Civil Engineering

Highway Engineering

Comprehensive Theory
with Solved Examples and Practice Questions

Publications
 Publications

MADE EASY Publications

Corporate Office: 44-A/4, Kalu Sarai (Near Hauz Khas Metro Station), New Delhi-110016
E-mail: infomep@madeeasy.in
Contact: 011-45124660, 8860378007
Visit us at: www.madeeasypublications.org

Highway Engineering
© Copyright, by MADE EASY Publications.
All rights are reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced
into a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical,
photo-copying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of the above
mentioned publisher of this book.

First Edition: 2015

Second Edition (Revised and Updated): 2016

© All rights reserved by MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form without the
written permission from the publisher.
Preface
This book was motivated by the desire to further the evolution of a concise
book on Highway Engineering. Keeping in focus the importance of this
subject in GATE and ESE, we have done a proper study and thereafter
developed the content of the book accordingly. This edition has an
expanded discussion of all relevant topics in the subject.

Initially, we compiled the perceptions of our students on their problems

in GATE and ESE while dealing with the questions from this subject. We
identified their various problems like- lack of fundamentals of the subject,
difficulty in solving simple solutions, shortage of a complete study package,
etc. These strengthened our determination to present a complete edition of Highway Engineering textbook.

The book addresses all the requirements of the students, i.e. comprehensive coverage of theory, fundamental
concepts, objective type problems and conventional problems, articulated in a lucid language. The concise
presentation will help the readers grasp the concepts with clarity and apply them with ease to solve problems
quickly. The books not only covers the entire syllabus of GATE and ESE, but also addresses the need of many other
competitive examinations. Topics like ‘Highway Development and Planning, Geometric Design of Highway, Traffic
Engineering, Highway Materials, Pavement Designs, Highway Construction, Highway Maintenance’ are given full
coverage in line with our research on their importance in competitive examinations.

We have put in our sincere efforts to present elaborate solutions for various problems, different problem solving
methodology, some useful quick techniques to save time while attempting MCQs without compromising the accuracy
of answers. A summary of important points to remember is added at the end of each topic. For the convenience
of readers, points to remember are specifically highlighted in the form of a note- both in theory as well as solved
examples. At the end of each chapter, sets of practice question are given with their keys, that will allow the readers
to evaluate their understanding of the topics and sharpen their problem solving skills.

Our team has made their best efforts to remove all possible errors of any kind. Nonetheless, we would highly
appreciate and acknowledge if you find and share with us any printing, calculation and conceptual error.

It is impossible to thank all the individuals who helped us, but we would like to sincerely thank all the co-authors,
editors and reviewers for putting in their efforts to publish this book. We also express our thanks to MADE EASY
publications for completing and publishing the book on time.

With Best Wishes

B. Singh
CMD, MADE EASY
Contents
Highway Engineering

Chapter 1 2.2.6 Third 20 Year Road Plan (Lucknow Road ......

