Journal of Food Engineering 166 (2015) 45–54

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Journal of Food Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Rheological properties and microstructure of tomato puree subject

to continuous high pressure homogenization
J. Tan, W.L. Kerr ⇑
Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Tomato puree was processed by continuous high-pressure (CHP) homogenization at 69–276 MPa, for 1–3
Received 28 January 2015 passes. Laser scattering and light microscopy showed CHP reduced the pulp particles to 10–100 lm,
Received in revised form 6 April 2015 producing smaller and more uniform particles, with processing at 276 MPa and 2 passes producing great-
Accepted 18 May 2015
est particle reduction. No differences in moisture or color were found due to different treatments. In gen-
Available online 19 May 2015
eral, G0 > G00 for all samples, suggesting a soft gel network. Both the storage modulus (G0 ) and loss modulus
(G00 ) decreased with CHP pressure. G0 decreased modestly with frequency between 0.1 and 2 Hz, and more
Keywords:
dramatically between 2 and 30 Hz, with behavior characteristic of entangled polymers. In general, yield
Tomato puree
High pressure
stress decreased with homogenization pressure, but increased with number of passes. CHP-treated sam-
Rheological properties ples had lower consistency and were less shear-thinning than the control. Repeated passes increased the
consistency of CHP samples. The results suggest CHP processing produced smaller and more uniform par-
ticles, causing a reduced level of microstructure that contributes to elastic properties at small
deformation.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction determines the rheological properties of the fluid. In addition,

Tomatoes are one of the world’s most significant crops and are
cultivated globally. In 2012, total tomato production was esti-
mated at 161,800,000 metric tons (FAO, 2012). Tomatoes are often
consumed fresh, but several varieties are processed into tomato
sauce, soup, paste, puree, juice, ketchup and salsa. Tomatoes are
a nutritious food with substantial amounts of vitamin C and biotin,
as well as other vitamins and minerals. A 100 g serving of tomatoes
typically has 1.5 g of fiber, with 90% of this as insoluble fiber.
Tomatoes also contain several phytonutrients including lycopene
and other carotenoids, as well as flavonols and hydrocinnamic
acids. Several studies have investigated the benefits of tomatoes
in reducing the risk of heart disease, improving bone health, and
decreasing the risk of cancer. The role of tomato products in reduc-
ing the risk of prostate cancer has received particular attention,
especially as it relates to lycopene, b-carotene and b-tomatine
(Giovannucci, 1999; Etminan et al., 2004; Kirsh et al., 2006).
To make flowable products, tomatoes are subject to crushing or
other particle size reduction steps. The crushed tomato is typically
sent through a pulper and finisher, which are rotary sieves that
remove overly large pieces. The size and shape of the resulting
particles, along with the final solids content of the mixture,
⇑ Corresponding author.
tomatoes are usually thermally processed during chopping in
hot- or cold- break processes. This inhibits enzymes that would
cause the tomato solids to gel or aggregate, thus preventing lumpi-
ness and promoting homogeneity.
Products intended for ketchup, purees or sauces may also
undergo a homogenization step to further reduce particle size, bet-
ter mix components and enhance product stability. In this context,
high-pressure homogenization involves metering the product
through a small orifice between the homogenizer valve and valve
seat, at pressures between 10 and 70 MPa. Thakur et al. (1995)
found that the consistency of homogenized tomato juice increased
with pressures up to 3000 PSI (20.7 MPa), although the amount of
the change depended on whether the juice was hot- or cold- pro-
cessed. The combined effects of turbulence, cavitation and shear
help disrupt tissue pieces, forming smaller clusters of cells. This
occurs primarily by separating the pieces along the cell walls
(Stang et al., 2001).
In recent years, there have been several studies on the effects of
very high pressure on the particle size, physical properties and
microbiological status of fruit and vegetable based liquids. In
hydrostatic high pressure processing (HPP), products are sealed
in flexible pouches, placed within a sealed chamber, and subject
to pressures of 200–800 MPa as delivered by surrounding water.
For liquid foods, continuous high pressure (CHP) processing has
also been studied. This is an extension of conventional

