s Radio Manual

E N R O U T E S c e n a r io s r"S]
Frequency Change (you are level at 10,000):
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike contact Washington Center now on 135,
(you) One Three Five Point T w o — 3 Charlie Mike 'V . ~
(Change frequency— but LISTEN a few seconds before talking so you don't step on an on-going conversation)
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike— One Zero thousand
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike— Washington Center— good morning— altimeter at Raleigh is ah ah.,, ah ,,
30.02
(you) Three Zero Zero Tw o (no need (or your tail# here, you’re in a conversation, this is N O T a new
clearance)
—
Remember, you do not have to call "Washington Center" — "Washington Center," He already k n o w s he's
" Washington Center” and he will most certainly re// you he's "Washington Center" when he answers your
call. Whal he needs to know is your F U L L Call Sign and Altitude He’ll be expecting you 'cause he has
accepted the 'hand-off" from Charlotte.

Do j J Q T tell him you're “ checking in at.” ‘'level at.” or “with you at." He ajready knows that ‘cause
you’re talkin' to him The guys that work the "Center" frequencies have a much higher pay grade than local
controllers. All that extra money makes them very, very smartho).
All he needs to know is vour Tail# and the Altitude you're at lo confirm your Mode C.
He It let you know If it's Good Morning or n c tho).

W hen you R E A D B A C K the altimeter setting, do N O T bother to include you r tall#. You’re in a
conversation, this is NOT a new clearance, it's just the current altimeter which is normally not much
different than the last altimeter setting you had.

Pay A T T E N T ION— Jf there is even the slightest doubt that a new clearance was for you— ask them to
CO.KQBW I I Us very easy to th in k you hear new in.attUJ M n s for you— when they actually were for an aircraft
with a similar call sign. You and the other aircraft might read back the clearance simultaneously— the
controller may only hear the closer aircraft— which may N O T be you— He can't correct you because he didn't
hear you— and YOUR read back is N O T on the tape — You change altitudes— YOU are B U S T E D , without a
leg to stand on! This type of error happens all the lime, Don’t let It happen to you!
Do N O T A C C E P T a N EW C L E A R A N C E unless
you’re A B S O L U T E L Y — 110% — POSITIVE jf was for Y O U .
If you have even 1% of doubt... call them back and tell them to CONFIRM IT!

Altitude Change:
(Lhem) Citation 123 Charlie Mike climb and maintain one five, fifteen thousand
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike climbing — One-Five, Fifteen thousand

or... clim bing "ta*” (or "a*") O ne-Five— Fifteen thousand— 123 Charlie Mike; or...
O n e -F ive — Fifteen thousand for 123 Charlie Mike: or... One-Five — Fifteen thousand — 123 Charlie Mike}

*The word “la" is not a typo. "la" (or “a") might look a little weird out of context, but It
avoids any confusion that might arise between the word to and the num ber two (2),
especially if your tail# happens to end with a number instead of a letter.
Let’s be real — This is how people really talk anyway!

"O u t of 10 for 15" or "Leaving 10 for 15” is kind of redundant He knows you’re going to "leave" 13,000
'cause he just gave you a new altitude— you (old him you were climbing to it— and he's gonna be monitoring
VOU to m ake Sure vOu actually Comply! THAT'S LIKE — HIS JOBt!
J u s t read back your Tall# and the Altitude you're clim bing or descending to.

402 E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D h r the Professional Pilot

 C hap 12 — L e n g e T s R a d io M a n u a l

E N R O U T E S c e n a r io s (continued)

You H aven’t Heard Anyone T a lk On the Radio For A L o n g Tim e:

(Check your squelch and volume first before you make this call)
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike radio check This is called getting a
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike loud and dear how me? radio check." It's amazing
(you) Loud and dear also, thanks, Just got a little quiet up here. how many pilots have never
heard of this term.
NO TE # 3 ;
When you're in a " c o n v e rs a tio n " with a controller — PuVeeeze do N O T rep ea t
v o u r tail # after each se n te n ce (that is sooo student pilot) (also extremely
and time consuming). Wait till the END of the conversation. Then, if. and
a n n o y in g
ONLY if, they have given y o j NEW clearance instructions, you would then read back
the new instructions with your tail # at the end.

‘‘Miner” is more explicit than "Nine”

Especially Ityou're controller Is of German descent. He might get confused and think you
meant "no" instead of ‘9" (some of those ex-Nazi's never learniio).
Plus ~niner" makes you soon# like you know whai you're doin' even If you don't!

You Want an Altitude Change Enroute:

(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike— request— Niner thousand
(thorn) Citation 123 Charlie Mike descend and maintain Nin&r thousand
(you) 123 Charlie Mike descending ta Niner thousand

You Want an Altitude Change Enroute — Th e Double Read B ack :

(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike— request— O ne-Zero thousand
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike climb and maintain One-Zero — Ten ihousand
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike clim bing ta One-Zero — T e n thousand (notice the "double read-bach" for
the initial clearance)

A disproportionately large percentage of altitude busts occur because of misunderstandings between 10,000
and 15,000 feet. Avoid a violation on your ticket (andmaytiaachunKof aluminum upyour ass) by doing the “double
re a d -b a c k " {For initial clearance only... altar that. . one-zero thousand; nr one-ana thousand, eit. is more appropriate):
0 ne-Zero— Ten th ous an d -------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------,
One One Eteveo thousand I FL 200 and FL 22Q confusion is also quite common, f
One-Two— Twelve thousand etc. ______________________________________________
The ,Ldcads|ftjaad_ba£k" Se aniy reaiiy m e m a a g fot thè tniiLaljUUmJfl
asslnriment Aiier mal — such ss when you're checKing in witn a new
conlroller aunng a fr&quoncy change — lls moro appropriata to jusl use
Ona la r t i tliousand, or One-One tFieusand; or Onn-Two ttieusaiìd; eie.

E V E R Y T H IN G EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 403

 Chap 12 — Lengel's Radio M anu a l_

E N R O U T E S c e n a r io s (continued}

T r a f f ic A l e rt E n ro u te :
(them) Citalion 123 Charlie Mike traffic at 10 o'clock— 10 miles— a Jetstream al 9000
(you) 3 C h a rlie M ike lo o k in ' (PLEASE do NOT say "no joy" or "not in sight’ . Jusi toll him you'rn lookin')! 100 bucks
says you miss him iegardlES3!l;o}

Do N O T make a big deal out of an enroute traffic_ale.i!l. Keep an eye out for the other aircraft but don't
dwell on it. F L Y T H E A IR P L A N E !! If It’s other IFR traffic, there will always be at least a thousand foot
altitude difference. If you do eventually see the traffic, you do NOT have lo instantly |ump oh the microphone
and report it immediately. Get to it when you get to it— or get to it when he points out the traffic again.
Etomcmkcr Q n c c y o u .c a ll the traffic in sight you assume the responsibility of k e e p in g it in sight
HOWEVER, if it's VFR traffic that they're n o t talking to . without a confirmed Mode C. or (here's only a 500
foot altitude difference, it's time to get all eves a-loohin'

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- L
If you D O get ihe traffic in sight, ofease don't sav - T a lly Ho”—
that's sooo frightfully British and sooo dreadfully co rn y!

Clim b C le a ra n ce into the Flijjht_Levels:

(them) Citalion 123 Charlie Mike climb and maintain FL32G
(you) FL320 for 123 Charlie Mike for Clim bin' ta FL32Q 123 CM !

' Don't forget to set your altimeter to 29.92 as you approach FL180,
No dice, Chicago. I'm
giving the orders and
wo're coming in.
I guess the fool's oh
the other hand now,

Frequency Change Enroute — While StiIJ_GJJmbing to F L320 :

(them} Citalion 123 Charlie Mike contact Washington Center now on 128,6
(you) One two eioht point S lit — 3 Charlie Mike thanks (change frequency—but listen before you talk]
(you) C.Ha.ti.ftO-12.3_C.bailtip_M.Uifi ~ 3.1..6 for FL320
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike— Washington Center Roger— Radar contact— Expect lower in 50 miles
(you) A response is noi necessarily necessary, however you can say ''Roger” if you likeJust to let him know
you heard him. ‘'Alrlqhty” could also be acceptable.

Be careful to transmit the A C T U A L altitude you're passing through.

There’s a large potential for error when using analog gauges.

404 E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D h r the Professional Pilot

 C hap 12 — Len g e l's R a tfio M a n u a l

A P P R O A C H IN G y our D E S T IN A T IO N <i f r )
You Want A Low er Altitude Approaching Your D estination:
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike looking for lower "IF Y O U G O T I T "
(ihem) Citation 123 Charlie Mike — "pilots discretion"— descend and maintain 7000— NY altimeter 30.03
(you) Pilot's discretion ta 7000— we're starting down now — 30.03— 123 Charlie Mike

“ I F Y O U C O T I T 3’ — or — “IF.YO U H AVE IT ”: (Equally lousy English o)

Lets them know that v o u k n o w — you’re in their airspace but v o u also k n ow — you're approaching the
Class B airspace of your destination (that is n o t controlled by your current controller). They may not be able
ic give you lower because of the proximity of Ihe Class B or Iraffic— but { E they can— you sure would like it.
They'll pick up on how smart you are and be real nice to you. This is called "public relations" (aka Kissin' a
little Ass). If you don't use this phrase... but simply ask for lower... controllers often feel the need lo explain
all the details of why they can't give you lower at this time.

PILO T'S D IS C R E T IO N ;
The controller has offered you the option of starting the descent (or climb) whenever you wish and at any
rate of descent (or climb} vou want You have the freedom lo temporarily level off al any intermediate
altitude, but once you have vacated an altitude, you cannot go back up (or down}[AIM 4-4-10 &
PiJot/Controller Glossary] You 5HQJJLG (MUST?) \n\ them know w h tn agu are starting down If they
do NOT say (he words 'pilot's discretion,” you are expected to climb or descend ‘at an optimum rale
consistent with the operating characteristics of the aircraft to 1.ODD feet above or below ihe assigned
altitude, and then attempt to descend or climb at a rate of between 500 and 1,500 FPM until the assigned
altitude is reached." (aim 4-4-ioj

You’re VFR (with Flight Following) and want to change altitude:

Be sure to ASK them if it's OK. It's not really necessarily necessary or technically required... but
you don’t want lo throw any surprises at the controller.
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike would Jike to descend to 4.500 " if it's OK with y'all"
((hum) 123 Charlie Mike — VFR descent is approved— remain VFR al all limes
(you) All righty— thanks
*************************************************************************************

'A n o th e r IM P O R T A N T W A R N IN G about V FR Flight F o llo w in g '

"Center” can N O T clear you into anyone's Class B. C or D airspace.
The only one that can give vou that clearance is the
approach control or tower that has jurisdiction over that airspace.
DO NOT get suckered into a viplationi
It is your responsibility to always know where you’re at.
If you're talking to Center; and ¡1looks like you’re going to enter Class B airspace;
and you can't get a word in edgewise,,,
then start practicing some 360s until you can sort things out.
; Here's another reason why you had to learn how to do 360sl!;o) S
^ ............................................................................................................................................... n r

E V E R Y T H IN G EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 405

 Chap 12 — LengeTs Radio Manual
f\
I a
l it
Y ou Want A Lower Altitude When First Entering C la s s B ^ ^
(w h ile d e s c e n d in g to 7000)1
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike contact New York Approach on 127.4
(you) 127.4— 3 Charlie Mike (change frequency— but wail a moment!:
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mlke-Mfor 7000— looking for lower— ‘ W H E N Y O U O P T I T "
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike— New York Approach— Expect ILS runway 31L— Kennedy altimeter 30.01
expect lower in 5 miles— Did you say you had Yankee?
(you) 30.Q1— W e have Yankee (no need Tor your tail#, the runway, or expect lower in 5— this is N O T a
clearance— it'sjust an advisory and you're in a conversation]__________
- or “WHEN YOU H A V E IJT' [Equally lousy Engiishio)
You know— you Ye not quite in their airspace yet (cause you just got the liand-oir)— so therefore— y o u
know— they probably can't pet you lower right at this moment. But as soon as they can, you sure would
like it. Again, they’ll pick up on how smart you are and be real nice to you, Once again, good PR,

The " H A N D O F F ” — You should be aware that you are v irtu a lly n e v e r in the new controller’s
airspace when you receive a “ hand off.'1 You must be ‘handed off' B E F O R E you enter the new
controller's airspace. That’s why, most of the time, your new controller cannot give you a different altitude
nghl away — 'cause you ami in his airspace.
Also, on rare occasion, you’ll be asked to do some "360rs" oul In (he middle of nowhere because your
current conlrolier “ cannot facilitate the hand off," You're not allowed in a controller's airspace unless
you’ve been “accepted.” Usually done with a mouse dick.

You Want A Lower Altitude While In C la s s B (or close to the destination airport):
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike lookin' for lower "IF YOU HAVE I F '
(them) Citalion 123 Charlie Mike descend and maintain 4000, expect the ILS 31L
(you) 4Q00— 123 Charlie Mike (again, no need to read back the runway, this is n o t vet a clearance, it's only
an advisory)
“IF YOU HAVE I V
Lets ihem know— that you know— you're In his airspace— but they might not h a v e a lower altitude right now
due to airspace restrictions, obstructions or other traffic. But, if Ihey Q Q have it. You sure would like lo get
it! See what a smarty-pants you’re turning into. And the controller wrlll love you for it. He might
even offer to take you out to lunch after you land ©!!

/m Minimum Fuel Advisory”: (AIM— 5-5-15)

After stating your call sign, the term "Minimum Fuel" should be used. “Citation 123 Charlie Mike —
Minimum Fuel"
**■ This is not an emergency—but an advisory that an emergency is possible should any undue delay
occur.
**■ This lenn does not Imply the need for traffic “priority,1"
-»■ Really getting nervous?— Te ll them you need ''P R IO R ITY " — or declare an " E M E R G E N C Y " (means
the same)
+ NEVER use this as a ploy to cut in front of other traffic when you really don’t have a problem. You
never know who might be listening. Not a good Idea to draw undue attention to yourself that may
. stimulate the curiosity of an overpaid and underworked FAA cop... eer inspector!

406 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED h r the Professional Pilot

 I C hap 12 — L e n g e l’ s R a d io M a n u a l

A P P R O A C H & L A N D IN G
Heading—Altitude—Frequency Change:
(ihem) Citation 123 Charlie Mike tumleftheadinc3l 0de5cendandmaintain3QQ0cont3GtaDproacM 24.05
(you) 31 0— 3000— 124.05— 123 Charlie Mike (read back of "right" or "left" turn nol important unless it doesn’t
make sense)
(or... Would you mind saying that again a little slower please!!)

F i j i i . L A p a f & w i l - ’ lL S :
(ihem) Citation 123 Charlie Mike turn right heading 360— maintain 2000 till established— cleared ILS Rwy 31L
(you) MQ— 29M— cleared the approach for the left ^icig— 3 C h ? Hi? m g

Landing C learance: *55 t-w*

!
(ihem) Citation 123 Charlie Mike contact tower now on 123.0
(you) 123.9— 3 Charlie Mike (change frequency— but don't forget to wait a few seconds} ^
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike for the L E F T side (no need to say ILS"— EVERYONE is doing the ‘IL5!n)
(ihem) 123 Charlie Mike— Kennedy Tower— Keep your speed up as long as pradical— cleared to land 31L
(you) ClearedToJand on the left— 3_Charlie_M.ike

When you call the tower, it’s a good idea to remind him what runway you were cleared the approach for,
especial!/\f they are running parallel approaches to left and right runways, but you really D O N 'T K E E P T O
B O T H E R tailing, him you're on the " I L S ” — trust me — EVERYONE Is on the “ILS." And even if
someone ain’t. He really could care less. His only job is to clear you to land and then tell you to contact
ground. It's a wonderful job. I wish I could get ¡til

W v
.>
After Landing:
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike any right turn off the runway- -contact ground 121.9
(you) Point nine— Thanks (Mil* not impaftairt)(change frequency— bul only whan C LEAR of (he runway PAST the
hold short lire )
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike going to the General Aviation Term inal and we are " not familiar"

It's best to just tell him y o u ’re " not familiar." Give him a chance lo volunteer to give you “progressiva"
— this makes him feel real important, Don't forget lo read back all “hold short" instructions as he gives you
"progressive" to your destination on the airport.
Congratulations, you have successfully arrived at New York’s JFK Airport!

NOTE. If you land at JFK and you're truly "not familiar." Just tell them to brine out the "Follow Me" truck.
Yup they got one; and yup, you just might need It! Finding that dive Ihey call an FBQ run by the NY Pori
Authority can be a bit challenging without one. IVft seen better FBOs in third world countries!

John F. Kennedy Inti. Airport

New York
E V E R Y T H tN G E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot 407
C h a p 1 2 — L e n g e l’s R a d io M a n u a l

IF R A R R jV A L at S m a ll U n c o n tro lle d A irp o rt

IFR A rrival at Sm all A irport— no to w e r— VFR conditions— you have the airport in sight:
Citation 123 Charlie Mike the airport is 12 o'clock and 8 miles reporl cancellation with me or with FSS on
the ground— change lo advisory is approved
(you) 123 Charlie Mike hae the airport In eight— we can “C A N C E L " with you now
{them) 123 Charlie Mike cancellation received— squawk 1200— have a nice day
(you) AH righty — thanks a lot for your help (your tail# and "squawk 1200" ¡S not important at this point)

The important key word here is " C A N C E L ." You Should always C A N C E L as so on as p o s s ib le in visual
conditions so as to dear the way for other IFR traffic behind you or waiting to depart. This also eliminates
the chance Of forgetting to cancel afier landing Once he has received your cancellation, veur tail#
becomes irrelevant, and he really doesn't need you to read back the " squawk 12Q0" part either. Just
thank him for his help and gel on with the show.
"IM P O R T A N T * — Do N O T cancel early unless legal V FR conditions actually existl
You never know who might be lurking In the weeds looking for someone to slap with a violation!'
Don't you just love those self-righteous ‘Inspector Bullies" who take great pleasure
in making other people's lives miserable over what Is very often petty bull s#K7

T R A F F IC P A T T E R N at an U N C O N T R O L L E D A IR P O R T
" Unicom Babble" m ust be kept to an absolute m inimum by all participants In order for It to work Your
tail# is kind of irrelevant and nobody gives a damn what it is anyway. Typical reports— landing Runway 20—
Rock Hill, SC (KUZA):
Rock Hill Unicom — Citation 123 Charlie Mike — airport advisory (it's important 10 »oo if anyone'» homo so you
can get Lo the snack machine)
Rock Hill traffic— GlutJort entering left dow nw ind— two ie r o {the word "runway" is not really
necessary— your Tail# Is definitely not necessary unless (here are tw o Citations In the pattern)
Rock HIM traffic— Citation turning left base— tw o zero (Tail# net necessary)
^ Rock Hill traffic— Citation— on final— two zero (Tall#notnettfisary)
After landing— unless there's other traffic in the pattern or waiting for takeoff— there's usually no
need to announce you're "clear of the runw ay" every time you exit. Consider the enigma... If a tree
falls in the wilderness— and (here's no one (here lo hear It— does it really make a sound?— does anyone
if it makes a sound? The only one that might give a damn Is another pilot in-flight,-«
g iv e a d a m n
hoping to avoid other in-flight traffic... maybe at another airport close b y .,.w h o ’s position report
yo u m ight Inadvertently step on with yo u r call. Although It’S probably courteous 10 announce you're
dear every single Umer the possibility of anyone actually colliding with you while you taxi to (he ramp is
pretty slim. There’s also a slim chance you’ll step on a call from another aircraft and acluall
mid-air collision... but it Is possible. Just my humble opinion. We report... you decideLo).
n .i i.i .i I ■

Hello there 3 Charlie Mike,

Rock Hill's landing runway 20.
Wind is 110a @ 31 gusting to 50.
There’s no other reported traffic,
We're poppin’ some fresh popcorn for
ya right now!

