Finite element analysis-aided seismic

behavior examination of modular

underground arch bridge Toan Van
Nguyen
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/finite-element-analysis-aided-seismic-behavior-exami
nation-of-modular-underground-arch-bridge-toan-van-nguyen/
 Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 118 (2021) 104166

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology

incorporating Trenchless Technology Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tust

Finite element analysis-aided seismic behavior examination of modular

underground arch bridge
Toan Van Nguyen a, Junwon Seo b, Jin-Hee Ahn c, Achintya Haldar d, Jungwon Huh a, *
a
Department of Architecture & Civil Engineering, Chonnam National University, South Korea
b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, South Dakota State University, USA
c
Department of Civil Engineering, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52725, South Korea
d
Department of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this study, a 3D finite element analysis (FEA) is performed to examine the seismic behaviors of a three-hinge
Modular Underground Arch Bridge modular underground arch bridge (MUAB) subjected to a series of synthetic ground motions with a wide peak-
Prestressed Rebar ground-acceleration (PGA) spectrum. The FEA model of the MUAB under longitudinal and transverse synthetic
Arch Length
ground-motion loading is described by several modeling parameters [e.g., arch-to-arch interaction (AAI),
Arch-to-Arch Interaction
Soil–Structure Interaction
soil–structure interaction (SSI), and stiffness of prestressed rebar], to determine its various seismic response
Finite Element Model-Based Seismic Behavior characteristics (i.e., maximum displacement, maximum tensile and compressive stresses, and maximum crack
depth). The FEA results show that the MUAB’s seismic responses differ with respect to earthquake-loading di­
rection owing to the different levels of seismic resistance associated with the considered modeling parameters. To
elucidate the influence of each modeling parameter on the seismic response, we performed MUAB parametric
studies featuring different arch lengths, SSI and AAI friction coefficients, and prestressed-rebar stiffnesses. The
key findings indicate that the seismic behaviors of MUABs depend on the PGAs and ground-motion directions;
furthermore, they exhibited a sensitivity to the arch length and prestressed-rebar stiffness. In addition, the SSI
friction coefficient exerted a minor influence on the seismic responses of MUABs, especially on their maximum
compressive and tensile stresses and maximum crack depths; meanwhile, the AAI friction coefficient had a
moderate influence upon seismic response.

1. Introduction modular precast concrete forms offers various benefits, including

Underground precast arch bridges are a type of culvert; they have
been widely implemented in underground infrastructure developments
(Abe and Nakamura, 2014). In recent years, these underground arch
bridges have been modularized into precast components. The con­
struction of modular components via the assembling of modular forms
has been applied in the field of structural engineering; in underground
arch bridges, these forms offer several advantages in terms of con­
struction and structural performance. For example, the modular bridges
have a greater load-carrying capacity than conventional bridges owing
to the efficient load sharing between the bridge and soil embankment
(Abe and Nakamura, 2014; Fairless and Kirkaldie, 2008; Sawamura
et al., 2011). When constructing underground arch bridges, the use of
simpler and faster construction processes and high-quality member
control.
Types of underground precast arch bridges are classified into several
categories including hinge types based on the cross-section sizes of the
arch and the sizes of the arch span (Miyazaki, 2019). For the hinge types
of underground precast arch bridges, two-hinged arch bridges and three-
hinged arch bridges have been used commonly because they are most
effective in soil-arching. Technically, the hinge types of underground
precast arch bridges allow for motion and rotation to mobilize earth
pressure compared to rigid arch bridges. The three-hinged arch bridges
are made from two segmental precast units resulting in three hinge
points. It harnesses passive resistance of an embankment by permitting
deflection, resulting in a mechanically stable bridge structure

* Corresponding author at: Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Chonnam National University, 77 Yongbong-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 61186, South
Korea.
E-mail addresses: 198047@jnu.ac.kr (T. Van Nguyen), junwon.seo@sdstate.edu (J. Seo), jahn@gnu.ac.kr (J.-H. Ahn), haldar@u.arizona.edu (A. Haldar),
jwonhuh@chonnam.ac.kr (J. Huh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2021.104166
Received 11 September 2020; Received in revised form 12 July 2021; Accepted 24 August 2021
Available online 21 September 2021
0886-7798/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
T. Van Nguyen et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 118 (2021) 104166
(Sawamura et al., 2019). However, there needs to be a thorough
investigation into the mechanical behavior of three-hinged arch bridges
under seismic loadings.
Underground arch bridges constructed from these modular compo­
nents are referred to as modular underground arch bridges (MUABs). In
general, the occurrence of cracks at component edges is common in
MUABs (Abe and Nakamura, 2014). Numerous studies have attempted
to determine the seismic responses of different bridge types (Huh et al.,
2017a; Huh et al., 2017b; Jeon et al., 2015; Mangalathu et al., 2018;
Rogers and Seo, 2017; Seo, 2013; Seo and Linzell, 2012, 2013; Seo and
Rogers, 2017; Siqueira et al., 2014; Tavares et al., 2012); however, very
few have investigated the structural behaviors of cracked MUABs under
static and/or dynamic loadings. These studies have employed numerical
analyses (Byrne et al., 1996; Jeon et al., 2019; Sawamura et al., 2012;
Wood and Jenkins, 2000), laboratory testing (Miyazaki et al., 2017a,b,
2018; Sawamura et al., 2015; Toyota and Takagai, 1999; Sawamura
et al., 2016) and field measurements (Kim et al., 2019) as the research
methodology. Most recent works on cracked concrete components and
embankment soils were based solely on linear elastic fracture mechanics
while neglecting nonlinear behaviors (Miyazaki et al., 2018, 2020).
Furthermore, Jeon et al. (2019) constructed a 3D nonlinear structural
model for a slice of a multi-hinge precast underground arch bridge with
outriggers to assess its structural behavior and the interactions between
segmental precast arch members during backfill construction; however,
this study neglected dynamic effects.
A small number of studies (Abuhajar et al., 2015; Abuhajar et al.,
2017; Kang et al., 2020; Le et al., 2014; Miyazaki et al., 2020; Santos
et al., 2020) have sought to simulate MUABs by partially considering the
arch-to-arch and/or soil–structure interactions. In particular, Miyazaki
et al. (Miyazaki et al., 2020) modeled arch segment components by
considering the interactions between precast arch members and the
surrounding soil. Furthermore, considerable efforts have been devoted
to modeling the arch-to-arch interactions of MUABs. Abuhajar et al.
(Abuhajar et al., 2015; Abuhajar et al., 2017) demonstrated the signif­
icance of soil arching in controlling the structural static load responses
of MUABs by conducting 2D finite element analysis (FEA) alongside
corresponding downscaled centrifuge tests. However, Abuhajar et al.
(Abuhajar et al., 2015; Abuhajar et al., 2017) only tested individual
samples; as a result, their study did not capture the influence of pre­
stressed rebars on the MUAB.
This study aims to develop a sophisticated 3D FEA model of a MUAB,
to evaluate its seismic behaviors. More specifically, the FEA model is
used to study seismic deformation and stress development in the
segmental component structure by incorporating the friction co­
efficients of arch-to-arch interactions (AAIs) and soil–structure in­
teractions (SSIs) and the influence of the prestressed rebar. Parametric
studies for various arch lengths, soil–structure and arch-to-arch in­
teractions, and prestressed rebars were also conducted to examine the
seismic responses of MUABs subjected to different seismic loadings. This
paper is organized into five sections (including the present one). Section
2 describes the 3D FEA model of the MUAB. Section 3 presents the modal
analyses and seismic responses of the MUAB model. Section 4 discusses
the findings of the parametric MUAB-model studies with respect to the
key modeling parameters. Finally, Section 5 presents the conclusions
drawn from the work.
2. 3D FEA modeling
In this section, we describe the 3D FEA model used to conduct
seismic-response evaluations of three-hinge MUABs. More specifically,
in the following subsections, we describe the studied MUAB—its con­
crete, surrounding soil, contact surface, and prestressed rebar modeling
specifications as well as its design response spectrum under synthetic
ground motions.
2
2.1. Studied MUAB
The three-hinge MUAB model previously employed by Miyazaki
et al. (2020) was used for this study. This MUAB was constructed ac­
cording to Korean standards (KDS, 2019); that is, it was designed to be
resistant to an earthquake with a 500-year return period and another
with a 1000-year return period. The peak ground acceleration (PGA)
values of 500- and 1000-year-return-period earthquakes are 0.4345 g
and 0.5744 g, respectively.
The three-hinge MUAB was bounded by wing walls and embank­
ments that matched its geometrical properties; these were modeled
using ABAQUS to numerically determine the MUAB seismic behavior (as
shown in Fig. 1). Detailed dimensions for the MUAB (arch length: 7.5 m;
outer diameter: 10.5 m) are provided in Table 1. Notably, the total
length of the MUAB (including wing walls) was 8.75 m, and it consisted
of 2 types of segmental arches: Segments 1 and 2. These segments
featured identical thicknesses and inner/outer radii, though their widths
differed (Segment 1: 1.25 m and Segment 2: 0.625 m). The MUAB was
placed on a concrete invert foundation (thickness: 1.0 m), and a concrete
wing-wall (thickness: 0.625 m) was placed on the wing-wall foot. The
surrounding soil consisted of a 7.5 m-thick embankment and 6 m-thick
subsoil lying on top of the bedrock.
The studied MUAB was generated using the eight-node brick
element, C3D8 [available in ABAQUS (Abaqus, 2014)]. The first-order
elements C3D8 were sufficient to obtain results with the desired accu­
racy for the FEA model and saved computing costs. The elements C3D8
were the most suitable for problems related to contacts between
deformable bodies in nonlinear dynamic analysis. The element sizes
were finalized based on the number of trial analyses and also on the
stability limits, which was a function of mesh size and wavelength of the
FEA model (Abaqus, 2014). Finer meshings were provided in the con­
crete parts, especially in the segmental arches, and other coarser
meshings were provided in the surrounding soils. The most optimal
meshing of MUAB (Fig. 1a) was adopted to lay a foundation for the
study. The total numbers of model elements and nodes were 44,744 and
79,476, respectively. The total mass of the model was ~ 15,000 tons.
A two-step dynamic analysis was performed. In the first step (static
analysis), a gravitational load was applied to the FEA model; this was
used to eliminate the abrupt influence of dynamic effects when ground
acceleration was applied. The lateral surfaces were fixed against trans­
lation movements in the normal direction; meanwhile, the bottom face
was fixed against all translation movements. In the second step (dy­
namic analysis), a ground motion was applied alongside the self-weight
maintenance load. Thus, the boundary condition was changed to reflect
the new loading condition. A viscous-spring artificial boundary was
imposed by installing springs and dampers on the truncated boundaries
of the surrounding soil corresponding to excitation directions; thus, we
assumed that incident waves were absorbed upon reaching the corre­
sponding truncated boundaries. As a result of the two-step dynamic
analysis, the FEA model closely reproduced the actual response of far-
field soil.
2.2. Concrete and prestressed rebar
The concrete used in the MUAB was modeled using ABAQUS. We
considered its nonlinearity (Hognestad, 1951) using the plastic-damage
model established by Lee and Fenves (1998a, 1998b). This model can
represent the damage-cracking behavior of concrete, particularly for
MUABs under seismic loadings. In quasi-brittle materials, this model can
be defined by evaluating the dissipated fracture energy required to
generate microcracks in the concrete of the MUAB. The uniaxial
compressive and tensile responses of the concrete were assumed to be
influenced by the damage plasticity, and this assumption formed the
basis of the model. The key components of the inviscid-concrete damage
plasticity model under strain-rate decomposition were assumed for the
rate-independent model. The total strain tensor was comprised of elastic
T. Van Nguyen et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 118 (2021) 104166

Fig. 1. Schematic of the studied MUAB.