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2015.05.025
0260-8774/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
46 J. Tan, W.L. Kerr / Journal of Food Engineering 166 (2015) 45–54
homogenization, and uses specialized pumps and valves to achieve
operating pressures up to 400 MPa. Thus, fluid foods can be pro-
cessed in a continuous manner.
In early studies, hydrostatic pressure was used to process
non-heated tomato juice contained in polyethylene pouches at
pressures of 500–900 MPa (Porretta et al., 1995). Processed juice
had lower counts of bacteria, yeast and molds than control. Juice
viscosity increased with pressure, and the authors noted that very
high pressures gave rise to a jelly-like translucent structure. While
color was improved, the HPP products were found to be rancid and
inedible. Hernandez and Cano (1998) found that combined HPP
(50–500 MPa) and heating could reduce 32.5% of the pectin methy-
lesterase (PME) in tomato puree, and up to 25% of the peroxidase.
Overly high pressures, such as 335–500 MPa for PME, caused acti-
vation of enzymes. Others have studied the effects of HPP on the
extractability of carotenoids of tomato pulp puree (Garcia et al.,
2001). While no effects were found on the extractability of carote-
noids, water binding was enhanced after HPP and the rate of glu-
cose diffusion through dialysis tubing was reduced. Rodrigo et al.
(2007) studied the changes in color of HPP tomato puree, pro-
cessed for 60 min at 65 °C and between 300 and 700 MPa. No
degradation in color was measured for the combined thermal
and high pressure processing. Verlent et al. (2006) measured some
rheological properties of tomato homogenates. When processed at
60 °C, they found that the consistency decreased when processed
at pressure up to 300 MPa. At higher pressure (500 MPa), the
homogenates had higher consistency, but did begin to develop a
soft-gel translucent structure. Researchers have found that static
high pressure treatments did not greatly affect the color of tomato
puree or strawberry juice, implying that the lycopene or antho-
cyanins were not greatly lost during the process (Rodrigo et al.,
2007).
As with traditional homogenization, continuous high-pressure
processing contributes substantial shear and turbulence to the
fluid, and thus provides greater opportunity for tissue disruption.
Corbo et al. (2010) used high-pressure homogenization as a means
to control the growth of molds in tomato juice. They found that the
levels of Fusarium oxysporum decreased somewhat with pressure
between 30 and 150 MPa, and could be eliminated after three
passes in the homogenizer. Colle et al. (2010) examined the effects
of high-pressure homogenization (8.4–132 MPa) on tomato pulp
microstructure and the amount and bioaccessibility of lycopene.
They found that increasing pressure caused a breakdown of tomato
cell aggregate structures and had no effect on total lycopene, but
enhanced the in vitro bioaccessibility of lycopene. CHP homoge-
nization has also been investigated as a means to form very fine
emulsions. Qian and McClements (2011) made emulsions of corn
oil/octadecane in glycerol solutions, using a microfluidizer. They
found that both higher pressure and multiple passes contributed
to the reduction of particle size, with particles attained on the
order of 116–240 nm. Yuan et al. (2008) were able to obtain parti-
cles of b-carotene in the range 113–168 nm at pressures between
60 and 140 MPa. Lopez-Sanchez et al. (2011a) studied the proper-
ties of olive oil emulsions prepared with comminuted carrot and
tomato material.
The rheological properties of tomato purees are critical to the
product as they determine sensory properties such as mouthfeel
and perceived consistency, how easily consumers can cause the
puree to flow, and the design of equipment used to process the
puree (Herch et al., 2000). The rheological properties are deter-
mined by the level of tomato solids (both insoluble and soluble),
the particle size and shape of tomato tissue pieces, and the degree
to which molecules such as pectin or hemicellulose are dissociated
from the cells. In the simplest case, the consistency and flow of
tomato puree under specified conditions of shear rate, shear stress
and temperature are of interest (McKenna, 2003). More in depth
tests include small strain ramps to identify yield stresses at which
the material begins to flow, or dynamic oscillatory tests to study
the viscoelastic properties of the colloidal suspension and how
these vary with temperature or frequency (Tabilo-Munizaga and
Barbosa-Cánovas, 2005).
A few studies have examined the effects of very high-pressure
homogenization on the flow properties of food materials, although
these have been mostly for formulated emulsions. For example,
Floury et al. (2002) showed that CHP processing could convert soy-
bean protein-stabilized emulsions from Newtonian liquid emul-
sions into shear-thinning emulsion gels. Lopez-Sanchez et al.
(2011a) studied emulsions produced with 5% olive oil and com-
minuted carrot/tomato blends. They found that pressures of 10
and 100 MPa, as well as multiple cycles of homogenization, had
significant effects on both particle size and viscoelastic properties
of the blends. Mert (2012) studied high pressure microfluidization
up to 200 MPa and its effect on lycopene in ketchup. That work
used lower pressures than presented here, and with a single pass
through the system. In addition, the microfluidizer uses a substan-
tially different valve system than in this study.
There has been considerable interest in using physical processes
to modify the properties of food ingredients. CHP homogenization
has shown promise for altering the size of suspended solid or liq-
uid particles, modifying product rheological properties, and affect-
ing the sensory properties of the food material. The purpose of this
study was to investigate the use of CHP for modifying the structure
and rheological properties of tomato puree. This included the use
of single pass homogenization at pressures not previously studied
(up to 275 MPa), as well as several passes through the CHP system.
The rheological properties studied included shear rate dependency
of viscosity, static yield stress and dynamic measurements of stor-
age and loss moduli as a function of frequency. In addition, color
and particle size was assessed, and changes in the tomato tissue
during processing were examined through light microscopy.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Roma tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum L.) were purchased in
23 kg boxes from a local market in Athens, Georgia. The tomatoes
were at Stage 6 ripeness (>90% red surface) and stored refrigerated
at 2 °C for less than 2 days prior to processing. Before further pro-
cessing, skins were removed by first immersing 11.3 kg batches
into boiling water contained in a 150 L steam jacketed kettle
(Model M-195, Legion Utensil Inc., Long Island City, NY). The toma-
toes were contained within a 35 cm  35 cm  35 cm mesh con-
tainer for 8 min and removed once the skins became loose.
2.2. Preprocessing
Softened tomatoes were loaded into a paddle pulper-finisher