408 EVEH YTH /AIG E X P L A IN E D for the Professional Pilot

 C h a p 1 2 — L e n g e P s R a d io M a n u a l

V F R A R R IV A L at L a rg e , C la s s B or C A irport
V FR Arrival at C la s s B Airport (when nobody know s you’re u p there):
Scenario #1 — Approach from airport under the Class B or close bv
(you) Charlotte Approach— Citation 123 Charlie Mike
(ihem) Citation 123 Charlie Mike go ahead
(you) 3 Charlie Mike is over Rock Hill— landing Charlotte— Citation 560— Tw o thousand five hundred
((hem) Citation 123 Charlie Mike squawk 0347
(you) 0347 (no need for the tail# here 'cause you’re in a conversation and this is nof a clearance)
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike— Radar contact over Rock Hill— Cleared Class B— Tum right heading 060—
Climb end maintain 3000— Expect 36R— Altimeter 30.02— Did you say you had Whiskey?
(you) D6Q— 3Q0Q— We have Whiskey— 123 Charlie Mike

Scenario #2 — Approaching from well outside the Class B or C

(you) Charlotte Approach— Citation 123 Charlie Mike
(ihem) Citation 123 Charlie Mike go ahead
(you) 3 Charlie Mike— approaching from the NW— landing Charlotte— Citation 560— descendlno ta
Three thousand five hundred
(ihom) Citation 123 Charlie Mike squawk 0347
(you) 0347 (no need for the tall# here 'cause you’re in a conversation and this is noi a clearance)

Make your initial call about 40 miles out. That'S usually where they start controlling the airspace (even if
the Class B only extends out 30 miles). Make youir initial call early, especially if it's a busy time of day, so
you don't chance busting Class B airspace before you're cleared inlo it.

Introduce yourseir as a new aircraft by calling them

G E T T H E IR A T T E N T IO N F IR S T
“Charlotte Approach'1and your full call sign, before you blurt out all your Information
— or you’ll Just end up having to repeat everything all over again. Remember, you're the
oddball VFR arrival, everyone else is IFR. This is a very busy dude.

Remember, for VFR. what they need to know is — a pp ro xim a te ly (not exaclly) W h e re you are — W h a t
y o u w a n t to do ("landing Charlotte”) — the A ircra ft T y p e and the A ltitu d e you're at or descending to.

E V E R Y T H tN G EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 409

Chap 12 — LengeFs Radio Manual

E M E R G E N C IE S

In AA/Y emergency. d o N O T ' R E Q U E S T ” a d a m n th in g ! T E L L T H E M W H A T Y O L T R E D O IN G

Do N O T try lo maintain an altitude or heading that you cannot maintain JUST DO W H A T YOU H A V E
T O D O ... NOW! Num erous pilots have died because they waited fo ra "request" to be prantedll
J U S T D O IT! TELL THEM a bo u t it later! Take charge of the situation - YOU A R E T H E BO SS t!
9 1 . 3 R e s p o n s ib ility and A u th o rity of th e P ilo t In C o m m a n d (also 135 .19 ):
a) The Pilot In Command Is directly responsible for, and Is the final authority as to the operation of
that aircraft.
b) In an in-flight em ergency requiring Immediate action, the Pilot In Command may deviate from
any rule to the extent required to meet that em ergency.
c) "Upon the request of the Administrator," you m a y be required to supply a written report of the
incident— Usually, only when they think you might have had some part in caqstog the incident
(135.19 says you must file a report within 10 days),

E M E R G E N C Y — Engine Fire I Smoke

(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike— We have an engine fire and smoke In the cockpit— W E A R E
DESCEjNDING WOVY— need vectors for the nearest runway.
(them) 3 Charlie Mike understand smoke in oookpil— Turn right heading 360 cleared direct Charlotte— Descend
and maintain 3,000— Expect vectors ILS Runway 3fiR— You're 10 miles from the airport right now—
We'll have the equipment standing by.
(you) 360 ^ „„„„ A
■" -■
Som e H istory
SuuissAir Flight 111 — W ednesday, Septem ber 2. 1S9S:
The flight took off from J F K at 8:18 pm bound for Geneva.
At 9:10 p m . cruising at FL 330. the flight crew detected an odor of smoke in the cockpit. Four
minutes later, the smoke was visible.
At 9:14 pm the flight crew made a " pan-pan" radio call lo ATC. indicating lhal there was an urgent
problem with the flight, but not an em ergency [denoted by a "Mayday” call) R E Q U E S TIN G deviation
to Boston 3QQ nm awav A T C offered the crew a vector to the closer Halifax. Nova Scotia. 66 nm
aw ay, which the crew accepted.
The crew then put on their oxygen masks and the aircraft began its descent. They ran through the
two Swissair checklists for smoke in the cockpit, a process that would take approximately 20
minutes and become a later source of controversy.
At 9:19 the plane was 30 nautical miles from Halifax, but the crew requested more time to descend
from 21,000 ft
At 9:2Q. they informed A T C they needed to dum p fuel. ATC Halifax subsequently diverted the flight
toward a location where they could more safely dump fuel about 30 nm from Halifax.
^ At 9:24. the aircraft announced (finally] "Swissair 111 heavy is declaring em ergency and slated that
ihey had descended to "between 12,000 and 5,000 ft." The aircraft struck the ocean at 9:31 pm killing
all on board instantly,
This aircraft almost certainly would have landed safely if the crew had acted more decisively.

V a lu Je t Flight 592 — Saturday, M ay 11. 1996: „ ^

■> At 2:04 pm the D C-9 took off from Miami bound for Atlanta. n -
At 2:10 pm the flight crew noted an electrical problem . Seconds later, a flight attendant entered
the cockpit and advised (he flight crew gf a fire in the passenger cabin. Passengers' shouts of
"fire, fire fire" were recorded on the cockoit voice recorder when the cockpit door was opened.
^ The Crew immediately A S K E D air traffic control for a return to Miami due to smoke in the cockpit.
Aircraft was given instructions for a return to the airport.
One minute later, the First Officer requested the nearest available airport.
^ Flight 592 disappeared from radar at 2:14 pm and crashed m the Everglades, a few miles west of
Miami, at a speed in excess of 500 miles per hour. All 110 people aboard were killed instantly.
+ With only four minutes from problem detection lo crash, unfortunately no action by the crew could
have saved this flight.

410 E V E R Y T H IN G E X P L A IN E D h r the Professional Pilot

 C hap 12 — L e n g e l's R a d io M a n u a l]
US A irw a ys Flight 1 5 4 9 ------ January 15, 2009:
Flight 1549 — "Ah, this isr uh, Cactus 1539 (sic). Hit birds. We lost
thrust in both engines. We're turning back towards La Guard ia"
Departure — "OK yeah, you need to return to La Guardia, turn left,.
heading of. uh. 220" rr— ........................— . — —
Flight 1549 - 220 f i l l
Departure contacts the LaGuardia tower via land line — Tower, stop
your departures. We got an emergency returning.’
Tower — "Who is it?"
Departure — "It's 1529 [sic], he eh, bird strike. He lost all engines. He lost Ihe thrust in the engines He
is returning immediately.” Notice that Sully was too busy to officially
■» Tower — "Cactus 1529 [sic], which engine?"
declare an emergency, Also notice the
-+ Departure — "He lost thrust In both engines, he said.*
confusion over the call sign.
Tower — "Got it"
Departure — "Cactus 1529 [sic], If we can get it to you, do you want to try to land runway 1-3?"
^ Flight 1549 — "We're unable. We may end up in the Hudson."
Departure — "All right cactus 1549, It's going to be a left, Traffic to runway 3-1."
■» Flight 1549 — "Unable"
Departure — "Cactus 1549, runway four Is available if you went to make left traffic to runway four,"
Flight 1549 - I am not sure If we can make any runway. Oh, what's that over to our right? Anything
in New Jersey, maybe Teterboro?"
+ Departure — "Cactus 1529 [sic], turn right 2-8-0, you can land runway one at Teterboro."
Flight 1549 — "We can't do It." [A few seconds later] "We're gonna be in the Hudson."
+ Departure — "I'm sorry, say again. Cactus." (No response as Capl Sully prepares for splashdownI)

‘'M inor" E M E R G E N C Y — Relatively m inor Problem — A light indicates an issue with the Hydraulic System :
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike— W e ’re having a problem with the hydraulic system and w *’d like to
get back on the ground as soon as practical.
(ihcm) 3 Charlie Mike understand— are you declaring an emergency?
(you) Well— we're doing OK right now — But as a precaution— We do need to get it on the ground A s
S o o n A s P o s s ib le .

However, if they do not give you almost direct to the airport and/or the problem starts getting worse...
It's time to tell them you need “P R IO R ITY” Saying the words “We need PR IO R ITY' will get you exactly
what you want RIGHT NOWI ‘' Em ergency" and ‘' Priority1' mean the same to ATC. See 91.123(d)

E M E R G E N C Y — Thunderstorm — Updraft:
iA F T E R you've powered back and put the speed brakes out and/or drooped the landing gear in order to
slow and stabilize Ihe aircraft)
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike is in E X T R E M E turbulence — we're going up 4000 FPM— we ll let ycu
know when we can level off
(ihcm) 3 Charlie Mike— understand sir— what altitude are you leaving now?
(you) Right now we're passing through Flight Level 480— still going up 4000 FPMtf
(ihem) Roger sir— let us know when you decide to level off— We ll divert the International Space Station traffic
aboj/e you lust in case./'ol,
“ EXTREME Turbulence" — The aircraft is being violently tossed about and is practically Impossible to
control. It may cause structural damage, if the pilot doesn't do something about It Immediately. AIM 7-1-20.

In an em ergency— A L A R G E A IR P O R T with a L O N G R U N W A Y and an ILS providing glide slope

Information is definitely an important consideration with a large aircraft and/or bad weather. However,
one must also consider 91.7(b), which has been interpreted to mean; "the pilot, In an emergency situation,
must land at (he FIRST AVAILABLE and 'SUITABLE' airport AT WHICH A SAFE LANDING CAN BE MADE.
But he Is WOT REQUIRED TO LAND AT THE FIRST AVAILABLE AIRPORT IF IT IS NOT SUITABLE’.1
According to the FAA. safety Is the paramount consideration. Convenience and comfort are not
considerations at all. The pilot Is required to land at the “FIR S T A V A IL A B L E " location “ C O N S IS T E N T wllh
S A F E T Y " . So. in other words, do not shut down an engine, and then fly another 100 m iles, passing
several " suitable" airports along the way, just to pet the airplane back home where your c a ri$ l
Somebody at the local FS D O may not consider fhat "consistent with safety," and you may very well hear these
words thete d slurbing words— “you're in a heap-oMrOuble B o y l"

E V E R Y T H IN G EX P LA IN ED for the Professional Pilot 411

[c h a p 1 2 — L e n d e r s R a d io M a n u a l

M IS C E L L A N E O U S
You Naad a Fraquancy Change to Call FS S for W eathor. ate.:
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike needs a frequency change for a “couple of m inutes"
(them| 3 Charlie Mike— roger sir that’s approved— report back up within 5 minuies
(you) We'll do it, thanks
(you) Louisville Radio— Louisville Radio — Citation 123 Charlie Mike L IS T E N IN G O N 112.6— O V ER
(them; Citation 123 Charlie Mike— Louisville Radio— What can we do for you today Sir?
(you) B lah,,, blah,., blah...
(them) Blah... blah... blah..,
(you) O K — Sounds great— That's all we need for now — Thanks a lot for your help today

Now Y o u Must Report Back In to Center:

(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike— iLback u p " at 380
{them) 3 Charlie Mike roger sir— contact Atlanta Center now on 132.S
(you) One three tw o point niner— 3 Charlie Mike
1 Don't bother telling them you want to "talk to FS S about the weather T H E Y D O N 'T G IV E A R A T 'S A S S
W H A T Y O U W A N T the F R E Q U E N C Y C H A N G E FOR bulthey do need some kind of TIM E FRAM E as
to HOW L O N G you might need, in case you’re getting close to the edge of their airspace. A " couple of
m inutes" usually works.
2. When you call F S S . be sure to tell them what frequency you're listening on or you won’t gel a response.
3, When yOU Check back on with A T C , it is common courtesy to mention the altitude you're back up at.

Ijf’s 2 am — You’re a Freight Pog and you need to call dispatch to chock for massages:
(Check in GPS or flight guide for a Unicom Frequency close by— usually 122.95 or 122.8 works best)
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike needs a frequency change for a “ couple of m inutes"
(them) 3 Charlie Mike roger sir that's approved — report back up
(you) We ll d o lt, thanks_______________________________________________________________
(you) Tri-C ity Aviation— Citation 123 Charlie Mike on 122.95 over
(Paggy)Hey there 3 Charlie Mike, this is Peggy Sue at Tri-City— haven't heard from you In a
while— go'head Dari in’
(you) Howzit goin' Peggy Sue— you know/1miss ya— I w onder if you could make an
call for m e?
(Peggy)Well OK— but it's gonna cost ya next time I see ya— go ahead with the number— B IG B O Y I
(you) O K — the num ber is— 800-555-1234— Just see if they have any messages for us and w e ll standby
for a reply.
(Pnggy)Qkey Dokey— I'll get right back to ya— ya know I’d dial a “900'' number for Y O U Sugar Pie
(you) Sure do ‘predate It Peggy Sue
[So,.. Peggy Sue mokes the telephone call to operations— then calls you bock on the radio]
(Paggy)3 Charlie Mike— they said "just call us when you get to the house." But I sure wish you’d come In for a
landin’ at M Y HOUSE Sugar
(you) Next time for sure Peggy Sue— gotta git along hom e right now — but I’ll be a seeltV ya
(Peggy)Come see me soon Big Boy— I'm hotter than a billy goat In a pepper patch. if you catch my dnft—
hugs & kissesl
c
N O TE 4:
If you can't find a suitable Unicom— or It's 2:00 am and no one seems to want to answer— try a call In the
blind on 122.95 wilh ihis kind of desperate (but very effective) plea:
"C ita tio n 123 C h a rlie Mike ca llin g a n y o n e on the g ro u n d w ith a te le p h o n e that can m a ke an
'8 0 0 1 call fo r u s — th a t’ s A N Y O N E o n the g ro u n d — on 122.95— that can m a ke an L8 0 0 f call for
u s — p le a se c o m e b a ck to 3 C h a rlie M ike — O V E R ."
This call W ILL get a response!

f------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
N O T E 5:
If you’re redly desperate — sometimes you can get FSS to make the call for you if they're net toe
busy. Slit do NOT count on them unless you're desperate... it's simply NOT their job.