Table 1 Table 2
Segment component characteristics. Properties of MUAB model concrete.
Characteristic Unit Segment 1 Segment 2 Property Unit M40 M30
3
Number of segments – 11 2 Unit weight, γ kg/m 2450 2400
Outer radius, Rout m 5.25 5.25 Young’s modulus, Ec MPa 30,000 26,600
Inner radius, Rin m 5.00 5.00 Poisson’s ratio, υ – 0.2 0.2
Segment thickness m 0.25 0.25 Compressive strength, f’c MPa 40 30
Segment width m 1.25 0.625 Tensile strength, ft MPa 4.0 3.0
Number of prestressed holes on each lateral – 4 4 Dilation angle ◦
31 31
face Eccentricity – 0.1 0.1
Number of prestressed holes on top face – 2 1 fb0/fc0 – 1.16 1.16
K – 0.67 0.67
Viscosity parameter – 0 0
and plastic components.
Two damage variables (in terms of failure mode: tensile cracking and
compressive crushing) were considered for the MUAB model. Hardening descended after reaching the maximum (referred to as the softening
and softening variable values were applied to determine the cracking section of the curve). After the curve descended, crushing failure
and crushing trends, respectively. These were responsible for the loss of occurred at an ultimate strain of 20% f’c. However, the elastic strain
elastic stiffness and the development of the yield surface. Therefore, the increased up to the tensile strength. Cracking strain occurred beyond the
compressive and tensile damage states were characterized indepen­ tension stress peak (i.e., at the tensile strength). Stiffening failure
dently by two hardening variables. In this section, the numerical simu­ occurred at an ultimate strain of 1% ft.
lation of concrete material was briefly introduced. Details can be further The dynamic properties of M40- and M30-grade concrete were
referred to Zhang et al. (2013). employed for nonlinear seismic analyses. Structure damping was
M40-grade concrete (modeled in ABAQUS as having compressive incorporated in the FEA model by using Rayleigh’s damping and
strength f’c = 40 MPa) was used for the segmental arch and wing wall; assuming mass and stiffness to be proportional. A 5% damping was
meanwhile, M30-grade concrete (modeled as having compressive considered for the fundamental vibration modes of the MUAB system to
strength f’c = 30 MPa) was adopted for the invert foundation, as listed in determine the mass- and stiffness-proportional damping factors. Besides,
Table 2. In terms of compressive behavior, the inelastic strain was the concrete material damping values were defined for direct integration
initialized as 50% of f’c. Above this point, the curve increased gradually in the implicit ABAQUS application by using a mass-proportional
up to f’c. The initial crack occurred at 85% of f’c. The stress–strain curve damping αR of 0.77 and a stiffness-proportional damping βR of 0.003.

3
T. Van Nguyen et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 118 (2021) 104166

The static analysis (with the self-weight of the MUAB) was initially Table 3
performed under the static stress state; however, nonlinear seismic Mechanical properties of prestressed rebar.
analysis under ground motions was performed by considering the dy­ Property Unit L-J and C-J
namic properties.
Young’s modulus MPa 19,700
Two types of prestressed rebar (length: 500 mm and diameter: 36 Poisson’s ratio – 0.2
mm) are aligned along the longitudinal (L-J) and circumferential (C-J) Ultimate strength, Fu MPa 1860
joints in accordance with the L-J holes and C-J holes, as illustrated in Yield strength, Fy MPa 1339
Fig. 1(c). The prestressed L-J and C-J rebars were modeled using spring
elements available in ABAQUS (Abaqus, 2014), as shown in Fig. 2. The
mechanical properties of the spring elements representing the rebars can Table 4
be seen in Table 3. The stiffnesses (K) of the rebars can be determined Properties of surrounding soil.
using Eq. (1). Property Unit Subsoil Embankment
AE Unit weight, γ kg/m3 1800 1750
K= (1) Young’s modulus, E MPa 45 50
l
Poisson’s ratio, υ – 0.33 0.28
where K = equivalent stiffness (N/m), A = cross-sectional area of Internal friction angle, ϕ ◦
25 35
rebar (m2), E = elastic modulus of material (Pa), and l = length of the Dilatancy angle, Ψ ◦
1 5
rebar (m). Cohesive force, c KPa 100 20

2.3. Surrounding soil
The surrounding soil plays an important role in maintaining the
overall stability of the MUAB via efficient load sharing. Embankment
shape patterns affect the seismic behavior of the MUAB. These shape
patterns can cause severe damage or collapse in large earthquakes owing
to the shallow soil cover (Miyazaki et al., 2017a). A symmetrical sur­
rounding soil profile and shallow embankment cover on top of the
segmental arch were adopted for seismic analysis. The soil properties
considered in the FEA model of the MUAB are given in Table 4 for soil
generalizability. Notably, these are common values for the soil types
applied to MUAB constructions, including normal clay subsoil and high-
quality mixed sandy embankment soil. The FEA soil model geometries
(see Fig. 1) were based on the Mohr–Coulomb plasticity model, which
allows for soil hardening behaviors. We assumed the soil properties to be
identical before and after seismic loadings.
2.4. Contact surface
In the FEA model, contact surfaces were used to model the shear-
force resistance between segments. These surfaces were classified into
two groups: arch-to-arch interactions (AAIs), representing contacts be­
tween segmental components [as shown in Fig. 3(a) and Fig. 3(b)], and
soil–structure interactions (SSIs), representing contact between the
concrete and surrounding soil [as shown in Fig. 3(c) and Fig. 3(d)].
These contact surfaces were modeled with surface-to-surface contact
Fig. 2. Prestressed rebar arrangement with L-J and C-J holes.
interactions that incorporated their mechanical contact properties by
using the hard contact and standard Coulomb friction model available in
ABAQUS (Abaqus, 2014). The Coulomb friction model was defined with
an interface friction coefficient of 0.6 for both the lateral and top AAI
surfaces of the segments to model a normal-weight concrete cast against
hardened concrete (Mattock, 1977; ACI, 2014). Interface friction co­
efficients of 0.3 and 0.45 were selected for the subsoil–concrete and
embankment–concrete SSI interactions (Sheng et al., 2007),
respectively.
Furthermore, the FEA model employed tie constraints as a semi-rigid
link connecting the arch segments and concrete invert foundation.
Surface-based tie constraints bind two surfaces together. The surface-to-
surface discretization method was adopted (Abaqus, 2014). These con­
straints facilitated the modeling of kinematic relationships between the
points and surfaces of the arch base and top face of the concrete foun­
dation. The connection between the wing-walls and the concrete foun­
dation was modeled with a rigid link based upon an assumption of cast-
in-place construction. Note, the arch segment-foundation concrete and
wall-foundation concrete were unified as a single modeling component.
2.5. Synthetic ground motions
Synthetic ground motions were generated using the procedure rec­
ommended by the Hallodorson and Papageorgiou (Halldorsson and
Papageorgiou, 2005). As stated above, we assumed that the MUAB was
located in Seismic Zone 1 [according to the Korean standards (KDS,
2019)] with Ground Type S4 bedrock, which has an average shear-wave
velocity (at a depth of 30 m) of Vs30 = 620 m/s (Borcherdt, 1992, 1994,
2012). The ground motions were generated to simulate far-field earth­
quakes of magnitudes below 6.9.
The elastic spectrum with 5% damping was adopted for the calcu­
lation. The deconvolution procedure was used for matching the ground
motions. The soil beneath the MUAB foundation was assumed to consist
of a single-layered soil overlaying the bedrock. The accelerogram was
defined starting from a synthetic one. The accelerogram was compatible
with the target spectrum and adapted to its frequency content using the
Fourier Transform Method (see Fig. 4). As a result, seven different
synthetic ground motions were generated, which achieved convergence
errors smaller than 8% [as shown in Fig. 5(a)].
The ground motions were matched to the Korean-code-based spec­
trum corresponding to a 500-year-return-period earthquake (KDS,
2019); these motions were then scaled up and down via intensity indices
with PGAs of 0.1–1.2 g. As shown in Fig. 1, the generated ground mo­
tions were applied individually to the bottom face of the structure in the
longitudinal and transverse directions of the MUAB model. The vertical
direction was not considered in this study because the MUAB having

4
T. Van Nguyen et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 118 (2021) 104166
Fig. 3. Contact surfaces for AAIs and SSIs.
Fig. 4. Flowchart of generated synthetic ground motion.
shallow cover depth was much more influenced under the horizontal
ground motions than the vertical direction (Byrne et al., 1996; Jeon
et al., 2019; Sawamura et al., 2012; Wood and Jenkins, 2000). The set of
different ground motions was applied to study the maximum seismic
response of the MUAB. The median ground motion was adopted as a
representative, which matched well to the design spectrum and closed to
the median of the generated ground motions [Fig. 5(b) and Fig. 5(c)].
The representative ground motion was used to investigate crack prop­
agation in segment components and evaluate the influence of modeling
parameters on the seismic response of the studied MUAB.
3. Results and discussion
This section summarizes the computational results obtained from
FEA. The dynamic characteristics and seismic responses of the MUAB are
presented and discussed below.
5
3.1. Dynamic characteristics
The natural periods of the MUAB were calculated, to investigate the
vibrational characteristics of the MUAB according to the Lanczos
eigenvalue-extraction procedure (Lanczos, 1950; Ojalvo and Newman,
1970; Paige, 1971) available in ABAQUS (Abaqus, 2014). The periods of
the first twelve modes (along with their corresponding effective masses)
are listed in Table 5; these mode shapes are shown in Fig. 6. The sum of
the effective masses in each component direction for the first 12 modes
exceeded 90% of the MUAB total mass. The effective mass distribution
characterizes the relative contributions of the modes when the MUAB is
excited along a specific direction with a given frequency. These modes
can contribute to the interface loads. The interface-load-based effective
mass was measured to identify two target modes determining the
MUAB’s dynamic behavior. The natural periods of the first and second
modes were 0.430 s and 0.386 s, respectively. The figure and table show
that the first two modes of the MUAB were dominated by flexural and
torsional effects. On the other hand, the first two mode shapes suggest
that the other modes were directly associated with the effects of sur­
rounding soil deformation.
3.2. Seismic response
Nonlinear time-history analyses (using the generated synthetic
ground motions) were performed using ABAQUS to investigate the
MUAB’s seismic behavior. For these analyses, a Hilber–Hughes–Taylor
time integrator with full Newton–Raphson iteration was employed to
solve the nonlinear equations of motion for the MUAB. All segment
components of the MUAB were evaluated at each of the arch cross-
sections. More specifically, the seismic responses of the segment com­
ponents with respect to the angle [from 0◦ (bottom) to 90◦ (top)] for
both sides of the arch were determined through nonlinear time history
analyses, as indicated in Fig. 7. In this figure, the longitudinal and
transversal ground motions were applied individually to the bottom face
of the MUAB.
3.2.1. Maximum seismic response
Fig. 8(a) depicts the arch crack depths and extensions for different
PGAs. The crack depth reached 5 cm under a longitudinal PGA of 0.47 g
or under a transverse PGA of 0.59 g. Crack depths of 12.5 cm were
realized for longitudinal and transverse PGAs of 0.73 g and 0.84 g,
respectively. When the PGA (either longitudinal or transverse) does not
T. Van Nguyen et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 118 (2021) 104166

exceed 0.47 g, the segment components may be repairable, because the

crack depth is smaller than 5 cm (equivalent to one-fifth of the arch
thickness). The MUAB can be extensively damaged when the PGA ex­
ceeds 0.85 g (greater than the half-thickness of the arch components).
The depth extensions of cracks produced by transverse ground motions
were smaller than those arising through longitudinal motions owing to a
greater seismic resistance in the transverse direction.
The stress changes in the MUAB for a spectrum of ground motions
(various PGAs) are presented in Fig. 8(b) and (c). Both tensile and
compressive stresses were significantly increased (compared to those
generated by self-weight loads) by the ground motions under initial
tensile and compressive stresses of 2.3 MPa and 7.5 MPa, respectively;
this indicates that the ground motions dramatically increased the stress
across the segment components. The tensile stress exceeded the tensile
strength of the concrete (4 MPa) under longitudinal ground motions
with a PGA of 0.3 g; meanwhile, this occurred at a PGA of 0.39 g for
transverse ground motions. Generally, for normal concrete, the
strain–stress curve is linearly elastic up to one-third of the maximum
compressive strength; thus, the compressive stress exceeded 20 MPa
(half of the compressive strength of concrete) under longitudinal and
transverse PGAs of 0.61 g and 0.79 g, respectively. The initial
compressive-strength-induced cracks corresponded to 34 MPa when the
longitudinal and transverse PGAs were 1.04 g and 1.1 g, respectively.
The maximum displacement of the MUAB subjected to ground mo­
tions is displayed in Fig. 8(d). The displacement increased by 71% and
52% for longitudinal and transverse PGAs of 0.4 g, respectively.
Furthermore, the difference in displacements between the 2 ground-
motion directions was more evident when the PGA increased to ~ 0.5
g. The deflection limit for buried concrete structures (such as MUABs)
should be mandatory in urban areas (AASHTO, 2012). However, no
specific reference number for MUAB deflection limits is available as yet;
thus, we defined the displacement criteria for MUABs as a ratio of arch
span (D) to 500 mm. The MUAB’s displacement exceeded these criteria
when the longitudinal and transverse PGAs exceeded 0.43 g and 0.55 g,
respectively.