(Model 185S, Langsenkamp Inc., Indianapolis, IN) to remove the
seeds and skin. The best recovery was attained with a mesh size
of 1/16 inch (1.58 mm). The discharged pulp was then subject to
a hot-break process to inactivate pectin methylesterase (PME)
and polygalacturonase (PG). The pulp was pumped by a rotary
pump (Model X5SS1PTYDGHLW, Roper Pump INC, Commerce,
GA) through a stainless coil heat exchanger (305 cm length,
8 mm ID and 10 mm OD) heated by boiling water in a steam kettle.
The puree reached a temperature of 94 °C, as measured by a K-type
thermocouple placed where the product exited the heated coil. The
puree was immediately cooled in a second stainless coil heat
exchanger immersed in an ice-water bath, allowing it to reach a
 J. Tan, W.L. Kerr / Journal of Food Engineering 166 (2015) 45–54
temperature of 40 °C. The pump operated at 720 rpm, causing the
fluid to move through the system at 300 ml/min.
2.3. Continuous high pressure homogenization
The pasteurized puree was divided into four lots (2.5 L each)
and processed in a Model nG7900 Ultra High Pressure
Homogenizer (Model nG7900, Stansted Fluid Power Ltd.) at 10,
20, 30 and 40  103 PSI (69, 138, 207 and 276 MPa). Typical fluctu-
ations about the set-point were no greater than ±10 MPa. The pro-
duct was pumped to the systems intensifiers, raising the fluid to
the target pressure. The fluid was then directed to a stainless steel
micrometering valve (Model 60vrmm4882, Autoclave Engineers,
Erie, PA). Samples were processed at the specified pressure for
either 1, 2 or 3 passes. Between each run, or between cycles, the
product was held at 7 °C. Each treatment group had at least
400 ml to be used for subsequent analyses. Processed samples
were kept at 2 °C in 500 ml Nalgene centrifuge bottles.
2.4. Moisture content
Moisture content of the puree, before and after processing, was
determined using an automated moisture analyzer (Model HR73,
Mettler Toledo, Columbus, OH)). Samples (1 g) were loaded onto
tared aluminum pans and weighed in the instrument. Moisture
content was calculated based on mass before and after drying at
95 °C in the halogen lamp system. As no subsequent evaporation
was used, the solids in the processed samples ranged from 4.6 to
5.0 g/100 g.
2.5. Particle size analysis
The particle size distribution was determined by laser diffrac-
tion using a Malvern Mastersizer (Model MSS, Malvern
Instruments Ltd.). Samples were introduced into a stirred tank
filled with water until an obscuration of 20% was reached.
Between different samples, the detector and laser were aligned
and backgrounds were calibrated. The presentation was selected
as ‘‘Standard-Wet’’ (nH2O = 1.333, nparticle = 1.5295). Particle size
was displayed in terms of the volume mean diameter (d4,3).
Cumulative percentiles d0.1, d0.5, and d0.9 were also determined,
indicating that 10%, 50% or 90% of the particles fell below the spec-
ified diameter.
2.6. Light microscopy
Microstructural features of the processed purees were assessed
using light microscopy (Model DM100S, Leica Microsystems Inc.,
Buffalo Grove IL). Samples were diluted 1:10 with distilled water,
then 250 ll was placed on a microscope slide and mixed with
125 ll of 0.01 M methylene blue. Most samples were studied with
a 10 objective and 10 eyepiece. Digital images were attained
with an 8 MP digital camera, and analyzed using the Spot
Imaging software (Sterling Heights, MI).
2.7. Rheological properties
Several rheological measurements were made on the processed
tomatoes using a hybrid rheometer (Model Discovery HR-2, TA
Instrument Inc., New Castle DE) at temperatures of 20 ± 0.1 °C.
Yield stress was determined using a static vane method. Tomato
puree samples (40 ml) were placed within the 33.7 mm diameter
sample cup. A four-bladed vane (28 mm diameter  42 mm long)
was carefully lowered into the sample. The instrument was oper-
ated under stress-control mode, with the stress gradually
increased from 0.0 to 5.0 Pa over 10 min. Plots of apparent
47
viscosity versus shear stress were made. At low stresses, the mate-
rial had relatively constant and high apparent viscosity (104 Pa s).
The yield point was taken as the stress at which the viscosity
rapidly began to decline.
Measurements of shear rate dependency were made using a
conical rotor 27.98 mm in diameter and 42.06 mm in length. In this
case, the sample cup was filled with 30 ml of sample. The sample
was sheared at rates between 0.1 and 100 s1 over a period of
15 min. Plots of shear stress versus shear rate were developed
and fitted with a variety of models. Best fits were generally
attained with a power law model:
r ¼ K c_ n ð1Þ
where K a consistency index, and n the power law index.
Viscoelastic properties were assessed using frequency-
dependent small-strain oscillatory tests. Samples were tested
using a parallel plate system 20 mm in diameter. The bottom plate
was loaded with 250 ll of sample and the top plate brought to a
1 mm gap. Dynamic strains were set to 1% and the samples mea-
sured in the range of 0.1–100 rad s1.
2.8. Color
Color was measured with a Model CR-410 chroma meter
(Konica Minolta Sensing Americas, Ramsey NJ) with D65 illumi-
nant and 10° CIE standard observer angle. Before the tests, the
chroma meter was calibrated with a standard white tile provided
the manufacturer. Samples were poured into 100  15 mm VWR
petri dishes to cover all areas to a thickness of 5 mm. All the petri
dishes were place on white print paper when tested. The data
collected by the chroma meter was displayed in L⁄ (lightness),
a⁄(red–green axes) and b⁄(yellow–blue axes) values.
2.9. Statistical methods
All tests were repeated at least three times and results and the
means and standard deviations calculated. Measurements were
compared by two-way ANOVA using SAS 9.3 (SAS Institute Inc.,
Cary NC). Factors included pressure (with levels of 69, 138, 207
or 276 MPa) and numbers of passes (1, 2 or 3). Post hoc tests for
significant differences among treatments was done using Tukey’s
HSB test. The level of significance was set at p 6 0.05.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Moisture content
Moisture content of the tomato purees after different high pres-
sure processing regimens is shown in Table 1. Neither pressure
level nor number of homogenization cycles resulted in differences
in moisture content amongst treated samples, or compared with
the unprocessed control. The average moisture content of pro-
cessed samples was 95.2 gH2O/100 g. There was some concern that
heat produced by pressure and shear effects might cause flashing
of moisture as the product exited the homogenizer. However, the
samples were rapidly cooled to 7 °C after each homogenization
step to limit evaporation and heat induced degradation of lycopene
and other desirable constituents.
3.2. Particle size distribution
Examples of the particle size distribution (PSD) following
high-pressure homogenization are shown in Fig. 1. Derived mea-
surements of average particle diameter (d4,3) and cumulative per-
centiles (d0.1, d0.5, d0.9) are shown in Table 2. Both pressure level
48 J. Tan, W.L. Kerr / Journal of Food Engineering 166 (2015) 45–54