412 E V E R Y T H IN G EH PLAIN ED for the Professional Pilot


AAFM—Approved Aircraft 1-lighl Manual ............. 174. 175. 317
AAIF—Approved Aircraft inspection Program ................. 309. 312
Abbreviated brialiog...............................................................223
Absolute altitude.....................................................................lie
Absoluts ceiling......................................................................333.350 Aircraft, specificemergency training..........................................297
AC ARS—Aiiboni Con-iiu-i cali&iis Addressing & Reportaiq.... 105, 152
Accelerated slipstream........................................................... 335
Annalerate■st&p.'acceterate go distance.......... 154. 156. 270. 333
Accelerate-stop/acce terete go distance—dry-Wet...................... 156
Aiinjrrapcj; rj pnssengor supplied modital oxygon............... 142
Access irtvesligelion check—airport badge..............................325
Ac-aidant or incident................................................................344
Accidcnl report........................................................................345
Accident scenarios—common multiengine accident scenarios...336
Accidents—nolificalten pf......................................................... 345
AC—Convectiuo outlook.......................................................... 225
Accumulator..........................................................................151
AEotaminoptien .................................................................2U1
ACM—Air-Cycle Machine........................................................ 151
Acne....................................................................................... 303 A rport ids ntiFiar logic............................................................... 379
Acrobatic category aircraft........................................................11.1&0 Airport reference point £ elevation..............................................26
Active number ol pilots in tba Limited Stale*.............................359
Actual inslrument time—logging..............................................177
Adual lahoorr pa1h—jet............................................................ 150
ADC US—AOvise CUSloms remark oil High! plan.....................277
Additional instruments £ equipment required—Part 135/121.... 313
Additional miscollanoous (arms Trom around Llto w o rd ............. 150
Additional reports to be made at all times...................................45
Address change......„ ........... „ ............ „ ........... , „ ........... „.,,,100
ADF—all ADf-NDB stuff..............................................53. 64. 151
ADF airway—colored airways—IJMF........................................ 47
ADF antenna (on aircraft)..........................................................90
ADF-GPS-DME—substitute GPS ter ADF. VOH or DME............ 94
ADF/GPS—general ADF/GPS infarmalion..................................52
ADF (NOB) Approach.................................................................&4
Adiabatic lapse rate—rule of thumb.........................................300
ADIZ £ DEWIZ boundaries and mountainous areas....................12
Administrative action—violation—ontorcemont action ... 342. 34 3
Administrative law judge—enlorcement action.......................... 343
Admission to Tight deck......................................................... 249
Admission to pilot's compartment—on route check...................292
ADS-H—Automated Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast...........103
Adult—standard average passenger weights ......................... 244
Advection fag.........................................................................220
Adverse vs. prnverse yaw....................................................... 357
Aerial photography..................................................................236
Aerobatic flight.........................................................................11
Aerodynamic twisling mcments caused by Taps..................... 355
Aeronautical Information Manual—AIM—only an advisory?... 346
AeroNav approach plate revision dale...................................... 49-
AFM—Airplane Flight Manual.................................. 174. 175. 317
H i CG—effects o f................................................................. 247.3&1 Alteration—6pMihn alter milnlflnarite. rebuilding—Ism flight?..........312
Age 65 and Fart 121 ...............................................................327
Agonic line—compass...........
AHARMMMS—approach brieilng mnemonic..............................56
AIM—Aeronautical Inlormation Manual—only an advisory?......346
Aiming poinl marking .............................................................. 26
Air ambulance flights—MEDEVAC.......................................... 356
Air carrier................................................................................ 232 Alternate—do you need an alternate? (Part 91)........................ 35
Air conditioning terminology..................................................... 151
Air Data Computer (ADC)........................................................ 154
Air Defense Identificaliori Zones—ADIZ £ DEWIZ...................... 12
Air turbine startar aka Pnaumetlc starter...................................140
AIR EVAC............................................................................... 356
Airborne CuiTinwnlcdliuiTL Addressmu a Rapurilnp—ACARE .... 165. 152
Airborne wualhar radar required.............................................. 315
Aircraft airworthiness..............................................................316
Aircraft approach categories—A. B. C. D. E....................... 55. 110
Aircraft categories (normal, commuter, utility, ale.)..............11.166
Aircraft category £ class.......................................................... 160
Aircrolt desses ter wakn turbulence saparalion........................ 373
Aircraft country registration number codes................................370
INDEX
Aircraft dispatcher....................................................................326
Air craft Flight Manual—AFM.................................... 174,175, 317
Aircraft lights............................................................... 04. 05. 371
Aircraft proving runs................................................................ 204
Aircraft roquirod tests &. inspections—106 hour, annual, etc......390
Aircraft requirements for commercial operations....................... 237
Aircraft requiring more than one pilot Ugh! crewmember..........106
Air-Cycle Machine—ACM.......................................................151
Airline Transport Pilot qualifications......... ....................100, 109
Airline Transport PlloL with Restricted Privileges....................... IBS
Airline Transport Pilot privileges................................................109
Airman Jiln~your pilot records—hew to obtein copy ......... 324
AIRMET—W A........................................................................ 224
Airplane Flight Manual—AFM................................. 174, 175, 317
Airplana—is lha airplane legal?................................................. 30
Airport Advisory Area—AAA.......................................................0
Airport analysis, destination.............................................. 204, 206
Airport badge—access invssligalion check................................325
Airport beacons...........................................................................4
Airport elevation 0 reference pdnt..............................................25
Airport identifier counuy prefix................................................. 370
Airport requirements—runway lighting (135/121)............. 276
A rport signs..............................................................................22
Airport Surveillance Radar approach—ASR............................... 61
Airport without an instrument approach—file IFF??...................... 34
Airports with no weather reporting—arrival at (Part 136)........ 264
Airports with no woaLhut reporting—departing (Pari 135)..........265
Airspace—graphic overview....................................................... 2
Airspeed indicator color-codes................................................114
Airspeed Indicator errors.......................................................... 114
Airspeed in knoLs vs Mach...............................................111, 116
Airspeeds—indicated, calibrated, equivalent, etc....................... 114
Airs lari-windmill start—Jet engine............................................ 1&2
Ai r-to-air Frequencies.............................................................. 102
Airway*—federal victor.............................................................47
Airworthiness certi'icale must be displayed.............................. 34
Airworthiness cerlificatE—on board the aircraft......................... 175
Airworthinimscheck/inapoction—Paris 136 £ 121.................... 247
Airworthiness—PIC is responsible ter.......................................316
Alcoholic beverages for passengers................................263, 202
Alcohol or drugs.....................................................202, 203. 265
Alcaho]—weight.......................................................................30 5
Alert areas................................................................................10
Algae In )0l fuel....................................................................... 145
All available information (preHighl adion)...................................34
A i «rteiMte hoJdera—flight tima £ duty (Part 135)............... 26C
All-cargo operations—7,600 pounds dr lass (Part 135)............. 233
AJJ-engine service ceiling......................................................... 350
ALS—Approach Light Systems................................. „.73-75, 252
A l SF-1 : ALSF-2........................................................ 73, 74, 262
Alta ration—major repair and allocation—FAA 337 Form...........363
Alternate 6. destination weather required (Part 135/121)...252, 253
06 Alternate—airport IFR weather minimum? (Part 135/121)......... 255
Alternate—airport IFR weather mlmmums (Part 91).................... 35
Alternate—airport means.................................................... 35, 255
Alternate—ALWAYS required except when................................35
Alternate—Aspen CO. Bishop CA, Lake Tahoe C A................... 35
Alternate—do you need an alternate? (Pnrt135/121)............. 254
Alternate—must have non-GPS approach available................... 94
Alternate—required {Part 91)..................................................... 35
Alternate—takooff alternate (Part 135/121)............................... 259
Alternate—WAA$ capable GPS................................................ 96
Altimeter errors—extremely cold wsather..........................119-121
Altimeter pitel/sLatlc check—ovary two years....................119, 135
Altimeter pitalistalic system—tested every 2 years....................119
Altimeter rules of thumb........................................................... 307
Altimeter selling....................................................................... 119
Altimeter selling—when not aveileble—epproach NA.......... 50, 53
Ahimeter soiling and the flight levels......................................... 134
Altimeter selling—high £ low altimeter setting restrictions........ 126
Altimeter setting—Q codes—QNH, ONE, QFE........................ HO
Animators should agree within ±75 Test.................................. 119
Altimetry end temperature..............................................119, 121
Altimatry around 1ha wortd.......„ .... ................................. 140-141
Altimetry in extremely cold woollier.....,.................................. 119
Altitude—alerting system—turbojet......................................... 162
Altitude—cardinal altitude..................... 132
Altitude—changing altitude—Pilot's discretion....................45, 129
Altitude—chambers—Physiological training.....................142, 195
Altitude—cross-reference................................................. 136-138
Altitude—cruising................... ............................................... 132
Altitude—density............................................. 118,124, 125, 3B7
Aililude—indicBled.................................................................. 118
Altitude—loss during stall recovery.......................................... 353
Altitude—minimum altitudes far IFR operations............... - ..... 128
Altitude—minimum safe altitudes............... 129
Altitude—oxygen altitudes........................................................139
Altitude—pattern altitude at airports without control tower ... 19, 131
Altitude—planning for shaft jet trips........... .............................386
Altitude—pressure altitude.......................................................118
Altitude—reporting—Transponder—Mode C ............................ 127
Altitude—restriction—crossing restriction..... ..................... 47, 111
Altitude—temperature correction chart..................................... 119
Aililude—temperature and humidity—effect on air density,.......123
Altitude—temperature and humidity—effect on lakeoff.............352
Altitude—traffic pattern at airports without control tower.....18, 131
AHitude—traffic pattern—Class B, C. or D .................... 19. 60, 130
Aililude—types—pressure, density, indicated, etc..................... 1t8
AM—Amplitude Modulation broadcast.......................................97
Analysis destination airport analysis............... .............. 284, 286
Angle of aLLack and lift—relationship................ ......................353
Angle or attack..................... 351-353
Angie of bank for a standard rale turn—rule ol thumb..............386
Angle of incidence................................................................... 351
Angular deviation—VQR—lull soeie, Vr scale deflection.... 46, 91
Annual inspection................................................................... 399
AM—oil—Army & Navy specilication equivalent number..........366
Antenna—for localizer end glideslope (ground)......................... 59
ANTENNAS—everything abouL ANTENNAS......................... 97-99
Anlicollision lights..................................................... 84, 85, 371
Anti-ice i1do-ice fluids............................................................. 212
Anti-servo tab.......................................................................... 357
AOPA "hotline" phone number.................................................346
Approach briefing mnemonic—ATIS-ATS................................. 50
.Approach zateqories—A. E, C. □, E.................................. 55, 110
Approach Light Systems—ALS.................................... 73-75, 262
Approach plate revision date (AeroNav — aka NOS, NACO).....49
Approach—radio lingo............................................................. 405
Approach weather not required lor Part 91............................. 260
Approach WBalher required for Parts 135 8 121....................... 260
APproaGh with Vertical guidance—AFV......................... 58, 62, 66
Approach—IFR to an airport wilhoul an instrument approach.....34
Approach—no pilot may begin an instrument approach (1351121).. 252
Approved Aircraft Flight Manual—AAFM.................174, 175, 317
Approved Aircraft Inspoclion Program—AAIP ............. 309, 312
APtJ—Auxiliary Power Unit......................................................150
APV—APproach with Vertical guidance........................ 58. 62, 66
Arc—0ME arc procedures...................................................61, 93
Area Forecast—FA—aviation Area Forecast........................... 225
ARea NAVigslion approaches—RNAV—GPS...................... 68, 69
ARea NAVigalion—RNAV—RPN...................................... 33, 152
Area al decision for mulli-Bngine airplanes....................... 333
ARINC -Aero-nautical Radio INC—HF radio.... 104
Arm—moment aim—WifB...................................................... 245
Arrival at airports with no weather reporting............................264
Arrival—radio lingo.................................................. 407,408. 409
ARROW—Airworthiness, Registration, Radio license, etc..........175
a s d a —Accelerate Stop Distance Available............................ 158
Ashless dispersant o il............ 366
ASPS vs. AWOS.................................................................... 217
Aspect ratio.......................................................................... 351
Aspen CO................. 35
A spirin...................................................................................201
ASR approach...............................................................................61
ASRS—Aviation Solely Reporting System—NASA reports..... 340
INDEX
Assaulting a pilot....... ......................................................86, 308
Al or above the glidasJopa at Class B, C, or D airport............... 57
ATC Clearance and flight plan required............................... ..... 34
ATC clearances and instructions—compliance with.................330
ATC light signals.......... ............. .............. ............................... 83
ATC Radar Beacon System—ATCRBS.....................................53
ATIS-ATS—approach briefing mnemonic,-,,,,..,,....... ..... ...... 50
ATlS—D-ATlS...........................................................................49
ATP—Airline Transport Pilot............................................188, 189
ATP with Restricted Privileges............................................... 189
Authorized I light Instructor means..........................................300
Authorized (light instructor—gold seal flight instructor.............. 375
Authorized flight instructor—hours ol training (limitation on).. ,, 191
Authorized 'light instructor—qualifications............................... 199,191
Authorized (light instructor—records— renewal .. ............... 191
Automata d Da pendant Surveillance-Broadcast—ADS-B........ 103
Automated Unicom................................................................ 102
Automatic slot—wing............................................................ 354,355
Autopilot......................................................... 281
Auxiliary flight controls................................................. 151
Auxiliary Power Unit—APU......................................... 150
Average passenger weights—standard .............244
Avgas—10OLL—weight..........................................................384,385
Aviation Area Forecast—FA....................................................226
Aviation gasoline—1O0CL—weight..........................................384,385
Aviation number—commercial aviation ail grade number.......... 366
Aviation physiology training (altitude chambers)__ ______ 142, 195
Aviation Safety Fteporling System—NASA reports.................. 340
Avionics terminology................................ ...... ....... ............... 152
Avionic a—troubleshooting........................... ...99
AWOS cannot be used as weather ¡1 visibility missing )135rt21)... 76
AWOS vs. ASOS............................................................. 217
AWSS—Automatic Weather Sensor System...................... ... 217
AWW—severe weather forecast alerts..................................... 224
Sackcourse approach.............................................................. 61
Backcourse marker.................................. 59
Backfiring .................. 366
Bad stuff lor takeoff performance............................................. 122
Badge—airport badge—access investigation check..................325
Balanced Field Length Li: L ....................................
Bank angle lor a standard rate turn—rule of thumb................. 386
Banner towing................ 236
Barber pole—Wno, Mmo......................................................... 114
Barometric allimeler................................................................127
Bnna-VNAV............................................... 32, 35. 62, 94. 96, 254
Bate of clouds—estimate height of—rule of thumb................ 388
Basic "T design lor approaches.........................................68, 69
Basic currency requirements,,.................................................. 169
Basic flight time & duty limitations (121)................................... 273
Basic Operating Weight—B O W .... ................ 245
Basic Part 135 operator,............................. 238
Basic VFR weather minimums.................................................... 9
Batteries—Double Ds..... ........... „......... ................ ...............150
Battery start—turbine engine................... 148
Beacons—airport....................................................................... 4
Bees herati—numbers 8 names..............................................349
Before Lakeoff checklist mnemonic..................................... 382
Before takeofl passenger briefing........................................ 293
Below DH or MOA—operating below ................. ...........79, 262
BEl—Balanced Field length............................................154, 155
BFO—Beat Frequency Oscillator—ADF radio.................... 63, 191
BFR—Biennial Flight Review—fllglil review..............................169
Bifocal contact lenses ............................................................. 200
Bird chasing................ 236
Bird strikes.................. 371
Bishop. CA............................................................................... 35
Black box—flight data recorders—FDR & CVR.......................294
Black smoke—piston engine smoke.........................................366
Bleed air.........................................................................149, 153
Bleeds -n" lakeoff................................................................... 149
Blind encoder—transponder.................................................... 127