Plan) (1981 - 2001).............................................. 9
Introduction.............................................. 1
2.3 Road Patterns..................................................................10
1.1 Role of Transportation................................................... 1
2.4 Engineering Surveys for Highway Locations.......11
1.2 Different Modes of Transportation........................... 1
2.4.1 Map Study...........................................................11
1.3 Roadways or Highways.................................................. 1
2.4.2 Reconnaissance.................................................11
1.4 Characteristics of Road Transport.............................. 2
2.4.3 Preliminary Survey...........................................12
1.5 Importance of Roads in India...................................... 2
2.4.4 Final Location and Detailed Survey............12
1.6 Classification of Rural Roads........................................ 2
2.5 National Highway Development Program (NHDP).
1.7 Classification of Urban Roads...................................... 2
.................................................................................12
1.8 Scope of Highway Engineering.................................. 2
2.6 Concept of Saturation System or Maximum Utility
System...............................................................................13
Chapter 2 Objective Brain Teaser....................................................15
Highway Development and Planning........4 Conventional Practice Question.................................16
2.1 Development of Roads.................................................. 4
2.1.1 Roman Roads ...................................................... 4
Chapter 3
2.1.2 Tresaguet Construction.................................... 5
Geometric Design of Highway.........17
2.1.3 Telford Construction.......................................... 5
3.1 Factors Controlling Geometric Design...................17
2.1.4 Metcalf Construction......................................... 5
3.1.1 Topography or Terrain.....................................17
2.1.5 Macadam Construction.................................... 6
3.1.2 Design Speed.....................................................18
2.1.6 Water Bound Macadam (WBM)..................... 6
3.1.3 Road User Characteristics..............................19
2.2 Modern Road Development In India........................ 7
3.1.4 Vehicular Characteristic..................................20
2.2.1 Recommendations Made by Jayakar
3.1.5 Design Hourly Volume and Capacity.........20
Committee............................................................. 7
3.2 Basic Consideration for the Design of Highway...... 21
2.2.2 Accepted Recommendations of Jayakar
3.3 Cross Sectional Element..............................................22
Committee............................................................. 7
3.3.1 Right of Way........................................................22
2.2.3 Objectives of Indian Road Congress............. 7
3.3.2 Width of Formation..........................................23
2.2.4 First 20 year Road Plan (Nagpur Road Plan)
3.3.3 Road Margins......................................................24
(1943 - 63).............................................................. 7
3.3.4 Median..................................................................26
2.2.5 Second 20 year Road Plan (Bombay Road
3.3.5 Kerb........................................................................26
Plan) (1961 - 81)................................................... 8
3.3.6 Width of Pavement or Carriageway ..........27