Table 1 Table 2
Moisture content and color values for tomato puree processed at 69–276 MPa for 1–3 Mean and cumulative diameter of tomato puree as a function of CHP homogenization
passes. pressure and number of passes.

Pressure Number Moisture content L⁄ a⁄ b⁄ Pressure No. d4,3 d2,3 d0.1 d0.5 d0.9
(MPa) passes (%) (MPa) passes (lm) (lm) (lm) (lm) (lm)
Control 95.44a 56.29b 32.26b 35.56a Control 318h 216h 164i 311i 488j
69 1 95.26a 52.82a 37.01a 35.31a 69 1 153a 51.2a 31.0a 113a 337a
2 95.39a 52.36a 37.84a 35.05a 2 91.2b 26.5b 21.8b 70.5b 190b
3 95.26a 51.97a 37.91a 34.33a 3 81.2c 26.1b 21.1b 65.5c 164c
138 1 95.24a 52.84a 37.52a 35.67a 138 1 83.0c 23.9c 19.2c 63.5d 175bc
2 95.31a 52.82a 37.67a 35.55a 2 56.5e 17.5de 14.2d 46.5g 112ef
3 95.06a 52.28a 37.99a 35.52a 3 50.41ef 16.4ef 13.1e 42.7h 98.1fg
207 1 95.19a 52.59a 37.96a 35.39a 207 1 66.5d 18.4d 14.9d 51.8e 138d
2 95.18a 52.74a 38.09a 35.39a 2 46.2f 14.8f 12.6e 39.5i 88.9gh
3 95.10a 53.17a 37.64a 35.42a 3 34.3g 10.7g 9.05g 30.4j 65.0i
276 1 95.19a 52.82a 37.70a 34.98a 276 1 64.0d 17.7de 14.3d 49.7f 133de
2 95.00a 53.45a 37.07a 36.23a 2 36.7g 11.2g 10.4f 32.1j 69.6hi
3 95.01a 52.69a 37.93a 35.03a 3 31.1g 9.7g 7.82h 27.3k 60.6i
a
L⁄ – lightness on a scale from 0 (black) to 100 (white); a⁄ – values on the color axes Values in a column not followed by the same letter are significantly different at
ranging from green (100) to red (100); b⁄ – values on the color axes ranging from p < 0.05.
blue (100) to yellow (100).
a
Values in a column not followed by the same letter are significantly different at
p < 0.05.
In the CHP system, many factors influence the change in particle
size. A needle-seat micrometering valve was used in which the
pressure is determined by the force exerted on the needle blocking
and number of homogenization passes had a significant effect on the flow pathway. This creates tremendous shear stress as particles
particle size, as did the interaction between factors. As seen in speed through narrow pathways. In addition, particles impinge on
Fig. 1a, increasing pressure from 69 to 276 MPa decreased the aver- hard surfaces at relatively high velocities. Rapid changes in pres-
age mean diameter. Thus, after a single pass the mean particle sure may also create cavitation, creating bubbles in the fluid.
diameter had decreased from 318 lm to 153 lm at 69 MPa, to Fluctuating collapse of these voids create shock waves that may
83.0 lm at 138 MPa, to 66.5 lm at 207 MPa and to 64.0 lm at further disrupt particles. Finally, the high pressure and shear con-
276 MPa. There was no further reduction of particle size at pres- ditions cause heating of the fluid, which may further promote
sures higher than 207 MPa. Higher processing pressures also breakdown of particles. The diminishing effects of increased pres-
resulted in a narrower PSD. sure may be due to several reasons. First, it takes more than pro-
portionally higher pressures to force the suspension through a
narrower gap. Also, it is likely easier to disrupt clusters of many
tomato cells than to break apart small clusters and individual cells.
In addition, at sizes less than 250 lm cell wall fragments domi-
nate, and these are inherently more difficult to break apart than
adjacent cells.
Reduction in particle size with increasing pressure has also
been reported for other tomato products, although at lower
operating pressures. Augusto et al. (2012) investigated the
high-pressure homogenization of tomato juice at pressures up to
150 MPa. They found that unhomogenized control (4.5° Brix juice)
had particles in the size range 100–1000 lm. At 150 MPa, the par-
ticle size range was reduced to 10–300 lm. They also observed a
plateau at which increasing pressure resulted in only small further
changes in particle size. Homogenization pressures up to 9 MPa
decreased the particle size of ketchup (Bayod and Tornberg,
2011). For unprocessed paste, 50% of the particles were larger
than 100 lm in diameter (d3,2). After homogenization, a multi-
modal distribution of particle sizes was observed, and only 20%
of the particles were larger than 100 lm. Mert (2012) used
microfludization at up to 200 MPa to affect the properties of
ketchup. With a conventional valve homogenizer, they measured
d3,4 values of 328 lm, while microfluidization reduced d3,4 to
between 81 and 29 lm, for pressures between 120 and 200 MPa.
Similar effects on particle size have been noted for high pressure
processing of carrot dispersion, apple and citrus juice
(Lopez-Sanchez et al., 2011b; Donsì et al., 2009; Lacroix et al.,
2005).
Subsequent passes through the high-pressure homogenizer, at
the same pressure, resulted in even further reduction in particle
size (Fig. 1b). This is reflected in changes in the cumulative diam-
eters in Table 2. Thus, for control 10% of the particles had diameters
Fig. 1. Particle size distribution of tomato puree processed by continuous high-
pressure homogenization (CHP) (a) after 2 passes at 69–276 MPa, (b) after 1–3 less than 164 lm, while 90% had diameters less than 488 lm.
passes at 207 MPa. However at 207 MPa, for example, 10% had diameters less than
 J. Tan, W.L. Kerr / Journal of Food Engineering 166 (2015) 45–54
14.9 lm and 90% had diameters less than 138 lm. Hence, there
was a narrowing of the range (d0.9–d0.1) from 324 lm to 123 lm.
Most of the subsequent reduction in size was attained on the sec-
ond pass, with only a modest reduction occurring with the third
pass. For example, d4,3 decreased from 318 to 64.0 lm after one
pass at 276 MPa, to 36.7 lm after two passes, and to 31.1 lm after
the third pass. The greater number of passes also led to narrower
PSD. As both pressure and number of passes were relevant factors,
similar results might be attained by trading greater number of
passes for higher pressure. Thus, processing tomato puree at
138 MPa resulted in d4,3 of 56.5 lm after 2 passes, slightly smaller
than a d4,3 of 64.0 lm realized after 1 pass at 276 MPa.
3.3. Microstructure
Fig. 2 shows microphotographs of the tomato puree processed
at different pressures, and number of passes through the CHP
homogenizer. Most of the particulate structure of the puree con-
sists of cell fragments, and some intact cells (Bayod et al., 2007).
Most of these are relatively soft parenchymal cells associated with
the mesocarp, as much of the skin and seeds were removed in pro-
cessing. In general, changes in the microstructural features of the
