HRD Perspectives on Developmental

Relationships: Connecting and Relating

at Work Rajashi Ghosh
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/hrd-perspectives-on-developmental-relationships-con
necting-and-relating-at-work-rajashi-ghosh/
Co-edited by
Rajashi Ghosh · Holly M. Hutchins

HRD Perspectives
on Developmental
Relationships
Connecting and
Relating at Work
 HRD Perspectives on Developmental Relationships

“With new data, perspectives, and frameworks on workplace and community

learning and development, career transitions, organizational engagement, and
navigating and building trust in a virtual world, Rajashi and Holly bring passion,
rigor, and care to the topic of developmental relationships, a relevant and timely
contribution in global context of change and transition. Their book appeals to
multiple stakeholders across all levels and cultures—executives, academics, coach
practitioners, organizations, and governments—embodying the spirit of diversity
and inclusion.”
—Dr. Aarti Ramaswami, Professor of Management and Deputy Dean of ESSEC
Business School, Asia-Pacific

“This excellent volume enriches and expands our understanding of the power
and potency of developmental relationships. It is a “must read” for HRD scholars
and practitioners seeking to leverage the benefits of mentoring for learning and
development within and outside the workplace. By capturing a diverse range of
perspectives and topics, this prescient collection offers valuable insights not only
for the present—but also for the future. This is the right book at the right time.”
—Dr. Belle Rose Ragins, Sheldon B. Lubar Professor of Management—University
of Wisconsin-Milwaukee

“In bringing together this collection of chapters, Rajashi Ghosh and Holly
Hutchins have curated a resource that educators, learning professionals, and
organizational leaders will regularly consult to inform their practice. The chap-
ters address a range of approaches and contexts that collectively highlight the
significance of fostering developmental relationships that are so crucial for indi-
vidual and organizational health and growth. Each chapter will stimulate your
thinking, and some will challenge you to reconsider current practice and how
developmental relationships must work towards greater inclusivity. I recommend
this book for educators, students, and learning professionals at all stages of their
career.”
—Dr. Carole Elliott, Professor of Organisation Studies, Sheffield University
Management School, UK

“I thoroughly enjoyed reading this ground-breaking text! It offers conceptual

and empirical exploration to advance understanding of developmental relation-
ships within HRD scholarship and practice. I learned that this ranges from
key foci such as learning and performance, at the individual level, to broader
related phenomena, including knowledge management, employee engagement,
change, social justice, diversity and inclusion, at the group, organizational,
community and national levels, acknowledging HRD’s impact within a complex
multi-faceted ecosystem, and its many interactions/intersections. The co-editors
have carefully curated a text that encompasses various approaches within the
workplace, including informal/accidental learning, coaching and formal/informal
mentoring, and embraces other developmental networks beyond, such as family,
friends and community, as well as those related to digitalization, social media
and virtual developmental relationships (VDRs). It was fascinating to read about
emerging developmental processes, through dialogue-based, action learning,
identity work, and employee resource groups. It was interesting to read about
various activities from career development and transitions, expatriation and repa-
triation, to assessing needs and evaluating outcomes. I liked how the book
addresses issues of difference, whether colour, gender and generation, and
considers context, such as dealing with the Covid-10 pandemic and the future
of work in a more digitalized, globalized, cross-cultural environment. The book
draws on an array of research methods and theoretical lenses, including surveys,
case studies, ethnography, vignettes, narrative inquiry and feminism. The co-
editors bring together an impressive range of authors, with many highly regarded
in the field of HRD as well as exciting new voices. The chapters are well written,
with helpful tables and figures. I particularly liked the final chapter, reflecting on
how the chapters contribute to ‘connecting and relating’, and offering sugges-
tions for future research. Overall, this is a ‘must-have’ text for HRD professionals,
in general, and developers, in particular, and would be a valuable read for
developees.”
—Dr. Sally Sambrook, Professor Emerita, Bangor Business School, Bangor
University, Wales, UK
Rajashi Ghosh · Holly M. Hutchins
Editors