3.2.2. Crack propagation

Fig. 9 depicts the contour plots of the equivalent plastic strain
(PEEQ), which represents the cracking patterns for the arch of a MUAB
subjected to ground motions. It was assumed that macrocracks start to
propagate through the arch when the PEEQ value exceeds 0.0001 (Feng
et al., 2011; Pan et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2013). The ground-motion-
induced seismic behaviors of the arch differed with respect to the two
Fig. 5. (a) The elastic response spectra (5% damping) for synthetic ground seismic loading directions (i.e., longitudinal and transverse). Under
motions, which matched to the Korean-code-based spectrum corresponding to a longitudinal ground motions, slight cracking appeared at the bottom of
500-year-return-period earthquake, (b) spectral acceleration of representative component of the arch when the PGA exceeded 0.3 g. The crack prop­
synthetic ground motion, and (c) time history of the representative synthetic agated from bottom to top in both width and depth directions. When the
ground motion scaled to a PGA of 0.3 g.
PGA exceeded 0.6 g, the cracks moderately expanded at the middle of
the arch; when the PGA exceeded 0.9 g, these propagated to the arch top.
Table 5
However, under transverse ground motions, the crack development was
Vibration periods and effective modal masses. considerably less detrimental than that observed under longitudinal
ones. No cracks were formed in the arch when the PGA was smaller than
Mode no. Period (s) Effective mode mass per total mass (%)
0.2 g; cracking became notable when the PGA exceeded 0.4 g, with crack
x-component y-component z-component formation focused on the longitudinal center region of the structure at
1 0.430 5.45 2.58 4.13 an angle of 22.5◦ . More cracks initialized and developed under further
2 0.386 0.93 3.06 51.25 increases in PGA. Cracks expanded from the longitudinal middle (at an
3 0.356 0.01 5.49 10.85
angle of 22.5◦ ) to the edges, bottom, and top of the arch.
4 0.340 4.23 0.01 0.09
5 0.333 0.13 3.17 6.63
Fig. 10(a) shows a plan view of the MUAB subjected to ground mo­
6 0.315 2.66 1.72 0.79 tion PGAs of 1.2 g; the structure becomes significantly damaged (i.e., the
7 0.288 5.07 0.19 0.28 cracking and peeling of segment components) under the effects of lon­
8 0.284 0.55 9.35 11.89 gitudinal and transversal ground motions. Under longitudinal ground
9 0.283 26.83 14.01 0.04
motions, deep cracks (with depths exceeding 10 cm) appeared at the
10 0.281 14.16 1.66 1.10
11 0.273 31.06 2.40 2.02 bottom of most segmental components at angles of 45◦ in the edge
12 0.271 2.64 52.22 3.38 components, marked S1-1, S1-6, S2-1, and S2-2 and in the components
– – Σ ¼ 93.72 Σ ¼ 95.86 Σ ¼ 92.45 adjacent thereto, marked S1-2, S1-5, S1-7, and S1-11. However, under
transverse ground motions, deep cracks appeared in the middle

6
T. Van Nguyen et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 118 (2021) 104166

Fig. 6. Mode shapes for the first 12 modes.

Fig. 7. Sketch of critical MUAB sections and their monitoring points.

components at angles of 22.5◦ (see S1-3, S1-4, S1-8, S1-9, and S1-10)
and in the edge components at angles of 10◦ (see S1-1, S1-6, S2-1, and
S2-2). Peeling was clearly visible at the tops of all segmental components
under longitudinal ground motions, though it was less prominent under
transverse ground motions. It can be concluded that the longitudinal
ground motions lead to significant damage because the longitudinal
cross-section of each segment component is weaker than the transverse
one. Furthermore, cracks scattered in many different locations (from
along the bottom to the top of the segment components) under
longitudinal ground motions. Therefore, the components sustained
greater damage under longitudinal ground motions than transverse
ones.
Many three-hinge modular underground arch bridges suffered
damage under the Great East Japan earthquake (Abe and Nakamura,
2014). Crack propagation and damage signs of MUAB from the site are
shown in Fig. 10(b). Noticeable signs of recorded damage consisted of
the edge defects and cracks on the arch members, damage to the
waterproof sheet by peeling and penetration between the segmental

7
T. Van Nguyen et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 118 (2021) 104166
Fig. 8. Peak seismic response of MUAB subjected to ground motions with varying PGAs: (a) crack depth, (b) tensile stress, (c) compressive stress, and (d)
displacement.
arch members. Damage by cracks and defects appeared at the bottom of
the segmental components, especially on the edge components. Besides,
not only did peelings occur at the top of the arch, but they also occurred
on the concrete foundations. Abe and Nakamura (2014) and Miyazaki
(2019) noted that the damage levels of these MUABs were different,
which might have depended on the geometry of arch cross-section, the
length of the arch, the type of foundation, the height of the embankment
road, and the seismic excitation direction.
4. Parametric studies
The 3D FEA-developed model was applied to evaluate the effects of
arch length, SSIs, AAIs, and prestressed rebars on the seismic response of
a MUAB subjected to longitudinal and transverse ground motions. Each
input parameter determining the MUAB’s seismic response is discussed
at length in the following sections.
4.1. Arch length
Fig. 11(a) shows the effects of arch length (L) on the maximum
displacement of a MUAB subjected to longitudinal and transverse
ground motions, assuming a consistent arch diameter (D) of 10 m. When
L was increased from 3.75 to 18.75 m, the maximum displacement
generated by the longitudinal and transverse ground motions was
increased by 65% and 117%, respectively. This is because the seismic
resistance of the arch in the longitudinal direction exceeds that in the
transverse direction when L exceeds D. For all examined values of L,
8
both the longitudinal and transverse displacements increased signifi­
cantly as the PGA increased. When the PGA was increased from 0.3 g to
1.2 g, the displacement difference between the longitudinal and trans­
verse ground motions increased by 33% (from 83% to 116%). Interest­
ingly, the displacements produced by the transverse ground motions
exceeded those produced by the longitudinal ones when L exceeded 15
m. Both longitudinal and transverse displacements increased slightly
when L was smaller than 11.25 m; however, they increased significantly
as expected when L was increased from 11.25 to 18.75 m owing to the
increase in PGA. This is because the increase of L decreases the seismic
capacity of the MUAB under increased PGAs.
Fig. 11(b) and Fig. 11(c) illustrate the effects of L on the maximum
compressive and tensile stresses in the segment components of the
MUAB, respectively. When the PGA was increased from 0.3 g to 1.2 g,
the maximum compressive stress increases generated by the longitudi­
nal and transverse ground motions were 214% and 313%, respectively.
The difference in compressive stress between the longitudinal and
transverse ground motions decreased by 67% (from 105% to 38%).
When the PGA was increased from 0.3 g to 0.6 g, the compressive stress
generated by the longitudinal and transverse ground motions was
reduced by only 5% for values of L smaller than 7.5 m. However, the
longitudinal- and transverse-ground-motion-induced compressive
stresses were maximally increased by 45% and 90%, respectively, when
L exceeded 15 m. For all values of L, the compressive stress produced by
both longitudinal and transverse ground motions was smaller than the
compressive strength of M40-grade concrete (i.e., 40 MPa) when the
PGA was smaller than 0.9 g. Meanwhile, the tensile stress of the
T. Van Nguyen et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 118 (2021) 104166
Fig. 9. Cracking patterns of MUAB loaded with longitudinal and transverse ground motions.
longitudinal ground motions exceeded that of the transverse ground
motions, exhibiting a downward trend under increasing L. Similar to the
compressive stress results, for all analyzed cases of L, the longitudinal-
ground-motion-induced tensile stress exceeded the tensile strength of
M40-grade concrete (i.e., 4 MPa). A PGA increase from 0.3 g to 1.2 g led
to a maximum increase of 156% and 181% in the tensile stress generated
by the longitudinal and transverse ground motions; this suggests that,
for values of L exceeding 15 m, the greater the MUAB arch length, the
more detrimental the ground motion’s effects.
Fig. 11(d) illustrates the effects of L on the maximum longitudinal-
and transverse-ground-motion-induced crack depths in the segment
components. When L was below 11.25 m, the crack depth produced by
longitudinal PGAs of 0.3 g was ~ 2.5 times that produced by the same
ground motions in the transverse direction. However, for all intensities,
when L approached 18.75 m, the crack depth maximally decreased by
26% under longitudinal ground motions; meanwhile, it maximally
increased by 58% under transverse ones. This is primarily because the
crack depth is determined by the tensile stress, and the longitudinal
seismic resistance of the MUAB is greater if L exceeds D.
4.2. SSI
Fig. 12(a) shows the effects of the SSI coefficient on the maximum
displacement of a MUAB subjected to longitudinal and transverse
ground motions. For all PGA values, increasing the SSI coefficient from
0 to 0.45 led to a decrease of 20% in the ground-motion-induced
displacement. In contrast, within the SSI coefficient range of 0.5–0.55,
the displacement values remained almost constant. When the PGA was
increased from 0.3 g to 1.2 g, the difference in displacement between the
longitudinal and transverse ground motions decreased by 18% (from
25% to 7%). Moreover, the maximum displacement increases generated
9
by longitudinal and transverse ground motions were 427% and 440%,
respectively. This indicates that the influence of SSIs on the MUAB’s
displacement is relatively similar between both loading directions. In
particular, the maximum displacement generated by ground motions
with a PGA of 0.3 g was almost 2 cm, which is approaching the MUAB’s
predefined displacement criteria. Thus, when the SSI coefficient exceeds
0.5, the MUAB’s displacement criteria can be ensured if the PGA is
below 0.45 g and 0.55 g under longitudinal and transverse ground
motions, respectively. This is because SSIs are fundamental in the global
compaction and stability of MUABs under external loadings: larger SSI
coefficients result in more compacted MUABs.
Fig. 12(b) shows the influence of the SSI coefficient on the maximum
compressive stress in MUAB segment components. The influence of SSI
variation on the compressive stress produced by longitudinal ground
motions was more significant than that produced by transverse ones.
When the PGA was increased from 0.3 g to 1.2 g, the maximum increases
in the longitudinal- and transverse-ground-motion-induced compressive
stresses were 218% and 280%, respectively. The difference in
compressive stress between the longitudinal and transverse ground
motions increased by 30% (from 93% to 123%). The longitudinal-
ground-motion-induced compressive stress under a PGA of 0.3 g was
increased by 27% when the SSI coefficient was reduced from 0 to 0.5;
then, it stabilized at 15 MPa, which corresponds to 37.5% of the
compressive strength of M40-grade concrete. However, when the SSI
coefficient exceeded 0.3, PGAs of 0.6 g and 0.8 g were required under
longitudinal and transverse ground motions. The compressive stress
exceeded the compressive strength for all SSI coefficients when the PGA
reached 1.2 g; thus, an increase in the SSI coefficient can increase the
compressive stress owing to the increase in soil aching associated with
ground motions.
As illustrated in Fig. 12(c), a significant variation of maximum
T. Van Nguyen et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 118 (2021) 104166

Fig. 10. (a) Plan view of MUAB subjected to ground motion with PGAs of 1.2 g, and (b) Schematic of damage to three-hinged arch bridges subjected to Great East
Japan earthquake reported by Abe and Nakamura (2014) and drawn by Miyazaki et al. (2020).

tensile stress was observed with respect to the ground-motion intensity
of both longitudinal and transverse ground motions. When the PGA was
increased from 0.3 g to 1.2 g, the maximum tensile strength increases
produced by the longitudinal and transverse ground motions were 162%
and 225%, respectively. The maximum tensile stress increases for SSI
coefficients ranging from 0 to 0.9 were 4% and 6% under longitudinal
and transverse ground motions, respectively. This shows that an in­
crease in SSI coefficient does not significantly reduce tensile stress in the
components because the composite soil arching that arises between the
arch and surrounding soils is not sustainable under the repeated shear
impact of strong ground motions. Regarding all SSI coefficients, the
tensile stress produced by the longitudinal and transverse ground

10
T. Van Nguyen et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 118 (2021) 104166

Fig. 11. Maximum seismic responses of MUAB with respect to arch length and Fig. 12. Maximum seismic responses of MUAB with respect to SSI coefficient
ground motion direction: (a) displacement, (b) compressive stress, (c) tensile and ground motion direction: (a) displacement, (b) compressive stress, (c)
stress, and (d) crack depth. tensile stress, and (d) crack depth.

