Noreen V.

Bengo
BSN 101
Nucleotides

Section 25.1 What Are the Molecules of Heredity?

The molecules of Heredity are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) which are
nucleic acids that store and transmit genetic information for living organisms.

25.2 What structures of cell, visible in microscope, contain hereditary information?

The structure of the cell that contain hereditary information and are visible under a microscope
are the nucleus and chromosomes.
25.3 Name one hereditary disease

Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder caused by mutation (change) in the cystic fibrosis
transmembrane conductance (CFTR) gene. It affects the cells that produce mucus, sweat and
digestive fluids.
25.4 What is the basic unit of heredity?
Gene is the basic unit of inheritance. It consists of a sequence of DNA, which is a genetic material.
Genes can mutate and can take two or more alternative forms.
Section 25. 2 What Are Nucleic Acids Made Of?
Nucleic acids are composed of sugars, phosphates and organic bases. Nucleic acids are
biopolymers, macromolecules, essential to all known forms of life. They are composed of
nucleotides, which are the monomer components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group and a
nitrogenous base. The two main classes of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic
acid. If the sugar is ribose, the polymer is RNA; if the sugar is deoxyribose, a version of ribose, the
polymer is DNA.

25.5 (a) Where in the cell is the DNA located?

In eukaryotic cells, most DNA is located in the cell nucleus.
(b) Where in the cell is the RNA located?
RNA is synthesized and stored in the cytoplasm of the cell.

25.6 What are the components of

(a) a nucleotide
Nucleotide is composed of a nucleobase, a five-carbon sugar, and one or more phosphate groups.
(b) a nucleoside
Nucleoside has only a nitrogenous base and a five-carbon sugar.

25.7 What are the differences between DNA and RNA?

The differences between DNA and RNA are DNA is double-stranded, forming a double helix, while
RNA is usually single-stranded. The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, whereas RNA contains ribose.
DNA uses the bases adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine, while RNA uses adenine, uracil,
cytosine, and guanine. DNA stores genetic information for the cell, whereas RNA codes for amino
acids and acts as a messenger between DNA molecules and the ribosomes. DNA molecules are
self-replicating, whereas RNA molecules are synthesized by a process called transcription.
25.8 Draw the structures of ADP and GDP. Are these structures parts of nucleic acids?

ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) and GDP (Guanosine Diphosphate) are nucleotides involved in
cellular energy metabolism. They are not structural components of nucleic acids, but they are
involved in the formation of RNA and DNA as components of nucleotides.
25.9 What is the difference in structure between thymine and uracil?
Thymine and uracil are two of the five nitrogenous bases that are found in nucleic acids. The
other three are adenine, guanine, and cytosine. While thymine is only found in DNA, uracil is only
found in RNA. The chemical structures of thymine and uracil are very similar. They both have a
heterocyclic aromatic ring structure of four carbon atoms and two nitrogen atoms. However, the
main difference between them is that thymine has a methyl group (CH3) attached to its ring
structure at the 5′ position, whereas uracil does not have this methyl group.
25.10 Which DNA and RNA bases contain a carbonyl group?
The DNA and RNA bases that contain carbonyl group are Guanine(G), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T),
Uracil (U).
25.11 Draw the structures of (a) cytidine and (b) deoxycytidine.

25.12 Which DNA and RNA bases are primary amines?

The primary amines among DNA and RNA bases are adenine, guanine, and cytosine.

25.13 What is the difference in structure between D- ribose and 2 deoxy D-ribose?
D- ribose and 2-deoxy-D-ribose have identical structures except that D-ribose has an –OH group
on carbon two whereas 2-deoxy-D-ribose has an –H instead.
25.14 What is the difference between a nucleoside and a nucleotide?

Nucleoside and nucleotide are both building blocks of nucleic acids like DNA and RNA. They both
have a sugar and nitrogenous base. The difference is that nucleotide also has a phosphate group,
while nucleoside does not.
25.15 RNA and DNA refer to nucleic acids. Which part of the molecule is acidic?
Nucleic acids are macromolecules made up of nucleotides, which consist of a nitrogenous base,
a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group. The phosphate group is the part of the nucleotide
that is acidic. In DNA and RNA, the phosphate group is attached to the 5’ carbon of the sugar
molecule.
25.16 What type of bond exists between the ribose and the phosphate in AMP?

