1-3advanced Dairy Processing Technologies

Federal Technical and Vocational Training Institute: Faculty of Agro-processing
Technology
Advanced Dairy Processing Technologies (DPTe 572); Cr. Hr.

4(3+1)
Introduction: World dairy sector overview

Milk is one of most produced and valuable agricultural commodities
worldwide and it is almost entirely derived from cattle, buffaloes, goats,
sheep and camels.
Global share of fresh milk production

2.3 1.3
0.4
Cattle 13.3
Buffaloes
Goats 82.7
Sheep
Global milk production

• Cattle
• 75% of milk production in sub-Saharan Africa
• 60% in Asia
• Nearly all in Latina America
• Almost all milk in developed countries
• Milk comes from other dairy species are buffaloes, goats, sheep and
camels
• 25% in developing countries
• 40% in Asia
• 25% in Africa
• 0.5% in the America
• More than 264 million dairy cows’ worldwide, produces 827
million tonnes in 2019 → 906 in 2020 → 928 in 2021, which is
1 Department of Meat and Dairy Processing Technology
Prepared By: Abebe Bereda (PhD): Lecture note
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valued at USD 328 billion. The global average for milk production
is approximately 2,200 litres per cow. India is the largest producer of
milk followed by the USA, China, Pakistan and Brazil
Milk consumption
• The per capita consumption of milk
❖ Ethiopia: 19 lit/yr???
❖ Kenya: 98.64 lit/yr
❖ Sudan: 180 lit/yr
❖ Africa : 26 lit/yr
❖ World: 111.3 lit/yr
❖ WHO: 200 lit/yr
• WHY per capita consumption of milk in Ethiopia is low?
Health benefits of milk

Consumption of milk and milk products are numerous health benefits.
Bone and teeth health: Calcium, phosphorous, magnesium and protein
are all essential for healthy bone and teeth growth and
development. Adequate milk consumption from early childhood and
throughout life can help to make the bones strong and protect them against
diseases like osteoporosis in later life. Casein protein is protective as it
forms a thin film on the enamel surface which prevents loss of calcium and
phosphate from the enamel when the teeth are exposed to acids in the
mouth.
Blood pressure: An increasing number of studies suggested that
consuming 3 portions of dairy each day, along with 5 portions of fruit and
vegetables as part of a low salt diet can reduce high blood pressure in both
adults and children.
Cardiovascular disease: Several studies have linked milk consumption
with a reduced risk for cardiovascular disease due to high calcium intake
may reduce high levels of bad cholesterol in the blood, and increase low

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levels of good cholesterol both of which are known risk factors for
cardiovascular disease.
Obesity: Contrary to popular belief, research has shown that people who
consume dairy foods are likely to be slimmer than those who do
not. Studies have also shown that consumption of dairy foods as part of a
calorie controlled diet is associated with increased weight loss, particularly
from the abdomen. This is particularly beneficial since excess fat around
the trunk region of the body is associated with greater risks to health.
Cancer: There is considerable evidences suggested that milk has a
protective effect on risk of both colorectal and breast cancers with increased
intakes. A recent study of 45,000 Swedish men reported that men who
drank 1.5 glasses of milk per day or more, had 35% lower risk of the
disease than those who had a low milk intake of less than 2 glasses per
week. In addition, a study of over 40,000 Norwegian women found that
those who drank milk as children and continued to do so as adults, had a
lower risk of developing breast cancer. Calcium and a naturally occurring
fat in dairy products known as Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) have been
suggested as protective components in colon cancer.
Composition and chemistry of milk

• Total Milk Solids - fat plus solids-not-fat (SNF)
• SNF - total solids content minus the fat content
☞ SNF consists of proteins, lactose, minerals, enzymes and vitamins.
• Plasma (skim milk) - milk minus fat
• Serum (whey) - plasma minus casein micelles
• Milk is white-yellowish fluid secreted from female mammals to feed

the new-born, and to meet the complete nutritional and physiological
requirements
Milk is the most nearly nature perfect food. Milk is a complex biological
fluid consisting of over 100,000 different molecules in several state of