HRD Perspectives
on Developmental
Relationships
Connecting and Relating at Work
Editors
Rajashi Ghosh Holly M. Hutchins
Drexel University University of North Texas
Media, PA, USA Denton, TX, USA

Both Editors have contributed equally

ISBN 978-3-030-85032-6 ISBN 978-3-030-85033-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-85033-3

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.
in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for
general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-
tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither
the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 I dedicate this book to my wife, Brandy, and daughters Avery and
Charlotte, who continue to develop me everyday in living and loving. Also,
to all the individuals that have intentionally and unintentionally
mentored and shaped how I engage with the world. Finally, to Rajashi,
who embodies the spirit and gracious intent of being a true colleague and
partner.
—Holly M. Hutchins
I dedicate this book to my husband, Chayanendu, and children, Ritika,
Oishika, and Rishaan whose loving presence helps me learn and develop in
new ways everyday. Also, to all my friends and colleagues who have
nurtured my thoughts, ideas, and soul and been there for me through thick
and thin! Finally, I want to specially dedicate this book to Holly without
whom, this project could not have come to fruition. My collaboration with
Holly is a living example of connecting and relating that we want to
celebrate through this book.
—Rajashi Ghosh
 Acknowledgments

We appreciate the engagement of our HRD and Management scholar

colleagues and friends from the Academy of Human Resource Devel-
opment (AHRD) and the Academy of Management (AOM) in making
significant contribution through co-authoring chapters for this book.
We are honored to have donated our editorial stipend to the AHRD
Foundation for supporting research on anti-racism.

vii
 Contents

1 Situating Developmental Relationships Within HRD

Research and Practice 1
Holly M. Hutchins and Rajashi Ghosh

Part I Talent Development: Learning & Performance

Perspectives
2 Using Developmental Relationships to Navigate
Career Transitions: Implications for Diverse
Populations 15
Tomika W. Greer and Sarah E. Minnis
3 Making the Connection Between Developmental
Relationships and Employee Engagement 41
Mandolen Mull, Clayton Duffy, and Brad Shuck
4 Coaching the Imposter: Developing Emerging
Leaders as They Negotiate Identity and Imposter
Concerns 65
Angela D. Carter, Cynthia M. Sims, Holly M. Hutchins,
and Maurice Williams Jr.

ix
x CONTENTS

Part II Knowledge Management & OD Perspectives

5 Leaders Fostering Dialogue Through Developmental
Relationships: An OD Perspective 99
Rod Patrick Githens and Nileen Verbeten
6 Inter-Generational Developmental Network
and the Impact of Technology on Knowledge
Creation and Sharing 123
Sanghamitra Chaudhuri, Seung Won Yoon,
Marcia Hagen, and Agnès Legrand
7 The Power of Embedded Developmental
Relationships: Examining Interdependencies Among
Informal Learning, Developmental Coaching
Relationships, and Organizational Culture 151
Pierre Faller, Victoria J. Marsick, and Karen E. Watkins

Part III Inclusion and Social Justice Perspectives

8 Mentoring Diverse Leaders: The Necessity of Identity
Work 175
Audrey J. Murrell and Gloria O. Onosu
9 Using Feminist Mentoring to Deconstruct Privilege
and Power in Developmental Relationships:
A Narrative Inquiry 197
Ague Mae Manongsong and Joshua C. Collins
10 Employee Resource Groups: Enabling Developmental
Relationships to Support Socially just and Morally
Inclusive Organizations 219
Marilyn Y. Byrd

Part IV Online and Virtual Relating Perspectives

11 “Can You Hear Me Now?” Technical and Human
Factors in Virtual Developmental Relationships 241
Laura L. Bierema
 CONTENTS xi

12 Using Developmental Relationships to Foster Trust

in Effective Virtual Teams: Lessons in Emergency
Preparedness from the COVID-19 Pandemic 273
Marie-Line Germain and David McGuire
13 Blurring of Boundaries Between Work and Home: The
Role of Developmental Relationships in the Future
of Work 305
Roland K. Yeo and Jessica Li