puree mirrored the results of particle size analyses. Generally, high
homogenization pressures caused a reduction in particle size. Most
notably, larger elongated tissue fragments were reduced to pieces
with more uniform dimensions in all directions. At lower pressures
(69 and 138 MPa), particles were reduced in size as compared to
control, but there were still evidence of stained clusters up to
337 lm in length. At greater pressure levels (207 and 276 MPa),
much of these clusters were reduced in size. In addition, it became
more difficult to see distinct outlines of the cellular material, sug-
gesting that the cells became more disrupted and the stained
polysaccharides were less restricted. This suggests at very high
pressure, more of the cellular array was disrupted, releasing the
cell wall material into the surrounding medium.
Increasing the number of passes through the CHP system also
helped reduce overall particle size. In addition, greater number of
passes created a more uniform distribution of particle sizes.
Greater pressure and number of passes also created particles that
were both stained and had areas of translucency. As the methylene
blue stains acidic regions of the cell, and particularly nuclear mate-
rial, the appearance of more transparent matter indicates cell rup-
ture and the release of cytoplasmic or cell wall material. In
addition, for purees processed at 207 or 276 MPa, there was a
greater tendency for particles to re-associate, presumably due to
the released pectin and cell wall materials. Similar results have
been reported for tomato juice by Augusto et al. (2012) and Kudo
et al. (2013), as well as for ketchup by Mert (2012).
3.4. Rheological properties
Fig. 3 shows a plot of shear stress versus shear rate for the
unhomogenized and CHP treated samples. Data between 1 and
45 s1 were fit to a power law equation, and fitted parameters K
and n are summarized in Table 3. At shear rates below 1 s1 the
samples showed evidence of elastic behavior. That is, there was
an initial precipitous increase in shear stress, followed by a
decrease. As this was evidence of a static yield stress, this was
examined by a different method. Interestingly, including a yield
stress term (ro) in the power law model did not improve the fits.
Thus, once the elastic network was broken and flow was initiated,
the apparent viscosity was relatively low.
The consistency index (K) can be taken as the apparent viscosity
at low-shear rate (1 s1). The control had the greatest K
(3474 mPa s), and all CHP homogenized samples had significantly
lower values (538–902 mPa s). Two-way ANOVA showed that the
49
number of cycles was a significant factor for K in the CHP-treated
samples. After three passes in the homogenizer, the samples were
always more viscous than after one or two passes. Amongst the
CHP samples, those processed at the highest pressure had the low-
est K value after 1 cycle (538 mPa s), and the highest K value after
3 cycles (902 mPa s). Augusto et al. (2012) found viscosity in the
range of 500–900 mPa.s for tomato juice processed for one pass
at up to 150 MPa. However, in their case viscosity tended to be
greater for samples processed at higher pressure, as did Mert
(2012). For conventionally homogenized ketchup, the zero-shear
viscosity was on the order of 20,000–50,000 mPa s. For tomato
paste, the viscosity depended on solids concentration, ranging
from as low as 3000 mPa s to as high as 600,000 mPa s.
The power law index n was least for the control puree (0.12),
indicating greater shear-thinning behavior than for the
CHP-treated samples. While n was greater for all CHP samples
(0.28–0.39), there was no particular trend associated with pressure
or number of passes. Thixotropic properties generally occur in flu-
ids with some degree of continuous microstructure, which is dis-
rupted by a finite stress and subsequent flow field. The
associations may be due to flocculation, alignment of fibers, entan-
glements and molecular associations. Shear-thinning occurs in the
viscous flow region due to alignment of elongated particles, disrup-
tion of junction zones and break-up of flocculated particles
(Barnes, 1997). For the CHP-treated samples, the particles are
smaller and likely more spherical in nature, factors which generally
decrease thixotropy.
As noted by Augusto et al. (2011), tomato products are a
two-phase system with complicated rheology. The aqueous serum
phase contains sugars, salts, acids and some soluble polysaccha-
rides, but is by and large a Newtonian fluid. The dispersed phase
contains clusters of cells, single cells, fragmented cells or cell rem-
nants, as well as colloidally dispersed polysaccharides. The system
is best thought of as a non-colloidal dispersion, as many of the par-
ticles are above 10 lm in size. As such, the flow properties of the
material are dominated by hydrodynamic forces, and less by inter-
particle forces and Brownian motion (Genovese et al., 2007). Other
factors such as particle size distribution and shape are also impor-
tant in this regime. Of course, fruit and vegetable juice and purees
may contain particles in the noncollodial range (>10 lm) as well as
the colloidal range (1–10 lm). For the former case, the simplest
description of the relative viscosity was postulated by Einstein as
(Hiemenz and Rajagopalan, 1997):
g
gr ¼ ¼ 1 þ ½g/ ð2Þ
gs
where gs is the viscosity of the solvent and g the viscosity of the dis-
persion. According to this viewpoint, the viscosity increases as a
function of /, the relative volume fraction of particles dispersed
in the total volume. The Einstein equation holds primarily in dilute
suspensions, however. For concentrated dispersions, the Krieger–
Dougherty equation is often applied:
 ½g/m
/
gr ¼ 1  ð3Þ
/m
where /m is the maximum packing fraction of solids, and typi-
cally varies from 0.60 to 0.74, depending on the type of packing
(Genovese et al., 2007). It can be determined experimentally
through sedimentation experiments. This equation may be modi-
fied further to account for various particle shapes and deformabil-
ity, as well as interaction amongst particles.
Both microscopic and particle size analyses showed that the
suspended tomato particles were reduced in size with higher pres-
sure, or greater number of passes through the CHP system.
Concomitantly, the viscosity at low shear rates was reduced. Two
50 J. Tan, W.L. Kerr / Journal of Food Engineering 166 (2015) 45–54