11
T. Van Nguyen et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 118 (2021) 104166

motions exceeded the tensile strength of M40-grade concrete when the

PGAs approached 0.3 g and 0.4 g, respectively.
No significant change in maximum crack depth was observed within
the SSI evaluation range for any of the ground-motion intensity levels, as
shown in Fig. 12(d). For all PGAs, when the SSI coefficient approached
0.9, the crack depths produced by the longitudinal and transverse
ground motions increased by as much as 17% and 14%, respectively.
When the PGA was increased from 0.3 g to 1.2 g, the difference in crack
depth between the longitudinal and transverse ground motions
increased by 72% (from 24% to 96%). Hence, the crack depth variation
was almost independent of the SSI coefficient, though it depends on the
ground-motion direction.

4.3. AAI

Fig. 13(a) shows the relationship between the AAI coefficient and the
maximum displacement of a MUAB subjected to ground motions; an
increase in the former leads to a considerable decrease in the latter.
When the PGA increased from 0.3 g to 1.2 g, the maximum displacement
increases produced by longitudinal and transverse ground motions were
470% and 434%, respectively; the difference in displacement between
longitudinal and transverse ground motions decreased by 51% (from
93% to 42%). When the PGA was below 0.6 g and the AAI coefficient
below 0.2, the displacements produced by the transversal ground mo­
tions exceeded those caused by longitudinal ones. However, when the
AAI coefficient reached 0.6, the maximal decrease in transverse-ground-
motion-induced displacement was 2.7 times higher than that produced
by the longitudinal motions. When the AAI coefficient exceeds 0.7, the
displacement criteria of the MUAB can meet for longitudinal and
transverse PGAs smaller than 0.48 g or 0.59 g, respectively. Thus, the
AAI coefficient can considerably strengthen the seismic capacity of
MUABs subjected to strong ground motions, especially when loaded in
the transverse direction.
Fig. 13(b) and Fig. 13(c) illustrate the influence of the AAI coefficient
on the maximum ground-motion-induced compressive and tensile
stresses in the segment components, respectively; a significant change
can be seen in both owing to the change in AAI coefficient. When the
PGA was increased from 0.3 g to 1.2 g, the maximum increases in
maximum compressive stress were 231% and 305% for longitudinal and
transverse ground motions, respectively. Meanwhile, the difference
between the longitudinal- and transverse-ground-motion-induced
compressive stresses increased by 46% (from 78% to 124%). In partic­
ular, for PGAs of 1.2 g, the compressive stress exceeded the compressive
strength under both ground motions for all AAI coefficients, leading to
significant compressive damage to the MUAB components. When the
PGA was increased from 0.3 g to 1.2 g, the maximum tensile strength
increases produced by longitudinal and transverse ground motions were
153% and 200%, respectively. On the other hand, for AAI coefficients
from 0 to 1, the maximum decreases in tensile stress under longitudinal
and transverse ground motions were 15% and 33%, respectively. The
tensile stress produced by the longitudinal ground motions with PGAs of
0.3 g exceeded the tensile strength for all AAI coefficients. This shows
that longitudinal ground motions pose a higher damage risk than
transverse ones.
Furthermore, Fig. 13(d) shows the influence of the AAI coefficient on
the maximum crack depth in segment components subjected to ground
motions. For all PGAs, the crack depths under longitudinal and trans­
verse ground motions decreased by 37% and 62%, respectively, at the
maximum AAI coefficients (i.e., approaching 1). When the PGA was
increased from 0.3 g to 1.2 g, the difference in crack depth between the
longitudinal and transverse ground motions decreased by 34% (from
Fig. 13. Maximum seismic responses of MUAB with respect to AAI coefficient
46% to 12%).
and ground motion direction: (a) displacement, (b) compressive stress, (c)
tensile stress, and (d) crack depth.
4.4. Prestressed rebar