Part V Globalization and National Capacity Building

Perspectives
14 Successful Expatriation and Repatriation for Both
Employers and Assignees: A Developmental
Relationship Perspective 335
Yan Shen and Najung Kim
15 Cross-Cultural Styles of Relating and Connecting
in Developmental Relationships 367
Consuelo Waight and Toby Egan
16 How Developmental Relationships Can Be Used
by Organizations and Governments as Tools
for National HRD Initiatives: India and Spain 395
Ashutosh Muduli, Aitana Gonzalez Ortiz de Zarate,
and Gary N. McLean

Part VI Evaluation and Assessment Perspectives

17 Assessing the Impact of Developmental Relationships
in a Humanitarian Context 421
Julie Haddock-Millar, Chandana Sanyal, Neil Kaye,
and Holly Bennett
18 Needs Assessment in Assessing, Building,
and Supporting Developmental Relationships
in Organizations 449
Darlene F. Russ-Eft
xii CONTENTS

19 Seeking Support from Multiple Developers:

Assessing Optimal Structure, Content, Antecedents,
and Outcomes of Developmental Networks 467
Rajashi Ghosh, Wendy Murphy, Rick Cotton,
and Kathy E. Kram

Part VII Conclusion

20 Connecting and Relating Through Developmental
Relationships 503
Andrea D. Ellinger and Wendy E. A. Ruona

Index 527
 Notes on Contributors

Holly Bennett works for Médecins Sans Frontières as the Evaluation &
Capitalisation Manager of the Mentoring and Coaching Hub based in
Oslo, Norway. Holly is a European Mentoring and Coaching Council
(EMCC) Accreditation Assessor. She is a coach and mentor, with a
Post Graduate Certificate in Mentoring and Coaching from Sheffield
Hallam University, and is an EMCC Global Accreditation Volunteer and
Accreditation Assessor for European Individual Accreditation (EIA).
Dr. Laura L. Bierema is a Professor, University of Georgia, College
of Education, the program of Adult Learning, Leadership, and Organi-
zation Development. Dr. Bierema’s research interests include workplace
learning, career development, women’s development, organization devel-
opment, executive coaching, leadership, and critical human resource
development. Dr. Bierema holds both bachelor’s and master’s degrees
from Michigan State University and a doctorate in adult education from
the University of Georgia. She has over 160 publications, including ten
books and the award-winning text Adult Learning: Linking Theory &
Practice with Dr. Sharan B. Merriam and the recent co-edited book
Connecting Adult Learning and Knowledge Management: Strategies for
Learning and Change In Organizations with Dr. Monica Fedeli. Dr.
Bierema served as Associate Dean for Academic Programs in the UGA
College of Education from 2013 to 2017.

xiii
xiv NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Dr. Marilyn Y. Byrd is an Associate Professor of human relations at