Fig. 2. Photomicrographs of tomato puree after CHP processing. From top to bottom: increasing pressure from 69 MPa to 276 MPa; from left to right: increasing number of
passes (1–3).
 J. Tan, W.L. Kerr / Journal of Food Engineering 166 (2015) 45–54 51

in the range 0.63–1.0 mm were less shear-thinning than those with

Fig. 3. Shear stress versus shear rate for control () and CHP samples processed two
times at (N) 69, (}) 138, (s) 207 and (j) 276 MPa.
factors may be at play. First, in addition to volume fraction the
actual particle size and distribution also determines the viscosity.
While Equations (2) and (3) do not implicitly involve particle size,
particle size is known to influence the relative viscosity in some
cases. For example, Pavlik (2011) measured the viscosity of disper-
sions with glass particles ranging from 26 to 71 lm in diameter.
The viscosity of dispersions containing particles between 36 and
71 lm varied only slightly with / even at relatively high volume
fractions. Dispersions with 26 lm particles, however, had dis-
tinctly lower viscosity, particularly at high volume fractions.
They believed that suspensions with smaller particles generated
more open space between neighboring particles, allowing the con-
tinuous phase to flow, and producing a fluid that behaved more
like a dilute suspension that could be modeled by Einstein’s equa-
tion. There may also be differences in the maximum packing frac-
tion /m due to changes in particle size and distribution, shape or
even deformability. In addition, the CHP processing may also
reduce the actual volume fraction of particles, particularly if cells
are disrupted and disperse their contents, creating suspensions
that are more appropriately characterized as colloidal.
Some studies have reported an increase in shear-thinning prop-
erties after processing of fruit and vegetable products. Silva et al.
(2010) found an increase in shear-thinning for pineapple pulp pro-
cessed at up to 30 MPa. When processed at greater than 40 MPa,
the pulp exhibited phase separation due to increased aggregation.
Shijvens et al. (1998) used screening procedures to produce apple-
sauce with various size fractions of particles. Those with particles
particles in the range 0.35–0.63 mm or <0.35 mm. Lopez-Sanchez
et al. (2011a) studied emulsions made from vegetable oil, and
either carrot or tomato, and subject to homogenization pressures
of 10 or 100 MPa. They found that samples processed at the higher
pressure were more shear-thinning than those processed at lower
pressure. In our case, processed samples were less shear-thinning
than unprocessed pulp, but there were no clear differences
amongst samples processed at different pressures and number of
passes. Any differences between this study and other researches
may be due to the greater homogenization pressures used here,
different microstructural features (e.g. dispersed pulp versus emul-
sions), and lower particle sizes attained in this study.
The results from yield stress measurements are shown in
Table 4. The control puree had the highest yield stress at 2.62 Pa.
All treated samples had lower yield stress, although the differences
were not large. After one pass, samples processed at 276 MPa had
the lowest yield stress (1.09 Pa), those at 138 or 207 MPa slightly
higher yield stress (1.70–1.85 Pa), and those at 69 MPa even higher
yield stress (2.26 Pa). In several cases, however, increasing the
number of passes in the CHP system led to greater yield stress than
found after 1 pass. Thus at 276 MPa, the yield stress was 1.09 Pa
after one pass, 1.69 Pa after two passes, and 2.12 Pa after three
passes.
Although the samples did have a measureable yield stress, they
were not large compared to some other food products. For exam-
ple, pancake batter has a yield stress of 10 Pa, ketchup 15 Pa, and
mayonnaise 100 Pa. Abu-Jayil et al. (2004) studied the yield stress
of tomato paste with solids content ranging from 5.57% to 25% by
weight, and found the yield stress ranged from 1.6 to 101.9 Pa.
Mert (2012) found that the yield stress of ketchup ranged from
15.1 to 20.9 Pa for samples processed by microfluidization at pres-
sures between 20 and 200 MPa. For samples processed by a con-
ventional valve homogenizer, the yield stress was only 9.4 Pa.
This highlights that the type of particle size reduction is important
to the final product properties. With microfluidization, two fluid
microstreams collide at high speed. The streams are subjected to
high shear and substantial impact forces. With the valve homoge-
nizer, the fluid is forced through an orifice created by a valve and
valve seat. This creates high turbulence and shear, as well as cavi-
tation and impact.
The role of dispersed phase properties on yield stress (ro) is not
completely understood. In fact, the term yield stress may be just a
practical designation. Certainly, some viscoelastic materials behave
elastically at stresses below the yield value (r < ro), and flow at
higher stresses (r > ro). However, most of these would likely yield

Table 3
Rheological parameters for CHP processed tomato puree at 1–45 s1 as fit by the Table 4
powerlaw model (Eq. (1)). Yield stress for tomato puree CHP processed at 69–276 MPa for 1–3 passes.