Blood pressura.............................................. ....................... 291
Blue line—mülEi engine.................................. ....................... 114
Blue smoke—piston aname smoke................. ....................... 366
Rondin g s1rnp ....................... 152
Boundary layer............................................. ........ 354, 355. 355
BOJiV weight—Basic Operating Weight........... ....................... 245
Brake horsepower...................................................................36-3
Braking action—runway friction reports—MU value.....26. 72, 213
Breakout maneuver—ILS PRM approach..................................73
Brief passengers to laiton seal balls.........................................34
Briefirm far approach—ATIE-ATS............................................. 50
BrieHng—passenger brisling belone lakeoff.............................. 293
Briefing—Lakeofl........................................................................39
Briefing—weather bnalings......................................................223
Burnor edit..............................................................................149
Bus bar 4 bus lie.....................................................................150
Business nsmss—Doing Business As—DBA..........................237
ratio—hjfljofan oneji no................................................ 146
Cabin air pressLie saFety valve.............................................. 142
Cabin Hflimeler 4 -cabin vertical speed indicator....................... 153
Cabin pressure regulator........................................................ 142
Calendar quarterlyear............................................................. 257
Calibrated airspeed................................................................ 114
Cambar.................................................................................. 351
CAMI (CwHAwospaia MeJical InsUCute) Physiological Lrnq....142, 195
CAMP—Continuous Airworthiness Inspaction Program............ 367
Canada—'lights between Menico, Canada 4 the U.S............... 277
Canceling IFR flight plan....... „ ............ „ ........... , „ ........... 6, 51
Candi datas in uleuliu-ns. c-Urrlag* di 91.331....... „ ........... „ £3fl
Captain—high minimum captain............................................. 253
Carbon mononHis.................................................................. 3M
Carburetor icing......................................................................210
Cardinal altitudes................................................................... 132
Cardiovascular reauirgmsnts for medicHl...............................291
Careless or reckless operation.................................................340
Cargo compartment classification—Class A, B, C, D, E. ..........24E
Csigo fluor loading limits..................... .............. .............. .244
Cargo—must he Secured......................................................... 243
Cargo—weight 4 balance—load manifest.........................243-246
Carriage of candidates In elections 91.321...............................236
Carnage of narcolic drugs, marihuana, and depressant............292
£¿1—Clear Air Turbulence.............................................215. 223
Categories for approach—A, B. C, D, E.................................... 55
Categories—aircraft (normal, commuter, utility, Btc.)...........I t . 1GE
Category 4 dess—pilot osriificete & e¡reran............................. 166
Category A, B, C, D—MEL categories ol deferred items...........316
Category I, II. and, III ILS minimums.......................................... 57
Category I. II. Ill aircraft—sama runway separation categorlai ,„,H
Cavitation of hydraulic pump................................................. 1Si
CPI—full-scale delleclion........................................................... 55
£EL— Configuration Oovlation Liai..................... „ ...........„,....320
Ceiling dellnlllûfi....................................................................21 0
Call phone—FSS direct lino telephone numbers......................226
Celsius to Fahrenheit conversion.............................................125
Center of Gravity 4 W4B table—all WSB stuFF......................... 245
Center el Gravity.................................................... 245. 247. 352
Ce nier al Gravity—elleots of forward or aft CG......................... 247
CHnler of lift............................................................................. 352
Canter of pressure................................................................... 352
Center Weather Advisories—CWA.......................................... 224
Centerline lights................................................................. 24, 25
Certificate ;i':|ion—'violation— Enforcement a c tio n ........ 342, 343
Certificate-Holding District Office—CHDO................................237
Certificate—pilot certificate—category Sclass........................... IBB
Certificate—replacement of a tost airman or medical certificate .190
Certificates required in pilot's possession........................ 175. 177
Certified ceiling.......................................................................35B
Certified flight InsLTbtlor qualifications.............................. 190.191
Certified landing distancH......................................................... 159
CEI—company flight instructor................................................. 399
CFl—gold seal llight instructor................................................. 375
INDEX
CFl—hours of training (limitation on.)...................................... 191
CFl—qualifications, records, renewal of certificate............. 169, 191
CFlUl—Company Flight Manual........................................ 174, 317
CG—etfHols of forward I aft CG.......................................247, 301
Cham bar—alllluda chamber......................................... 142, 195
Chance of, occasional, intermittent, 1empo, posaibiHy....35,253, 254
Change of address................................................................. 103
Changing attitude—Pilot's di-screlion..................................45, 129
Charitable organization.......................................................... 105
GJtHSUdflJi Visual Flight Procedure approach—CVFP................. ..77
Charts—aeronautical chart scales.......................................... 305
Charts—chscklisL—performance daLa............................... 293, 204
Charts—use of old charts for Pad 91 operations...................... 369
Charts—VFR charts required.................................................. 293
Check airmen qualifications, training, checking, currency....... 3C1
Chock rido—a quick synopsis of Part 135 checkndes.............. 242
Check ride—Part 135 PIC checking modules..... 3C4
Check ride—Pari 135 SIC checking modules..... 36 5
Check rids—the very first Pari 135 check nde.... 397
Check rides are considered duty lime................ 392
qhflRhlisf—'charts— performance data............... 263, 264
Checklists—mnemonics.................................... 302
ChHyPtPb—runway markings............................. ..21
Chief Pilot—Part 135 4 121 ............................ 291
Children—standard average passenger weights. 244
Chiliad liras...................................................... 163
Chord of an airfoil................................... 245
Chord or chord line................................... 351
Circling approach..................................... .67, 110
Circling approach—30° oi bank limltalion.... 166
Circuit breaker........................................ 150
Civil Aerospace Medical Institute Physiological (mg .142, 195
Civil twilight times...................................... 370
Class—aircraft.......................................... tee
CIbsb—category—pilot certificate 4 aircraft ■ 16E
Class t 4 Class ll Navigation..................... .46. 92
Class A airspace....................................... ....3
Clara A. B, C. D. E—Cargo «mpartmenl classification, 246
Class B airspace.......... ....3
Class BVFR................. ....9
C la n C airspace.......... ...A
Class CVFR................. ....9
CJflSAJl airspace.......... ....5
Class DVFR................. ....9
Class E airspace.......... ....6
Class E VFR................. ..,,9
Class F airspace.......... .. 10
Class G airport— lek* L4TIn inst oondltons «ìtlitul cteereno*........7 , 34
Class G airspace...................................... ...7
Class G airspace—llap selling for turbojets . 14
Class G airspace—IFF? ¡light without a clearance...................7 . 34
Class G airspace—take off In InM euniillDnu without clearance...... 7 , 34
Class G control lowers (temporary) (cGmmunicaitions with).....7 . 03
Class G VFR ,„...................................................................... .,,.9
Classes cl unciali Jci wake turbulence separation.... ............. 373
Clear A r Turbuletice—CAT.............................................215, 223
ClSdr ice................................................................................ 211
Clearance and llight plan required......................................... ..34
Clearance—ATC clearances and instructions, compliance...... 330
delirano« from clouds......................................................... .,,9
Clearance—large airports—radio lingo................................... 39 E
Clsaranoe Void time............................................................. E 3E
Cleared ¡or the approach...................................................... .52
Cteared for the option............................................................ ..53
Cleared irlo Class B.............................................................. .,,,3
Clearway means................................................................... 367
Clearway.............................................................................. 155
Climb gradient........................................................... 41, 43 306
Climb gradient—engine cut climb gradient............................. 149
Climb gradient—feet(NM to fesli'minule—formula................... 306
film M flg with a hsudwindftailwind........................................ 386
CLOCK—it cant be jusl AN Y clock..................................... 54 , 05
Close parallel approach—PRM (Precision Approach Monilor) ..79
Cifri Inn and looking Hightcrow compartment doer................ 325
Claud bases—estimate height of—rule el thumb................ 30 E
Cloud clearance — VFR............................................................. 0
Clutter conlamineled runwfiy—pnecipilelion........................ 213
Cfttkpit Voice Recorders—CVFt..................................... 234, 205
Cockpit—admission Id pilot's compartment—sn route chsck....232
Coffin Corner.........................................................................144
Cold weather—altimeter errors in extremely cold wealhar....... 119
Color codes for airspeed indicators.........................................114
Color codas lor flight plan....................................................... 221
Color vision............................................................................ 200
fLalSIAlf Ifederal) airways (LfMF aka ADF)................................47
COMAT—COM m n v MATenal................................................246
Command bars.....................................................................152
Commercial-iv .Minn nr.■nl:i'i ml number .............. MA
Commercial operator aka common carrier............................... 232
Commercial pilot certificate qualiMcations................................ 107
Common carrmga.......................................................... 232, 237
Common carrier aka commercial operator................................ 232
Common mulliengine accident scenarios................................. 336
Gomtmimciiikm antennas; (on aircraft)......................................97
Commuricatio re FailurH IFR............................................. 82, 03
Communicelione with control towera—Class G ......................H
Communications with tower whan radio Inop—light signals....... 03
Commuter calegory aircraft......................................................11,160
Commuter operation—Pert 135................................................233
Company "light instructors...................................................... 300
Company Flighl Manual—CFM....................................... 174, 31 7
Comparable vnluasof RVR and mound visibility ................. 72
Comparisons, conversions, formulas & weighls...................... 305
Compass—all compass stuff.................................................... DO
C nnum m U m or tw o............................................................ 232
Competency check—equipment check—SIC check........ 242, 3C2
Competency check—Pert 135..........................................242, 302
Complete enrrun Mu—how to obtain copy........„„........... „ ..... 324
Complex airplanes—endorsement........................................... 194
Compliance wdh atc clearance« anti Instructions..........„ ..... 336
C a U B H M j oxygen...............................................................142
Compressibility error—airspeed ndicator............................... 114
Compressor slaii.................................................................. I4f)
Cortf id Oration Deviation List—CDL.........................................320
Congested area—minimum safe altitude..................................123
Constant spood propollor & manifold proasura...................... 360
Contact approath..................................................................... 52
Ccntacl lenses........................................................................200
Containment region (ftW )....................................................... 33
Contaminated runway {clutter)—precipitation......................... 21 3
Contamination—test to rimed conlamination gf je1 lgi>|...........373
Continuous Airworthiness Inspection Program—CAMP...........367
Continuous turbulence............................................................ 223
Contract cerrier.... 232
Contract pilot........... .232
Contrails............... 35B
Control tub............ 357
Control lower—Class G ...03
Control tower—non-federal......................................................... 5
Control lowers—number m operation.......................................373
Control labi e-pi lieti propeller.................................................... 350
Controlled firing areas....................... ............. .............. ......... 16
Convective outlook—AC........................................................ 225
Convective SIG MET—VYST.................................................... 224
Converging ILS—in u lta reou* converpng insiiymwi «pproech..... 00
Converging simultaneous Instrument approaches.................... 00
Conversion placard—'"C lo CF ............................................... 302
Conversion tables......................................................... 390-393
Conversions, comparisons, formulas fi weights.............. ......305
Convert Bounds or liters of iet A into oallans..................... ......303
Convortlns inches of mercury 10 millibars or lioctootiscols ......141
Caalinq packs—air condiEiomng in air carrier aircraft........ ......151
Coordinated Universe! Time—UTC................................. ......300
Copies of ATC lower/center tapes................................... ......345
Copilot Qualifications (SlC).............................................. ......102
Copy of Hoad manifest..,,.................. ...... ...... ...... . ......246
Gauntry prefix—alrpett identifier...................................... ......370
Country registration—aircraft number cades..................... ......370
CPDLC—Ccntroflar-Pilcit DalaLirik Communications......... .... 105
Crash axe....................................................................... ......337
INDEX
Crash—HOW TO CFtASH an airplane.................................... 336
Crew pairing............................................................ 263.205. 266
Crew fia source Management iC RM 1.......................................205
Critical angle of allatd:—stall..................................................353
Critical angino........................................................................ 155,333
Critical lie d length.................................................................. " 55
CtiUcfll Mach.......................................................................... 144
Critical phase of flight—sterile cockpit...................................... 249
Crop dusting, seeding, spraying, and bird chasing.................. 236
Cross-country (¡me means..................................................... 103
Crossing restrictions.........................................................47, 111
Crosswind component.......................................................... 373,301
Crosswinds—demonstrated vs. max el.lDwabls ........................373
Cruise clearance—Cruise climb................................................ 49
Cruising altitudes.................................................................. 132
Currency roqui ramants—High! review—3 landings,.,,,.............. 169
Currency requirements—instrument experience.......................170,106
Currency requirements—Type Rating..................................... t06
Current limiter.........................................................................ISO
Customs—nights between Mexico, Canada S U.3...................277
Cutoutp—Itight plan, ,'C 1q °F, reciprocals, mnemonics........... 302
CVFP—Charted Visual Fliglu Procedure approach..................... 77
CVFt—Cockpit Voice Recorders.............................................. 294,206
gfflA—Center Wsather Advisories..........................................224
D
Damage—major or minor damage..........................................344
Database updates.................................................................... 94
DatalLnks ............ 106
Dale—approach plate Tavision data (NOS-MACO)..................... 49
D-ATIS—A7IE that is banemitted digitally as well es voice.........49
Datum........................................... 245
Day—aircraft instruments and equipment...................................04
DBA—Doing Business As—business rw irm ........................... 237
DC ElighL Efislricted Zone (DC FRZl (DC 5FRA 1...................... 12
Dead Reckoning.......................................................................41
Deadhead transporlHlion—flight lime A duly....................267, 271
Decision—area of decision for multi-engine airplanes..............333
Declare an emergency—net required before deviating.............331
D otom crm ton sickness attar scuba diving............................123
Decompression—rapid or explosive................................ 142, 153
Decompression training {altitude chambers)..................... 142, 106
De-Ica 7anlMca fluids.............................................................. 212
Delays—Flight time & duty........................................................269
Demarcation bar—runway....................................................... 21
Demonstrated crosswind........................................................373
Demonstrated landing distance.............................................. 159
Density altitude........................................................................113
Density attitude and performance............................................. 122
Density altitude charts 5 rules of thumb................... 124, 125, 307
□■nllly mtude—rules of thumb................ 307
Density altitude—temperature affects on density altitude......... 124
Density error—airspeed indicator............................................ 114
Departure F’raceduro—DP—»arty turn......................................43
Departure—radio lingo.............................................................461
Departing airports with no weather reporting........................... 255
Departing uncontrolled Held in Inst conditions w/ 0 clearance ... 7, 34
PEPS—VO Ft check................................................................. 309
Descent below PH or MPA ....................................................250
Designated Pilot Examiner—ORE.......................................... 192
Designation required forPIG/SlC................................... 249, 204
Destination airport analysis.......................................... 284. 296
Destination B alternate weather required (Part 1357121)....252,253
Destination sign......................................................................... 22
Destination weather must be at feast (Pari 135/121)............... 2S4
Destination weather must be al or above minimums................. 39
Destroyed airman or medical certificarle—replacement of........ 100
Deviation error—compass........................................................ 9Ü
Deviation IromATG clearance or instructions........................... 330
Dew point lapse rate—rule of thumb.......................................308
DEWtZ fi ADIZ.......................................................................... 12
DFDR 8 FDR—llighl data recorders......................................... 294
ÛH or MDA—opemling below........................................... 70. 262
Diabetes mellitUS.................................................................... 201
Diameter at a standard rale (urn—rule of Ihumh...................... 306
B U hflfltti coining ...................................................... 296
PifferHnlial—maiumum allowable pressure differential ............ 15-3
Diode..................................................................................... 150
Dip error»—trcmnpass................................................................90
Dirac! air carrier......................................................................237
□¡reel line telephone numbers la FSS lor call phenes............... 229
Direct with a VFR GPS.............................................................. 95
Direct-drive turboprop..............................................................¡147
EiiucflftliflD sign—airport signs.................................................. 22
Director of Maintenance—Perl 135-S 121................................291
Director of Operations—Pari 135 & 121................................... 201
Director of Safely—Part 121................................................... £91
Discretionary issuance or a medical certificate........................291
Discretion—Pilot's Discretion.......................................... 45, 120
Dispatch roloaso aka flight ralaosa..........................................326
Dispatcher—aircraft—Part 121................................................326
Displaced threshold.........................................................22, 279
Displayed, certificate number displayed on the aircraft............. £37
Distance aff-course............................................................ 4B. 91
Distance Id station—1formula.................................................... 380
Distance—formula...................................................................330
Ditching procedures—Passenger bnefing before lakeotl......... 293
Diverse Vector Area—DVA.......................................................43
DME antenna (on airtrall).......................................................... 99
DME arc procedures..................................................... 54, 61.93
□ME—all DME stuff...................................................................93
DME—GPS substitute for........................................... . ..... 94
□ME—required above 24,DilD feel.............................. . ......04
Do you naod an alternate1? (Part 135/121).................. ... £54
Do you need an alternate? (Part 91)........................... . ......35
Doemnants—presentation af pilot's documents.......... ... 177
Documents required on board aircraft......................... ....175
Doing BuEinaES A e—□ BA..................................................... 237
Domestic operalign means—Part 121 ............................ £34, £35
Domestic operation—flight lima limitations a rest (121)...........271
Domestic operation—ftial supply............................................. 250
Domestic Reduced Vertical Separation Mmimums—DRVSM ,,133
Don't let it go over there......................................................... 240
Doer—closing and locking Bightcrew compartment door...........325
Double Ds (batteries) ............................................................ 150
Doubt—154 of Doubt............................................................... 106
DP—Departure Procedures.......................................................43
Drap................................................................................ 351-353
Draining sumps advice........................................................... 301
DriHdown................ ............. ........................................ 333, 356
Drilldown—enroule—transport category turbine....................... 159
Driving record—how to obtain copy........................................324
Drooping objects ................................................................ 96
Drugs or alcohol......................................................202. 293. 285
□rugs—aver-lha counter.......................................................... 294
DFtVSM -Domestic Roducod Vortical SeparationMinimum*.....133
Dry lease...................................................... ....................... 236
Doublo Ds in your flashlight 150
................202, 203
Duma valve ............................................ ............... 142, 153
Duration ftf 4 medical certificate..................... ....................... 190
................ 163. 357
Duty [¡cried—flight time 8 duly .................. ....................... 269
Duty lima—llight lima 4 duty.......................... ................ 256-275
......................... 43
111.372.389
E Enroule lime—formula.............................................................300
EADI—Electronic Altitude Direction Indicator............................ 152
£gr block................................................................................ 356
Ear, nose, throat, and equilibrium maA r il requirements.......... 291
Early turn on a Departure Procedure......................................... 43
Earth's horizon—visibilify and Iho earth's hofi& n.............,. 367
EDAM—Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor........................ 152
ECU—Electronic Control Units.................................................151
EEÇ -Electronic Engine Conimi...............................................151
EPftS flight watch / FSS — frequencies......................... 102, 223
INDEX
—Electronic Flight Bag—iPad........................................... 309
Effe ct of air density on lift & drag.......................................... 35£
Filad of altitude, temperature, and humidity on lakeuff.............352
Effect of Subpart K an Pari 136...............................................206
Effective runway length........................................................ £70
Effects of foTwaTd I aft CG..............................................247, 381
EFIS—Electronic Flight Instrumentation Systarn .................. 152
EGT—Exhaust Gas Temperature.............................................i49
EHSI—Electronic. Horizontal Situation Indicator........................ 152
EICAS—Engine indication and Crew Alert ing System..............152
Eighty (89)% landing limitations.............................. 279, 204. 286
EKG—required for I 11class medical......................................... 109
ELections—carnage oí candidates in elections (91 321)........ 236
Electrical fa iluta in IMC conditions.............................................82
Electrical terminology.............................................................. 150
Electronic CerUmlizad Aircraft Monitor—ECAM....................... 15£
Electronic Control Units— ECU.................................................151
■Elaclnonic devices—Portable..................................................... 93
Electron* Engine Control—EEC...............................................151
Electronic Flight Bag—EFB—iPad............................................3B9
Electronic Flight Instrumentation System—e f is ........................152
Electron* Honiiwital Situation Indicator—EHSI........................ 152
Elevation—airport elevafion S reference point...........................26
Elevator trim lab .....................................................................357
Eligible on-demand operator................................ 286, 260, 279
ELT anfenna..............................................................................07
ELT check ..............................................................................399
El T—aircraft lhal do no! require an ELT......................... 338, 339
ELT—changes in Iha works..................................................... 339
ELT—Emergency Locator Transmutar»....... .............. 84, 338, 339
ELT—operating wilhout an ELT.......................................338, 339
Emergency airlralfic rules...................................................... 226
Emergency drill training........................................................... 297
Emergency equipmenl required—extended overwater..............31 3
Emargency equipment—more than 19 passengers.................. 337
Emargency exits—passenger bnafing bafore lakeolf................ 293
Emergency Locator Transmhler anfanna....................................07
Emergency Locator Transmitters—ELT .................. 84. 338, 339
Emergency mail service........................................................... 236
Emergency maintenance.................................................. 205, 206
Emergency moans...................................................................337
Emaigency TBVocalian of pilot certifícala...................................343
Emergency situation training.................................................... 297
Emargency training..................................................................£97
Emargency—reports required.................................................. 336
Emergency—radio lingo ...........................................................416
EMERGENCY—you may davala immediately................. 330, 331
Empire State building............................................................360
Emoty waight ................................................................ 245
Encoding altimeter................................................................ l£7
End of the feather—G51A................................................ 56, 120
Enclftrüftjnonts —complex, high performance, ole..................... 194
Endurance—formula.............................................................. 380
Enforcement Fiction—if you bacoma involved in ..............342, 343
Enforcement investigative repot!.............................................. 343
Engine failure stull........................................................... 332, 333
Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System—EICAS...............152
Engine Pressure Ratio—EPR.................................................. 149
Engine starting—jet ! turbinB.....................................................144
Engine-ouf climb gradient.........................................................149
Engme-oul service teiting........................................................ 350
English—the universal language............................................ 359
Enninto mspaclion—enroula chack..................................... 202
Enroule—radio lingo................................................................ 402
Epilepsy and your madical...................................................... 291
EPR—Engine PreSSJe Ratio...................................................149
Equilibrium requirements lor medical......................................£91
Equipment 4 Instruments required IFR/VFR..............................84
Equipment and instruments required—Part 135/121................. 313
Equipment check—SIC char*,—competency cher*.................. 302
Equipment required—passengers—tFR ...................................313
Fqu.pment required—passengers—VFR night or ovar-the-top .. 313
Equipment requirements—'VFR / IFR..........................................04
Equipment suffixes.................................................................... 32
Equivalent airspeed................................................................114
ER-O-PS ......................................................................... 159,314
Error In your logbook...............................................................191
Errors—altimeter errors in extremely cold weather.................... 119
Established—on coursa or on (he approach.............................55
Estimate height of cloud bases—rule ol thumb....................... 386
ETQPS—Extended-range Twin-engine Operations.......... 159, 314