the University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, where she teaches diversity
and social justice in organizations, organizational behavior, leadership in
organizations, and human resources development. Dr. Byrd is a faculty
sponsor for the Student Society of Human Relations, a departmental
student organization that advocates for social justice. She was awarded
the Laura Bierema Critical HRD Award in 2019 by the Academy of
Human Resource Development. In addition to social justice, Dr. Byrd’s
research focuses on theorizing Black women’s leadership, organizational
ethics, and spirituality in the workforce.
Dr. Angela D. Carter is an Assistant Professor at Clemson University in
the Master of Human Resource Development program and an ICF ACC
Certified Leadership Coach. Dr. Carter teaches, researches, and presents
on inclusion and equity, leadership, and coaching.
Dr. Sanghamitra Chaudhuri is an Assistant Professor of Human
Resource Management at the College of Management in Metropolitan
State University, Minnesota and also the past chair of India HRD Special
Interest Group at AHRD. Her research focuses on reverse mentoring,
inter-generational learning, work-life balance, and women leadership. She
is an editorial board member of the premier journals, Human Resource
Development Review and Human Resource Development International.
Dr. Joshua C. Collins is an Associate Professor and Graduate Program
Coordinator of Human Resource Development at the University of
Minnesota-Twin Cities. His research focuses on issues of learning and
work for racial, ethnic, gender, and sexual minorities. He is also a grad-
uate and affiliate faculty in Gender, Women, and Sexuality Studies. His
research focuses on issues of learning and work for racial, ethnic, gender,
and sexual minorities.
Dr. Rick Cotton is an Associate Professor of talent management
and sustainable innovation at the University of Victoria in British
Columbia. His research interests include career success, developmental
networks, talent management, and cross-cultural management. His B.S.
in M.I.S. and Marketing (dual) is from Syracuse University and his M.S.
and Ph.D. in Organization Studies are from Boston College. He’s worked
internationally, been a change management consultant and Fortune 500
HR SVP, and has published in top-tier academic and practitioner journals.
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xv

Clayton Duffy is a doctoral student at the University of Louisville’s

College of Education and Human Development. Clayton received his
M.B.A. from Rockford University, where he began research and studies
pertaining to organizational unlearning and the impact of individual’s
brand identities perceived leadership outcomes. Clayton has also taught
leadership curriculum within the BSMS degree program in the Puri
School of Business at Rockford University.
Dr. Toby Egan is an Associate Professor in the School of Public Policy
and the Robert H. Smith School of Business at the University of Mary-
land (UMD). He has 30 years of consulting experience with organizations
both in the US and internationally. He has been the recipient of several
research, service, teaching, and doctoral advising awards.
Dr. Andrea D. Ellinger is an Emerita Professor of Human Resource
Development in the Soules College of Business at The University of Texas
at Tyler. She is a former editor of Human Resource Development Quar-
terly. Her research interests include informal learning, organizational
learning and learning organizations, managerial coaching, mentoring,
employee engagement, organizational change and development. Andrea
has an extensive publication record and has presented her research region-
ally, nationally, and internationally. She has received numerous teaching,
research, and service awards during her career.
Dr. Pierre Faller is an adjunct Assistant Professor at Columbia University
Teachers College as well as an experienced executive coach and organiza-
tional development expert. He holds an Ed.D. from Teachers College,
Columbia University and an M.B.A. from University of Virginia. Faller
also serves as an organizational development consultant and coach for
global organizations in the pharmaceutical, healthcare, media, and finan-
cial services sectors. He is the author and co-author of several articles and
book chapters about workplace learning.
Dr. Marie-Line Germain is an internationally recognized scholar who
holds a Ph.D. in Leadership and Human Resource Development. She
is a Professor of Human Resources and Leadership at Western Carolina
University (The University of North Carolina System) who has published
over three dozen peer-reviewed research articles and presented research
internationally. Her research focuses on dysfunctional work behaviors,
human expertise, mental health, and other emerging HR trends. She is
xvi NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