Pressure (MPa) Number passes K (s) (mPa sn) Rate index n Pressure (MPa) Number passes Yield stress (Pa)
a c
Control 3474 0.12 Control 2.62e
69 1 771bc 0.28ab 69 1 2.26a b
2 652cd 0.37ab 2 2.07b
3 750bc 0.34ab 3 2.10b
138 1 623cd 0.39ab 138 1 1.85c
2 649cd 0.36a 2 2.14b
3 868b 0.34b 3 2.27a b
207 1 584cd 0.39a 207 1 1.70c
2 869b 0.36ab 2 2.12b
3 878b 0.36ab 3 2.45a
276 1 538d 0.41a 276 1 1.09d
2 771bc 0.38ab 2 1.69c
3 902b 0.36ab 3 2.12b
a a
Values in a column not followed by the same letter are significantly different at Values in a column not followed by the same letter are significantly different at
p < 0.05. p < 0.05.
52 J. Tan, W.L. Kerr / Journal of Food Engineering 166 (2015) 45–54

stress of applesauce was greatest for particle diameter of 0.5 mm

and 100% pulp content, and least for 1.0 mm particles and 80% pulp
content. This may be an indication that increased surface area
enhanced interparticle attractive forces. Espinosa et al. (2011)
found that yield stress of apple puree increased with pulp content
and decreased with decreasing particle size. For tomato pulp, Yoo
and Rao (1994) showed that yield stress increased with solids con-
centration, but was generally greater for purees with particles sizes
0.34 mm as compared to those 0.71 mm. However, at relatively
low concentrations (11–12% by weight) purees with smaller parti-
cles had lower or no different yield stress than those with larger par-
ticles. Bayod et al. (2007) observed that homogenized tomato paste
had greater yield stress than non-homogenized paste. They attribu-
ted this to a change in the nature of the network structure.
Homogenized samples have fewer intact cells and cell clusters, and
are more fibrous in nature. In addition, homogenization creates more
surface area that may enhance interparticle forces of attraction.
Fig. 4 and Table 5 show how the complex shear moduli vary
with frequency. In all cases, the storage modulus G0 was greater
than the loss modulus G00 . Thus, at 1% strain (r  0.16 Pa), the sys-
tem behaves as an elastic solid, and might be characterized as a
soft gel network (Rao and Cooley, 1992). For the unprocessed con-
trol, the G0 at low frequency (0.1 rad/s) was 148.7 PA, while that for
all processed samples ranged from 10.9 to 21.0 Pa. A measurable
value of G0 in the viscous region is typical for dispersions and con-
centrated polymer solutions. It has been suggested that this is due
to the relative dense packing of particles, interparticle forces, and
entanglements of cells, fibers, and large colloidal molecules
(Mert, 2012). These are the same factors, of course, that contribute
to yield stress. It is worth noting that G0 at both 0.1 and 1.0 rad/s
were well correlated and decreased with particle size (d4,3). That is:

x ¼ 0:1rads1 ! G0 ¼ 0:0023  d24;3  0:315  d4;3 þ 25:9 ðr2 ¼ 0:993Þ

Fig. 4. Storage (G0 ) and loss modulus (G00 ) (a) as a function of frequency for tomato
puree processed at 207 MPa for 1–3 passes; (b) puree processed in 1 pass at 69–
276 MPa.
at r < ro given sufficient time. However, Bayod et al. (2007)
showed that tomato products deformed at r < ro maintained elas-
tic behavior for up to 30 min. In general, yield stress is greater for
systems with greater volume fraction of particles and stronger
interaction forces amongst the particles (Genovese et al., 2007).
As noted, yield stress values increased with solids concentration,
and therefore /, in tomato pastes (Mert, 2012).
The influence of particle size on yield stress is less well under-
stood, contradictory in some cases, and depends on the specific
particle range of interest. Qui and Rao (1988) reported that yield
ð4Þ
x ¼ 1:0rads1 ! G0 ¼ 0:0031  d24;3  0:486  d4;3 þ 37:1 ðr2 ¼ 0:993Þ
ð5Þ
All samples also became notably stiffer at x > 3 rad/s. Below
3 rad/s, G0 / x0.2; at x > 3 rad/s, G0 / x1.8. True gels are more
likely to have chemical bonds that hold the network, and show lit-
tle frequency dependence. The frequency dependency shown by
the tomato samples is more typical of ‘‘weak gels’’ that are held
together by physical associations. At low frequencies, some of the
structure behaves elastically, but there are still relaxation or flow
processes that can occur. At higher frequencies, the time scale is
too short for these elements to flow, and the structure as a whole
behaves more elastically. Similar behavior has been observed for

Table 5
Storage (G0 ) and loss (G00 ) moduli for CHP treated tomato puree.