Fig. 14(a) shows the effects of the prestressed rebar stiffness on the

12
T. Van Nguyen et al.
Fig. 14. Maximum seismic responses of MUAB with respect to prestressed
rebar stiffness and ground motion direction: (a) displacement, (b) compressive
stress, (c) tensile stress, and (d) crack depth.
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 118 (2021) 104166
maximum MUAB displacements under longitudinal and transverse
ground motions. For all PGAs, the displacements produced by the lon­
gitudinal ground motions exceeded those produced by the transverse
ones within the studied stiffness range. However, for identical PGAs
(especially at larger PGAs), the longitudinal displacements tended to
converge earlier than transverse ones; meanwhile, the stiffnesses
increased because the connections between the L-J and C-J components
were more stabilized in the longitudinal than the transversal directions.
In particular, when the stiffness was increased from 0 to 40 MN/m, the
displacements in all analyzed PGA cases maximally decreased by 54%
and 56% under longitudinal and transverse ground motions, respec­
tively. When the PGA was increased from 0.3 g to 1.2 g, the maximum
displacement increases produced by the longitudinal and transverse
ground motions were 655% and 584%, respectively. The difference in
displacement between the longitudinal and transverse ground motions
decreased by 12% (from 18% to 6%). This indicates that the longitudinal
displacements dominate over the transverse ones. It can be generally
concluded that the stiffness increase reduces both the longitudinal and
transverse displacement because the strengthened joints between
segment components increase the MUAB resistance.
Fig. 14(b) and (c) demonstrate the effects of the prestressed rebar
stiffness on the maximum compressive and tensile stresses in the
segment components. For different stiffnesses of the prestressed rebar,
the tensile and compressive stresses produced by the longitudinal
ground motions exceeded those produced by transverse ones. When the
PGA was increased from 0.3 g to 1.2 g, the maximal compressive-stress
increases produced by longitudinal and transverse ground motions were
214% and 313%, respectively. When the stiffness increased from 0 to 50
MN/m, the maximum decrease in compressive stress produced from the
longitudinal and transverse ground motions is 15% and 21%, respec­
tively. When the stiffness increased from 0 to 40 MN/m for PGAs smaller
than 0.6 g, the compressive stress produced by both ground motions
gradually decreased by 20%. The recorded compressive stress was much
smaller than the compressive strength of M40-grade concrete for all
stiffnesses. Meanwhile, when the PGA was increased from 0.3 g to 1.2 g,
the maximum tensile stress increases produced by the longitudinal and
transverse ground motions were 163% and 245%, respectively. The
maximum tensile-stress decreases for stiffnesses ranging from 0 to 50
MN/m were 12% and 14% under longitudinal and transverse ground
motions, respectively. Thus, the structural joint strength of segment
components is significantly strengthened under an increase in stiffness,
which enhances the component tensile and compressive strengths as
well as the overall seismic capacity of the MUAB.
Fig. 14(d) shows that the prestressed rebar stiffness affects the
maximum crack depth. When the PGA was increased from 0.3 g to 1.2 g,
the difference in maximum crack depth between the longitudinal and
transverse ground motions decreased by 34%. Within the stiffness range,
when the PGA was below 0.3 g, the crack depths produced by transverse
motions were unremarkable. When the PGA exceeded 0.9 g, the MUAB
components exhibited substantially deep crack extensions. The crack
depth decreased by 26% under a stiffness increase from 30 to 50 MN/m.
This was primarily because the strengthening of joints between the
segment components enhances the overall seismic capacity of the
MUAB.
5. Conclusions
This paper presented a sophisticated 3D FEA of a 3-hinge MUAB with
an arch diameter of 10 m and an arch length of 7.5 m. The MUAB was
developed and subjected to a suite of synthetic ground motions via
simulations generated to match the Korean Standard Design Response
Spectrum (KDS, 2019). We performed FEA-based seismic evaluations of
the MUAB under synthetic ground motions with PGAs ranging from 0.1
g to 1.2 g in the longitudinal and transverse directions, taking into ac­
count the effects of AAIs, SSIs, and prestressed rebar stiffness. Further­
more, changes in arch length, SSI and AAI friction coefficients as well as
13
T. Van Nguyen et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 118 (2021) 104166
the prestressed rebar stiffnesses were modeled in parametric studies of
various MUABs subjected to representative synthetic ground motions.
Thus, the study provides valuable insights into the procedural aspects of
seismic behavior evaluations for MUABs. The key conclusions drawn
from this study are as follows:
(1) The FEA results show that the seismic behaviors of MUABs sub­
jected to ground motions differ with respect to earthquake loading di­
rections owing to the different levels of seismic resistance. The crack
depth reached 5 cm when the PGA of the longitudinal ground motion
was 0.47 g; meanwhile, this occurred under a PGA of 0.59 g for the
transverse ground motion. A crack depth of 12.5 cm was observed for
the longitudinal and transverse direction earthquakes at PGAs of 0.73 g
and 0.84 g, respectively. When the PGA was below 0.47 g, the segment
components of the MUAB might be repairable because the crack depth
was smaller than 5 cm (equivalent to one-fifth of the arch thickness)
under both longitudinal and transverse ground motions. However, the
segment components were significantly damaged by compressive
stresses when the PGA reached 1.2 g. The MUAB displacement exceeded
the required displacement criteria when the PGA exceeded 0.43 g and
0.55 g under the longitudinal and transverse ground motions,
respectively.
(2) The parametric study revealed that the seismic behavior of the
MUAB depends on the PGAs and ground motion directions; furthermore,
it is sensitive to changes in the arch length and prestressed rebar stiff­
ness. When the arch length was increased from 3.75 m to 18.75 m, the
maximum displacements generated by the longitudinal and transverse
ground motions were increased by 65% and 117%, respectively. This
was because the seismic resistance of the arch in the longitudinal di­
rection exceeded that in the transverse direction. The influence of the
prestressed rebar stiffness on the segment components depended heavily
on the ground motion direction and the PGA. The increase in the pre­
stressed rebar stiffness decreased both the longitudinal and transverse
displacements because the structural joints of the segmental components
were largely strengthened by the stiffness increase, resulting in an
enhanced seismic resistance. The tensile and compressive stresses pro­
duced by the longitudinal ground motions exceeded those produced by
the transverse ground motions for various prestressed rebar stiffnesses.
(3) From the parametric study, it was also found that the SSI coef­
ficient had a minimal effect on the MUAB’s seismic response, especially
in terms of its compressive and tensile stresses and crack depth; how­
ever, the AAI coefficient had a moderate impact on this response. For all
PGAs, the increase in SSI coefficient from 0 to 0.45 led to a decrease of
20% in the MUAB displacement under both ground motions. This was
because the MUABs could be more compacted and stabilized at larger
SSI coefficients owing to the efficient soil arching effect of the SSI in­
crease. The increase in AAI led to a decrease in the maximum
displacement, tensile and compressive stresses, and crack depths in
components because it could strengthen the seismic capacities of the
MUAB, particularly under PGA increases in the transverse direction.
The present study had been limited to the number of ground motions
to evaluate the seismic behavior of MUABs. Therefore, to assess the
seismic performance of MUAB fully, a database of ground motion re­
cords is required. It is the key component in future attempts to overcome
the uncertainty in the ground motion time history in that the selections
must ensure an adequate number of ground motions to meet site char­
acteristics. Hence, further studies could fruitfully explore this issue by
investigating the seismic vulnerability of MUAB.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Toan Van Nguyen: Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original
draft, Validation, Visualization. Junwon Seo: Writing – review & edit­
ing, Methodology, Visualization. Jin-Hee Ahn: Conceptualization,
Validation. Achintya Haldar: Methodology, Writing – review & editing.
Jungwon Huh: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review &
editing, Supervision.
14
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by the Korea Agency for Infrastructure
Technology Advancement (KAIA) grant funded by the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, and Transport (Grant 20CTAP-C151892-02).
References
AASHTO, 2012. AASHTO LRFD bridge design specifications: customary US Units, Sixth
ed. Washington, D.C.
Abaqus, V., 2014. 6.14 Documentation. Dassault Systemes Simulia Corporation.
Abe, T., Nakamura, M., 2014. The use of and the caution in the application of the culvert
constructed by large pre-cast element in the expressway construction. Found Eng
Equip 42, 8–11.
Abuhajar, O., El Naggar, H., Newson, T., 2015. Static soil culvert interaction the effect of
box culvert geometric configurations and soil properties. Computers and
Geotechnics 69, 219–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2015.05.005.
Abuhajar, O., Newson, T., El Naggar, H., 2017. The Effect of Soil Depth and Box Culvert
Geometry on the Static Soil-Culvert Interaction, Geotechnical Frontiers 2017,
Orlando, Florida, pp. 202-211. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784480441.022.
ACI, C., 2014. Building code requirements for structural concrete (ACI 318-14).
American Concrete Institute: Farmington Hills, MI, USA.
Borcherdt, R.D., 1992. Simplified site classes and empirical amplification factors for site-
dependent code provisions, Proc. NCEER, SEAOC, BSSC Workshop on Site Response
during Earthquakes and Seismic Code Provisions. University of Southern California,
Los Angeles, California, pp. 18-20.
Borcherdt, Roger D., 1994. Estimates of site-dependent response spectra for design
(methodology and justification). Earthquake spectra 10 (4), 617–653. https://doi.
org/10.1193/1.1585791.
Borcherdt, R.D., 2012. simplified earthquake resistant design, GMPEs, and ShakeMaps,
The.
Fairless, G., Kirkaldie, D., 2008. Earthquake performance of long-span arch culverts. New
Zealand Transport Agency Research. Report.
Feng, Jin, Wei, Hu, Pan, Jianwen, Jian, Yang, Wang, Jinting, Zhang, Chuhan, 2011.
Comparative study procedure for the safety evaluation of high arch dams. Computers
Geotechnics 38 (3), 306–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2010.10.008.
Halldorsson, B., Papageorgiou, A.S., 2005. Calibration of the specific barrier model to
earthquakes of different tectonic regions. Bulletin of the Seismological society of
America 95, 1276–1300. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120040157.
Hognestad, E., 1951. Study of combined bending and axial load in reinforced concrete
members. University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, College of Engineering http://
hdl.handle.net/2142/4360.
Huh, Jungwon, Le, Thai Son, Kang, Choonghyun, Kwak, Kiseok, Park, Inn-Joon, 2017a.
A probabilistic fragility evaluation method of a RC box tunnel subjected to
earthquake loadings. Journal of Korean Tunnelling Underground Space Association
19 (2), 143–159. https://doi.org/10.9711/KTAJ.2017.19.2.143.
Huh, J., Tran, Q.H., Haldar, A., Park, I., Ahn, J.-H., 2017b. Seismic vulnerability
assessment of a shallow two-story underground RC box structure. Applied Sciences
7, 735. https://doi.org/10.3390/app7070735.
Jeon, J.-S., Shafieezadeh, A., Lee, D.H., Choi, E., DesRoches, R., 2015. Damage
assessment of older highway bridges subjected to three-dimensional ground motions:
Characterization of shear–axial force interaction on seismic fragilities. Engineering
Structures 87, 47–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2015.01.015.
Jeon, S.H., Cho, K.I., Huh, J., Ahn, J.H., 2019. The Performance Assessment of a Precast,
Panel-Segmented Arch Bridge with Outriggers. Applied Sciences-Basel 9, 4646.
https://doi.org/10.3390/app9214646.
Kang, Junsuk, Im, Hwangi, Park, Jong Sup, 2020. The effect of load reduction on
underground concrete arch structures in embedded trench installations. Tunnelling
Underground Space Technology 98, 103240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
tust.2019.103240.
Byrne, P.M., Anderson, D.L., Jitno, H., 1996. Seismic analysis of large buried culvert