a Fulbright Specialist recipient. She founded the HR Consulting Initia-

tive, which provides pro bono HR consulting nationwide, along with the
podcast show, Dear Human Resources, which is available on most podcast
platforms.
Dr. Rajashi Ghosh is an Associate Professor of Human Resource Devel-
opment (HRD) and Department Chair of Policy, Organization, and
Leadership (POL) department at Drexel University. Her research aims
to explore how different developmental initiatives (e.g., mentoring,
coaching, leadership development) can facilitate workplace learning and
development through building inclusive relational spaces and countering
the prevalence of workplace incivility. Rajashi’s work has been published
in several high-impact journals and popular media outlets. Rajashi is
the Associate Editor of Human Resource Development International
(HRDI), and also an editorial board member of Human Resource Devel-
opment Review (HRDR). Rajashi is a 2021 Rechter Fellow in Positive
Leadership.
Dr. Rod Patrick Githens serves as the Alexandra Greene Ottesen
Endowed Chair and Associate Professor in Leadership and Organization
Development at Benerd College, University of the Pacific. He focuses
on developing human and organizational potential through innovation
processes, strategy development, group facilitation, and user-centered
program development. In addition to his faculty role, Rod has worked
as a consultant, HR leader, academic program leader, assistant dean,
and associate dean. Rod’s consulting practice serves clients in all sectors,
specializing in education, government, and healthcare.
Dr. Aitana Gonzalez Ortiz de Zarate is a Faculty at Madrid Open
University (Udima, Spain) and Research Associate at the College of New
Caledonia (Canada). She is a member of the Research Group in Devel-
opment of People and Organizations (GIDEPO) at the Complutense
University of Madrid (Spain), and collaborator in the Research Group
in Training Effectiveness (Efi) at the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona
(Spain). She has a Ph.D. in Social, Educational, and Work Psychology
from the Complutense University of Madrid.
Dr. Tomika W. Greer is Assistant Professor and Undergraduate Program
Coordinator of Human Resource Development (HRD) at the University
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xvii

of Houston. She conducts and publishes research related to career devel-

opment for women, marginalized, and underrepresented populations;
focusing on career transitions and work-family integration.
Dr. Julie Haddock-Millar is an Associate Professor of Human Resource
Management and Development at Middlesex University Business School,
Visiting Professor at the International University of Monaco. Julie has led
and collaborated on a number of global impact evaluations including a
global impact of volunteer mentoring on young entrepreneurs in collabo-
ration with Youth Business International (YBI) and is currently co-leading
on an impact evaluation research on coaching in the context of personal
and professional development at Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF).
Dr. Marcia Hagen is a Professor of management and Department Chair
at Metropolitan State University. She has a Ph.D. in Human Resource
Development. Her research focus includes peer and managerial coaching,
change management, and organizational development. She also has publi-
cations in the areas of project management and andragogy. She serves on
the editorial board for Human Resource Development Quarterly.
Dr. Holly M. Hutchins is the Vice Provost of Faculty Success and
Professor of Counseling and Higher Education at the University of North
Texas. Her research focuses on identifying how learning and develop-
ment interventions can be designed and evaluated to support successful
application to the work environment. Dr. Hutchins’ research also focuses
on increasing individual agency and leadership identity in career develop-
ment notably among marginalized and underrepresented higher educa-
tion faculty. Her research has been recognized by multiple awards from
academic journals and professional organizations and through external
funding from the National Science Foundation (NSF) and industry
partners.
Dr. Neil Kaye is a Research Fellow at UCL’s Institute of Education. He
is an experienced researcher in the fields of social science, educational
research, and social policy evaluation, having worked on a wide range of
local, national, European, and international projects. His research inter-
ests include social inequalities, education policy, youth transitions, and
the impact of mentoring and coaching. Neil received his Ph.D. from
Middlesex University in 2019 with his thesis investigating the role of
“resilience” as a tool for promoting positive outcomes for disadvantaged
young people.
xviii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Najung Kim is Associate Professor at the College of Business Administra-