The bond between the ribose and the phosphate in AMP is a phosphoester bond. This bond is
formed between the 5’ hydroxyl group of the ribose sugar and the phosphate group.
25.17 What type of bond exists between the two phosphates in ADP?
The bond between the two phosphates in ADP is a high-energy bond known as a
phosphoanhydride bond. This bond is formed through a condensation reaction between the
phosphates, resulting in the release of a water molecule.
25.18 What type of bond connects to the base ribose in GTP?
The bond that connects the base ribose in GTP is a beta-glycosidic linkage. This bond is formed
between a nitrogen atom on the guanine base and a carbon atom on the ribose sugar.

Section 25.3 What is the structure of DNA and RNA?

The DNA structure can be thought of as a twisted ladder. This structure is described as a double
helix. It is a nucleic acid, and all nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides. The DNA molecule is
composed of units called nucleotides, and each nucleotide is composed of three different
components such as sugar, phosphate groups and nitrogen bases. The ribonucleic acid has all the
components same to that of the DNA with only 2 main differences within it. RNA has the same
nitrogen bases called the adenine, Guanine, Cytosine as that of the DNA except for the Thymine
which is replaced by the uracil. Adenine and uracil are considered as the major building blocks of
RNA and both of them form base-pair with the help of 2 hydrogen bonds.RNA resembles a hairpin
structure and like the nucleotides in DNA, nucleotides are formed in this ribonucleic material
(RNA). Nucleosides are nothing but phosphate groups which sometimes also help in the
production of nucleotides in the DNA.
25.19 In RNA, which carbons of the ribose are linked to the phosphate group and which are
linked to the base?
The phosphate group is attached to the 5’ carbon of the ribose sugar molecule, while the
nitrogenous base is attached to the 1’ carbon of the ribose sugar molecule.
25.20 What constitutes the backbone of DNA?

The backbone of DNA is the portion of the DNA double helix that provides structural support to
the molecule. It is made up of alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate groups
25.21 Draw the structures of (a) UDP and (b) dAMP
25.22 In DNA, which carbon atoms of 2- deoxy- D ribose are bonded to the phosphate groups?
The sugar in DNA is 2-deoxyribose, which is a pentose (five-carbon) sugar. The sugars are joined
by phosphate groups that form phosphodiester bonds between the third and fifth carbon atoms
of adjacent sugar rings. Therefore, the third and fifth carbon atoms of 2-deoxy-D-ribose are
bonded to the phosphate groups in DNA.
25.23 The sequence of short segment is ATGGCAATAC.
(a) What name do we give to the two ends (terminals) of a DNA molecule?

The two ends of a DNA molecule are called the 5’ end and the 3’ end 1. The 5’ end is the end of
the DNA strand that has a phosphate group attached to the 5’ carbon of the sugar molecule,
while the 3’ end is the end of the DNA strand that has a hydroxyl group attached to the 3’ carbon
of the sugar molecule.

(b) In this segment, which end is which?

The ATG sequence is at the 5’ end and the TAC sequence is at the 3’ end.
(c) What would be the sequence of the complementary strand?
The complementary strand of ATGGCAATAC is TACCGTTATG.

25.24 Chargaff showed that in samples of DNA taken from many different species, the molar
quantity of A was approximately equal to the molar quantity of T. The same is true for C and
G. How did this information help to establish the structure of DNA?
Chargaff’s rule, which states that the molar quantity of A is approximately equal to the molar
quantity of T and the same is true for C and G, was a critical piece of information that helped
establish the structure of DNA. This rule suggested that the four nucleotide bases in DNA were
paired in some way. The discovery of the double helix structure of DNA by Watson and Crick was
based on the idea that the nucleotide bases pair up in a specific way: A with T and C with G .The
pairing of these bases is held together by hydrogen bonds, which are weak enough to allow the
two strands of the double helix to separate during DNA replication. Chargaff’s rule provided a
crucial clue about the structure of DNA by suggesting that the four nucleotide bases were paired
in some way, which ultimately led to the discovery of the double helix structure of DNA.
25.25 How many hydrogen bonds can form between uracil and adenine?
Two hydrogen bonds can form between uracil and adenine.