Examiner |11ighL examlnar| means............................................ 192
Examiner—status during a practical tssl................................... 192
Expfnptjftt) 3595—People Express exemption................ 256, 257
Exemption 5549—High Minlmums captain.............................. 263
Exhaust Gas Temperature—EGT............................................ 149
Exit seating........................................................................... 282
Exiting the runway after landing.................................. 26, 72, 61
Experimental category.................. 166
Explosive docomprossion—rapid dacomprossion ..........142, 153
Fxpnnrtion duration—enforcement action.............................. 343
Extended overwater weather .... ............................. 315
Extended overwaLer—emergency equipment required.....314, 285
Extended overwater—Part 136................................................ 286
Extended overwater—Subpart K to Part 91...................... 285
Extended everwater—radio A navigation equipment required.... 314
Extended range Twin-engine Operations—ETOPS.......... 159, 314
Extreme turbulence....................................................... 207, 223
Extremely cold weather—altimeter errors..................................119
Eve locator—seat adjustment.................................................. 325
Eye—vision requirements tor medical..................... ...... 199, 200
F Flight Level—lowest usable flight level...............
FA—avialion Area Forecast.....................................................225
FAA 'holline' phone number........„ .... ...... .............................346
FAA 337 form—mqjtw repair and alteration............................. 363
FAA pilot records—how to obtain copy....................................324
EatLHQbfli! to Celsius.................. 125
FADEC—Full Authority Digital Engine Control...................151,194
False Glide Slopes............................................................ 56, 126
Falsification of applicalions. certificates, logbooks, ate........... 181
Falsification on application for a medical certilicale................. 198
FAP—Final Approach Point ............ .........................................57
FAS—Final Approach Segment................................................. 57
Fastest and highest flying aircraft............................................356
Fatal i n j u r y .......... .............. ,„. ................... 344
FCC radio license—pilot's personal and aircraft.............. ....... 175
ECU—Fuel Conlrol Unit.................................................. ....... 151
FDC NOTAM......................................................................... 227
FDR & DFDR—flight data recorders................................ 294, 285
FD—winds and temperature alofl forecast................................ 225
Federal (victor) airways............................................................. 47
Federal elections—carriage of candidates ih elections.............236
Feet per minute—feet per second—miles per hour................. 385
Faet per socond—leat per minute—miles per hour................. 385
Ferry flight—flight time and duty..................................... 268, 274
Ferry permit example.....................„ „ „ , ......................323
Farry permit—special night permit............................................322
Filing IFR to an airport without an instrument approach............ 34
Final Approach Fix—FAF A Glideslope Intercept Altitude...........56
Final Approach PoinL—FAP..................... 57
Final Approach Segment (on ILS)...............................................56
Final Approech Segment—FAS..................................................57
Final segment climb—jet takeoff.................... 154
Fingerprints—airport badge—access investigation check....... 325
Fire detection and protection—je t.......................................... 162
Fire extinguishers.................................................................... 337
Fire extinguishers—passenger briefing before takeoff............. 293
Fire axtlngulshars—passongar carrying aircraft........................ 297
Fire fighting.................................................................... 236
Fire protection end detection—jet............................................. 182
First aid kits..., ........................... 337
First checkride—December 17, 1993 ............................... 307
First segment climb—definition variations..................................155
First segment climb—Jet takeoff.................... 154
First-class medical certificate—duration o f............................... 199
Firel-class medical—required for.............................................. 197
Five year background check—PRIA— 135/121 ............... 239, 324
INDEX
Fitted slot—wing................................................. ........... 354, 355
Flag operation—fuel supply.................................................... 250
Flag operation—Part 121................................................234, 236
Rag operations—flight time limitations...... ............. ....... ...... . 272
FI timeout....... ............. .............. ............. ............. .............. . 149
Flap setting lor turbojet aircraft in Class G airspace...................14
Flaps, slots, slats, boundary layer conlrol......................... 354, 355
Flashlight—living equipment................. .........................150, 315
Flight attendant requirements—number required......................308
Fll^il check—a quick synopsis of Part 136 chectrides..,,,........242
Flight check—FAA aircraft flight checking navigation aids........359
Flight control terminology—primary, sscondary. auxiliary........ 151
Right crewmember duties—slerUe cockpit................................ 249
Flight crewmembers at their stations—seat belts................ 34, 316
Right crew pairing........ ......... .... ............. ...............263, 265, 286
Flight Data Recorders—FDR & DFDR.............................. 294, 285
Right deck—Admission to flight deck......................................249
Right director .... ............. ................ ......................... . 152
Flight examiner means................... .......... ............ ................192
Flight examiner—status during a practical test........................ 192
Right following....„ .... ............................. ............... ,...............44
Flight Instructor—company flight Instructor............................... 300
Flight instructor—gold seal flight instructor............................... 376
Right Instructor—hours of (raining (limitation on).................. 191
Right instructor—qualifications................................................. 190
Right instructor—records............ 191
Flight Instructor—renewal of certificate..................................... 191
Right into known icing............................................................. 208
Flight leader—formation flight—operating near otheraircraft,,...., 27
132
Right Levels—altimeter setting................................................ 134
Right locating procedures...........................................„ ......... 276
Flight Management System Procedures for Arrivals—FMSP......48
Righl Management System—FMS.................................... 32, 152
Right of two—formation flight—operating near Other aircraft..... 27
Flight operations evaluation board—MEL................................. 318
Right path............................................................................... 351
Right plan and ATC Clearance required..................................... 34
Right plan forms...................................................................... 222
Flight plan—IFR to an airport without an Inslrument approach .... 34
Flight plan—wailal size cutout....................................32, 221, 382
Flight regimes—subsonic, transonic, supersonic, hypersonic.... 116
Right release aka dispatch release.......................................... 326
Ellght Restricted Zone i DC FRJi .............................................12
Flight restrictions—temporary HOTAMs................................... 226
Right review (BFR)....... ........................................ ................ 169
Flight Service Station direct line phona numbers (cell phone).... 229
Right Service Station frequencies.................................... 102, 223
Flight Simulation Training Devi« ......................................... . 374
Right lest—operation after maintenance, rebuilding, or alteration ..312
Flight time & duty limitations—basic (121)............................... 273
FLIGHT TIME & DUTY......................................................266-275
Right time limitation—flag operations (121)............................. 272
Right time limitations & rest requirements (135)...................... 266
Flight Um* limitations 8 rest requirements—scheduled (135).... 266
Flight time limitations & rast requirements—unscheduled (135). 267
Right time limitations—pilots not regularly assigned {121)........274
Flight time limitations—supplemental operations (121)............ 275
Flight time means............................................................ 269, 274
Flight visibility when operating from a satellite airport................ 70
Flight visibility.....................................................70,260, 261,367
Flight visibility—operation below DH or MDA.............................. 70
FUghl watch / EFAS / FSS frequencies............... ....................223
Flight watch frequencies........................................................... 102
Flightcmw of two pilots lower than standard takeoff minimums 259
Floor fading limits—cargo......................................................244
Floor—used as a seat—parachute jumps—Part 91 only............84
Flotation device....................................... 30
Fluid 8, fuel colors............................................. 381
Flying equipment—flashlight...................................................315
FMS—Flight Management System......................... ........... 32, 152
FOG....................................................................................... 228
Forces acting on an aircraft in flight......................................... 351
Fomr-ast—aviation area forecasl—FA..................................... 226
Forecast icing conditions—definition........................................ 210
Form drag...............................................................................35-3
Formation Ni^il—operaling near other aircraft..........................27
Formulas add rules of thumb...........................................3B6-3B9
Formulas, weights, conversions 4 comparisons....................... 305
Forward CG—effects o f.........................................................247.301
Forward observer's Seal.......................................................... 292
Forward scatter lechnology...................................................... 72.251
Fowler Map............................................................................ 354.335
FPD [Freezing Feint Depressant) de-ice/anli-ice fluids............ 212
Etafiliiuial ownership—subpari K or part 9 1 ...................... 2 0 4 -2 0 5
Fractions labia— 1764—1r32-3164-1MG-5f&4-3/32-7FB4-iri....... 332
Frae-turbina turboprop........................................................... 147
Fr.fl.otirig level—rule or Ihumb................................................. 303
Freezing Point Depressant (FPD) de-icBi'anti-ica fluids............. 212
Freezing rain...........................................................................211
Frequencies and frequency bands............................................97,100
Frequencies for FSS i llighl watch I EFAS............................... 102.223
Friction reports—MU—runway braking acticn........... 26, 72, 21 3
Frost ica or snow on (lie aircraft................................................ 30
Frost....................................................................................... 211
FR2 — Flighd- Restricted Zone................................................... 12
FSS i1llighl watch i EFAS frequencies................ ............ 102,223
FSS direct line telephone numbs rs.......................................... 223
FSS frequencies.....................................................................102.223
FSTD—Flight Simulation Training Device.................................374
Fuel 4 fluid colors....................................................................301
Fuel bum rate—formula........................................................... 366
Fuel Control Unit—FCU........................................................... 151
Fuel dumping...........................................................................150
Fuel load—WSJB..................................................................... 245
Fuel quantity used—formJa.................................................... 30 E
Fuel sump draining advice................... ,,,,,,, 301
Fuel supply IFR........................................................................ 36.255
Fuel supply VFR........................................................................36
Fuel supply—domestic, ting ur supplemental operations........ ,..290
Fuel terminology...................................................................... 151
Fuel types—Jet A, B. A-1......................................................... 151
Fuel weight..............................................................................304
Fuel—lest to dated contamination of jet fuel............................ 373
Full Authority Digital Eng.ne Control—FADEC.......................... 151
Full Fart 135oparatof„........................ „....236
Full scale dellection of GDI........................................................ 55
Fuse....................................................................................... 156
Fusible plugs—inos................................................................ 163
Gallons 1o liters—conversion....................................................305
Gallons te pou nds of jsl A—conversion....................................383
Gallons—convert pounds or liters of jet A into gallons.............. 303
Gallons—fuel weight—pounds per U.S. gallons........................ 304
Garret! engine.........................................................................147
Gas, fuel Supply requited.................................................. 36. 259
Gasoline—weight................................................................... 305
Gate hold procedure*............................................................ 222
GBA5—Ground Based Augmentation System........................... 96
GCO—Ground Communication Outlet....................................... 42
General emergency training.................................................... 297
General medical condition—diabetes mellitus........................... 291
General Operations Manual—GOM......................................... 209
General Operations Manual—GOM—information & changes....296
Glide path (.visual}.....................................................................75
Glide Slops antenna [on aircraft)............................................... 96
Glide Slope antenna [on ground)............................................... 59
Glide Slope critical area............................................................. 23
GJkJo Slopo Intercept Altitude—GSIA................................ 56. 120
Glide Slope—Class B, C, or D (remain at or above)......1Q. 60. 130
GMT—Greenwich maHn bme................................................... 300
Global Navigation Satellite System................................32
Gold Seal flight instructor..................................................... 375
Good stuff for lakeoff performance...........................................122
GPS.................................................................................... 94-96
GPS antenna (on aircraft).......................................................... 00
GPS epproachea ............................................................ 60. 69
GPS—IFR direct wrlh a VFR GPS............................................. 95
INDEX
GPS—substitute for VOR, ADF or DME.................................... 94
GPWS—Ground Prwimlly Warning System............................. 152
GPWS—Ground prokimityllerrain awareness warning system... £94
Grace month—instrument currency—commercial pilots............176
Grace month—Part 135 & 121....................................... 179, 296
Gradient—up-sloping runway takeoff—rule of thumb............... 306
Qravitv................................................................................... 352
Great circle tradì—GPS.......................................................... 94
Green arc................................................................................ 114
Green threshold lights.............................................................. 262
Greenwich Mean Time—UMI ............................................... 3B0
Gross taheoff path—ial...........................................................15B
G ra n d Baaed Augmentation System (GBA5)........................... 96
Ground Communications Outlet (GCO)..................................... 42
Ground fag..............................................................................22E
Ground icing conditions ........................................................ 211
Ground Prozi mity Warning System—GPWS.................... 152, £05
Ground Prcmmityltarrain awareness Warning System—GFVYS.294
Ground speed............................................................... 114, 386
Ground spaed miles per minute..............................................111
Ground training—initial, transition, and upgrade....................... 295
Gteund visibility.........................................................................72
Group I 4 Group II airplanai................................................... 296
SSlA-GlideStope Intercept Altitude..........................................56
H
Hashmarked pointer—red 4 white—barber pole—Vmo, Mmo .. 114
Hazardous inflight weather advisory service............................ 224
HAZardbU-a MATonals bporallonsrtraimng............................... 290,285
HAZMAT paperwork—Example............................................... £99
Headwind during Himb—reduce 1ha effect of........................... 306
Hearing requirements lor medical........................................... 291
HBarl disease........................................................................ £91
Heal m h a 9 g e r.....................................................................
Heated pitot—required for passengers If-k .............................313
Heavy—classification For wake turbuienca separation........40, 373
Kuctepascals to inches of mercury—conversion.................... 141
Helicopter—alternate ïaquired.................................................. 32
Helicopter flights wiLFim £5 SM radius of the airport of takeoff ....236
Helicopter—Minimum Sato Altitudes......................................... 129
HelicoptaT—pilot in command sealing position.......................... 359
HE radio—everything about high Frequency radio....................104
HFDL—High Frequency Data Link........................................... 195
Hiatt altimeter setting.............................................................126
High altitude airports, Aspen, S Lake Tahoe, Bishqjj................ „36
High altitude chads....................................................................47
High altitude destinailians........................................................... 35
High altitude endorsement........................................................195
High altitude chamber training.................................................142,195
High-bypass engins................................................................. 146
High Froquoncy radio— ovorythmg about HF radio.................. t94
High Frequency radio signals.................................................... 97
High humidity and performance................................................124
High minimums captain—Exemption 5549............................... 263
High minimums captain—turbine-powered aircfâfl.................... 263
High-performance airplanes—endorsement............................. 194
High speed buffet.................................................................... 144
High temperature to low temperature lookout below..................120
High to low lookout below.........................................................120
Highest "lyi ng ai rotait.............................................................. 350
HMU—HydrcMechanical Unit...................................................151
Holding el a lin whore the pnttarn is not chnrtixl .............. 65, IDS
Holding out..............................................................................232
Holding pattern speeds and liming.............................................65,109
Holding panom—standard / non-standard..................................64
Holding position markings—ILS Critical Area....................... £3, 57
Holding—IFR recency.............................................................. 170
Holdover Limes—ground icmg conditions.................................212
Horizon—visibility and the earth's horizon............................... 367
HorBepower...........................................................................362.362
HQ3P—MEDEVAC.................................................................350
Hoi battery bus................................................................ t&3
Hot glycol de-ice fluid.............................................................. 212
Hot start—turbine engine..........................................................140
Hot-high-humid—bad far performance...................................... 122
How Co crash an airplane equipped with a spare engina.......... 336
Humidity A takeofl—rule ol thumb........................................... 306
Humidity, altitude A temperature—effect on iakaoff...................352
Humidity—high humidity end porformanca............................... 124
Hundred (1GC) hour inspection................................................306
Hundred (100) hour—high minimums captain........................... 263
Hung start—turbine engina......................................................140
Hush lots—noise..................................................................... 165
tJLyjijaulu; fluid—weight........................................................... 395
Hydraulic luse......................................................................... 151
Hydraulic pump cavitation........................................................151
Hydraulic terminology............................................................ 151
HVidroMe-chartrcaf Unil(HMLI)................................................. 151
Hydroplane speed.................................................. 111, 372, 339
Hydroplaning—ALL hydroplaning stuff..................................... 372
Hypersonic flight regime......................................................... 116
Hypertension and your msdical..............................................201
Hyperventilation.................................................................... 350
I Instrument rating qualifications................................................. 10b
ICAO airport ¡denser country prefix.........................................370
ICAO flight plan....................................................................... 2Z2
Ice................................................................................... 203-213
Ice bridging........................................................................... 269
Ice fog.....................................................................................220
Ice or snow on the aircraft..........................................39, 203-213
Ico pullets................................................................................211
Iced-over sparkplug electrodes................................................213
(glm —ground icing conditions.................................................211
Icing—forecast/known long «ndHIans-—definition............ 210
Identifier—airport identifier logic..............................................379
IFR / VFR instruments end equipment.................................... 94
IFR altitudes—minimum altitudes for IFR operations.................120
IFR arrival al small uncontrolled airport—radio lingo................. 4Q8
IFR diiact with a VFR GPS........................................................ 96
IFR fuat supply..........................................................................36
IFR foal supply—domestic, Hag or supplemental operations.....250
IFR recency t currency / wtperlenc*................................ 170, 196
IFR takeolf limitations (Part 135F121 ) .........................................33
IFR takeoff minimums (Part 135/121},,,,.......................... 258, 259
IFR to an airport without an instrument approach....................... 34
IFR training in VMG condilions...................................................94
|FR—radio A navigation equipment required............................ 314
If you don't want tha sirplane to go over Liters........................ 240
Igniters—Luibine engine.................................................146, 149
UlSUfll drugs.......................................................................... 202
ILS critical area................................... .............................. 23, 57
ILS frequencies..................................................................46, 91
ILS PRM approach—Precision Approach Monitor.......................79
IlS— Category I, II. Ill minimums.................................................57
ILS—Converging ILS................................................................. 90
ILS—Inatrumont Landing System...............................................59
Immediately means................................................................ 337
IncheE of mercury to millibars—conversion.............................. 141
Incident or accident................................................................ 344
Incident rHport.........................................................................345
Incidents—notitication of........................................................ 345
Indicated aitspead.................................................................. 114
Indicated airspeed vs Mach.............................................111, 116
Indicated altitude................................................................... 119
Induced drag..........................................................................352
Induction manifold.................................................................. 351
Irwrtlol navigation System—INS............................................. 152
Insrtial Reference System—1RS............................................... 152
Irrfli-phl briefing....................................................................... 223
Inflight training.........................................................................2%
Information, all available information (preflight action)............... 34
Information sign—airport....................................................... 22
Initial Approach Fix—DME ate must start a t.............................. 61
Initial Operating Experience—IOE............................................300
Initial training......................................................................... 296
Initial, transition, and upgrade ground training.......................... 295
INDEX
Inner marker............................................................................. 59
Inorwralive oquipmgnt withoul a MEL..................................... 320
Inoperative means................................................................... 32Û
INS—Inertial Navigalian System............................................. 152
Inspections and tests—ramp Chock........................................ 292
Inspectors admission to pilot's comparlmenL—en roule check. 202
Inslruclcr—company high! instructor....................................... 300
Instructor—flight instructor...................................................... 196,191
Instructor—gold seal flight instructor......................................... 375
Instructor—hours or Gaining (imitation on)................................191
Instructor—qualifications.......................................................... 190
Instructor—records—renewal of certificate.............................. 191
Instrument A nqu pmnnl rnquiren....ts VF R / IFR 94
Instrument approach—IFR to an alrpul wtllioula pubtshed IAP......34
Instrument approach—no pilot maiy begin an approach.............252
lnltruir«ltûLfl*ricy—IFR recency—6 month................... 170, 106
Instrument Landing System—ILS...............................................59
Instrument Proficiency Check................... .......................170, 106
IniliiJinsnt Fraflciency Check—Fart 135 checking modules.....304
Instrument Proflciency Check—Part 135—a prick tynopsfe.....242
instrumBnl proflciency Check—fhc check—Part 1 3 5 /1 2 1 ......... 303
Instrument training in VMC conditions........................................04
Instruments A equipment required IFFtA/FR............................. 04
Instruments and equipment required—part 135/121..................313
Intercept procedures................................................................ 13
Interchange anreemenl...........................................................260
Interference drag................................................................... 353
Interference wilh crewmembers.................................................86,3D8
Intermittent lurbuienca........................................................... 223
Intarmiltent, chance ol. occasional, tempo, poeaibilrty ..35, 253, 254
International—Filhmetry around tha world......................... 140-141
International—country raglslraflon—alrcrall number codes......378
I."to-:■i-e'.Lu' iu I gut ulen'orm .................................................... 121
International—lights between Mexico. Canada ALLS...............277
International—ICAO airport identifier country prolix................... 378
International Standard Atmosphere—ISA—rules of thumb.125, 3B7
IntHBÙftM 4 PUbln: ndtlrriHH nyntum nigur. il ............... 313
Inter-stage Turbine Temperature—ITT.................. 149
IrtimidaCra a pilot...................................................................E6,3D«
Inverters................................................................................ 150
IO E -I nitial Operating Experience............................................ 368
iPed .......................................................................................369
1RS—inertial Reference Syslem............................................... 152
I5 the Airplane lege I?............................................................... 30
Is the Pilot legal? .....................................................................01
ISA^cunversions & rules ol thumb......................................... 125,307
ISA—International Slandaid Atmosphere................................. 117
Isogenic Unes—composa......................................................... 90
ITT—Inler-slage turbine Temperature.................................... '49
J
Jet A, Jet A-1, del 0—fijel...................................................... 151
Jel—altitude planning for short tops........................................366
Jet eng ine starli ng........................................................... 144, 148
Je| engine—windmill start / airslart.......................................... 162
Jet fuel pounds vs. avgas gallons............................................. '45
Jel fuel—tesl to deled conlaminaliGn of................................... 373
Jet fuel—weigh!............................................................... 3S4, 366
Jet pump................................................................................. 151
Jel mules..................................................................................47
Jel si mam............................................................................... 214
Jet takeolf—all jet takeoff stufl......................................... 154-1 58
Jel / turbine Hngine terminology.............................................. 149
Jot / lurbino angme— 1 0 1 ......................................................... t46
Jet / lurbine operations—101 ................................................. 144
Jets—limitations on the use of landing minimums tor turbojets.. 26A
Joint ownership agreement.....................................................260
Justifiable aincralt ecummenl (WAB;-.......................................244
K
Kelvin lempsratum......................................................115. 395
Kerosene—Jel A and Jet A l—weighl per gallon.................... 304