tion, Kookmin University (South Korea). Broadly speaking, her research
explores the dynamics of individuals’ work experiences in the context of
time. She received her Ph.D. from Boston College. Broadly speaking,
her research explores the dynamics of individuals’ career experiences
in the context of time, focusing on the concepts of identity, emotion,
age, and culture. Her work is published in various outlets including
Human Resource Management, The Oxford Handbook of Retirement,
and Human Resource Management Journal.
Dr. Kathy E. Kram is the R.C. Shipley Professor in Management,
Emerita, at Boston University. Her primary interests are in mentoring,
peer coaching, developmental networks, the role of relationships in major
career and life transitions, and the transition into retirement. She is
a founding member of the Center for Research on Emotional Intelli-
gence in Organizations (CREIO). She served as a member of the Center
for Creative Leadership’s (CCL) Board from 2002-2009. In addition
to her book, Mentoring at Work, she is co-editor of The Handbook of
Mentoring at Work: Theory, Research and Practicewith Dr. Belle Rose
Ragins, co-author of Strategic Relationships at Work: Creating your circle
of mentors, sponsors and peers for success in business and life with Dr. Wendy
Murphy, and co-author with Drs. Polly Parker, Douglas T. Hall, and Ilene
Wasserman of Peer Coaching at Work: Principles and Practices.
Agnès Legrand is a Smart Work director from Beta Lab, Smart Work
R&D Group. Her projects are specialized in Smart Office, Remote Work
and Leadership. She studied psychology in Yonsei Univ., Seoul, then she
got her certificate of Entrepreneurship & Innovation Accelerator in Tel-
Aviv Univ., Israel. Her first book Smart Work Biblewas published in 2021.
Dr. Jessica Li is a Professor and the Interim Associate Dean for Research
at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. As a well-published
scholar and the editor-in-chief of Human Resource Development Interna-
tional,she has considerable international collaborative experience. She is
also a seasoned Human Resource Development (HRD) professional with
extensive working experience in both business corporations and higher
education institutions.
Ague Mae Manongsong is a Ph.D. candidate in the Leadership and
Policy track at Drexel University’s School of Education. Her research
centers on the role of mentoring in leader development of women and
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xix

minoritized women. She is currently working on research projects that

examines the impact of mentoring on impostor feelings and leader iden-
tity development as well as the impact of short-term high-quality feminist
mentoring interactions (i.e., feminist mentoring episode) on professional
development.
Dr. Victoria J. Marsick is Professor of Adult Learning & Leadership
in the Department of Organization & Leadership, Teachers College,
Columbia University. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Cali-
fornia and an MIPA from Syracuse University. She has been inducted
into the International Adult and Continuing Education Hall of Fame,
and the Academy of Human Resource Development Scholar Hall of
Fame. Victoria focuses her scholarship and practice on naturally occur-
ring, informal learning in the workplace—by individuals, as well as
groups, communities, and organizations. She conducts action research
(and coaches in) Action Learning groups; and projects focused on
transformative listening, learning and change.
Dr. David McGuire is Reader in Human Resource Development (HRD)
at Glasgow Caledonian University. David was previously Editor-in-Chief
of Industrial and Commercial Training and Associate Editor of Advances
in Developing Human Resources. To date, he has published two text-
books and over 30 journal articles in journals including European
Journal of Training and Development, Advances in Developing Human
Resources, Human Resource Development Review and Human Resource
Development Quarterly. He has been the recipient of a number of
prestigious research awards including Scottish Crucible award, Fulbright
Scholar award, Government of Ireland scholarship, and a number of
Emerald Literati awards.
Dr. Gary N. McLean is a full-time Professor in the Ph.D.
program in Organization Development (OD) at Assumption University,
Bangkok; professor emeritus, human resource development, University
of Minnesota; former senior professor at Texas A&M University, and
renowned scholar in the Graduate School of Management at the Inter-
national Islamic University, Malaysia. He is past editor of several refereed
journals and served as President of AHRD and IMDA. He has been an
OD consultant for over 50 years. His research has covered a broad range,
including national and international HRD, gender, and OD, authoring
an award-winning OD book.
xx NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Dr. Sarah E. Minnis is Assistant Professor in the Master of Science in