25.26 How many histones are present in a nucleosome?

The histone octamer is composed of two copies each of the histone proteins H2A, H2B, H3, and
H4234. Therefore, there are eight histones present in a nucleosome.
25.27 What is the nature of the interactions between histones and DNA in nucleosomes?
Histones are positively charged proteins that bind tightly to negatively charged DNA. The
resulting DNA-protein complex is called chromatin. Nucleosomes are the basic unit of chromatin,
consisting of DNA wrapped around a core of eight histone proteins. The interaction between
histones and DNA in nucleosomes is mainly electrostatic, with histones providing the energy to
fold DNA into a compact structure. The histone tails are also involved in the regulation of gene
expression by controlling access to DNA. The dynamics of histones and DNA in nucleosomes are
still being studied, and the mechanisms of DNA-histone wrapping and unwrapping are not yet
fully understood
25.28 What are chromatin fibers made of?
Chromatin fibers are made up of DNA, RNA, and associated proteins. Chromatin material contains
40% DNA and 60% histone proteins.
25.29 What constitutes the superstructure of chromosomes?
The unique structure of chromosomes keeps DNA tightly wrapped around spool-like proteins,
called histones. Without such packaging, DNA molecules would be too long to fit inside cells.
25.30 What are the primary structures of DNA?

The primary structure of DNA refers to the sequence of nucleotides that make up a molecule of
DNA 1. A nucleotide is composed of a sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous
base. The nitrogenous bases in DNA are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
25.31 What is the secondary structure of DNA?

The secondary structure of DNA refers to the interactions between bases. In a DNA double helix,
the two strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds. The nucleotides on one strand
base pairs with the nucleotide on the other strand. The base-pairing of the two polynucleotide
strands coiled around each other to form a double helix determines the secondary structure of
DNA. The double helix also has two grooves, a major and a minor groove.
25.32 What is the major groove of a DNA helix?
The major groove is a structural feature of the DNA double helix. It is a wider groove than the
minor groove and is formed by the uneven spacing between the two strands of the helix. The
major groove is important because it is the site where many sequence-specific proteins interact
with DNA.
25.33 What are the higher order structures of DNA that eventually make up a chromosome?
The DNA wrapped around histones is further organized into higher-order structures that give a
chromosome its shape. Chromatin is the higher-order structure that encompasses each cell’s
genetic blueprint, its DNA. Within chromatin, the DNA is tightly wrapped around histone
proteins, which are capable of efficiently fitting the lengthy DNA strands into a relatively small
space.
Section 25.4 What Are the Different Classes of RNA?

RNA, or ribonucleic acid, is a complex molecule that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis and
gene expression. There are several types of RNA, each with its unique structure and function.
Messenger RNA (mRNA): Carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes, where it is
translated into proteins.

Transfer RNA (tRNA): Transports amino acids to ribosomes, where they are assembled into
proteins.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Forms the structural and catalytic core of ribosomes, which are the
cellular machinery responsible for protein synthesis.

MicroRNA (miRNA): Regulates gene expression by binding to messenger RNA and preventing its
translation into protein.
25.34 Which type of RNA has enzyme activity? Where does it function mostly?
Ribozymes are RNA molecules that have the ability to catalyze specific biochemical reactions,
similar to the action of protein enzymes. Ribozymes are mainly found in selected viruses,
bacteria, plant organelles, and lower eukaryotes. Ribozymes are also known to be involved in
RNA splicing, RNA editing, and RNA degradation. Ribozymes are the type of RNA that has enzyme
activity. They function mostly in catalyzing biochemical reactions and RNA processing.
25.35 Which has the longest chains: tRNA, mRNA, or rRNA?

The mRNA has a complete nucleotide sequence, so it is considered as the largest RNA.
25.36 Which type of RNA contains modified nucleotides?
The type of RNA that contains modified nucleotides is tRNA (transfer RNA).
25.37 Which type of RNA has a sequence exactly complementary to that of DNA?

Messenger RNA (or mRNA) has the main role in transcription, or the first step in making a protein
from a DNA blueprint. The mRNA is made up of nucleotides found in the nucleus that come
together to make a complementary sequence to the DNA found there.
25.38 Where is rRNA located in the cell?

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is found in the cytoplasm of a cell, which is also the location of ribosomes.
Molecules of rRNA are synthesized and processed in the nucleolus, which is a dense area inside
the nucleus and has the genes that encode rRNA.
25.39 What kind of functions do ribozymes, in general, perform?
Ribozymes are RNA molecules that can catalyze chemical reactions. They are found in the
genomes of all living kingdoms and are responsible for a variety of functions such as RNA splicing,
transfer RNA biosynthesis, viral replication, and peptide-bond formation.