Kay words 1o avoid—radia lingo................................................397
Kidney stonos.........................................................................201
Kilnmflteis ta miles conversion............................................... 305
Kilowatts vs. wattage vs. horsspowar......................................3G2
Kinematic: viscosity................................................................ 356
Knots vs mach............................................................... 111, 116
Known icing........................................................................... 200
Known lemg conditions— deflnltlon.............................................. 210
K—¿u bp-art K ...................................................................204-296
L Liters to gallons—conversion...........................
U fi Maximum............................................. ,,351
UMF Colorai! (lederai) airways.................... ....47
LAAS—Locai Area AugmentaLion Eyslern ... ....96
Ljko Tabe». C A......................................... ,,..35
Laminar Itovi-.............................................. ..356
Land And Hald Short Operation-s — LAHSO ....14
Landtng crlteria—Tran sport catagory.......... ..159
Landing Eistance Available—LDA............... ..279
Landing distance—demonstrated............................................159
Landing—exiting the runway after landing.....................26, 72. S1
Landing 1FR—Operation bslow DR or MDA............................... 70
Landing light.....................................................................04. 371
Landing limitations lor Pad 135 under proposed subpad K .......206
Landing limitations—60%, 70%, 09%...................... 273. 204. 236
Landing min ¡mums for turbojets—limitations on the use of........264
Landing under IFR—Operation below DH of MEA............. 70. 261
Landing—no pilot may land with digIni visibility less than...........261
Landing—tutes or thumb............................................... ,,309
Language—English—the universal language................ ..359
Lapse rale—dew pgint—rule clthumb.......................... ,,300
Laps;« rate—dry adiabatic—rule of thumb...................... ..306
Lapse rata—(emparatura lapse rale—rule of thumb... 116, 117, 337
Larpe nincrait definition,...........................................................270
Largs aircraft—Lype raLing rstjuiremenls...................................194
Large and Lurbins-powersd multiengine aircraft........................200
Large nontransport category.................................................. 166
Largs—classificstion lor wake turbulence separation......... 40. 373
lasjuh; aye Surgery..................................................................200
LDA approach—Approach with Vertical Guidane«......................66
LEA with glidepalh.....................................................................50
LEA—Landing Distance Available............................................150
Lsad and batteries.................................................................. 150
Lead the turn............................................................................ 47
Left engine ¡5 critical because................................................. 335
Ls(pal—is the AIRPLANE legal?................................................ 30
Legal—is ths FI LOT legal?........................................................ 31
LEMA£ f TEMAC................................................................... 245
La nosl's Radio Manual........................................................... 395
Length of runway—slfeclive runway length..............................279
Letter 01 Authorization—MEL................................................. 316
LeLLer Of Investigation—enforcsiiTiBnL action.................... 342. 343
Lsvel A, B, C, □ simulators..................................................... 374
License pilot cortiiicoLo caLogary/ctass...................................169
License—pilot's license & medical—required in possession.....175
Lifeguard—now MEDEVAC—air ambulance (lights................. 350
Ltferaft—extended overwalar.................................................. 314
L ift.................................................................................. 351-353
Ufl & drag—offset of air density...............................................352
Lift-drag ratio—LfD ..................................................................351
Lift—relationship between angle ol attack and lift..................... 353
Light gun signals—ATC lighl signals..........................................S3
Light icing............................................................................... 211
Light signals—lighl gun signals—ATC light signals.....................03
Light Sport Aircraft....,,,...........„ ............ „ ........... „ ........... ,„....164
Light turbulence...................................................................... 223
Lighting (or approach.......................................................... 73-75
Lightning bolt—GBlA............................................................... 126
Light Sport Aircralt.................................................................. 194
Lights—aircraft position lights.....................................04, 05. 371
Lights— position, landing, anhconllsion.......................... 94. 05, 371
Lights—runway edge lights........................................................ 20
Lights—runway edge, centerline, touchdown zone...............24, 25
Lights—runway lighting—airport requirements {1357121).......... 276
INDEX
Lights—runway Jighls—pilot controlled..................................... 55
Limitations on the use of landing minimum® for turbojet»........ 264
Limitations. piloL operating limitations and pairing.....263, 205. 206
Limitations, markings & placards..................... ............... 317
Limited category aircraft................................. ................169
Line check—FarL 135—a quick synopsis......... ............... 242
Line dree*.—foulss & airports—PIC................. ............... 300
Lina orienLed Flight Training—LOFT................ ............... 374
Line Dp and W ail........................................... ................. 30
Ufluid measures............................................. ............... 303
............... 305
Liters to pounds of jet A—conversion............... ............... 303
LNAy t VNAV Approaches............................. ............... 62
HIM HEADLINE NEWS—SUBPART K to PART 91.........204. 205
Load factor—maintaining allilude in a turn...............................353
Load manifest—weight & balance....................................243, 284
Load manifest—weight® balance—record keeping..........244, 204
Local nr not local transportation—Night time ¡L duty.................. 267
Local to ZULU time..................................................................300
Loca I transportation................................................................. 271
Localizer ."manna (on aircraft}.................................................. 90
Localizer antenna (on ground)................................................... 59
Localizer approach—LOG......................................................... 61
Localizer backcourse approach................................................. 61
Location sign—airport..............................................................22
Locator Outer Marker—LOM.................................................. 101
Lockheed Martin — FS5..................................................... 229
Locking Itiqhtcrew compartment door......................................325
LQFT—Line Oriented Flight Training........................................374
Log of maintenance records.................................................... 312
Logbook—correcting an error in your logbook......................... 101
Logbook—logging flight lime................................................ ,.. 176
Logbook—lost or stolen logbook...............................................i91
Logging of pilot-in-command flight lime................................... 176
Logging or second-in-command flight lima....................... 176, 179
Logging night seal time................................................... 175, 170
LOM—Locator Outer Marker....................................................101
Long sense antenna (ADF)...................................................... 99
Loop antenna (AEF)................................................................. 90
Loran....................................................................................... 97
Lost oirman or medical cortiflcale—roplBcomont of............... 180
Lost or stolen logbook.............................................................. 181
Low altimeter selling restrictions..............................................126
Low altitude alert.................................................. 19, 26, 60, 130
Low approach............................................................................62
Low bypass engino..............................................................,.. 146
Low frequency radio signals...................................................... 97
Low Speed buffet..................................................................... 144
Low lime oaplain—higher approach minimums......................... 263
Lower Side Band— HF radio....................................................104
Lower than standard takeoff minimums (Part 1357121).....250, 259
Lowest u3Bblo flight level..................................................... 132
LPV Appro aches...................................................................... 62
L5A — Lighl Sport Aircraft...................................................... 104
u j £2 l _ Lino Up And Wan....................................................... 39
M
MAA—Maximum Authorized Altitude............ 120
Mach ft speed of sound...................................................115-117
Math buffet..............................................................................144
Mach number.................................................. 144
Mach number—convert to true airspeed—rulo of Ihumb........... 367
Mach number vs indicated airspeed in knols....................111, lie
Mach tuck................................................................................ 144
MAC Moan Aerodynamic Chord......................................... ,..245
Magnetic north vs. IrXis north.................................................. 220
Maintaining currency far a Type Rating................................... t96
Maintenance, emergency maintenance.......................... 295, 266
Maintenance—operator! alter maintenance, rebuidlng—LesHllghl? ....312
Maintenance records............................................................... 312
Maintenance required................................................ ........312
Major or minor damage............................................. ........344
Major repeir and nlteralion—FAA 337 form................. .......363
Major repair............................................................... ....... 344
Malfunction reports, nav or com equipment............................. 45
MALSR—approach light system................................................74
Maltese cross...........................................................................56
Management personnel qualifications—Part 135 & 121...........291
Mandatory instruction sign—airport................................ 22
Mandatory airspeed................................................................. 111
Mandatory, maximum 8 minimum altitudes..................... . 56, 12E
Maneuvering speed lass than max weight.........................306
Maneuvering speed—Va—rule of thumb.................................. 388
Manifold pressure 8 the constant speed propeller,................ .360
Manipulation of controls 'Part 135/121)................................ 249
Marginal weather (Part 135/121).................................... 253, 255
Marijuana............................................................................. 202
Marker beacon antenna (on aircraft).......................................... 99
Marker beacons........................................................................ 59
Markings & placards....................................................... 174,317
Mask—quick-donning type oxygen masks............................... 139
Master MEL—MMEL............ 316
Maximum allowable crosswind............ 373
Maximum allowable pressure differential.................................. 153
Maximum allowable Zero Fuel Weigh!—MZFW............... ...... - 245
Maximum Authorized Altitude—MAA................. 120
Maximum cartiFied attitude....................................................... 356
Maximum certified ceiling ....................................................... .356
Maximum L'E)..................................................... 351
Maximum Landing Weight—MLW..................... 245
Maximum payload capacity.................................................... .244
Maximum TakeOff Weight—MTOW.........................................245
Maximum, minimum & mandatory altitudes.............................. 126
Mayday moans............... 337
MCA—Minimum Crossing Altitude........................................... 128
MPA or DH—operating betow............ ........ .....................70, 262
MEA Gap................................................................................ 128
MEA—Minimum Enroute Altitude............................................. 126
Mean Aerodynamic fifaaifl—M AC....................................... 245
Measurements—tractions table........................ 302
Mechanical interruption summary report.................................. 312
Mechanical irregularities—reporting o f............................ 247, 318
Mechanical irregularity means..................................................312
MEPEVAC..............................................................................356
Medical certificate roquirad in pilot's possession.......................175
Medical certificate—duration o f................................................ 199
Medical certificate—falsification an application..........................196
Medical certificate—operations not requiring a medical............. 197
Medical certificate—operations requiring a medical................... 197
Medical certificate—special issuance / discretionary issuance,, 201
Medical deficiency—prohibition on operations with.................... 198
Medical oxygen—passenger supplied...................................... 142
Medical records—how to obtain copy.......................................324
Medications—over-the-counter...............................................294
Megaphone............................................................................ 337
MEL decision process when operating without a MEI..... ....... 321
MEL—inoperative equipment without a MEL....... .....................320
MEL—Minimum Equipment List...................................... 316
MEL—operating without a MEL—How chad...................... 321
Menial requiremants far a madica! certificate........................... 201
Mesosphere................... 116
METAR ■'TAF explanation....................................................... 219
METAR i TAF explanation—wallet size cutout.......................... 221
METAR vs, TAF................ 218,219
Meters instead of feet for altitude assignments..................140-141
Melhanot—weight................................................................... 385
Metric to metric 1o U.S conversions...................................., 385
Mexico—flights between Mexico, Canada & U.S...................... 277
MFD—Mu Iti-Funclian Display ..................................................152
Mlcroburst....................... 206
Middle compass locator..................................................63, 191
Middle marker.............................. 59
Miles / kilometers.................. 305
Miles per gallon—formula........................................................ 308
Miles per hour / feet par minute I feet par second.................... 305
Miles per minute I ground speed.............................................. 111
Miles to descend—3=descent—rule of thumb.......................... 309
Miles to kilometers conversion............................................... 385
Military NOTAMs.................................................................... 227
INDEX
Military Operations Areas—MOA............................................... 10
Military Training Routas—MTR,,............................................ 10
Millibars to inches of mercury.................................................141
Mineral oil—engine oil........ ....... ...... ...... ............... ..............366
Minimal loss of altitude................................. .........................353
Minimum all-engine cruising altitude........................................ 159
Minimum eltitudes for IFR operations...................................... 128
Minimum Crossing Altitude—MCA........................ ............. . 128
Minimum Enroute Altitude—MEA............................................ 128
Minimum Equipment List—MEL........................................318-321
Minimum Equipment List—MEL—example............................... 319
Minimum Equipment List—MEL—flowchart............................. 321
Minimum fuel advisory....................................................... 44, 337
Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude—MOCA........................128
Minimum Operational Network (MON) of VOFts.........................91
Minimum Recaption Attitude—MRA.......................................... 128
Minimum Safe/sector Altitude—MSA........................................ 129
Minimum single engine ceiling............................................... 159
Minimum Vectoring Altitude—MVA.......................... ...........52, 129
Minimum, maximum 8 mandatory altitudes...............................128
Minimums high minimums captain......................................... 263
Minimums, Lakeoll— 121/135, subpart K................. 258,259, 204
Minor or major damaga/repair............................................ 344
Minutes par nautical mita—formula......................................... 388
Miscellaneous—radio lingo.......................................................412
Missed approach............................................................... 79, 261
Missed approach—prior to MAP ,,,, ................. ....................71
MLW—Maximum Landing Weight............................................ 245
MMEL—Master Minimum Equipman! List................................. 373
Mnemonics—checklists............. 382
MOA—Military Operations Areas............................................... 10
MOCA—Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude.........................128
Mode C A Mode S transponder—altitude reporting..... .......127
Moderate icing........................................................................ 211
Mode rate 1urbu la nca................................... ........... .............. 223
Modified basic T * lor approaches......................................— 69
Moment arm—index—WSB.....................................................245
MON Minimum Operational Network of VQRs......................... 91
Monovision contact lenses............................................... 200
Most critical point enroute.....................................................159
Motor vehicle action DUI............................ 262
Mountain flying—the Venluri effect.......................................... 134
Mountains an sectional charts—shading ...................................368
Mountainous areas.................................................................. 12
MRA—Minimum Reception Altitude......................................... 128
MTR—Military Training Routes.................................. 10
MTOW—Maximum TakeOff Weight......................................... 245
MU value—runway friction reports—braking action...... 26. 72, 213
Muliicom / Unicom & air-to-air frequencies...................... 102
Multiennine accident scenarios—common......................... 336
Multiengine raling............................................................. 185, 107
MuHiongine training raquired Tor flight instructor to instruct___ 191
MulU-Funotion Display—MFD................................................ 152
MVA—Minimum Vectoring AHiiude . .........52, 129
245
N
..........149
MACS (NOS) approach plate revision date................. ..........49
NASA reports ........................................................... ..........340
National Driving Record—NDR—how Id obtain copv... ......... 324
National Transportalion Safety Board—phone numbers ....... 345
Nautical Mile convais-ions........................................... ..........385
Nautical Miles per galfantfmimuie-—formulas................. ...... 368
Navigation antennas................................................. .......97-99
NDB—all NDB stuff.................................................... 63. 64, 101
NDjJ driving record—how Id obtain copv..................... ......... 324
Net flight path ........................................................... ......... 159
...... 153
Neurological requirements for a medical.................... ......... 201
NexlGen .................................................. ......... 193
......... 150
Night—aircraft instruments and eauipmnnt................. ..........84
Night—clvit twilight limes............................................. ..........370
Night currency................................................................ 172, 206
Nighl—equipmenl required when carrying passangors ..313
Night—tour definitions.......................................................... 376
Night—takeoffs 8 landings— recent Flighn experience.............. 172
Mljnsily (SO) days—recent flight unparlanco—3 landings.... ..172
NM paT gallon/minuta—formulas........................................ ,.30-B
No good, things 1hal da you no good................................. ..304
No pilot may begin an Instrument approach (part 13-5/1£1 >... ..252
No pilol may fakeoff with Frost, ica or snow on Ihs aircraft.... ....36
No Transgression Zone—Close parallel ILS—PRIM............. ..73
No weather reporting—arrival with no weather reporting...... 254
No weather reporting—departing with no weather reporting. 255
No-gyro approach............................................................ . 71
Noise standards—stage 1,2, 3, 4 ..................................... 155
Hprcpmmpn ca mage...................................................... 237
Noncommon or privata carriogo......................................... 232
Nor-fadaral control towers................................................ ....5
Noncrecistotl approach.................................................... . 50
Nonpreclsion—NDB7VOR—Approach 8 Hulding............... ..64
Non-radar position reporting............................................. ..45
Nor standard hold inn pattern ............................................. 04
Nonstop sightseeing flights..................................................... 236
Normal bracketing maneuvers.................................................. 57
Normal category aircraft.....................................................11. 166
North—true north v*. magnetic north wind direction................ 220
NOB [NACD, AeroNav)) approach plate revision date............... 43
MftXfiM numbering system..................................................... 227
NOTAMs—Notices to AirMan.......................................226. 227
Notice oF proposed certificate action........................................343
Notice of Proposed R ulo Mak mg—NPRM ............................. 366
NoticsE To Ainmai Publication—NTAF................................... 227
Notification ct aocidents, incidents 8 overdue aircraft ..........345
Not local in character uka deadFtead transportation............... 271
NPRM—Notice of Proposed Rule Making.................................356
NTS-B—NsIkxisI Transportation Sefeiy Board—phone numbers ..,,345
—kunwav da signs lion maikirxjs.................................20
o Parachutes............................................................................. H
PAT—Outside Air Temperature.............................................. 104
Obsorvor PIC can to waolhor observer for VF R (Pah 135).. 76. 265
Obstacle analysis—effective funway length............................279
Obstacle-clearance criteria—dnfldown—enroule performance
requirements lot Uansport category (urb-me-powered aircraft... 159
Obstacle Departure Procedures................................................. 43
Obstruction clearance plane—20;1........................................ 273
Occasional turbulence............................................................ 223
Occasional, cFiance gF, intermittent, tempo, possibility . 35. 253. 254
Occupancy of pilol sent by a passenger.................................293
P p a l S—OmnIDi factional Approach Light System.....................74
OPF— Obstacle Departure Procedures..................................... 43
22-courae—dislarnse.................................................................46
Off-Route Obstruction Clearance Altitude—DROCA................. 126
Oil—everything you need 1o know about oil............................. 306
Oil—weight.............. ............. ............. .................................. 365
Omni Directional Approach Light System—ODAL5.................. 74
OmnidirBctionel radar antenna,-,......................... ............. ,,,..... 53
On course— established on course of on the approach.............. 55
On-detnand operation—Part 135............................................. 233
One hundred (160) hour—high minimum* captain,................... 263
One hundred (1Q0) hour ¡inspection.......................................... 359
One hundred Low Lead—1Q0LL—weight........................364. 385
One Penconl [1%] ol Doubt.................................................... 106
On the approach—established on the approach........................ 55
Operable condition................................................................. 322
Operating limitations.,,...........„ ........... .............. „ ............ „....175
Operating near other airmail—formation flight........................... 27
Operating without a MEL—flaw chart.......................................321
Operation after maintenance or alteration—test flight?........... 312
Operation below t)H or MDA.............................................70. 262
Operation Light* On,,,,,........................................................... 371
Operation—requinng type rating—PlC proficiency check..........196
Operations manuel—General Operations Manual—GOFit.......203
Operations manual—GQM—information 8 -changes................ 296
Operations not requiring a medical certificate.......................... 197
INDEX
Operations requiring a medical certificate................................J97
Oparalions Spacifications—Part 135 or 121 ............................ 296
Operational control.................................................232, 23?, 326
Operational control—aiicrafi dispatcher....................................326
Operational Sorvlco Volume—VOR............................................46
Operative engine....................................................................332
OoSoecs—Part 135 or 121..................................................... 206
Option approach.......................................................................62
Order oF suspension or revocation...........................................343
ORO.G£—Off-Routa Obstruction Clearance Altitude.................126
Oscillation err«1—compass...................................................... EK3
Other than congested area—ivlinimum Safe AILrludes.............123
Outer compass locator—outer marker ..................... 59. 63. 191
Outflow valves........................................................................ 153
Out lo o t brieling—weather...................................................... 223
Outs Ido Air Tamporcturo—-OAT...............................................164
Over pressure relief valve........................................................153
Overdue aircraft—notification o f.............................................. 345
OverFiaad approach maneuver.................................................. 67
Overscored—Maximum alitude........................................ 56, 126
Over-lha-CiHinter medications................................................,.294
Overwater—performance requirements....................................314
OverwaLer—radio 8 navigation equipment required.................. 314
Owner opgralor—responsible for mainleNng the aiierafl......... 399
Owner's handbook I manual............................................ 174, 317
Oxygen altiludes..................................................................... 133
Oxygon—high alhtuda chamber (raining................................... 142
Oxygen mask—quick-donning lype oxygen masks....................139
Oxygen systems—Passenger supplied—HA2MAT...„....^::::::M.42
P
Pairing—craw pairing.............................................. 263. 295. 296
Pan means..............................................................................337
PAFt—Precision Approach Path indicalor..................................76
PAR approach.......................................................................... 61
Parachute lumps—nonstop flights—not Part 135.................... 236
Parachuting—use ol floor as a seaL for Sport, parachuting.........64
Parallel ILS—close parallel approach—ILS PRFrt...................... 79
Parasite drag.........................................................................353
Part 91 of SubpartK....................................................... 264. 205
Part 91 PLUS Part 135 qr Pert 121...........................................236
Part 91 vs. parts 121F135......................................................... 239
Part 61 vs. Part 141 schools—training options......................... 163
Pari 121 ar Pert 135 does get apply to .................................. „236
Part 121—in other words........................................................ 235
Part 125.................................................................................235
P a rm a certificate*—single pilot, single PIC. basic, ale...........239
Part 135 CheCkTidas—a quick synopsis el Part 135 CheekrideS.. 242
Part 135 on-demand............................................................... 233
Part 135 or Pari 121 doas not apply to..................................... 236
Part 136 PlC checking modules...............................................394
Part 135 SIC checking modules...............................................395
Part 135 unscheduled operations—flight timo 8 duty................266
Part 135— elfecls of Subpart K on Fart 135............................. 2B6
Paris Manufacturer Approval—PMA....................................... 303
Passenger briefing beiora takeoff...........................................293
Passenger occupancy oF pilot seat.......................................... 293
Passenger weigMs—slandard average................................ 244
Passengers during cargo only operations................................ 243
Passengers—equipment required—JFR 8 VFR....................... 31 3
Pattern altitude 8 Glide Slops—Gloss 0. C, or D .........19. 60, 136
Pattern altitude aL airports without en operating control tower .... 131
Pattern altitude—minimum altitudes—Class B, C, or D.. 19, 60, 130
Pattern altitude—uncontroHad airports........................................ 16
Pattern entry.......................................................................16, 17
Payload capacity, maximum................................................... 244
PBN—Performancu-Based Navigation.......................................33
PCATD—Personal Computer-based Aviation Tmg Device.......374
PDF— Planned Dasoent Point.................................................. 77
People Express exemption 3585.................................. 256, 267
Percent—1% of Doubt............................................................ 196
Porfofmaiica B llt d Navigation lEBfcti ...................................33
Performance data—checklist—charts.......................................293
Performance requirements operating over water..................... 314
Performance—effects ol density altitude on performance,,.......122
Performance—good and bad stuff........................................... 122
Personal Computer-based Aviation Trng Device—PCATO......374
Personal olocfronlc devices............................... ....... -.... ....... -93
P-factor..................................................................................335
PFD—Primary Flight Display.............. ............. ......................152
PhonH rujmher*—l-SS direct line telephone numbers.............229
Photo identification required in pilot's possession....................175