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dispersion but most of has not been identified. Major components of milk
protein, fat, lactose and minerals can be separated and isolated from milk
relatively easily. Emulsion - A homogeneous dispersion of two dissimilar
immiscible liquid phases or a suspension of droplets of one liquid in another.
Milk - If oil is dispersed in water, milk is an emulsion of oil-in-water (o/w).
Butter - If water is dispersed in oil, butter is an emulsion of water-in-oil
(w/o) = PHASE INVERSION. Colloidal phase - The portion of milk
containing dispersed particles ranging in diameter from 10–4 to 10–6 mm.
Collodial solution: when matter exists in a state of division intermediate
to true solution (e.g. sugar in water) and suspension (e.g. chalk in water)
it is said to be in colloidal solution or suspension. In milk the whey proteins
are in colloidal solution and the casein in colloidal suspension. True
solutions: Matter when mixed with water or other liquids, forms true
solutions. The true solution contains lactose, vitamins, acids, enzymes, and
some inorganic salts. Size of the particle in milk 10–6 to 10–7 mm diameter
What is clean milk

❖ Milk is the whole and clean lacteal secretion of one or more healthy
cows
❖ Milk with good taste and flavor
❖ Free from foreign materials
❖ Less number of bacteria and the bacteria should not be harmful
❖ Milk is excluding 15 days before and 5 days after calving

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Composition of total solid in whole milk
Table. Composition of cow milk in different mammals
Source of milk Water Fat Lactose Protein Minerals
Human 87.6 4.5 7.0 1.0 0.2
Cow 87.3 3.7 4.8 3.5 0.7
Sheep 81.7 7.2 4.8 4.6 0.8
Goat 87.3 4.1 4.7 3.6 0.8
Camel 87.2 4.2 4.1 3.7 0.9
Donkey 89.3 1.4 6.7 2.0 0.5
Horse 89.4 1.7 6.2 2.2 0.5
Physical properties of milk

The major physical properties of milk are color, pH, specific gravity, freezing
point and boiling point. These are influenced by the composition of milk.
They are also a great help in the processing and testing of milk for
adulteration.
The color of milk: The color of milk is perceived by consumers to be
indicative of purity of milk. Its white color is due to scattering of light by
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the inherent ultramicroscopic particles such as fat globules, colloidal casein

micelles and calcium phosphate. The yellowish/golden color due to carotene
(Vitamin A) of the fat in the milk. The bluish color of whey due to riboflavin
(B2)
pH value of the milk: It tells us whether the milk is acidic or alkaline. The
pH of normal milk is 6.8. Milk pH is also an indication of milk hygiene, for
example, the pH values higher than 6.8 indicates mastitic milk and the pH
values below 6.6 indicates increased acidity of milk due to bacterial
multiplication.
Specific gravity of milk: Milk is heavier than water because it contains many
constituents their SG are greater than water. The density of the milk
depends on its temperature and its composition (Fat and SNF). The specific
gravity of milk measured at 20oC is normally 1.026 – 1.032 kg/litre or (26–
32 on the lactometer reading).
• For instance,
❖ Water = 1.00 Fat = 0.93
❖ Protein = 1.35 Lactose = 1.67
❖ Salts = 4.12 SNF = 1.60
• If the To of the milk is different from 20 ºC, use correction factor:
❖ For each ºC above the calibration temperature, add 0.2 units
to the observed lactometer reading
❖ For each ºC below the calibration temperature, subtract 0.2
units from the observed lactometer reading
• Formula of specific gravity of milk (SG):
SG = (Lactometer reading) + 1
1000
Freezing point of milk: FP helps to determine the presence and the

amount of water added to the milk. The FP for whole milk is -0.540°C,

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(range from –0.520 to –0.560°C). The FP of water is 0°C. Each increase in