25.40 Which of the RNA types are always involved in protein synthesis?
In protein synthesis, there are three types of RNA that play a role: messenger RNA (mRNA),
ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). mRNA carries genetic information from DNA in
the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. rRNA is a structural component of ribosomes.
tRNA carries amino acids to the ribosome during translation to help build an amino acid chain.
25.41 What is the purpose of snRNA?
snRNA stands for small nuclear RNA, which is a type of RNA molecule that is involved in the
splicing of pre-mRNA. snRNA is transcribed by RNA polymerase II or III and forms complexes with
proteins called snRNPs. snRNPs recognize the sequence elements of introns and catalyze their
removal from pre-mRNA, forming active spliceosomes. snRNA also has an enzymatic and a
structural role in the splicing process.
25.42 What is the purpose of siRNA?
Small interfering RNA (siRNA) is a class of double-stranded RNA molecules that function within
the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway. The main function of siRNA is to protect the cell from
exogenous mRNA attacks. Functionally, the siRNA degrades the growing mRNA (exogenous as
well as endogenous) and stops gene expression. siRNAs are highly specific and usually
synthesized to reduce the translation of specific messenger RNAs (mRNAs). They are an
important tool for validating gene function and drug targeting in the post-genomic era.
25.43 What is the difference between miRNA and siRNA?
miRNA and siRNA are both types of small RNA molecules that play important roles in gene
regulation. However, they differ in their biogenesis, structure, and function.

Biogenesis: miRNA is transcribed from DNA and processed by Drosha and Dicer enzymes to form
a hairpin structure. siRNA is usually introduced into cells from external sources, such as viruses,
and is processed by Dicer to form a double-stranded structure.
Structure: miRNA is a single-stranded RNA molecule that binds to the 3’ untranslated region
(UTR) of target mRNA to repress translation. siRNA is a double-stranded RNA molecule that binds
to the mRNA coding region to cleave mRNA.
Function: miRNA regulates multiple genes by inhibiting translation of mRNA. siRNA regulates one
gene by degrading mRNA.
Section 25.5 What are Genes?
Genes are segments of DNA that contain the information needed to specify physical and
biological traits. Genes are the basic unit of heredity and are passed from parents to offspring.
Most genes act as instructions to make proteins, or segments of proteins, which have differing
functions within the body.
25.44 Define:
(a) Intron is a segment of a DNA or RNA molecule that does not code for proteins and interrupts
the sequence of genes. Introns are found only in eukaryotic organisms. They are long stretches
of noncoding DNA found between exons (or coding regions) in a gene.
(b) Exon is a segment of a DNA or RNA molecule that contains information coding for a protein
or peptide sequence.
25.45 Does mRNA also have introns and exons? Explain.

Yes, messenger RNA (mRNA) also contains introns and exons. Introns are non-coding regions of
DNA that are transcribed into pre-mRNA but are removed during the process of splicing to form
mature mRNA. Exons, on the other hand, are the coding regions of DNA that are transcribed into
pre-mRNA and are retained in mature mRNA. In eukaryotic cells, genes are composed of both
introns and exons. During transcription, the entire gene is transcribed into pre-mRNA, which
contains both introns and exons. The introns are then spliced out of the pre-mRNA, and the
remaining exons are joined together to form mature mRNA. The presence of introns in pre-mRNA
allows for alternative splicing, which is the process by which different combinations of exons can
be spliced together to produce different mRNA molecules from the same gene.

25.46
(a) What percentage of human DNA codes for proteins?
Only 1% of human DNA is made up of protein-coding genes.
(b) What is the function on the rest of the DNA?
The rest of the DNA, which is called non-coding DNA, has a variety of functions. These include
regulating when proteins are made and controlling the packaging of DNA within the cell. The non-
coding DNA is also believed to be involved in regulating transcription and translation.
25.47 Do satellites code for a particular protein?

Satellites are repetitive DNA sequences that are found in the genome of many organisms. They
are not known to code for any proteins.
25.48 Do all genes code for a protein? If not, what do they code for?
Not all genes code for a protein. While many genes do code for proteins, some genes code for
functional RNA molecules, such as ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and small nuclear
RNA (snRNA). These RNA molecules play essential roles in various cellular processes, such as
protein synthesis, RNA splicing, and gene regulation. Each gene has the code for creating a
specific protein. The sequence of bases in the gene controls which amino acids are joined in order
to make a specific new protein (or enzyme) molecule.