structures. Transportation Research Record 1541, 133-139. https://doi.org/
10.1177/0361198196154100117.
KDS, 2019. KDS 41 17 00 :2019 Building Seismic Design Code. Korea Construction
Standards Center.
Kim, H.J., Lee, G.-P., Lim, C.W., 2019. Investigation for the deformation behavior of the
precast arch structure in the open-cut tunnel. Journal of Korean Tunnelling and
Underground Space Association 21, 93–113. https://doi.org/10.9711/
KTAJ.2019.21.1.093.
Lanczos, C., 1950. An iteration method for the solution of the eigenvalue problem of
linear differential and integral operators. United States Governm. Press Office Los
Angeles, CA. https://doi.org/10.6028/jres.045.026.
Le, T.S., Huh, J., Park, J.-H., 2014. Earthquake fragility assessment of the underground
tunnel using an efficient SSI analysis approach. Journal of Applied Mathematics
Physics 2, 1073. https://doi.org/10.4236/jamp.2014.212123.
T. Van Nguyen et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 118 (2021) 104166
Lee, J., Fenves, G.L., 1998a. A plastic-damage concrete model for earthquake analysis of
dams. Earthquake engineering & structural dynamics 27, 937–956. https://doi.org/
10.1002/(SICI)1096-9845(199809)27:9<937::AID-EQE764>3.0.CO;2-5.
Lee, Jeeho, Fenves, Gregory L., 1998b. Plastic-damage model for cyclic loading of
concrete structures. Journal of engineering mechanics 124 (8), 892–900. https://doi.
org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9399(1998)124:8(892).
Mangalathu, S., Jeon, J.S., DesRoches, R., Dynamics, S., 2018. Critical uncertainty
parameters influencing seismic performance of bridges using Lasso regression.
Earthquake Engineering 47, 784–801. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.2991.
Mattock, A.H., 1977. Discussion of “Considerations for the Design of Precast Concrete
Bearing Wall Buildings to Withstand Abnormal Loads” by PCI Committee on Precast
Concrete Bearing Wall Buildings. PCI Journal 22, 105–106.
Miyazaki, Y., 2019. Fundamental study on seismic behavior of hinge types of precast
arch culverts in culvert longitudinal direction. Kyoto University. https://doi.org/
10.14989/doctor.k21736.
Miyazaki, Y., Sawamura, Y., Kishida, K., Kimura, M., 2017b. Evaluation of dynamic
behavior of embankment with precast arch culverts considering connecting
condition of culverts in culvert longitudinal direction. Japanese Geotechnical Society
Special Publication 5 (2), 95–100. https://doi.org/10.3208/jgssp.v05.020.
Miyazaki, Y., Sawamura, Y., Kishida, K., Kimura, M., 2017a. Dynamic Centrifuge Model
Tests on Seismic Performance in Culvert Longitudinal Direction of Hinge-Type Arch
Culverts due to Patterns of Embankment Shape. Journal of Japan Society of Civil
Engineers, Ser. C (Geosphere Engineering) 73, 429–441. https://doi.org/10.2208/
jscejge.73.429.
Miyazaki, Y., Sawamura, Y., Kishida, K., Kimura, M., 2018. Dynamic behaviour of three-
hinge-type precast arch culverts with various patterns of overburden in culvert
longitudinal direction. In: Physical Modelling in Geotechnics, 2. CRC Press,
pp. 915–920. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429438646.
Miyazaki, Y., Sawamura, Y., Kishida, K., Kimura, M., 2020. Elasto-plastic 3D FE analysis
of the seismic behavior in culvert longitudinal direction of three-hinge type of
precast arch culverts. Advances in Computer Methods and Geomechanics. Springer
223–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0886-8_18.
Ojalvo, I., Newman, M., 1970. Vibration modes of large structures by an automatic
matrix-reductionmethod. AIAA Journal 8, 1234-1239. https://doi.org/10.2514/
3.5878.
Paige, C.C., 1971. The computation of eigenvalues and eigenvectors of very large sparse
matrices. University of London. https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.eth
os.307848.
Pan, Jianwen, Xu, Yanjie, Jin, Feng, 2015. Seismic performance assessment of arch dams
using incremental nonlinear dynamic analysis. European Journal of Environmental
Civil Engineering 19 (3), 305–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/
19648189.2014.960950.
Rogers, Luke P., Seo, Junwon, 2017. Vulnerability sensitivity of curved precast-concrete
I-girder bridges with various configurations subjected to multiple ground motions.
Journal of Bridge Engineering 22 (2), 04016118. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)
BE.1943-5592.0000973.
Santos, R.R.V., Kang, J., Park, J.S., 2020. Effects of embedded trench installations using
expanded polystyrene geofoam applied to buried corrugated steel arch structures.
Tunnelling Underground Space Technology 98, 103323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
tust.2020.103323.
Sawamura, Y., Ishihara, H., Kishida, K., Kimura, M., 2016. Experimental study on
damage morphology and critical state of three-hinge precast arch culvert through
15
shaking table tests. Procedia Engineering, Advances in Transportation Geotechnics
III 143, 522-529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.06.066.
Sawamura, Yasuo, Ishihara, Hiroyuki, Otani, Yoshinori, Kishida, Kiyoshi,
Kimura, Makoto, 2019. Deformation behavior and acting earth pressure of three-
hinge precast arch culvert in construction process. Underground Space 4 (3),
251–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.undsp.2018.09.005.
Sawamura, Y., Kishida, K., Kimura, M., 2011. Numerical approach on dynamic
interactive behavior between embankment and installed multi-arch culverts, Proc.
In: of the 13th Int. Conf. on Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics,
pp. 798–803.
Sawamura, Y., Kishida, K., Kimura, M., 2012. Numerical Study on Dynamic Interaction
Between Embankment and Consecutive Culverts. 2nd International Conference on
Transportation Geotechnics (ICTG) International Society of Soil Mechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering (ISSMGE).
Sawamura, Yasuo, Kishida, Kiyoshi, Kimura, Makoto, 2015. Centrifuge model test and
FEM analysis of dynamic interactive behavior between embankments and installed
culverts in multiarch culvert embankments. International Journal of Geomechanics
15 (3), 04014050. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000361.
Seo, Junwon, 2013. Statistical determination of significant curved I-girder bridge seismic
response parameters. Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Vibration 12 (2),
251–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11803-013-0168-y.
Seo, J., Linzell, D.G., 2012. Horizontally curved steel bridge seismic vulnerability
assessment. Engineering Structures 34, 21–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
engstruct.2011.09.008.
Seo, Junwon, Linzell, Daniel G., 2013. Nonlinear seismic response and parametric
examination of horizontally curved steel bridges using 3D computational models.
Journal of Bridge Engineering 18 (3), 220–231. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)
BE.1943-5592.0000345.
Seo, J., Rogers, L.P., 2017. Comparison of curved prestressed concrete bridge population
response between area and spine modeling approaches toward efficient seismic
vulnerability analysis. Engineering Structures 150, 176–189. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.engstruct.2017.07.033.
Sheng, Daichao, Wriggers, Peter, Sloan, Scott W., 2007. Application of frictional contact
in geotechnical engineering. International journal of geomechanics 7 (3), 176–185.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1532-3641(2007)7:3(176).
Siqueira, G.H., Sanda, A.S., Paultre, P., Padgett, J.E., 2014. Fragility curves for isolated
bridges in eastern Canada using experimental results. Engineering Structures 74,
311–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2014.04.053.
Tavares, D.H., Padgett, J.E., Paultre, P., 2012. Fragility curves of typical as-built highway
bridges in eastern Canada. Engineering Structures 40, 107–118. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.engstruct.2012.02.019.
Toyota, Hirofumi, Takagai, Makoto, 1999. Dynamic Behavior of 3-hinge Arch in Terre
Armee Foundationテールアルメ盛土中における3ヒンジアーチの動的挙動. Doboku
Gakkai Ronbunshu 1999 (624), 255–266. https://doi.org/10.2208/jscej.1999.624_
255.
Wood, J.H., Jenkins, D.A., 2000. Seismic analysis of buried arch structures, Proc. New
Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering, Wellington, New Zealand.
Zhang, S., Wang, G., Sa, W., 2013. Damage evaluation of concrete gravity dams under
mainshock–aftershock seismic sequences. Soil Dynamics Earthquake Engineering 50,
16–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2013.02.021.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
peace have expressed at Shakspeare. The veriest churl and Jacobin
cannot resist the influence of the style and manners of these haughty
lords. We are affected, as boys and barbarians are, by the
appearance of a few rich and wilful gentlemen who take their honor
into their own keeping, defy the world, so confident are they of their
courage and strength, and whose appearance is the arrival of so
much life and virtue. In dangerous times they are presently tried, and
therefore their name is a flourish of trumpets. They, at least, affect us
as a reality. They are not shams, but the substance of which that age
and world is made. They are true heroes for their time. They make
what is in their minds the greatest sacrifice. They will, for an injurious
word, peril all their state and wealth, and go to the field. Take away
that principle of responsibleness, and they become pirates and
ruffians.[127]
This self-subsistency is the charm of war; for this self-subsistency
is essential to our idea of man. But another age comes, a truer
religion and ethics open, and a man puts himself under the dominion
of principles. I see him to be the servant of truth, of love and of
freedom, and immovable in the waves of the crowd. The man of
principle, that is, the man who, without any flourish of trumpets, titles
of lordship or train of guards, without any notice of his action abroad,
expecting none, takes in solitude the right step uniformly, on his
private choice and disdaining consequences,—does not yield, in my
imagination, to any man. He is willing to be hanged at his own gate,
rather than consent to any compromise of his freedom or the
suppression of his conviction. I regard no longer those names that so
tingled in my ear. This is a baron of a better nobility and a stouter
stomach.
The cause of peace is not the cause of cowardice. If peace is
sought to be defended or preserved for the safety of the luxurious
and the timid, it is a sham, and the peace will be base. War is better,
and the peace will be broken. If peace is to be maintained, it must be
by brave men, who have come up to the same height as the hero,
namely, the will to carry their life in their hand, and stake it at any
instant for their principle, but who have gone one step beyond the
hero, and will not seek another man’s life;—men who have, by their
intellectual insight or else by their moral elevation, attained such a
perception of their own intrinsic worth that they do not think property
or their own body a sufficient good to be saved by such dereliction of
principle as treating a man like a sheep.
If the universal cry for reform of so many inveterate abuses, with
which society rings,—if the desire of a large class of young men for a
faith and hope, intellectual and religious, such as they have not yet
found, be an omen to be trusted; if the disposition to rely more, in
study and in action, on the unexplored riches of the human
constitution,—if the search of the sublime laws of morals and the
sources of hope and trust, in man, and not in books, in the present,
and not in the past, proceed; if the rising generation can be provoked
to think it unworthy to nestle into every abomination of the past, and
shall feel the generous darings of austerity and virtue, then war has
a short day, and human blood will cease to flow.
It is of little consequence in what manner, through what organs,
this purpose of mercy and holiness is effected. The proposition of the
Congress of Nations is undoubtedly that at which the present fabric
of our society and the present course of events do point. But the
mind, once prepared for the reign of principles, will easily find modes
of expressing its will. There is the highest fitness in the place and
time in which this enterprise is begun. Not in an obscure corner, not
in a feudal Europe, not in an antiquated appanage where no onward
step can be taken without rebellion, is this seed of benevolence laid
in the furrow, with tears of hope; but in this broad America of God
and man, where the forest is only now falling, or yet to fall, and the
green earth opened to the inundation of emigrant men from all
quarters of oppression and guilt; here, where not a family, not a few
men, but mankind, shall say what shall be; here, we ask, Shall it be
War, or shall it be Peace?
 VI
THE FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW

ADDRESS TO CITIZENS OF CONCORD 3 MAY,

1851

The Eternal Rights,

Victors over daily wrongs:
Awful victors, they misguide
Whom they will destroy,
And their coming triumph hide
In our downfall, or our joy:
They reach no term, they never sleep,
In equal strength through space abide;
Though, feigning dwarfs, they crouch and creep,
The strong they slay, the swift outstride;
Fate’s grass grows rank in valley clods,
And rankly on the castled steep,—
Speak it firmly, these are gods,
Are all ghosts beside.

THE FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW

Fellow citizens: I accepted your invitation to speak to you on the
great question of these days, with very little consideration of what I
might have to offer: for there seems to be no option. The last year
has forced us all into politics, and made it a paramount duty to seek
what it is often a duty to shun. We do not breathe well. There is
infamy in the air. I have a new experience. I wake in the morning with
a painful sensation, which I carry about all day, and which, when
traced home, is the odious remembrance of that ignominy which has
fallen on Massachusetts, which robs the landscape of beauty, and
takes the sunshine out of every hour. I have lived all my life in this
state, and never had any experience of personal inconvenience from
the laws, until now. They never came near me to any discomfort
before. I find the like sensibility in my neighbors; and in that class
who take no interest in the ordinary questions of party politics. There
are men who are as sure indexes of the equity of legislation and of
the same state of public feeling, as the barometer is of the weight of
the air, and it is a bad sign when these are discontented, for though
they snuff oppression and dishonor at a distance, it is because they
are more impressionable: the whole population will in a short time be
as painfully affected.
Every hour brings us from distant quarters of the Union the
expression of mortification at the late events in Massachusetts, and
at the behavior of Boston. The tameness was indeed shocking.
Boston, of whose fame for spirit and character we have all been so
proud; Boston, whose citizens, intelligent people in England told me
they could always distinguish by their culture among Americans; the
Boston of the American Revolution, which figures so proudly in John
Adams’s Diary, which the whole country has been reading; Boston,
spoiled by prosperity, must bow its ancient honor in the dust, and
make us irretrievably ashamed. In Boston, we have said with such
lofty confidence, no fugitive slave can be arrested, and now, we must
transfer our vaunt to the country, and say, with a little less
confidence, no fugitive man can be arrested here; at least we can
brag thus until to-morrow, when the farmers also may be corrupted.
The tameness is indeed complete. The only haste in Boston, after
the rescue of Shadrach,[128] last February, was, who should first put
his name on the list of volunteers in aid of the marshal. I met the
smoothest of Episcopal Clergymen the other day, and allusion being
made to Mr. Webster’s treachery, he blandly replied, “Why, do you
know I think that the great action of his life.” It looked as if in the city
and the suburbs all were involved in one hot haste of terror,—
presidents of colleges, and professors, saints, and brokers, insurers,
lawyers, importers, manufacturers: not an unpleasing sentiment, not
a liberal recollection, not so much as a snatch of an old song for
freedom, dares intrude on their passive obedience.
The panic has paralyzed the journals, with the fewest exceptions,
so that one cannot open a newspaper without being disgusted by
new records of shame. I cannot read longer even the local good
news. When I look down the columns at the titles of paragraphs,
“Education in Massachusetts,” “Board of Trade,” “Art Union,” “Revival
of Religion,” what bitter mockeries! The very convenience of
property, the house and land we occupy, have lost their best value,
and a man looks gloomily at his children, and thinks, “What have I
done that you should begin life in dishonor?” Every liberal study is
discredited,—literature and science appear effeminate, and the
hiding of the head. The college, the churches, the schools, the very
shops and factories are discredited; real estate, every kind of wealth,
every branch of industry, every avenue to power, suffers injury, and
the value of life is reduced. Just now a friend came into my house
and said, “If this law shall be repealed I shall be glad that I have
lived; if not I shall be sorry that I was born.” What kind of law is that
which extorts language like this from the heart of a free and civilized
people?
One intellectual benefit we owe to the late disgraces. The crisis
had the illuminating power of a sheet of lightning at midnight. It
showed truth. It ended a good deal of nonsense we had been wont
to hear and to repeat, on the 19th of April, the 17th of June, the 4th
of July. It showed the slightness and unreliableness of our social
fabric, it showed what stuff reputations are made of, what straws we
dignify by office and title, and how competent we are to give counsel
and help in a day of trial. It showed the shallowness of leaders; the
divergence of parties from their alleged grounds; showed that men
would not stick to what they had said, that the resolutions of public
bodies, or the pledges never so often given and put on record of
public men, will not bind them. The fact comes out more plainly that
you cannot rely on any man for the defence of truth, who is not
constitutionally or by blood and temperament on that side. A man of
a greedy and unscrupulous selfishness may maintain morals when
they are in fashion: but he will not stick. However close Mr. Wolf’s
nails have been pared, however neatly he has been shaved, and
tailored, and set up on end, and taught to say, “Virtue and Religion,”
he cannot be relied on at a pinch: he will say, morality means
pricking a vein. The popular assumption that all men loved freedom,
and believed in the Christian religion, was found hollow American
brag; only persons who were known and tried benefactors are found
standing for freedom: the sentimentalists went downstream.[129] I
question the value of our civilization, when I see that the public mind
had never less hold of the strongest of all truths. The sense of
injustice is blunted,—a sure sign of the shallowness of our intellect. I
cannot accept the railroad and telegraph in exchange for reason and
charity. It is not skill in iron locomotives that makes so fine civility, as
the jealousy of liberty. I cannot think the most judicious tubing a
compensation for metaphysical debility. What is the use of admirable
law-forms, and political forms, if a hurricane of party feeling and a
combination of monied interests can beat them to the ground? What
is the use of courts, if judges only quote authorities, and no judge
exerts original jurisdiction, or recurs to first principles? What is the
use of a Federal Bench, if its opinions are the political breath of the
hour? And what is the use of constitutions, if all the guaranties
provided by the jealousy of ages for the protection of liberty are
made of no effect, when a bad act of Congress finds a willing
commissioner? The levity of the public mind has been shown in the
past year by the most extravagant actions. Who could have believed
it, if foretold that a hundred guns would be fired in Boston on the
passage of the Fugitive Slave Bill? Nothing proves the want of all
thought, the absence of standard in men’s minds, more than the
dominion of party. Here are humane people who have tears for
misery, an open purse for want; who should have been the
defenders of the poor man, are found his embittered enemies,
rejoicing in his rendition,—merely from party ties. I thought none, that
was not ready to go on all fours, would back this law. And yet here
are upright men, compotes mentis, husbands, fathers, trustees,
friends, open, generous, brave, who can see nothing in this claim for
bare humanity, and the health and honor of their native State, but
canting fanaticism, sedition and “one idea.” Because of this
preoccupied mind, the whole wealth and power of Boston—two
hundred thousand souls, and one hundred and eighty millions of
money—are thrown into the scale of crime: and the poor black boy,
whom the fame of Boston had reached in the recesses of a vile
swamp, or in the alleys of Savannah, on arriving here finds all this
force employed to catch him. The famous town of Boston is his
master’s hound. The learning of the universities, the culture of
elegant society, the acumen of lawyers, the majesty of the Bench,
the eloquence of the Christian pulpit, the stoutness of Democracy,
the respectability of the Whig party are all combined to kidnap him.
The crisis is interesting as it shows the self-protecting nature of the
world and of the Divine laws. It is the law of the world,—as much
immorality as there is, so much misery. The greatest prosperity will in
vain resist the greatest calamity. You borrow the succour of the devil
and he must have his fee. He was never known to abate a penny of
his rents. In every nation all the immorality that exists breeds
plagues. But of the corrupt society that exists we have never been
able to combine any pure prosperity There is always something in
the very advantages of a condition which hurts it. Africa has its
malformation; England has its Ireland; Germany its hatred of
classes; France its love of gunpowder; Italy its Pope; and America,
the most prosperous country in the Universe, has the greatest
calamity in the Universe, negro slavery.
Let me remind you a little in detail how the natural retribution acts
in reference to the statute which Congress passed a year ago. For
these few months have shown very conspicuously its nature and
impracticability. It is contravened:
1. By the sentiment of duty. An immoral law makes it a man’s duty
to break it, at every hazard. For virtue is the very self of every man. It
is therefore a principle of law that an immoral contract is void, and
that an immoral statute is void. For, as laws do not make right, and
are simply declaratory of a right which already existed, it is not to be
presumed that they can so stultify themselves as to command
injustice.
 It is remarkable how rare in the history of tyrants is an immoral
law. Some color, some indirection was always used. If you take up
the volumes of the “Universal History,” you will find it difficult
searching. The precedents are few. It is not easy to parallel the
wickedness of this American law. And that is the head and body of
this discontent, that the law is immoral.
Here is a statute which enacts the crime of kidnapping,—a crime
on one footing with arson and murder. A man’s right to liberty is as
inalienable as his right to life.
Pains seem to have been taken to give us in this statute a wrong
pure from any mixture of right. If our resistance to this law is not
right, there is no right. This is not meddling with other people’s
affairs: this is hindering other people from meddling with us. This is
not going crusading into Virginia and Georgia after slaves, who, it is
alleged, are very comfortable where they are:—that amiable
argument falls to the ground: but this is befriending in our own State,
on our own farms, a man who has taken the risk of being shot, or
burned alive, or cast into the sea, or starved to death, or suffocated
in a wooden box, to get away from his driver: and this man who has
run the gauntlet of a thousand miles for his freedom, the statute
says, you men of Massachusetts shall hunt, and catch, and send
back again to the dog-hutch he fled from.
It is contrary to the primal sentiment of duty, and therefore all men
that are born are, in proportion to their power of thought and their
moral sensibility, found to be the natural enemies of this law. The
resistance of all moral beings is secured to it. I had thought, I
confess, what must come at last would come at first, a banding of all
men against the authority of this statute. I thought it a point on which
all sane men were agreed, that the law must respect the public
morality. I thought that all men of all conditions had been made
sharers of a certain experience, that in certain rare and retired
moments they had been made to see how man is man, or what
makes the essence of rational beings, namely, that whilst animals
have to do with eating the fruits of the ground, men have to do with
rectitude, with benefit, with truth, with something which is,
independent of appearances: and that this tie makes the
substantiality of life, this, and not their ploughing, or sailing, their
trade or the breeding of families. I thought that every time a man
goes back to his own thoughts, these angels receive him, talk with
him, and that, in the best hours, he is uplifted in virtue of this
essence, into a peace and into a power which the material world
cannot give: that these moments counterbalance the years of
drudgery, and that this owning of a law, be it called morals, religion,
or godhead, or what you will, constituted the explanation of life, the
excuse and indemnity for the errors and calamities which sadden it.
In long years consumed in trifles, they remember these moments,
and are consoled. I thought it was this fair mystery, whose
foundations are hidden in eternity, which made the basis of human
society, and of law; and that to pretend anything else, as that the
acquisition of property was the end of living, was to confound all
distinctions, to make the world a greasy hotel, and, instead of noble
motives and inspirations, and a heaven of companions and angels
around and before us, to leave us in a grimacing menagerie of
monkeys and idiots. All arts, customs, societies, books, and laws,
are good as they foster and concur with this spiritual element: all
men are beloved as they raise us to it; hateful as they deny or resist
it. The laws especially draw their obligation only from their
concurrence with it.
I am surprised that lawyers can be so blind as to suffer the
principles of Law to be discredited. A few months ago, in my dismay
at hearing that the Higher Law was reckoned a good joke in the
courts, I took pains to look into a few law-books. I had often heard
that the Bible constituted a part of every technical law library, and
that it was a principle in law that immoral laws are void.
I found, accordingly, that the great jurists, Cicero, Grotius, Coke,
Blackstone, Burlamaqui, Montesquieu, Vattel, Burke, Mackintosh,
Jefferson, do all affirm this. I have no intention to recite these
passages I had marked:—such citation indeed seems to be
something cowardly (for no reasonable person needs a quotation
from Blackstone to convince him that white cannot be legislated to
be black), and shall content myself with reading a single passage.
Blackstone admits the sovereignty “antecedent to any positive
precept, of the law of Nature,” among whose principles are, “that we
should live on, should hurt nobody, and should render unto every
one his due,” etc. “No human laws are of any validity, if contrary to
this.” “Nay, if any human law should allow or enjoin us to commit a
crime” (his instance is murder), “we are bound to transgress that
human law; or else we must offend both the natural and divine.” Lord
Coke held that where an Act of Parliament is against common right
and reason, the common law shall control it, and adjudge it to be
void. Chief Justice Hobart, Chief Justice Holt, and Chief Justice
Mansfield held the same.
Lord Mansfield, in the case of the slave Somerset, wherein the
dicta of Lords Talbot and Hardwicke had been cited, to the effect of
carrying back the slave to the West Indies, said, “I care not for the
supposed dicta of judges, however eminent, if they be contrary to all
principle.” Even the Canon Law says (in malis promissis non expedit
servare fidem), “Neither allegiance nor oath can bind to obey that
which is wrong.”
No engagement (to a sovereign) can oblige or even authorize a
man to violate the laws of Nature. All authors who have any
conscience or modesty agree that a person ought not to obey such
commands as are evidently contrary to the laws of God. Those
governors of places who bravely refused to execute the barbarous
orders of Charles IX. for the famous “Massacre of St. Bartholomew,”
have been universally praised; and the court did not dare to punish
them, at least openly. “Sire,” said the brave Orte, governor of
Bayonne, in his letter, “I have communicated your majesty’s
command to your faithful inhabitants and warriors in the garrison,
and I have found there only good citizens, and brave soldiers; not
one hangman: therefore, both they and I must humbly entreat your
majesty to be pleased to employ your arms and lives in things that
are possible, however hazardous they may be, and we will exert
ourselves to the last drop of our blood.”[130]
The practitioners should guard this dogma well, as the palladium
of the profession, as their anchor in the respect of mankind. Against
a principle like this, all the arguments of Mr. Webster are the spray of
a child’s squirt against a granite wall.
 2. It is contravened by all the sentiments. How can a law be
enforced that fines pity, and imprisons charity? As long as men have
bowels, they will disobey. You know that the Act of Congress of
September 18, 1850, is a law which every one of you will break on
the earliest occasion. There is not a manly Whig, or a manly
Democrat, of whom, if a slave were hidden in one of our houses from
the hounds, we should not ask with confidence to lend his wagon in
aid of his escape, and he would lend it. The man would be too strong
for the partisan.
And here I may say that it is absurd, what I often hear, to accuse
the friends of freedom in the North with being the occasion of the
new stringency of the Southern slave-laws. If you starve or beat the
orphan, in my presence, and I accuse your cruelty, can I help it? In
the words of Electra in the Greek tragedy, “’Tis you that say it, not I.
You do the deeds, and your ungodly deeds find me the words.” Will
you blame the ball for rebounding from the floor, blame the air for
rushing in where a vacuum is made or the boiler for exploding under
pressure of steam? These facts are after laws of the world, and so is
it law, that, when justice is violated, anger begins. The very defence
which the God of Nature has provided for the innocent against
cruelty is the sentiment of indignation and pity in the bosom of the
beholder. Mr. Webster tells the President that “he has been in the
North, and he has found no man, whose opinion is of any weight,
who is opposed to the law.” Oh, Mr. President, trust not the
information! The gravid old Universe goes spawning on; the womb
conceives and the breasts give suck to thousands and millions of
hairy babes formed not in the image of your statute, but in the image
of the Universe; too many to be bought off; too many than they can
be rich, and therefore peaceable; and necessitated to express first or
last every feeling of the heart. You can keep no secret, for whatever
is true some of them will unreasonably say. You can commit no
crime, for they are created in their sentiments conscious of and
hostile to it; and unless you can suppress the newspaper, pass a law
against book-shops, gag the English tongue in America, all short of
this is futile. This dreadful English Speech is saturated with songs,
proverbs and speeches that flatly contradict and defy every line of
Mr. Mason’s statute. Nay, unless you can draw a sponge over those
seditious Ten Commandments which are the root of our European
and American civilization; and over that eleventh commandment, “Do
unto others as you would have them do to you,” your labor is vain.
3. It is contravened by the written laws themselves, because the
sentiments, of course, write the statutes. Laws are merely
declaratory of the natural sentiments of mankind, and the language
of all permanent laws will be in contradiction to any immoral
enactment. And thus it happens here: Statute fights against Statute.
By the law of Congress March 2, 1807, it is piracy and murder,
punishable with death, to enslave a man on the coast of Africa. By