Physiological—flight crewmembers at stations ................34, 316
Physiological needs................................................... ...... 34, 316
Physiological training (alLitude chambers)........................ 142, 195
PIC i1SIC—designation required..............................................249
PIC check—instrument proficiency check................................ 303
PIC Instrument currency—IFR recency..................................... 170
PIC is responsible for determining If aircraft is airworthy.......... 309
PIC line check—routes and airports ....................................... 306
PIC means....................... 359
PIC qualifications—Part 135 A 121......................................... 240
PIC seating position............................ 359
PIC—Part 135 PIC checking modules.....................................394
PIC PC check—operation oí A/C requiring more lhan one pilot. 196
PIC—recent llight experience (99 days) ................................. 172
PIC—responsibility and authority of..........................................331
Eilfilasfi................................................................................... 41
Pilot certificate & medical—presentation of documents............. 177
Pilot certificate & medical—required in possession.......... 175, 177
Pilot certificate—cartegory I class.............................................. 166
Pilot conlrolled runway lights..................................................... 55
Pilot's discretion, changing altitude...... ..............................45, 129
Pilot documents—presentation of required documents..... 175, 177
Pilot Flying—takeoff bniBfing...................................................... 39
Pilotín Command irislmmenlcurrency....................179, 172. 173
Pilot In Command is responsibls lor determining..................... 399
Pilot In Command means......- ..........................- ...................359
Pilot In Command proficiency check—type rating...................... 196
Pitot In Command qualifications—Fart 135 & 121....................240
Pilot In Command seating position.................... 359
Pilot In Command,'SIC—designation required...................249, 284
Pilot In Command—recent llight experience.................... 172, 173
Pilot In Command—rosponsibllily and authority of..... ..... ....... 331
Pilot—is the pilot legal?.............................................................31
Pilot license & medical—required in pilot's possession..... 175, 177
Pilot Not Flying—takeoff briefing................. ............ ...... ......... 39
Pilot Operating Handbook—POH.......—................................. 317
Pilot operating limitations and pairing....................... 263, 265, 236
Pilot photo Identification required in pilot's possession............ 175
Pilot record keeping—W8B—load manifest............................. 246
Pilot record sharing—PRIA,............................................. 324, 295
Plot Records Improvement Act—PRIA ................................. 324
Pilot records—airman File—how to obtain copy........................ 324
P4ot records—name, dulies, tests, checks, training.......... 246, 294
Pilot services........................................................................... 232
Pilots not regularly assigned—flight lime limitations................. 274
Pilots—number of activo pilots in tho United Slates................. 359
Pipeline or powerline palral.................................................... 236
PIPER—numbers $ names............................... 346
PIREP—UA. U JA................................................................... 225
Piston engine smoke.......................... 366
Pitot heat indication system—transport category Aircraft...........313
Pilot heat—required for passengers IFR................................... 313
Pilab'Static check—every two years................................. 119, 135
Pitot/Stalic system malfunctions.............................. ...... 135, 391
Placards 8. markings.............................................................. 317
Plain flap.................................................... ....... .......... 354, 355
Planned Dascont Point—PDP.................... 77
PMA—Paris Manufacturer Approval......................................... 353
Pneumatic slarter aka air fortune starter.................................. 149
PQH—Pilot Operating Handbook........................................... 317
Point the airplane where you want if to g o ............................... 240
Pointer NOTAMS.................................................................... 227
Polar Iropopause.................................................................... 214
Political candidates, carnage of...............................................236
Portable electronic devices....................................................... 93
Portable Oxygen Concentrators............................................... 142
INDEX
Position error—airspeed indicator........................................ . 114
Position lighls.............................................................. 84. 85, 371
Position reporting—non-radar................................................... 45
Possibility of, chance of, occasional, intermittent, tempo 35, 253, 254
Pounds of Jot A Into Gallons—conversion.......................... ., 383
Pounds of Jet A into Liters—conversion...........................145, 383
Pounds per Square Inch—P S I .......................................... 153
Pounds vs. Gallons—Jet luel 8. Avgas.................................. . 145
Power and weight—horsepower 8 thrust................................362
Power loading—formula............. ,,......................................... 389
Powerline or pipeline patrol.....................................................236
Precipitation-induced fog........................................................228
Procislon Approach Monitor—PRM approach........................... 79
Precision Approach Path Indicator—PAPl................................. 75
Precision Approach Radar approach—PAR............................... 61
Precision approach................................................................... 58
Predsion-like approach—approach with vertical guidance..........58
Preferred routes..................... „ „ „ „ ......... ,................... ,,........ 34
Preflight action (all available Information}.................................. 34
Presentation of required documents............................... 175, 177
Preservation of wreckage,,,.,....... ............. 345
Pressure altitude conversion charts 8lormulas........................ 125
Pressure altitude.............................................................. 118, 134
Pressure altitude—rules of thumb............................................ 387
Pressure differential—maximum allowable................................153
Pressure lapse rate......................................... 116
Pressure relief valve.................... 142, 153
Pressure vessel....................................................................... 153
Pressure—atmospheric pressure at various altitudes................ 117
Pressure—Pounds per Square Inch—PSf............................... 153
Pressurization....................................................................... 153
Pressurization training {altitude chambers)........................ 142, 195
Pressurized aircraft—tiasic components.............. 142
Pressurized aircraft—high altitude sndarsemenl.......................195
Preventive maintenance........................... 312, 385
Preventive maintenance—29 approved items........................... 365
PRIA—Pilot Records Improvement Act.................................... 324
Primary category aircraft.........................................................168
Primary flight controls...............................................................151
Primary Flight Display—PFD................................... 152
Primary NOB concapts............... 64
Primary radar............................................................................53
Priority means................................................................ 331,337
Priority—means tho same as EMERGENCY............................ 331
Prist—anti-icing additive and algaecide lor jet luel.................. 145
Private or nopcornmon carriage.............. 232
Private pilol qualifications......................................................... 185
PRM approach—Precision Approach Monitor............................ 79
Procedure turn—inbound—no! required.................................... 54
Proficiency cheek—Instrument Proficiency Check............179, 304
Proficiency check—Part 135 checking modules........................304
Proficiency check—PIC—type rating currency...........................196
Progressive aircraft inspection program.................................. 309
Prohibited areas....................... „ ........... ............ ......... ......... 10
Prohibition against carriage of woapona.............. 308
Prohibition on operations during a medical deficiency..............198
Prop alcohol—weigh!.................. 365
Propeller—controllable-artch propeller..................................... 360
Propeller—manifold pressure 8 the constant speed prop........ 360
Proper Planning Prevents Piss Poor Performanoe......................34
Prove rse yaw......................................................................... 357
Proving runs and Validation testing........................284, 28G, 294
Proving tests aka proving runs____ _____ ___ _ ,284. 289, 294
Provisional airport.................................................................. 276
Provisional category aircraft........ ............ 168
PS)—Pounds per Square Inch.................. 153
PT-6 engine........................................................................... 147
Public address & interphone system required.......................... 313
eicatechnit signaling device.............................................30, 84
______________ Q______________
2 codes—QFE—ONE—QNH—altimeter setting................140-141
Q-roiitus ...............................................................................47
Quarter—calendar quarter.......................................................267
Q u ic k -d o n n in g lypa oxygen m asks .........
R Remote TransmitteriFtecerver (RTR).......................
Radar ■;¡airborne woathor redar) required ....................... 3-15. 265
Radar (radio) altimeter............................................................. 135
Radar night following.................................................................44
Radar redactors...................................................................... 357
Radar repea ter scope................................................................. 5
Radar service lerminatad...........................................................<19
Radar summary chart.............................................................. 225
Radar weather reports—ED..................................................... 225
Radar—Primary and Secondary................................................ 53
Radiation fog..........................................................................220
Radio Manual—Lergal's......................................................... 395
Radio & navigation aquipmant cequinad—oxtondod ovarwalor.,.314
Radio 6 navigation equipment required—IFR...........................314
Radio (radar) altimeter............................................................. 135
Radio antennas................................................................... 97-99
Radio call formal..................................................................... 303
Radio Tailure IFR.................................................................32, 33
Radio frx—hie IFR to a rad io Hx...............................................252
Radio frequency bands.............................................................. 97
RHdio inop—cpmmun ¡cations w ill control lower......................... 93
Radio license—pilot's (personal) FCC radio license.................. 175
Redio stallion license (aircraft).................................................. 175
Rndio stuir..........................................................................97-105
Radios—troubleshooting............................................................ 99
B.AUM.—Receiver Autonomous Integrity Mcniloring—GPS......... 34
Ram Air Tom pm hirt RAT— Ram Rlsa................................ 164
Ramp chedt...........................................................................232
Hanisill lamperature ............... ............. .............. ............ 115. 305
Rapid decompression—explosive decompression .................. 142
Rapid decompression training (allilude chambers)............142, 135
Repid or explosive decompression.......................................... 153
Rate control—pressurization................................................... 153
Rate of climb or descent................................................... 45, 120
Rale of descent—formula........................................................ 369
R itlns—category, class, type, instrument, commercial......31. 160
RAT—Ram Air Temperature................................................... 104
RCO -Romota Communications Outlet................................... 42
Re building—cperallon sher manlenance, («building, or eMarallcn.....312
Racency. IFR..........................................................................170
Recent light experience—99 days—6 months......................... 172
Recent pilot experience for PIC—Part 135 S 121 .................... 240
Reciprocals—22 nJe..............................................................363
Reciprocals—placard...............................................................352
Reckless Or careless operation................................................340
Record keeping—load manifest—weight 6 balance.........244. 264
Record of each pilot—name, duties, tests, cfiecks........... 246, 284
Records—arrnanfile—your pilot records—howto obtain a copy324
Rccrontlormi pilol duplications...............................................164
Rectifier..................................................................................150
Rfl current training...........................................................295, 296
f ly ] A whit» hashmarkod pointer—barter pole—Vino, Mmo....114
Red line—Vmc—multi-engine.......................................... 114, 334
Red line—Vne—NHver Exceed speed......................................114
Rad side row bar—approach HghLlng....................................... 252
Red side raw bars................................................ 70, 73. 251, 262
Red terminHling bars—approach lighting ........... 70, 73, 26-1, 262
Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum*—RV£M...............32. 133
Reference point—airport elevalion 4 reference point................ 20
Raference aaro—slart of 1s1 segment climb............................. 155
BafJflclQ.es—runway radar reflectors........................................357
Regional aidine—Part 121......................................................233
B a J im a n pepen................................................................ 175
Regular airport........................................................................276
Regularly assigned duly period—flight lirr.e 4 duty............... 209
Regulated 1Landing weight........................................................245
REIL—Runway End Identifier Lights...........................................74
Relationship between angle of attack and lift........................... 353
Relative humidity % — formula.......................................124, 337
Relative wind...........................................................................351
Relay electrical ................................................................... 159
Release—flight release or dispatch release..............................326
INDEX
Canada on night plan.......................................... ....222
Rumctt Communications Outlet (RCO)................. .....42
Repair—major repair and alteration—FAA 337 lorm
.....42
....3B3
Rapoator scope—radar......................................... ....... 5
Replacement of a lost airman or medical certilicata. . . . . 106
Reported 1:ml .rig and visibilily—visual approach (Part 135).. .....70
Reported visibility 70. 2M
Reporting mechanical irnegularilies................................ 247, 316
BfliLBjJfi (additional) to be made et ell times..............................45
Reports., malfunctions of nav or com equipment........................ 45
Reports, ol accidents or incidents............................................. 345
RAq.ufll.ifi.cMej framing...................................................... 29«
RHouired landing distance—dry/wet........................................ 150
Required Navigational Performance (RNF).................... 32, 33,62
Raquirod runway length........................................................... 154
Responsibility and authority of (he pilc-L in command..............331
Responsibility lor ensuring aircraft is maintained......................312
B u i penod—flight time 6. duly................................................ 269
Rest—lligtit lime 4 duly.....................................................266-275
Restrict ad urea*....................................................................... 19
Reslncted category aircraft.......................................................160
Restricted ATP................................................................109. 241
Return to service—maintenance records.................................312
Reverted rubber hydroplaning................................................. 372
Revision date on AeroNaiv (NOS, NACO) approach plates........49
Revocation of pilot cartillcBte.................................................. 343
Reynolds number—laminar or turbulent flow........................... 356
RLotlL'ftf'Wav Hulun ..................... 06
....................211
&NAY approaches........................................... ..........82,60 09
RNAV—Area navigation.................................... ........ 33. 62. 152
32 33 62
SB!!ifl 9 2Á M m l w ljffiMian ‘lighUimn fl duly.. 209
Rosemont probe—Static Air Temperature.............................. 164
Retailor! spaed—Vr—rule of Ihumh....................................... 396
Routes A airports—fine chock—PIC...................................... 3M
RPM—R-líiJ u pumi:—Pilot certificate—Med cu .............. 3', 175
RTR—Remote TransmillaiVReceiver...................................... 42
Ruins of TH UMB and FORM ULAS...................................366-309
Runway Cantarína lights.....................................................24, 25
Runway duller precipitation.................................................... 21 3
Runway demarcation bar........................................................... 21
Runway designation markings—runway numbers................ 20, 22
Runway diseños remaning signs...............................................22
Runway edge lights...................................................... 29, 24, 25
Runway elfHctive runway length.............................................. 279
Runway End Identifier LigMa—REIL...........................................74
Runway exiling after landing.......................................... 25, 72, 61
Runway friction reports—MU value—braking aclion 26, 72, 21 3
Runway gradient—up-sloping runway takaoff—rula of thumb... 366
Runway lenglh—effective runway length..................................279
Runway lenglh—Landing Distance Available............................ 279
Runway langlh—usable langlh............................................. ...279
Runway lighllng................................................................... 24,25
Runway lighting—airport requirements (135V121)..................... 276
Runway lights—pilot controlled runway tights............................. 55
Runway radar reflectors........................................................... 367
Runway separation—same runway aircraft separation............... 56
Runway Visual Range—RVR............................................ 72, 261
Runway weight bearing capacity................................................ 22
Runways .-ungor than 0.069 feel—sectional charts.................369
RVR and ground visibility.................................................. 72, 261
RV/R—taskers, transmisscmeters, forward scalier tech...... 72, 261
RVSM Ruducad Vortical Sepa guión MInj mu ms ............... 32,133_
S A A N O T A M 5 ........................................................................................227
SAE—oil—automotive equivalent grade..................................306
Safely alert........................................................... 19. 26, 60, 130
Safety bells fastened..............................................................31 3
Safety belts......................................................... 34.04,313, 316
Safety belts—(light crewmembers at stations.....................313, 316
Safety Management System (SMS).. . 32 B
S(ifn1y pilot........................ 171
Safety valve...................... . 153
Sam» runway separation ae
SAI—Static Air TompRiraturo. 164
Batcpm—SATellite CQMmunicaLion System........................... TO5
Satellite airport—flight visibility when operating Tram................. 7(1
Saybolt universal viscosimeter—oil viscosity........................... 366
5 BAS—Space Based Augmentation System............................. SH5
Saalanf eergnauticel cherts.................................................... 385
Scheduled operation.............................................................. 233
Screen height......................................................................... 155
Sciibji diving......................................................................... 123
SD—radar weather reports...................................................... 225
5DF approach...........................................................................G6
Soat odjuslmant—aye locator................................................. 325
Seat baits............................................................ 34. 84. 313. 316
Seal balls, seat banks—passenger briating before takeott.......233
Seal balls—flight erawmambers at stations......................313, 316
Seat—each person must occupy....................................... 64, 313
Seat—forward observer's seat................ ....................... 232
Seat—uiissunyur occupancy of pilot seat.. ....................... 233
Seat required........................................... ................ 64, 313
Seating position—pilot in command......... ....................... 353
Second alternate (part 1357121)............ ....................... 255
Second alternata required (part 135/121).. ....................... 257
Second altemata raqu mod ...................... ..................... 253
Second In Command qualifications, lor AC requiring 2 pi lots_T76
Second In Command qualifications.......................................... 182
Second In Command qualifications—Part 135 -R 121............... 241
Second In Command required—Part 135 & 121....................... 241
Second In Command lime—logging......................................... 176
Second In Command vs. autopilot............................................261
Second segment clirrb...........................................................154
Secondary flight controls.........................................................151
Secondary radar........................................................................ S3
Second-class medical certificate—durational..........................133
Second-class medical required for............................... .... 197
Sect kina I ctiarts—runways longer than 6,069 feel...... ....359
Sectional riiarts—scale.............................................. ....385
5ELCAL—SELaclivo CALling system—HF radio........ .... t(J4
Selling a Certificate................................................................ 237
Sense antenna (ADF)............................................................... 36
Separation—shim runway separation.......................................66
Separations For tralfic—wake Turbulence....................................46
Sequenced flashing lights....................................................... 262
Serious inju ry ........................................................................344
Service ceiling aka all-angina SHrvica ceiling........................... 356
Serviw ceiling—multi-engine...........................................333. 356
Service difficulty reports—mainfanance.................................... 310
Service volumaa—MDB............................................................63,101
Service volumes—VGR...................................................... 46, 91
Servo Tab................................................................................357
SeXflP-Q-PtttP {HU) ride.................................................. 342, 343
Seventy percunl (7054) landing limitation........................ ,,..... 27$
Severe icing.......................................................................... 211
Severe turbulence ........... 223
Severs weather forecast alerts—AVYW.....................................224
SevHrH weather outlook chart.................................................. 225
Shadows................................................................................36B
Shaft horsepower................................................................... 353
Shallow fog............................................................................ 226
Sharing uxpanses................................................................... 105
Shourdar harness.............................................................. 34, 84
Shoulder harness—flight crewmembers at stations...................316
Shutdown mnamonic...........,,........... ,,............ ,,........... ,,..... 382
SIC check—equipment check—competency check...................332
SIC—Part 135 checking modules.............................................335
SIC qualifications for AC requiring 2 pilots................................ 170
SIC qualifications—Fart 135 4 121........................................... 241
SIC required—Pert 135 4 12 1 ................................................. 241
SIC time—logging................................................................... 176
SIC vs. autopilot......................................................................281
Sidebands upper and lower -HF radio............................... 104
Side-step maneuver................................................................. 86
INDEX
BID—Sta ndard Instrument Departure Procedure........................ 43
SigfrLdl3k «rn bottle discharge indicator..................................162
Sightseeing flights................................................................. 236
3IGMET—WS......................................................................... 224
Signs—ij upon............ 22
Simulated instrument time—logging....................................... 177
Simulators—four levels...........................................................374
Simultaneous dose parallel approach—PRM........................... 79
Simultaneous converging instrument approaches...................... 60
Single-engine absolule ceiling 4 service ceiling............... 333, 358
Single PIC part 135 operator....................................................238
Single pilot lower than standard takeoff minimums.................. 258
Single pilot pert 135 operator...................................................238
Single Side Band—SSB—HF radio......................................... 164
Sink rale................................................................................ 152
Slsinstrurnom opproachas— IFR raconcy......... 170, 172, 173, 186
Six month—instrument experience................... 170. 172, 173, 1B6
Sixty (631%. 70%, 60% landing Jimilations............... 273, 264, 286
Sixty Five (65)—age 65 and Part 121........................................ 327
Skin Indien drag..................................................................... 353
Slant range error—DME............................................................93
Slant L). A, G, R, etc...................................................................32
Slats...................................................................................... 354.356
Slippery runway..................................................................... 279
Slots...................................................................................... 354,365
Slotted flap............................................................................ 354,355
Small aircraft deiinilien........................................................... 278
Small—for wake turbulence separation..................................... 43,373
Smoking prohibitions.............................................................. 283
Smoking—passa ngor bridling before iQkooff............................ 203
SMS—SafeLy Management System......................................... 328
Snellen eye chart—medical exam.......................................... 109
Snow on the aircraft.................................................. 38. 208-213
SODA—Statement OF Demonstrated Abilily............................. 200
Solenoid................................................................................ 150
South Lake Tahoe, C A............................................................. 35
Space Based Augmentation System.......................................... 05
S p in angina—How lo crash a mulliengina airplane.................336
Sparkplug electrodes—Iced-oVef............................................ 213
Sparsely populated—minimum sate altitude........................... 129
Spo-clol airworthiness oertificata...............................................322
Special Airctall and Aircrew Authorization Required....................62
Special exemption 5543—high min.mums captain.....................263
Spacial High! permit—lerry permit.............................................322
Special Elight Suies Area (DC SFRAt ........................................ 12
Special instrument approach procedure—TLS........................... 78
Special issuance el a medical certificate.................................. 201
Special Use Airspace................................................................ 10
Spacial VFR................................................................ 6,9.70,61
Specific gravity—SG.............................................................. 373
Speed adjustments................................................................. 110
Spuod baJaw 19,000 and/or in Class S......................................108
Speed in Class C, D. E and <3 airport areas............................ 108
Speed limil in Class B ................................................................ 3,196
Spued limit In Class C ..........................................................4, 190
Speed limil in Class D ................................................................ 5,136
Speed limits—all speed I.mils...........................................168-110
Spaed limits—cross-reference................................................. 110
Speed oF Sound 4 Mach...................................115-117, 365. 3B7
Speed restriction / adjustment................................................ 108
Speeding tickets and your medical..........................................202,293
Speed—miles per hour—(eet per minute—(aet per second......385
Soin recovery mnemonic.........................................................302
Spiraling slipstream............................................................... 336
Split flap................................................................................ 354.355
Scort parachuting—u h of Hoot as a seal..................................A4
Sport Pilot.............................................................................. 184,197
Spraying................................................................................ 236
Square—above or below square—manifold pressure 4 RPM ... 360
3SALR—approach light system................................................ 74
SSB—Single Side Band—H F radio......................................... 104
Stability chart......................................................................... 225
Stage 1 2,3,4 noise standards............................................. 165
Stall—critical angle of attack.... 353
Stall recovery........................... 353
Standard airworthiness certif¡cate............................................175
Standard average possenger weights.......................................244
Standard briefing.....................................................................213
Standard climb gradient.............................................. 41.43. 386
Standard datum plana—pressure altitude—29.92................„...134
Standard holding pattern............................................................ 54