FP of 0.005°C from -0.540°C towards zero equates to the addition of about
1% water to the milk. This test is highly sensitive and even a very small
amount of added water is easily detected.
Boiling point of milk: Milk boils at 100.170C, while water boils at 1000C.
A thermometer is used for measuring the boiling point. Elevation of the
boiling point is based on the principles as depression of freezing point.
However, for detecting added water, the freezing point method is far
superior on the grounds of accuracy.
Chemical properties of milk

• Water is the principal constituent of milk
❖ Advantages of high portion water in milk
▪ Responsible for milk in liquid state
▪ It dissolves the other components keep then in suspension or
in solution or it is the carrier of all other constituents
▪ It meets the water requirements of infants
❖ Disadvantage of high portion water in milk
▪ High proportion of water in milk is responsible perishable
nature of the milk – reduce shelf life
Milk fat
• The primary purpose of milk fat is to provide a source of energy to
the newborn calf. It contributes 49% of the energy of whole milk
• It is responsible for the desirable flavour and texture attributes of
many dairy products. Milk fat is 98% triacylglycerols.
Table. Main class of bovine milk lipids

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The fat in milk occurs in microscopic globules/ spherical droplets. The

globules are dispersed in the plasma (oil/fat-in-water emulsion). The
globules vary in size from 0.1 to 22 µm in diameter, the average size of 3 -
4 µm (1 µm = 0.001mm). There are 15 billion globules exist per ml of milk.
Each globule is surrounded by a thin double membrane - the fat globule
membrane (FGM) only 5 – 10 nm thick (1 nm = 10–6 mm). The FGM consists
of protein, phospholipids, nucleic acids, enzymes and number of other
compounds. FGM acts as the emulsifying agent, helping to keep the fat
globules dispersed in the milk plasma. The membrane protects the fat from
enzymes and prevents the globules coalescing or joining each other. The
milk fat is present in the form of an oil-in-water emulsion that can be broken
by mechanical action such as shaking. Fat globules are largest and lightest
(density at 20°C = 0.93 g/cm3) particles in the milk. The fat globules tend
to rise to the surface when milk is left to stand in a vessel. Milk fat is liquid
when milk leaves the udder at 37 °C.
Milk contains about 400 FA. Milk fat characterized by the number of carbon
atoms, and the number of double bonds. Milk fat is made up of 65%
saturated, 32% monounsaturated, and 3% polyunsaturated fatty acids.
• Three groups of FA can be distinguished
❖ Short-chain fatty acids (C4–C8) = 7%

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❖ Medium-chain fatty acids (C10–C14) = 15–20%

❖ Long-chain fatty acids (C16 or higher) = 73–78%
The functional properties of milk fat are attributed to its fatty acid make-
up
• The melting point and hardness of the fatty acid are affected by the
length of the carbon chain and the degree of unsaturation.
❖ As chain length increases, melting point increases.
❖ Fat with a high content of high-melting fatty acids, such as
palmitic acid, will be hard butter
❖ As the degree of unsaturation increases, the melting point
decreases.
❖ Fat with a high content of low-melting oleic acid makes soft
butter.
Fats composed of short-chain or unsaturated fatty acids have low
melting points and are liquid at room temperature. Fats high in long-chain
saturated fatty acids have high melting points and are solid at room
temperature. The four most abundant fatty acids in milk are myristic,
palmitic, stearic and oleic acids. The first three are solid and the last one is
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liquid at room temperature. Butterfat is a mixture of fatty acids with