Human Resources program at Western Carolina University. She has a
primary research interest in military veterans’ academic and career transi-
tion post military service as well as engaging critical practice in developing
inclusive organizations.
Dr. Ashutosh Muduli is a Senior Faculty of Management, Pandit
Deendayal Petroleum University, India. He has published research arti-
cles in international journals on themes related to human resource
development, training transfer, strategic HRM, workforce agility, social
media recruiting, adult learning, and others. He is associated with
several national and international journals as editor, associate editor, and
reviewer.
Dr. Mandolen Mull is the Chair of the Puri School of Business, Director
of the Degree Completion Program, and an Assistant Professor of Leader-
ship at Rockford University. With a Ph.D. in organizational development
and change, and an MBA in international business, Dr. Mull previously
was a faculty member at Tarleton State University and the McLane School
of Business at the University of Mary Hardin-Baylor where she taught
courses in business management, statistics, and international business.
Dr. Mull consults and conducts scholarly research with organizations
across the globe, providing analysis and interventions targeted to improve
organizational performance outcomes.
Dr. Wendy Murphy is the Associate Dean of the Undergraduate School
and a Professor of Management at Babson College. Her research is at
the intersection of careers, mentoring, and diversity issues. Murphy has
published her work in a range of journals, such as Human Resource
Management, Gender in Management, Journal of Management, and
the Journal of Vocational Behavior, among others. Her book with Dr.
Kathy Kram, Strategic Relationships at Work: Creating Your Circle of
Mentors, Sponsors, and Peers for Success in Business and Life, bridges
mentoring scholarship and practice.
Dr. Audrey J. Murrell is a Professor of Business Administration,
Psychology, Public and International Affairs at the University of Pitts-
burgh. Her research focuses on mentoring, diversity, leadership develop-
ment, and social responsibility in business. She is the author of several
books including: “Mentoring Dilemmas: Developmental Relationships
within Multicultural Organizations” (with Faye Crosby and Robyn Ely);
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xxi

“Intelligent Mentoring: How IBM Creates Value through People, Knowl-

edge and Relationships” (with Sheila Forte-Trummel and Diana Bing);
“Mentoring Diverse Leaders: Creating Change for People, Processes and
Paradigms” (with Stacy Blake-Beard); and, the recent book entitled,
“Diversity Across Disciplines: Research on People, Policy, Process and
Paradigm” (with Jennifer Petrie-Wyman and Abdesalam Soudi).
Dr. Gloria O. Onosu conducts research on leadership development and
identity, cross-cultural engagement, diversity, equity, and inclusion. She
is currently a Visiting Assistant Professor at Krannert School of Manage-
ment, at Purdue University. Gloria received her M.A and Ph.D. at the
Indiana University of Pennsylvania. Her research work has been published
in Journals and presented at national and international conferences.
Dr. Wendy E. A. Ruona is an Associate Professor at The University
of Georgia, where she shepherds the Ed.D. in Learning, Leadership &
Organization Development. She is former President (2016–2018) of the
Academy of Human Resource Development (AHRD). Wendy’s scholarly
work has focused on: strategic planning, alignment, and implementation
in organizations, the systems that support performance, talent manage-
ment, organization development and change, and building the HRD
profession (foundations and what is required for strategic alignment and
contribution). Wendy has published over 50 articles, chapters, and papers
and received numerous awards recognizing her scholarship and service in
HRD.
Dr. Darlene F. Russ-Eft is a Professor Emerita of Adult and Higher
Education, College of Education, Oregon State University (OSU) and
Assistant Professor of Practice in Technology Leadership & Innovation
within the Purdue Polytechnic Institute, Purdue University. Her research
focuses on issues related to workplace education and learning, leadership
development, and evaluation of human resource development interven-
tions. Her most recent book is titled Case Studies in Needs Assessment
(2020, Sage). She is past president of the Academy of Human Resource
Development (AHRD); past board member of the American Evaluation
Association; and past editor of Human Resource Development Quarterly.
Dr. Chandana Sanyal is a Senior Lecturer in Human Resource Manage-
ment and Development at Middlesex University Business School, and the
Group Lead for European Mentoring and Coaching Council (EMCC)
xxii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