law of Congress September, 1850, it is a high crime and
misdemeanor, punishable with fine and imprisonment, to resist the
reënslaving a man on the coast of America. Off soundings, it is
piracy and murder to enslave him. On soundings, it is fine and prison
not to reënslave. What kind of legislation is this? What kind of
constitution which covers it? And yet the crime which the second law
ordains is greater than the crime which the first law forbids under
penalty of the gibbet. For it is a greater crime to reënslave a man
who has shown himself fit for freedom, than to enslave him at first,
when it might be pretended to be a mitigation of his lot as a captive
in war.
4. It is contravened by the mischiefs it operates. A wicked law
cannot be executed by good men, and must be by bad. Flagitious
men must be employed, and every act of theirs is a stab at the public
peace. It cannot be executed at such a cost, and so it brings a bribe
in its hand. This law comes with infamy in it, and out of it. It offers a
bribe in its own clauses for the consummation of the crime. To serve
it, low and mean people are found by the groping of the government.
No government ever found it hard to pick up tools for base actions. If
you cannot find them in the huts of the poor, you shall find them in
the palaces of the rich. Vanity can buy some, ambition others, and
money others. The first execution of the law, as was inevitable, was
a little hesitating; the second was easier; and the glib officials
became, in a few weeks, quite practised and handy at stealing men.
But worse, not the officials alone are bribed, but the whole
community is solicited. The scowl of the community is attempted to
be averted by the mischievous whisper, “Tariff and Southern market,
if you will be quiet: no tariff and loss of Southern market, if you dare
to murmur.” I wonder that our acute people who have learned that
the cheapest police is dear schools, should not find out that an
immoral law costs more than the loss of the custom of a Southern
city.
The humiliating scandal of great men warping right into wrong was
followed up very fast by the cities. New York advertised in Southern
markets that it would go for slavery, and posted the names of
merchants who would not. Boston, alarmed, entered into the same
design. Philadelphia, more fortunate, had no conscience at all, and,
in this auction of the rights of mankind, rescinded all its legislation
against slavery. And the Boston “Advertiser,” and the “Courier,” in
these weeks, urge the same course on the people of Massachusetts.
Nothing remains in this race of roguery but to coax Connecticut or
Maine to outbid us all by adopting slavery into its constitution.
Great is the mischief of a legal crime. Every person who touches
this business is contaminated. There has not been in our lifetime
another moment when public men were personally lowered by their
political action. But here are gentlemen whose believed probity was
the confidence and fortification of multitudes, who, by fear of public
opinion, or through the dangerous ascendency of Southern manners,
have been drawn into the support of this foul business. We poor men
in the country who might once have thought it an honor to shake
hands with them, or to dine at their boards, would now shrink from
their touch, nor could they enter our humblest doors. You have a law
which no man can obey, or abet the obeying, without loss of self-
respect and forfeiture of the name of gentleman. What shall we say
of the functionary by whom the recent rendition was made? If he has
rightly defined his powers, and has no authority to try the case, but
only to prove the prisoner’s identity, and remand him, what office is
this for a reputable citizen to hold? No man of honor can sit on that
bench. It is the extension of the planter’s whipping-post; and its
incumbents must rank with a class from which the turnkey, the
hangman and the informer are taken, necessary functionaries, it may
be, in a state, but to whom the dislike and the ban of society
universally attaches.
5. These resistances appear in the history of the statute, in the
retributions which speak so loud in every part of this business, that I
think a tragic poet will know how to make it a lesson for all ages. Mr.
Webster’s measure was, he told us, final. It was a pacification, it was
a suppression, a measure of conciliation and adjustment. These
were his words at different times: “there was to be no parleying
more;” it was “irrepealable.” Does it look final now? His final
settlement has dislocated the foundations. The state-house shakes
likes a tent. His pacification has brought all the honesty in every
house, all scrupulous and good-hearted men, all women, and all
children, to accuse the law. It has brought United States swords into
the streets, and chains round the court-house. “A measure of
pacification and union.” What is its effect? To make one sole subject
for conversation and painful thought throughout the continent,
namely, slavery. There is not a man of thought or of feeling but is
concentrating his mind on it. There is not a clerk but recites its
statistics; not a politician but is watching its incalculable energy in the
elections; not a jurist but is hunting up precedents; not a moralist but
is prying into its quality; not an economist but is computing its profit
and loss: Mr. Webster can judge whether this sort of solar
microscope brought to bear on his law is likely to make opposition
less. The only benefit that has accrued from the law is its service to
education. It has been like a university to the entire people. It has
turned every dinner-table into a debating-club, and made every
citizen a student of natural law. When a moral quality comes into
politics, when a right is invaded, the discussion draws on deeper
sources: general principles are laid bare, which cast light on the
whole frame of society. And it is cheering to behold what champions
the emergency called to this poor black boy; what subtlety, what
logic, what learning, what exposure of the mischief of the law; and,
above all, with what earnestness and dignity the advocates of
freedom were inspired. It was one of the best compensations of this
calamity.
 But the Nemesis works underneath again. It is a power that makes
noonday dark, and draws us on to our undoing; and its dismal way is
to pillory the offender in the moment of his triumph. The hands that
put the chain on the slave are in that moment manacled. Who has
seen anything like that which is now done? The words of John
Randolph, wiser than he knew, have been ringing ominously in all
echoes for thirty years, words spoken in the heat of the Missouri
debate. “We do not govern the people of the North by our black
slaves, but by their own white slaves. We know what we are doing.
We have conquered you once, and we can and will conquer you
again. Ay, we will drive you to the wall, and when we have you there
once more, we will keep you there and nail you down like base
money.” These words resounding ever since from California to
Oregon, from Cape Florida to Cape Cod, come down now like the
cry of Fate, in the moment when they are fulfilled. By white slaves,
by a white slave, are we beaten.[131] Who looked for such ghastly
fulfilment, or to see what we see? Hills and Halletts, servile editors
by the hundred, we could have spared. But him, our best and
proudest, the first man of the North, in the very moment of mounting
the throne, irresistibly taking the bit in his mouth and the collar on his
neck, and harnessing himself to the chariot of the planters.
The fairest American fame ends in this filthy law. Mr. Webster
cannot choose but regret his law. He must learn that those who
make fame accuse him with one voice; that those who have no
points to carry that are not identical with public morals and generous
civilization, that the obscure and private who have no voice and care
for none, so long as things go well, but who feel the disgrace of the
new legislation creeping like miasma into their homes, and blotting
the daylight,—those to whom his name was once dear and honored,
as the manly statesman to whom the choicest gifts of Nature had
been accorded, disown him: that he who was their pride in the
woods and mountains of New England is now their mortification,—
they have torn down his picture from the wall, they have thrust his
speeches into the chimney. No roars of New York mobs can drown
this voice in Mr. Webster’s ear. It will outwhisper all the salvos of the
“Union Committees’” cannon. But I have said too much on this
painful topic. I will not pursue that bitter history.[132]
But passing from the ethical to the political view, I wish to place
this statute, and we must use the introducer and substantial author
of the bill as an illustration of the history. I have as much charity for
Mr. Webster, I think, as any one has. I need not say how much I
have enjoyed his fame. Who has not helped to praise him? Simply
he was the one eminent American of our time, whom we could
produce as a finished work of Nature. We delighted in his form and
face, in his voice, in his eloquence, in his power of labor, in his
concentration, in his large understanding, in his daylight statement,
simple force; the facts lay like the strata of a cloud, or like the layers
of the crust of the globe. He saw things as they were, and he stated
them so. He has been by his clear perceptions and statements in all
these years the best head in Congress, and the champion of the
interests of the Northern seaboard: but as the activity and growth of
slavery began to be offensively felt by his constituents, the senator
became less sensitive to these evils. They were not for him to deal
with: he was the commercial representative. He indulged
occasionally in excellent expression of the known feeling of the New
England people: but, when expected and when pledged, he omitted
to speak, and he omitted to throw himself into the movement in those
critical moments when his leadership would have turned the scale.
At last, at a fatal hour, this sluggishness accumulated to downright
counteraction, and, very unexpectedly to the whole Union, on the 7th
March, 1850, in opposition to his education, association, and to all
his own most explicit language for thirty years, he crossed the line,
and became the head of the slavery party in this country.
Mr. Webster perhaps is only following the laws of his blood and
constitution. I suppose his pledges were not quite natural to him. Mr.
Webster is a man who lives by his memory, a man of the past, not a
man of faith or of hope. He obeys his powerful animal nature;—and
his finely developed understanding only works truly and with all its
force, when it stands for animal good; that is, for property. He
believes, in so many words, that government exists for the protection
of property. He looks at the Union as an estate, a large farm, and is
excellent in the completeness of his defence of it so far. He adheres
to the letter. Happily he was born late,—after the independence had
been declared, the Union agreed to, and the constitution settled.
What he finds already written, he will defend. Lucky that so much
had got well written when he came. For he has no faith in the power
of self-government; none whatever in extemporizing a government.
Not the smallest municipal provision, if it were new, would receive his
sanction. In Massachusetts, in 1776, he would, beyond all question,
have been a refugee. He praises Adams and Jefferson, but it is a
past Adams and Jefferson that his mind can entertain.[133] A present
Adams and Jefferson he would denounce. So with the eulogies of
liberty in his writings,—they are sentimentalism and youthful rhetoric.
He can celebrate it, but it means as much from him as from
Metternich or Talleyrand. This is all inevitable from his constitution.
All the drops of his blood have eyes that look downward. It is neither
praise nor blame to say that he has no moral perception, no moral
sentiment, but in that region—to use the phrase of the phrenologists
—a hole in the head. The scraps of morality to be gleaned from his
speeches are reflections of the mind of others; he says what he
hears said, but often makes signal blunders in their use. In Mr.
Webster’s imagination the American Union was a huge Prince
Rupert’s drop, which, if so much as the smallest end be shivered off,
the whole will snap into atoms. Now the fact is quite different from
this. The people are loyal, law-loving, law-abiding. They prefer order,
and have no taste for misrule and uproar.
The destiny of this country is great and liberal, and is to be greatly
administered. It is to be administered according to what is, and is to
be, and not according to what is dead and gone. The union of this
people is a real thing, an alliance of men of one flock, one language,
one religion, one system of manners and ideas. I hold it to be a real
and not a statute union. The people cleave to the Union, because
they see their advantage in it, the added power of each.
I suppose the Union can be left to take care of itself. As much real
union as there is, the statutes will be sure to express; as much
disunion as there is, no statute can long conceal. Under the Union I
suppose the fact to be that there are really two nations, the North
and the South. It is not slavery that severs them, it is climate and
temperament. The South does not like the North, slavery or no
slavery, and never did. The North likes the South well enough, for it
knows its own advantages. I am willing to leave them to the facts. If
they continue to have a binding interest, they will be pretty sure to
find it out: if not, they will consult their peace in parting. But one thing
appears certain to me, that, as soon as the constitution ordains an
immoral law, it ordains disunion. The law is suicidal, and cannot be
obeyed. The Union is at an end as soon as an immoral law is
enacted. And he who writes a crime into the statute-book digs under
the foundations of the Capitol to plant there a powder-magazine, and
lays a train.
I pass to say a few words to the question, What shall we do?
1. What in our federal capacity is our relation to the nation?
2. And what as citizens of a state?
I am an Unionist as we all are, or nearly all, and I strongly share
the hope of mankind in the power, and therefore, in the duties of the
Union; and I conceive it demonstrated,—the necessity of common
sense and justice entering into the laws. What shall we do? First,
abrogate this law; then, proceed to confine slavery to slave states,
and help them effectually to make an end of it. Or shall we, as we
are advised on all hands, lie by, and wait the progress of the
census? But will Slavery lie by? I fear not. She is very industrious,
gives herself no holidays. No proclamations will put her down. She
got Texas and now will have Cuba, and means to keep her majority.
The experience of the past gives us no encouragement to lie by.
Shall we call a new Convention, or will any expert statesman furnish
us a plan for the summary or gradual winding up of slavery, so far as
the Republic is its patron? Where is the South itself? Since it is
agreed by all sane men of all parties (or was yesterday) that slavery
is mischievous, why does the South itself never offer the smallest
counsel of her own? I have never heard in twenty years any project
except Mr. Clay’s. Let us hear any project with candor and respect.
Is it impossible to speak of it with reason and good nature? It is really
the project fit for this country to entertain and accomplish. Everything
invites emancipation. The grandeur of the design, the vast stake we
hold; the national domain, the new importance of Liberia; the
manifest interest of the slave states; the religious effort of the free
states; the public opinion of the world;—all join to demand it.
We shall one day bring the States shoulder to shoulder and the
citizens man to man to exterminate slavery. Why in the name of
common sense and the peace of mankind is not this made the
subject of instant negotiation and settlement? Why not end this
dangerous dispute on some ground of fair compensation on one
side, and satisfaction on the other to the conscience of the free
states? It is really the great task fit for this country to accomplish, to
buy that property of the planters, as the British nation bought the
West Indian slaves. I say buy,—never conceding the right of the
planter to own, but that we may acknowledge the calamity of his
position, and bear a countryman’s share in relieving him; and
because it is the only practicable course, and is innocent. Here is a
right social or public function, which one man cannot do, which all
men must do. ’Tis said it will cost two thousand millions of dollars.
Was there ever any contribution that was so enthusiastically paid as
this will be? We will have a chimney-tax. We will give up our
coaches, and wine, and watches. The churches will melt their plate.
The father of his country shall wait, well pleased, a little longer for his
monument; Franklin for his, the Pilgrim Fathers for theirs, and the
patient Columbus for his. The mechanics will give, the needle-
women will give; the children will have cent-societies. Every man in
the land will give a week’s work to dig away this accursed mountain
of sorrow once and forever out of the world.[134]
Nothing is impracticable to this nation, which it shall set itself to do.
Were ever men so endowed, so placed, so weaponed? Their power
of territory seconded by a genius equal to every work. By new arts
the earth is subdued, roaded, tunnelled, telegraphed, gas-lighted;
vast amounts of old labor disused; the sinews of man being relieved
by sinews of steam. We are on the brink of more wonders. The sun
paints; presently we shall organize the echo, as now we do the
shadow. Chemistry is extorting new aids. The genius of this people,
it is found, can do anything which can be done by men. These thirty
nations are equal to any work, and are every moment stronger. In
twenty-five years they will be fifty millions. Is it not time to do
something besides ditching and draining, and making the earth
mellow and friable? Let them confront this mountain of poison,—
bore, blast, excavate, pulverize, and shovel it once for all, down into
the bottomless Pit. A thousand millions were cheap.
But grant that the heart of financiers, accustomed to practical
figures, shrinks within them at these colossal amounts, and the
embarrassments which complicate the problem; granting that these
contingencies are too many to be spanned by any human geometry,
and that these evils are to be relieved only by the wisdom of God
working in ages,—and by what instrument, whether Liberia, whether
flax-cotton, whether the working out this race by Irish and Germans,
none can tell, or by what sources God has guarded his law; still the
question recurs, What must we do? One thing is plain, we cannot
answer for the Union, but we must keep Massachusetts true. It is of
unspeakable importance that she play her honest part. She must
follow no vicious examples. Massachusetts is a little state: countries
have been great by ideas. Europe is little compared with Asia and
Africa; yet Asia and Africa are its ox and its ass. Europe, the least of
all the continents, has almost monopolized for twenty centuries the
genius and power of them all. Greece was the least part of Europe.
Attica a little part of that,—one tenth of the size of Massachusetts.
Yet that district still rules the intellect of men. Judæa was a petty
country. Yet these two, Greece and Judæa, furnish the mind and the
heart by which the rest of the world is sustained; and Massachusetts
is little, but, if true to itself, can be the brain which turns about the
behemoth.
I say Massachusetts, but I mean Massachusetts in all the quarters
of her dispersion; Massachusetts, as she is the mother of all the New
England states, and as she sees her progeny scattered over the face
of the land, in the farthest South, and the uttermost West. The
immense power of rectitude is apt to be forgotten in politics. But they
who have brought the great wrong on the country have not forgotten
it. They avail themselves of the known probity and honor of
Massachusetts, to endorse the statute. The ancient maxim still holds