different melting points and therefore does not have a distinct melting
point. Butterfat melts gradually over a temperature range of 0 to 40°C,
some of the fat is liquid and some solid at temperatures between10 and
20°C. The ratio of solid to liquid fat at the time of churning influences the
rate of churning, the yield and quality of butter. Milk fats readily absorb
flavours, e.g. butter made in a smoked gourd has a smoky flavour. Lipids
in foods are subject to two forms of deterioration that affect the flavour of
food products: Hydrolytic rancidity and Oxidative rancidity.
Hydrolytic rancidity/lipolysis: The breaking down of milk fat
(triacylglycerides) into free fatty acids by the action of lipase. C4 (butyric
acid) to C12 (lauric acid) FA in milk are the major contributors to
detectable rancidity. Factors that increase lipolysis: Homogenization,
Pumping, Foaming and Temperature manipulation. Pasteurization
(72.8°C/15 sec) inactivates lipase
Oxidative rancidity: Caused by oxidation (involving oxygen) of
unsaturated fatty acids - mainly oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids -
resulting in the production of volatile aldehydes, ketones and alcohols. Main
factors accelerating the rate of lipid oxidation: High temperature, Light,
Trace elements (copper, iron etc). Oxidation can be inhibited by: Exclusion
of oxygen, Refrigeration and Packaging in opaque or colored containers
Milk protein
Proteins are giant molecule made up of amino acids — more precisely, L-α-
aminocarboxylic acids. Cow’s milk contains 3.5% protein, which account for
about 38% of the total SNF. It contributes 21% of the energy of whole milk
and it provides 4 calories per g of protein. Cow’s milk protein is a
heterogenous mixture of protein. Milk contains hundreds of types of
protein, most of them in very small amounts. Nutritionally, cow’s milk
protein is considered to be high quality or complete protein because it

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contains all nine of the essential amino acids that human bodies cannot
synthesize. In many European countries, the United States (US), Canada,
Australia and New Zealand, bout 30% of dietary protein is supplied by milk
and dairy products.
Milk protein consists of casein (80%) and whey proteins (20%)

Casein protein: Casein is easily separated from milk by acid precipitation
and insoluble at about pH 4.6 and temperatures above 20°C. About 95%
of the casein in milk exists as particles of colloidal dimensions known as
micelles, which are made up of calcium phosphate and casein complexes.
The micelles are generally spherical in shape with diameters ranging from
40 to 300 nm (average about 100 nm); 1nm = 10 -6 mm, which is much
smaller than fat globules. There are 1014 - 1016 micelles/ml milk and they
are quite tightly packed. Each one micelle contains 400-500 submicelles,
bonded by calcium phosphate bridges
Casein micelles

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Caseins are high in Phosphorus and low in Sulphur. Caseins do not have an
organized structure; thus, they cannot be denatured by heating. Caseins
are heterogeneous. Bovine casein consists of four families of caseins: αs1,
αs2, β and κ - caseins, which represent about 30.6%, 8%, 30.8% and
10.1%, respectively, of whole casein. The high phosphate content of casein
allows it to associate with calcium and form calcium phosphate salts. Casein
micelles are fairly dense aggregates of sub - micelles with small regions of
calcium phosphate, which links the sub-micelles together. At normal pH of
fresh milk (6.6) casein present as insoluble Ca. caseinate phosphate
complex. Removal of calcium phosphate by acidification leads to
disintegration of the micelles. Disintegration also occurs when pH becomes
greater than 9.
The content of αs-, β- and κ-caseins is heterogeneously distributed in the

different sub-micelles. The α- and β-caseins are mainly concentrated in the
middle of the sub-micelles, while κ-casein predominates on the surface. It
has been suggested that the hydrophilic protruding chain of the κ-casein
protrudes from the surface of the sub-micelles forming a hairy layer. The
hairy layer of the κ-casein’s protruding chain is partially responsible for the
micelle’s stability through a major contribution to the negative charge of
the micelles and to their steric stabilisation. If the hairy layer is removed
by rennet – induced hydrolysis, the colloidal stability of the micelle is
destroyed and the micelles coagulate or precipitate or curd formation.
Whey protein
Remaining in solution at pH 4.6 are called whey proteins. It is heat liable.
It more heterogenous than casein. The main whey proteins of bovine milk
to total protein in mature milk comprises
❖ ß-lactoglobulin (β-Lg) = 9.8 α-lactalbumin (α-L) =3.7
❖ Immunoglobulins (Igs) = 2.1 blood serum albumin (BSA)=
1.2%