Pressure (MPa) No. passes G0 at 0.1 s1 (Pa) G0 at 1 s1 rad/s (Pa) G00 at 0.1 s1 (Pa) G00 at 1 s1 (Pa) tan (d) tan (d)
Control 148.74g 199.52g 46.03e 30.21g 0.31a 0.15a
69 1 20.98a 27.97a 3.48a b 2.59a 0.17c 0.092b
2 17.12b 23.20bc 2.80bc 2.19a bc 0.17c 0.091b
3 16.86b 23.26bc 2.85bc 2.17a bc 0.17c 0.094b
138 1 16.06bc 22.03cd 2.75bc 2.00cd 0.17c 0.096b
2 16.82b 23.11bc 2.85bc 2.11bcd 0.16c 0.094b
3 15.98bc 22.33bcd 2.87bc 1.90cde 0.17c 0.091b
207 1 12.79ef 17.76ef 2.13cd 1.66de 0.18c 0.092b
2 15.36bcd 21.52cde 2.81bc 1.99cd 0.18c 0.094b
3 17.08b 26.12a b 3.86a 2.54a b 0.17c 0.093b
276 1 10.94f 15.39f 1.87d 1.48e 0.18c 0.085b
2 13.34def 18.94def 2.42cd 1.77cde 0.22b 0.097b
3 14.10cde 19.90cde 2.60cd 1.80cde 0.18c 0.091b
a
Values in a column not followed by the same letter are significantly different at p < 0.05.
 J. Tan, W.L. Kerr / Journal of Food Engineering 166 (2015) 45–54
tomato homogenates subject to static high pressure (Verlent et al.,
2006). However, tomato juice showed little viscoelastic behavior,
with G0 varying little with frequency over the range 0.01–10 rad/s.
For tomato paste, Sanchez et al. (2002) found that G0 was depen-
dent on x0.12 over the range of 0.01–100 rad/s.
G0 values shown in Table 5 are in general lower than those reported
by other researchers working on related products. Bayod et al. (2008)
studied tomato paste and ketchup with different levels of total solids
(23.42–38.75% TS). For tomato paste, G0 at 1 Hz ranged from 7124 to
10,411 Pa while for ketchup G0 ranged from 562 to 732 Pa. In our
study, however, the total solids level was much lower (5%), as were
the size of particles. For microfluidized tomato ketchup, Mert (2012)
reported an increase in G0 for pressures between 20 and 120 MPa,
and a decrease for pressures from 120 to 200 MPa.
For samples processed at 69 MPa, additional passes through the
CHP system led to a lower G0 , while at 207 or 276 MPa it led to a
greater G0 . However, at 69 MPa, additional passes reduced the par-
ticle size (d4,3) of relatively big particles from 153 to 91 and 83 lm.
At 276 MPa, after 1 pass the particle size was already 64 lm; addi-
tional passes reduced it to 37 and 31 lm. One theory is that in the
former case reducing particle size was more important to reducing
G0 by allowing these large particles to better slip pass each other
when under stress. In the latter case, the further reduction of rela-
tively small particles allowed more surface area and interaction
amongst particles, but in this case colloidal forces rather than hydro-
dynamic forces are more dominant. Another consideration is that
subsequent homogenizer passes allow greater swelling of the cell
fragments, increasing their effective phase volume in the suspension
(Lopez-Sanchez et al., 2011b; Bayod and Tornberg, 2011).
Table 5 also lists tan(d) at 1 rad/s, which is the ratio of loss to
storage modulus (G00 /G0 ). For the unprocessed control, tan(d) = 0.31.
For the CHP treated samples, tan(d) was smaller with values rang-
ing from 0.16 to 0.18 (with the exception of tan(d) = 0.22 for sam-
ples treated for 2 passes at 276 MPa). Similar results have been
reported for tomato juice (Lopez-Sanchez et al., 2011a) and other
plant products (Pickardt et al., 2004; Romana and Taylor, 1992).
This means that while the control had higher values of G0 , the vis-
cous component G00 was proportionally greater than for the pro-
cessed samples. One postulate is that while smaller particles and
less entanglements led to a reduced storage modulus, it also
resulted in a lower viscosity of the lossy component.
3.5. Color
Measured color parameters are shown in Table 1 for the differ-
ently processed tomato purees. Lightness value (L⁄) for the control
was 56.3. CHP processed samples were somewhat darker
(L⁄ = 51.9–53.2), but there were no differences in lightness
amongst the CHP treated samples. While there were no differences
in b⁄ amongst any samples, the control had slightly lower a⁄ (32.3)
as compared to any of the CHP treated samples (a⁄ = 37.1–38.1).
Thus, CHP treated samples were slightly more red in color. A pre-
vious study by Rodrigo et al. (2007) showed that no color degrada-
tion of tomato puree occurred during combined thermal and high
hydrostatic pressure treatments. This implies that lycopene, the
most abundant carotenoid in tomato and responsible for the red
color (Colle et al., 2011), was not lost during processing.
However, some studies have shown that high-pressure treatments
might reduce the storage stability of lycopene. For example, Kudo
et al. (2013) found that tomato juice treated at 75 and 100 MPa had
significant color degradation after 60 days storage.
4. Conclusions
Continuous high pressure processing of tomato puree resulted
in substantial changes in particle size and uniformity of particle
53
size distribution. The average particle size was reduced by up to
ten-fold, with sizes on the order of 30–80 lm made possible.
Although not studied in this work, this is in the size range in which
consumers no longer perceive a particulate structure. These
changes were made possible in a continuous manner, and would
not be realized with static high pressure alone. The change in size
and shape of particles in the dispersed phase also altered the rhe-
ological properties of the puree. The material was less viscous at
low shear and with a lower yield stress, but had less shear thinning
behavior. This has implications for developing products with
greater solids, as well as for pumping requirements during pro-
cessing. This may also make it easier to produce spray-dried and
similar products.
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