(iv)
 3.3.7 Camber or Cross Slope....................................28
3.3.8 Pavement Characteristics...............................29
3.4 Sight Distance.................................................................30
3.4.1 Stopping Sight Distance.................................31
3.4.2 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)................34
3.4.3 Sight Distance at Intersection......................38
3.4.4 Intermediate Sight Distance.........................38
3.5 Curve .................................................................................39
3.5.1 Advantages of Curves.....................................39
3.5.2 Factor Affecting the Design of Curves......39
3.5.3 Type of Curves....................................................39
3.6 Design of Horizontal Alignment...............................40
3.6.1 Stability Analysis on Horizontal Curv
without Superelevation..................................40
3.6.2 Impact Factor.....................................................42
3.6.3 Superelevation...................................................42
3.6.4 Design of Superelevation...............................48
3.6.5 Radii of Horizontal Curve...............................49
3.6.6 Extrawidening....................................................50
3.6.7 Curve Resistance for Turning Vehicle.........51
3.6.8 Grade Compensation at Curves on Hill ........
Roads.....................................................................51
3.7 Transition Curves...........................................................52
2.2.3 Objectives of Indian Road Congress............. 7
3.7.1 Different Types of Transition Curves..........52
3.7.2 Length of Transition Curve ...........................53
3.7.3 Design Steps of Horizontal Transition Curve
Length...................................................................54
3.7.4 Setting out of Transition Curve....................54
3.8 Set Back Distance...........................................................57
3.9 Vertical Alignment.........................................................61
3.9.1 Summit Curve....................................................62
3.9.2 Valley Curve or Sag Curve..............................65
Objective Brain Teaser...................................................75
Conventional Practice Questions................................78
Chapter 4
Traffic Engineering...........................79
4.1 Function of Traffic Engineering.................................79
4.2 Traffic Characteristics...................................................79
(v)
4.2.1 Road User Characteristics..............................79
4.2.2 Vehicular Characteristics................................80
4.3 Traffic studies and Analysis........................................82
4.3.1 Traffic Volume Study . ....................................83
4.3.2 Traffic Speed Studies.......................................85
4.3.3 Origin and Destination Studies....................93
4.3.4 Traffic Flow Characteristics and Studies...95
4.3.5 Traffic Capacity Studies...................................96
4.3.6 Parking Studies............................................... 100
4.3.7 Accident Studies............................................ 102
4.4 Traffic Control Device................................................ 105
4.4.1 Traffic Signs...................................................... 106
4.4.2 Traffic Signals................................................... 109
4.4.3 Methods of Signal Designing.................... 114
4.5 Intersection................................................................... 117
4.5.1 Types of Intersection.................................... 118
4.6 Traffic Rotaries............................................................. 121
4.6.1 Shape of Rotary Island................................. 122
4.6.2 Design Speed of Rotary............................... 122
4.6.3 Radius of Curve at Entry.............................. 122
4.6.4 Radius of Curve at Exit................................. 122
4.6.5 Radius of Central Traffic Island.................. 122
4.6.6 Width of Weaving Section.......................... 123
4.6.7 Weaving Length............................................. 123
4.6.8 Entry and Exit Angles.................................... 123
4.6.9 Capacity of the Rotary.................................. 123
Objective Brain Teaser................................................ 133
Conventional Practice Questions............................. 136
Chapter 5
Highway Materials................................137
5.1 Soil .............................................................................. 137
5.2 Subgrade Soil............................................................... 137
5.2.1 Subgrade Soil Strength................................ 137
5.2.2 Evaluation of Soil Strength......................... 138
5.3 Plate Bearing Test........................................................ 138
5.3.1 Procedure of Plate Bearing Test................ 138
5.3.2 Correction for Worst Sub-grade Moisture.138
5.3.3 Correction for Size of Plates....................... 139
5.4 California Bearing Ratio Test................................... 140
 5.4.1 Test Procedure................................................ 140
5.4.2 Correction in Load Penetration Curve.... 141
5.5 Aggregates.................................................................... 141
5.5.1 Desirable Properties of Road Aggregates.. 141
5.5.2 Test for Road Aggregates............................ 143
5.6 Bitumen . ....................................................................... 148
5.6.1 Cutback Bitumen........................................... 148
5.6.2 Bitumen Emulsion......................................... 148
5.6.3 Manufacturing of Bitumen......................... 148
5.6.4 Tests of Bitumen............................................. 149
5.7 TAR .............................................................................. 152
5.8 Mix Design..................................................................... 152
5.8.1 Objective of Mix Design.............................. 152
5.8.2 Constituent of a Mix...................................... 152
5.8.3 Types of Mix..................................................... 152
5.8.4 Different Layers in a Pavement................. 153
5.8.5 Steps in Mix Design....................................... 153
5.9 Marshall Mix Design................................................... 153
5.9.1 Step Involved in the Preparation of ...............