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β-Lg and α-La are synthesised in the mammary gland and are milk-specific
(they are typical whey protein, because do not come from blood). BSA,
most of the Ig (i.e., IgG) and most of the minor proteins are transferred
from the blood. High nutritional value. In addition, whey proteins consist of
minor proteins and 60 indigenous enzymes (such as lactoperoxidase,
lactotransferrin and lysozyme). About 1% of total milk protein is part of
the MFGM, including many enzymes. Most of the whey proteins are
denatured by heat, i.e. they become less soluble if milk is heated.
ß-lactoglobulin
It is the principal whey protein of the cow, goat and sheep. It accounts for
about 50% of the total whey proteins or about 10% of the total protein in
milk. No ß-lactoglobulin has been identified in human, camel and horse
milk, therefore, α-lactalbumin is the principal whey protein. Denaturation
of whey proteins and ß-lactoglobulin, in particular, is of major technological
significance. It interacts with k-casein during heating and this reduces the
heat stability of milk, slows down rennet clotting during cheese
manufacture and gives a soft curd which tends to retain water. Denaturation
of B-lactoglobulin is initiated when milk is heated to over 60 oC. Sulphur
bridges start to form between the B-lactoglobulin molecules, between one
B-lactoglobulin molecule and a k-casein molecule and between B-
lactoglobulin and alpha-lactalbumin. At high temperature sulphureous
compounds such as hydrogen sulphid are gradually released. These
sulphureous compounds are responsible for the cooked flavour of heat-
treated milk
α – lactalbumin
It represents about 20% of the protein of bovine whey (4% of the total milk
protein). It is a relatively minor protein in terms of quantity. It is present
in milk from all mammals. It plays a significant part in the synthesis of
lactose in the udder. It is the principal protein in human, camel and horse

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Immunoglobulins (Igs)/agglutinin: The immunoglobulins are

antibodies which are present in high concentrations in colostrum. Provide
passive immunity for the neonates. Five principal classes of Ig are
recognized (IgG -80%) IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE. Bovine/Blood Serum
Albumin /BSA/: About 1–2% of the protein in bovine milk is BSA. BSA
has no known biological function in milk and, considering its very low
concentration, it probably has no technological significance either. Leakage
protein
Milk lactose
It is the principal carbohydrate in milk and synthesized in the mammary
gland. It is a disaccharide composed of two sugars: glucose and galactose.
Cow’s milk contains about 4.8% lactose compared with 7% in human milk.
It accounts for 54% and 38% of the total SNF and solid content of milk,
respectively. It contributes to 30% of the energy of whole milk. It provides
4 calories per g of lactose. Lactose is attacked by lactic acid bacteria (LAB).
LAB produce an enzyme called lactase (B -galactosidase), which attacks
lactose, splitting its molecules into glucose and galactose. Other enzymes
from the LAB then attack the glucose and galactose, which are converted
into mainly lactic acid. This is what happens when the milk goes sour;
lactose is fermented to lactic acid.
In cheese making, almost all of the lactose remains in the whey fraction.
For smallholders, whey is best used as a food for humans and animals
without any further processing. Lactose is water soluble, present in solution
and is therefore more difficult to recover from milk as an isolated fraction.
Lactose is not as sweet as other sugars; it is about 30 times less sweet
than cane sugar. Lactose is responsible for enzymes deficiency syndromes:
lactose intolerance. Lactose intolerance is caused by deficiency of intestinal
lactase, resulting in discomfort (cramps, gas and diarrhoea) in the digestive
tract upon indigestion of milk products.