Standard Insflumant Departure—SID........................................ 43
Standard Pressure lapsu rata.................................................. 116
Standard rate of turn angle of bank.......................................... 306
Standard rate or lum......................................................... 71. 336
Standard service voluntas—NDB.......................................63. 101
Standard service volumes—VQR........................................46, 91
Slandard takeoff minimums (perl 13S7121) ............................... 256
Standard temperaluta lapse rata..............................................116
Slandard lempararures at various altitude!:............................... 117
Slandard Terminal Arrival — STAR ........................................ 46
Btandbv.Teat—llighl tirtie it. duty.............................................. 260
Start turn—stop turn—no-gyra approach...................................71
Starter.'uurVjratrw.....................................................................140
Starting—jat I turbina engine starting.......................................144
Ststsmeni of demonstrated ability—SQQA..............................2TO
Static Air Temperature—SAT.................................................. 164
Slatic check............................................................................. 135
Static discharger....... ...............................................................152
Sialic wick...............................................................................152
Station—WSB.........................................................................245
Status or an examiner during a practical test............................ 192
Statute mile conversions.......................................................... 355
ETC—Supplemental Type Certificate.......................................364
B u m te a ................ 220
Step-down altitudes—mandatory............................................. 56
Stsrils cockpit—lliqht crewmember duties..............................240
Stolen or lost logbook.............................................................101
Stop way................................................................................ 155,357
Stowage of rood, beverage 4 equipment during movement ..,,202
Straight-in approach.................................................. 15, 16.67
Stratosphere................................................................... 115-117
Studont pilot qualifications..................................................... 163
Subpart F—large and lurbine-poiVared mJtlanglne aircraft.....200
Subpart K Id Part 9 1 ....................................................... 204. 265
Subionic flight regime............................................................ 116
Substantial damage............................................................... 344
Suffixes................................................................................... 32
Sully....................................................................................... 329
Summer—standard average passenger weights....................244
Sump drainingedvtoe......................................................... „ 38-1
Sunset times.......................................................................... 370
Super—Airbus A3B0................................................................ 40
Super-^aiicrafl class—wakg turbulence separation.................... 40
Supercharged engine..............................................................361
Super stall...............................................................................144
Supersonic night regime.......................................................... 116
SuperLlnicom...........................................................................192
Supplemental Oparating Experience (type jaling)....................104
Supplemental operation—fuel supply....................................... 250
Supplemental operation—part 121 .................................. 234. 235
Supplemental operations—flight time limitations (121}.............. 275
Supplemental Type Certificate—STC.......................................354
SurfacH-based Cfass E ..............................................................6
SjJiyjiVAl equipment—Passanger brieling beltjra takeoff.......... 293]
Suspension el pilot Certificate................................................. 343
Swegpin□ Ihe wing.................................................................. 144
SWPBI Wing .idv.mt.ig, i and <:i:„idv.im.u|. s ........................... 163
T Three bouncBS—90 days................................................. 172, 173
I — design for approaches................................................. 60, 69
TAP.'1METAR explanation....................................................... 219
TAF/ METAR sxplanaLlon—wallet size cutout.......................... 221
TAF V S . METAR.............................................................. 218, 219
Tailwhael endorsement........................................................... 195
Tailwind during climb—taka advantage of................................306
Takeoff 4 humidity—rules ol thumb.........................................306
Takeoff alternate (part 1351121).............................................. 259
Takeoff briefing..........................................................................39
INDEX
Takeofl checklist mnemonics................................................... 362
Takeoff distance—jot........................................................... 156
Takeofl distance—rules of thumb.............................................306
Takeofl—effect el altitude, fern pa ralLire, and humidity..............352
Takeofl hold length ................................................................ tS4
Takeofl from unlisted airports (part 135/121)............................ 259
Takeoff ground roll—rules of thumb..........................................306
Takeoff In IMG florin Class G airport without clearance...........7, 34
Takeofl limitations IFR (commBrcial).......................................... 33
Takeofl minimum* IFR (135/121. subpart K.)........... 258. 259. 264
Takeofl mnemonic...................................................................302
Takeofl on grass—rule of thumb.............................................. 306
Takeofl on up-sloping runway—rule of th umb....................... 366
Takeofl path—actual aka gross................................................f 56
Takeofl performance—good and bad stuff................................ 122
Takeofl—radio lingo................................................................491
Takeofl rules cl thumb.............................................................306
Takeofl run—(el....................................................................... 157
TANGO............................................................................259, 359
Tapes—copies ol ATC towsT/certler tapes.............................. 346
Taskers-R V Ft...................................................................72, 261
TAT—Total Air Jemperature................................................... i64
Taxi—radio lingo.....................................................................401
Taxiing............................................................................. 26. 30
TSO— Time Between Overhauls.............................................. 364
TCA5—Traffic alert 4 Collision Avoidance System.... 152, 205, 315
Technical Standard Order IS fi .........................................364
Telecommunication terms — Data links.................................. 195
Telephone Informal ion Briefing Service—TIBS..................... 224
Telephone—FSS direct lino telephone nurn bora......................229
TEMACr LEMAC....................................................................245
Temperatura affects an density altitude................................... 124
Temperature, altitude 4 humidity—effect on takeofl.................. 352
Temperature, aHimeler errors in extremely cold weather..........119
Temperature end altimetry................................................ 119, 121
Tempatalure at various atliLudas—standard.............................. 117
Temperature conversion formulas........................................... 305
Temperature conversion placard—'’ C to "F...............................362
Temperature lapse rale........................................... 116 , 117, 307
Temperature vs. altitude—tropopausa, stratosphere ...... 115, 116
Tempemtur«—Katvln A Rankin................. .............. . 11B, 305
Temperature—SAT, OAT. RAT, TAT........................................ 154
Tempo cliance ut occasional, nlarmlMerU, possibility ....... 35, 253, 254
Temporary certificate.............................................................. 193
Temporary control tamers............................................................ 7
Temporary light restrictions—NQTAM*....................................226
Temporary registration—not acceptable for international...........175
Terminal Arrival Area—TAA............................................... 60, 69
Terminal procedures revision date.............................................49
Terminal Radar Service Area—TRSA.......................................... B
Terrain awareness warning system—GPWS.................... 294, 205
T m i flight—upurflilon after maintenance..................................312
Test to delect contamination of jet fuel......................................373
Testing & checking—Fait 135 ................................................ 242
T-handla (fuel shutoff)............................................................. 151
Thermal runaway—mead batteries.......................................... 150
Things Ihet do yoo no good.................................................... 304
Third attitude indicator—turbojet............................................. 313
Third-class medical certificate—duration of............................... 155
Third-class medical required for................................................197
Third segment climb................................................................ 154
Thirty degrees (30=) of bant during circling approach...............166
TlireaHming .i pilot.......................................................... 66, 366
Three bar VASt.........................................................................75
Three degree [3a>rata or descent—rule of thumb...... .............. 3B9
Three landings—90 days.................................................172, 173
Three lafler idenWiar—airpart idantifier logic.............................379
Thro- ihfiju aovun (337) formrnujor repair and alteration....... '-63
Threshold .............................................................................20
Threshold bar............................................................................21
Threshold crossing height..............................................19, 57, 60
Threshold lights.........................................................................25
Threshold markings........................................................... 20. 22
Thrust—horsepower 4 thrust.................................................. 362
Thunderstorm avoidance penetration ................................... 207
Thunderstorm detection equipment required................... 315, 285
TIBS—Telephone Information Briefing Service....................... 224
Tickets—Speeding tickets and your medical................... 202, 203
Tlmfl Between Overhauls—TBO........................ ....................364
Time — Covert to/lnim Zulu.................................................... 300
Time anrouta—formula.................. ............... .......... ...... 300
Time In service............................................................... 311, 363
Time of uselu I consciousness...................................................H2
Time sharing agreement.......................................................... 280
Time to climb—formula........................ 380
Time to descend—formula...................................................... 383
Time to station—formula......................................................... 380
Time — Zulu — Covert taflrom.................................................380
Timed approaches from a holding fix............„ .......................... A0
Timing for Inbound log f outbound leg.....................................103
Timing should be based on groundspeed............................ 61, 63
Tire creep......................................... ...... ...... ....... ...... . 163
Tires A wheels, chined tires, fusible plugs................ .............. 163
TIT—Turbine Inlet Temperature............................................... 149
TLS—Transponder Landing System.................. 70
To meet a crossing restriction.............................................. 47
To uae an airport as an alternate-.... - .................................... 35
TODA-TO DR—TOGA............................................................150
TOLD card—landing side—approach side................................51
TOLD card—Take-Off and Landing Data......................... 100, 161
TOLD card—takeoff side.................................... 33
Top secret captain stu ff........................................................ 240
TORA—Taksoff Run Available............................................... 150
Torque ....„ ...... .............................................. .............. „ ..... 363
Torque—multi-engine with engine out......................................335
TORR—Takeoff Run Required......................... .............. „ ..... 150
Total electrical failure in IMC conditions.............. 82
TOT—Turbine Outlet Temperature........................................... 149
Touchdown zone elevation „ ..................... 20
Touchdown zone lights........................................................24. 25
Touchdown zone markings........................................................ 20
Towar—Class G ....................................................................... 83
Towers—control lowers—number in oparalion......................... 373
Tower tapes—hOW lo obtain a copy o f................................... 346
Trace ice,..,........................................................................... 211
Traffic alert............................................................. 19,20,00, 130
Traffic alert & Collision Avoidance System—TCAS............ 152,315
Traffic pattern altitude & GS—Class B, C, or D....„..... ..,,19, 60, 130
Traffic pattern altitude at airports without control tower.............. 131
Traffic pattern altitude Class B~„.... 3 Type rating requirements ...............................
Traffic pattern altitude Class C ............................ ...4
Traffic pattern altitude Class D .....................................................5
Traffic pattern altitude—uncontrolled airports..............................10
Traffle pattern entry............................................................ 16, 17
Traffic pattern—minimum altitudes—Class B, C, or D ....19. 60, 130
Traffic separation—wake turbulence....................................... 40
Training center....................................................................... 296
Training, instrument Iraining in VMC...........................................84
Training options—Part 61 vs, Part 141 schools.........................183
Training program..................................................................... 295
Training to accepted standards.......................... 296
Training types—Initial, transition, upgrade, etc.........................,296
Training, testing and Checking—a quick synopsis..................... 242
Transcribed WEalher Broadcast—TWEB............................... 224
Transformer........................................................................... 150
Transgression—No Transgression Zone—PRM approach.......79
Transition altitude........................... 140-141
Transition area............................................................................8
Transition ground training............................. „ ........................295
Transition lavel.............................. 140-141
Transition training.................................................................... 296
Transmtssomata rs—RVR................. 72, 261
Transonic llrght regime............................................................116
Transponder antenna (on aircraft)............................................. 99
Transponder codes...........................................................100, 127
Transponder Lending System—TLS........................................... 78
Transponder mode C check.................................................... 309
Transponder—all transponder stuff—Mode C ...........................127
Transport category aircraft......................................................168
INDEX
Transport category—drilldown— enroute performance............ 159
Transport category turbine airplane landing criteria .............. . 159
Transportation not local in character.....................................271
Trim tabs....... .......... ....... ....................... ..... ............ .......... 357
Tropical tropopauso ........................ ...... .......................214
Tro mi pause .......................................................... 115,116, 214
Troposphere....... ..... ...... ......... .............. ............. ........ 116, 214
Troubleshooting radios.......................................................... 99
T-routes .................................................................................. 47
TRSA—Terminal Redar Service Area .................... 8
True airspeed in knots from Mach#— rule of thumb................. 387
True airspeed......................................................................... 114
True airspeed—rule of thumb............................... 307
True altitude........................................................................... 118
True altitude—mle of thumb........ ........................ ......... ........ 307
True north vs. magnetic north wind direction......................... . 220
TSO—Technical Standard Order.............................................. 364
Turbine i Jet engine terminology ....... ...... .......... ...................149
Turbine / Jet engine— 101.......... ....... ..... .............. ...............146
Turbine I Jet operations— 101.................................................. 144
Turbine engine starting,............... 148
Turbine Inlet Temperature—TIT.............................. 149
Turbina Outlet Temperature—TOT.......................................... 149
Turbocharged engine............................................................ 361
IudH tlaa................................................................................ 146
Turbojet............................................................................... 146
Turbojet—type rating requirements...................................... 134
Turbojets—limitations on the use of landing minimums........... 264
Turboprop—'ree-lurbine & direct-drive.................................... 147
Turbosh aft—Dime l-drive turboprop,...................... 147
Turbulence reporting criteria...................................................223
Turbulence, extreme 207
Turn—early turn on a Departure Procedure........... . 43
Turn—lead the turn................................................................... 47
Turn—standard rate Of turn........................................ ...... 71,386
Turns at airports without an operating control tower........ 15, 16, 57
TWEB—transcribed weather broadcast................................... 224
Twenty t twenty (2CW20) vision................................................ 199
Twilight limes......................................................................... 370
Twisting moments caused by flaps......................................... 355
Two bar VASI..........................................................................75
Two pilot lower lhari standard takeoff minimums......................259
Type cert if¡cats data sheet............................................ 174
Type I, II, III 8 IV de-ice / sntl-ice fluids............. . 212
Type rating required............................................................... 278
194
Type rating—maintaining currency—PIC proficiency check.... . 196
u
üfi. LUJA—PI REP................................................................... 226
Uncontrolled airspace—IFR flight without a clearance..........7, 34
Underscored—Mandatory altitude....................................56, 12B
Unicom : Multicom & air-to-air frequencies........................... . 102
Universal Time Coordinated—UTC time—ZULU time............ 300
Unlisted airports—takeoffs from (part 135/121)...................... 259
Unscheduled — flighl time 8. duly........................... 267, 268, 269
Unscheduled 3 8 4 pilot crews (.135)—flight time & duty.......... 270
Updates of GPS Databases....................... 94
Upgrade ground training........................................................ 295
Upgrade training..................................................................... 296
Upper Side Band—HF rad«.................................... 104
Upslone fog............................................................................228
Up-sloping runway tahaoff—rule of thumb............................ 306
USto metric conversions........................................................386
Usable distance of VOR signals..........................................46, 91
Usable length—runway length............................... 279
Usable—lowest usable flight level............. 132
Useful load.............................................................................245
UTC time—Universal Time Coordinated—ZULU.......................380
Utility category aircraft.....................................................11, 168
V S p e e d s — every Speed that was ever V 'd ...........................112, 113
V I , M2. Vr. Vis, V enr... ............................................................ 154
V3 s p e e d .................................................................................................. 158
V4 s p e e d ........................ ....... .................................. .................„ .......... 15B
V a cu u rn rodiof va lve ....................................................................... 142, 153
V a lid a tio n tests and Proving r u n s ..................................284, 206. 294
V a ls a lv a m aneuver— ear block............................................................ 350
V a ria tio n e rro r— com p a s s .......................................................................90
J tflS I................................................................................................... 75
VCM — V apor-C yda M a c h in e ................................................................151
V D A — Vertical Descent A n g le .................................................................77
V D L— VHF Digital Link modes 2. 3 4 4 ................... .........................105
VDP— Visual Descent P o in t.................................................................... 77
V e n tu ri e ffe c t.................................................................................134, 151
Vertical Daacunt Analti v o a .............................................................77
V e rtig o ....................................................................................................201
V F R ! IFR instrum ents and eq u ip m e n t..,,,,..... .................„ „ „ , „ „ „ , . . 0 4
VFR at night— equipm ent required carrying p a sse ng e rs.............. 313
V F R arnval at la rge , Class B o r C airport— radio lin g o ................ 409
V F R charts required................................................................................ 293
VFR cloud c le a ra n c e ............ .................. 9 Weigtils of fuel, oil. alcohol, hydraulic fluid, water, etc........ 364, 365
V F R control to w e rs ...................................................................................... 5
V F R flight follow n g .... .................................. 44
VFR fuel s u p p ly ..........................................................................................38
VFR fueJ supply— domestic o p e ra tio n s ............................................. 259
V F R in Class B. Class C, Class D. Class G ..........................................9
V F R in Class E .................................................................................6, 9. 81
VFR over-the-top— equipm ent required whBn carrying p a ss.......313
VFR -on-lop— IFR c le a ra n c e ........................................................ 44
VFR -over-the-lop....................................................................................... 44
V ia g r a ........................... 2d
V ib ra tio n d e te cto r............. 149
V ic to r a irw a y s ............................................................................................ 47
V io la tio n — Enforcem ent a c tio n .........................................— 342. 343
V ir q a ...........................................................................................................210
V is c o s im e te r ........................................................................................... 368
U iA S fiU U erf Q * ......................................................................................... 366
V is c o u s h yd ro p la n in g ............................................................................372
V is ib ility and lha earth's h o rizo n .........................................................367
Visibility when operating from a s a ls llle a irport............................... .78
Visibility— llig h t v is ib ility ..............................................70, 280. 251, 3 67
V isibility— operation below DH or MDA— llig h t v is ib ility ...................70
V is io n — medical certificate re q u ire m e n ts ............................... 199. 200
V is u a l a p p ro a ch .........................................................................................76
Visual Descant Point— V D P ,,................................................................. 77
V m c — red line— reduced by i increased b y ...................................... 334
VNAV i1LNAV A p p ro a ch e s ..................................................................... 62
V o id t im e ............................................................................................ 8, 38
VOR— all V O R s tu ff.......................................................................... 45. 91
VO R antenna (on a ircraft)........................................................................98
VOR c h a c k / la s t........................................................................................91.309
VOR G PS as substitule f o r ......................................................................94
V O R Minimum Operational Network (M O N )....................................... 91
VOR service v o lu m e ....................................................................... 46. 91
VOT ch e ck................... ........................ .......................................... . 91, 309
V r e f............................................................................................................. 144
V r— rotation speed— rule of thum b...................................................... 306
w
W A - A I R M E T ..........................................................................................224
W A A S — Wide Area Augmentation System ................................. 62, 95
W ake turbulence traffic separations....................... 40
W arning ornas........................................................................................... 10
W a sh in g to n . Q £ PC F R Z i ID C SFR A1.............................................. 12
W asta gate— turhochangad angine........................... 361
W aler m Jet fuel.............................................................................. 145
Watar— overwater— performance requirements..............................314
Water— weight.......................................................................................... 305
Wattage vs. kilowatts vs. horsepower................................................362
W atts— electrical..................................................................................... 362
W eapons— nrohihition against carriage o f........................................398
W eather at the destination must be at or above m inim um s..........30
INDEX
Weather briefings— standard, abbreviated, etc...............................223
WeBther— chance of, tempo, possibility o f ................. 35, 253, 254
Weather— do you need an alternate.......................................... 35, 254
Weather for approach not required far Part 9 1 ............................... 260
Woathar radar required...................... ................................ 315, 265
Weather reporting............................................................... 76
Weather reporting— arnval at airports w/no weather reporting ... 264
Weather repotting— departing airports w'no weather reporting „2 6 5
Weather reports V F R — PIC can be obserrer (Part 135}....... 76, 255
W ealhsr required for approach (part 135^121}................... ........ ...260
Weather required for destination 8 alternate (part 135M 21]........252
Weather required lor "Eligible O n-Dem and Operator-' ...................206
Weather required for subpan K of part 9 1 .............................. 284, 285
W eight & Balance & C G labia— all W &B stufl............................... 245
Weight & Balance data (required an board the aircraft)................175
Weight 6 Balance— formulas............................................. 386
Weight & Balance— load manifest............................................. 243, 204
W e ig h ts Balance— load manifest— record keeping............ 246, 204
Weight— average standard passenger weights............ .................. 244
Weight bearing capacity, runw ay.......................................................... 22
Weight— formulas, conversions 4 comparisons........ ....................365
W e t lease...................................................................................................236
W et runway definition ........................................ ...213
W et start— turbine engine................................................. 148
W h e e ls— tires— fusible plugs...............................................................163
W hite a rc ................................................................................................... 114
White a rrow s...............................................................................................21
White smoke— piston engine sm oke.............. ...366
W iice ..................................................................................................... ...359
W ind chill factors..................................................................................... 216
Wind direction— true north vs, magnetic north............................. „2 2 0
Wind shear................ 206
W in d s and temperature aloft forecast— F D ................................. 225
W indm ill start / airalart— jet engine....................................... 162
W indshield h eat............... 163
W ino loading— formula........................................................................„309
W ing planform ............................ 351
W in a le ts ....................................................................................................162
W inter— standard average passenger weights............................... 244
W ithout mi Instrum ent approach lillng IFR to an airport...........34
W o m e n ...................................................................................................... 388
W o rd s to avoid— radio lingo............................ 397
W reckage preservation of............................................................... „3 4 5
Y75— S I G M E T ..........................................................................................221
Y
Yaw—ndvarsa vs. proverae ya w ......................................................... 357
Yaw dam per................................................................................... 163, 357
Y e a r— calendar y e a r......................... 267
Y e llo w a rc..................................................................................................114
Yellow chevrons, demarcation bar, p a in t................... ................-..... 21
z
Zero fuel w eight...................................................................................... 245
Zon e— No Transgression Zona—PRM approach....................... 79
Z U L U time................................................................................................. 360
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