Specimen.......................................................... 153
5.9.2 Different Properties of Mix......................... 154
5.9.3 Marshall Stability and Flow........................ 155
5.9.4 Stability Correction....................................... 156
5.9.5 Graphical Plots................................................ 156
5.9.6 Optimum Bitumen Content....................... 156
5.10 Modified Hubbard-Field Method of Bituminous
Mix Design..................................................................... 159
5.11 Hveem Method of Bituminous Mix Design....... 160
Objective Brain Teaser................................................ 163
Conventional Practice Question.............................. 166
Chapter 6
Pavement Design............................167
6.1 Types of Pavement Structure ................................ 167
6.1.1 Flexible Pavement......................................... 167
6.1.2 Rigid Pavement............................................... 167
6.1.3 Semi Rigid Pavement.................................... 168
6.2 Functions of Pavement Components.................. 168
6.3 Design Factors............................................................. 168
6.4 Design of Flexible Pavement.................................. 172
(vi)
6.4.1 Group Index Method.................................... 174
6.4.2 California Bearing Ratio Method.............. 175
6.4.3 Modified CBR Method.................................. 177
6.4.4 California Resistance Value Method........ 179
6.4.5 Triaxial Test Method...................................... 181
6.4.6 Mcleod Method.............................................. 182
6.4.7 Burmister Method.......................................... 183
6.5 Design of Rigid Pavement....................................... 186
6.5.1 Factors Affecting Design............................. 186
6.5.2 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction................ 187
6.5.3 Relative Stiffness of slab to subgrade..... 187
6.5.4 Critical Load Positions.................................. 188
6.5.5 Equivalent Radius of Resisting Section.. 188
6.5.6 Wheel Load Stresses - Westergaard’s Stress
Equations.......................................................... 189
6.5.7 Temperature Stresses................................... 190
6.5.8 Nature of Stresses.......................................... 191
6.5.9 Combination of stresses.............................. 191
6.5.10 Critical Cases of Stress Combination....... 192
6.6 Design of Joint............................................................. 192
6.6.1 Requirements of Joint.................................. 192
6.6.2 Types of Joints................................................. 193
6.6.3 Tie Bar................................................................. 195
6.6.4 Dowel Bar.......................................................... 196
Objective Brain Teaser................................................ 206
Conventional Practice Questions............................. 210
Chapter 7
Highway Construction....................211
7.1 Pavement Types.......................................................... 211
7.2 Earthwork...................................................................... 211
7.3 Excavation..................................................................... 212
7.3.1 Classification of Excavation........................ 212
7.3.2 Excavation Equipment................................. 212
7.4 Embankment................................................................ 213
7.4.1 Selection and Placement of Materials in ......
Embankment and Subgrades.................... 213
7.4.2 Design Elements in Highway . ..........................
Embankments................................................. 214
7.4.3 Construction of Embankment................... 214
7.4.4 Preparation of Subgrade............................. 214
 7.4.5 Compacting Equipment.............................. 215
7.5 Types of Highway Construction............................ 215
7.5.1 Construction of Earth Roads...................... 215
7.5.2 Construction of Gravel Roads . ................. 216
7.5.3 Construction of Water Bound Macadam . ....
Roads.................................................................. 217
7.5.4 Construction of Bituminous Pavements.218
7.5.5 Construction of cement concrete . .................
pavements........................................................ 221
Objective Brain Teaser................................................. 224
Chapter 8
Highway Maintenance.........................225
8.1 General Causes of Pavement Failures.................. 225
8.2 Maintenance of Highway......................................... 225
8.3 Basic Maintenance Objective................................. 225
8.4 Failure in Flexible Pavement................................... 226
8.4.1 Failures in Base Course................................. 226
8.4.2 Types of Defect in Flexible Pavement..... 226
8.4.3 Methods for Repairing the Defects......... 230
8.4.4 Special Repairs in Flexible Pavement..... 231
8.5 Failure in Rigid Pavement........................................ 232
8.5.1 Deficiency of Pavement Materials........... 232
(vii)
8.5.2 Structural Inadequacy of the Pavement . .....
System................................................................ 233
8.5.3 Typical Rigid Pavement Failure................. 233
8.5.4 Special Repair of Rigid Pavement............ 234
8.6 Pavement Evaluation................................................. 234
8.6.1 Structural Evaluation of Pavement.......... 234
8.6.2 Evaluation of Pavement Surface Condition.........234
8.7 Strengthening of Existing Pavement................... 235
8.7.1 Types of Overlay............................................. 235
8.7.2 Design of Overlay........................................... 235
8.8 Benkelman Beam Deflection Method................. 235
8.8.1 Principle of Overlay Design........................ 235
8.8.2 Procedure of Benkelman Beam Deflection .
Method.............................................................. 236
8.9 Flexible Overlay over Flexible Pavement........... 237
8.9.1 Analysis of Data for Overlay Design........ 237
8.9.2 Overlay Thickness Design........................... 237
8.10 Flexible Overlay over Rigid Pavement................. 239
8.11 Rigid Overlay over Rigid Pavement...................... 239
8.12 Rigid Overlay Over Existing Flexible Pavement.240
Objective Brain Teaser................................................ 241
Conventional Practice Question.............................. 242
nnnn