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• The problems of caused by lactose intolerance can be avoided:

❖ Excluding lactose-containing products from the diet
❖ Removing lactose from milk – for example ultrafiltration
❖ Hydrolysis of the lactose by adding-by-adding β-galactosidase
at the factory or in the home
Minerals
Twenty-two minerals are considered as essential to human nutrition are
present in milk. Minerals can be macro (major) and micro (trace minerals).
The major inorganic salts are calcium, phosphorous, sodium, potassium
and magnesium. Trace elements such as iron, copper, manganese, iodine
and zinc are also present in milk. K and Ca salts are the most abundant in
normal milk. They are essential in the formation of bones and teeth of
growing children. Milk is deficient in iron; an exclusive milk diet may cause
anemia due to iron deficiency. Total concentration less than 1% or cows’
milk contains ∼0.75 g 100 g-1 ash. Minerals salts occur in solution in milk
serum or in casein compounds.
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic substances, which occur in very small concentrations
in both plants and animals. They are essential to normal life process. Milk
contains many vitamins (fat soluble and water soluble). Vitamins are
unstable and processing can therefore reduce the effective vitamin content
of milk.

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Enzymes
Like all other foods of plant or animal origin, bovine milk contains several
indigenous enzymes, which are constituents of the milk as secreted.
Indigenous or exogenous enzymes play very important roles in food
processing, quality and stability. Microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts, and
molds) that grow in milk or on dairy products secrete extracellular
enzymes. Milk contains 60 different indigenous enzymes and have
technological importance, of which 20 studied in depth/detail. The first milk
enzyme reported in 1881 was lactoperoxidase.
The significance of milk enzymes
❖ Some of enzyme may cause spoilage/deterioration of milk e.g.
lipoprotein lipase and plasmin, somatic cell proteinases
❖ Some have antibacterial properties e.g. lysozyme and
lactoperoxidase
❖ Some serve as markers of mastitis and quality e.g. catalase
❖ Some serve as markers of heat treatment and safety or quality e.g.
alkaline phosphatase, lactoperoxidase and catalase
❖ Enzymes are either associated with milk FGM (e.g Alkaline
phosphatase), skim milk fraction (catalase) and micelles of casein
(plasmin and lipoprotein lipase).

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Two factors influence the enzymatic action are To & pH:- Enzymes are
most active in optimum temperature range between 25 and 50 oC and
Enzymes also have their optimal pH ranges, some function best in acidic
solution, and others in an alkaline environment.
Catalase splits hydrogen peroxide into water and free oxygen. Its activity
is higher in mastitic milk and colostrum than in normal milk. The activity
of the enzyme increases with increase in bacterial numbers. In fresh milk
from a healthy udder contains only an insignificant amount. Many bacteria
also produce this kind of enzyme. Catalase is destroyed by heating at 75°C
for 60 seconds. pH ~ 7
Lactoperoxidase is an enzyme, which is naturally present in fresh raw milk

(30mg/l ). It has no antibacterial effect on its own. However, the enzyme
catalyses the oxidation of the thiocyanate ion (SCN-) in the presence of
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to hypothiocyanite ion (OSCN-), which has been
proven antibacterial activity LP system has widely promoted for short term
preservative of milk in developing countries where refrigeration is scarce.
It is relatively heat stable; it is not inactivated by pasteurization (72°C x
15 seconds). However, it is destroyed when milk is heated above 80°C. The
absence of these enzyme in milk indicates that the milk has been heated
to at least 80°C. pH ~ 6.5.
Alkaline phosphatase: It splits or hydrolysis of phosphate ester into

phosphoric acid and the corresponding alcohols. It distinguishes raw milk
from pasteurized milk or absences of the enzyme indicates proper milk
pasteurization. pH ~ 9 at 37OC, relatively heat sensitive. Most of the
enzyme is in the membrane of the fat globules. The phosphatase test is
less sensitive when applied to skim milk. Inactivation of the enzyme
ensures that all of the non-spore-forming pathogenic microorganisms have

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been killed. Most of the lactic acid bacteria and Gram-negative rods have
also been killed.
Lipoprotein lipase is the principal lipase in milk and originates from

blood. It splits fat into glycerol and free fatty acids (FF), excess FF in milk
and its product result in a rancid taste and soapy bitter. pH ~ 9 at 37 oC,
heat liable. Present in all raw milk ( ~ 1 mg/l). Inactivated by pasteurization
temperature as a result it cannot causes lipolysis in milk or dairy products
after pasteurization.
Plasmin: The major indigenous proteinase (proteolytic enzymes) in milk.

Plasmin is active at 37oC and pH ~ 8. It is originated from the mammal’s
blood. It attacks both B-casein (the most susceptible) and alpha (S2) casein
protein. It may also play a role in the cheese ripening and flavor
development of certain cheeses such as Swiss cheese. It is inactive 80 oC
and 10 minutes.
Milk processing
Advantages
• To increase the shelf life of the products
• To diversify the product (the demand of fresh milk may be limited)
• The daily amount of fresh milk for sale is limited
• Absence of market for fresh milk nearby
• Greater financial gain may be obtained
• To avoid lactose intolerance
• Generate employment
• Improve quality and safety
In most countries clarification, pasteurisation, homogenization and chilling
are compulsory stages in the processing of consumer milk products
❖ Separation: separating the cream phase from the milk
❖ Standardization: standardizing the cream to the desired fat content

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❖ Heat treatment: heating the cream to increase its shelf-life, is

universal to almost all industrially processed products.
❖ Homogenization: it is applied only to certain cream products and
yoghurt to improve the product properties
• Cream can be separated by gravitational or centrifugal separation.

Gravitational methods
• Cream was originally separated from whole milk by gravity
• The milk allowed to stand for certain period the fat globules rises to
surface and forming a cream layer.
• This can be done in either of two ways: Shallow pan and Deep
setting
Shallow pan: Preferably fresh cow milk is
poured into a shallow pan with 40 to 60 cm
in diameter and 10 cm deep. The pan should
be placed in a cool place. After 36 hours
practically all of the fat capable of rising to
the surface, and the cream is skimmed off
with a spoon or ladle. The skim milk
usually contains about 0.5 to 0.6% fat
Deep setting: Preferably from fresh

cow milk is poured into a deep can
of small diameter. The can is placed
in cool place. After 24 hours the
skim milk is removed through a
tap at the bottom of the can.

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Under optimum conditions, the fat

content of the skim milk averages
about 0.2 or 0.3%.
Centrifugal separation
Gravitational separation is slow and inefficient. Centrifugal separation is
quicker and more efficient leaving less than 0.1% fat in the skim milk
compared to 0.5 - 0.6% after gravitational separation. It also allowed
removal or recovery of cream in a fresh state. It requires a simple machine
called a centrifuge. The centrifuge can be driven/rotated by hand or by an
electric motor.
• Milk is placed in a bowl, which is then rotated.
o When it rotates, the heavier portion (the skim milk) moves to
the outside, and the lighter portion (cream) moves towards the
center of the bowl.
o Therefore, the two portions can be separated.
• The speed of rotation can vary from 2000 rpm in small manual
separators to 20,000 rpm in large electric separators.
Efficiency of separation is influenced mainly by four factors: The speed of
the bowl, Residence time in the bowl, Temperature and The size of the fat
globules
Speed of the separator: Reducing the speed of the separator to 12 rpm
less than the recommended speed results 12% fat remaining in the skim
milk (that means high fat losses)
Residence time in the separator: Overloading the separator reduces the
time that the milk spends in it and consequently reduces skimming
efficiency. However, operating the separator below capacity gives no special
advantages, which means it doesn’t increase the skimming efficiency
appreciably but increases the time needed to separate a given quantity of
milk.

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Temperature: Freshly drawn or uncooled milk is ideal for skimming. If the

milk is too cold (below 22°C), some of the fat becomes solid, and skimming
efficiency is greatly reduced. Therefore, milk must be heated to 45°C
liquefy the fat, which gives the best skimming efficiency.
The size of the fat globules: The larger the size of fat globules is the
better the skimming efficiency. The size of the globules is determined by
the breed and by the stage of the lactation. Towards the end of the lactation
the fat globules tend to become smaller, hence the skimming efficiency is
reduced.
Milk standardization
The purpose of standardization is to manufacture products of a defined and
guaranteed fat content. The Gerber test was normally used to determine
the fat content of the product. Nowadays, direct in-line standardization is
usually combined with separation, and equipment that automatically
monitors and controls the fat content of cream or other products used for
standardization. The usual method of making standardization calculations
is the Pearson’s Square technique. Draw a square and write the desired fat
percentage in the standardized product at its center and write the fat
percentage of the materials to be mixed on the upper and lower left-hand
corners. Subtract diagonally across the square the smaller from the larger
figure and place the remainders on the diagonally opposite corners. The
figures on the right-hand corners indicate the ratio in which the materials
should be mixed to obtain the desired fat percentage.
In this example, the fat content of

•
whole milk is to be reduced to 3.0%,
using skim milk produced from some of
the whole milk.
21 Department of Meat and Dairy Processing
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Using Pearson’s Square, it can be seen
that for every 2.9 litres of whole milk,
Prepared By: Abebe Bereda (PhD): Lecture 0.6
notelitres of skim milk must be added.
Technology
Pasteurization
• Pasteurization is a heat treatment aimed at reducing the number of
harmful microorganisms
• Pasteurization can be carried out
❖ Batch operation (batch pasteurization) with the product heated and
held in an enclosed tank, 63°C for 30 min
❖ Continuous operation (HTST pasteurization) with the product heated
in a heat exchanger and then held in a holding tube for the required
time, 72°C for 15 s
• Pasteurization conditions are designed to effectively destroy the
organisms Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Coxiella burnettii.
To confirm pasteurization
• Negative test for alkaline phosphatase
• Negative for highly pasteurized milk lactoperoxidase
• The concentration of non-denatured β-lactoglobulin should be more
than 2600 mg per litre for pasteurized


1-3advanced Dairy Processing Technologies

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Federal Technical and Vocational Training Institute: Faculty of Agro-processing

Advanced Dairy Processing Technologies (DPTe 572); Cr. Hr.

Introduction: World dairy sector overview

Global share of fresh milk production

Global milk production

Health benefits of milk

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Composition and chemistry of milk

• Milk is white-yellowish fluid secreted from female mammals to feed

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What is clean milk

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Composition of total solid in whole milk

Table. Composition of cow milk in different mammals

Source of milk Water Fat Lactose Protein Minerals

Human 87.6 4.5 7.0 1.0 0.2

Cow 87.3 3.7 4.8 3.5 0.7

Sheep 81.7 7.2 4.8 4.6 0.8

Goat 87.3 4.1 4.7 3.6 0.8

Camel 87.2 4.2 4.1 3.7 0.9

Donkey 89.3 1.4 6.7 2.0 0.5

Horse 89.4 1.7 6.2 2.2 0.5

Physical properties of milk

the inherent ultramicroscopic particles such as fat globules, colloidal casein

Freezing point of milk: FP helps to determine the presence and the

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(range from –0.520 to –0.560°C). The FP of water is 0°C. Each increase in

Chemical properties of milk

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The fat in milk occurs in microscopic globules/ spherical droplets. The

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❖ Medium-chain fatty acids (C10–C14) = 15–20%

liquid at room temperature. Butterfat is a mixture of fatty acids with

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Milk protein consists of casein (80%) and whey proteins (20%)

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The content of αs-, β- and κ-caseins is heterogeneously distributed in the

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Immunoglobulins (Igs)/agglutinin: The immunoglobulins are

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• The problems of caused by lactose intolerance can be avoided:

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Lactoperoxidase is an enzyme, which is naturally present in fresh raw milk

Alkaline phosphatase: It splits or hydrolysis of phosphate ester into

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Lipoprotein lipase is the principal lipase in milk and originates from

Plasmin: The major indigenous proteinase (proteolytic enzymes) in milk.

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❖ Heat treatment: heating the cream to increase its shelf-life, is

• Cream can be separated by gravitational or centrifugal separation.

Deep setting: Preferably from fresh

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Under optimum conditions, the fat

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Temperature: Freshly drawn or uncooled milk is ideal for skimming. If the

In this example, the fat content of

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