European Individual Accreditation (EIA). She has over 20 years’ expe-

rience as a human resource practitioner and a senior manager in the
Public Sector. Her current research activities focus on mentoring, action
learning, and mindfulness within leadership programs.
Dr. Yan Shen is Associate Professor at Gustavson School of Business,
University of Victoria (Canada). Her primary research interests include
careers across cultures, expatriates, and mentoring and developmental
networks. She has a particular interest in China and emerging economies.
Her articles have appeared in journals such as Academy of Manage-
ment Journal, Human Relations, Human Resource Management, Human
Resource Management Journal, Sloan Management Review, Careers
Development International, and The International Journal of Human
Resource Management.
Dr. Brad Shuck is a Professor of human resource and organizational
development at the University of Louisville (Louisville, KY). His research
focuses on core experiences of work including how employees experience
engagement in the workplace, compassionate leadership, and organiza-
tional development. Shuck’s current research projects are focused on
compassion fatigue and the relationships between compassion, well-being,
and performance. His work integrates engagement theory alongside
individual level health outcomes and performance. Shuck is a 2021
Rechter Fellow in Positive Leadership.
Dr. Cynthia M. Sims is an Associate Professor, in the Department of
Educational and Organizational Leadership at Clemson University. Her
research focuses on the ways gender and diversity influences the enact-
ment of leadership in the workplace. She was recognized with an Emerald
Literati Award, Highly Commended 2019 for a research publication. Dr.
Sims is the founder director and co-lead of Clemson’s gender equity lead-
ership development and mentoring program for faculty an ADVANCE
initiative.
Nileen Verbeten works as a full-time professional facilitator to help
organizations align their efforts to create the future they desire. Her
consulting focuses on government agencies, community development,
healthcare, and nonprofits. She helps her clients improve operations,
develop and implement strategic plans, and facilitate discussions around
complex issues. She also serves as adjunct faculty at University of the
Pacific, in the Organizational Learning and Effectiveness Program. Prior
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

to becoming a full-time consultant, Nileen worked for many years in

the healthcare sector, supporting large medical systems in developing and
implementing managed care strategies.
Dr. Consuelo Waight is an Associate Professor of human resource
development (HRD) at the University of Houston. Consuelo’s research
interests include executive education, mergers and acquisitions, and global
HRD. She has 25 years of consulting experience in the US and interna-
tionally. Consuelo is the recipient of a Fulbright Student Award (1995)
and a Fulbright Scholar Award (2016).
Dr. Karen E. Watkins is Professor of Learning, Leadership and Organi-
zational Development in the College of Education at The University of
Georgia. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Texas at Austin and an
M.A. from the University of Wisconsin. Karen’s scholarly interests include
organizational learning assessment, informal and incidental learning, and
action science.
Watkins & Marsick developed and validated the Dimensions of the
Learning Organization Questionnaire (1997) used in over 80 published
studies. Named Scholar of the Year by the Academy of Human Resource
Development; she was inducted into the International Adult and Contin-
uing Education Hall of Fame in 2003 and the Academy of Human
Resource Development Scholar Hall of Fame in 2014.
Mr. Maurice Williams Jr. is a native of Charleston, South Carolina,
and current Ph.D. candidate at Clemson University, where his research
interests are college student recruitment and retention, leadership devel-
opment of underrepresented minorities, and youth empowerment. In
2013, he obtained an M.S.Ed.in Higher Education Management from
the University of Pennsylvania where he participated in several research
projects related to the recruitment and retention of Black and Latinx
youth, community colleges, and Historically Black Colleges and Univer-
sities (HBCUs).
Dr. Roland K. Yeo is head of talent management in Training & Devel-
opment at Saudi Aramco. His research interests include organizational
learning, knowledge spillovers in team contexts, emergent change, crisis-
induced leadership, and work reengagement. He is also Adjunct Professor
of Management at the King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals in
Saudi Arabia where he teaches the EMBA program.
xxiv NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Dr. Seung Won Yoon is a Professor of Higher Education &

Learning Technologies at Texas A&M University-Commerce. His
research focuses on improving workplace through connecting leader-
ship, learning/knowledge sharing, and technologies applying frameworks
of social capital, network science, and data analytics. He serves as an
Associate Editor for the Human Resource Development Quarterly.
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Career transition phases supported by developmental

relationships 18
Fig. 3.1 Linear value stream of developmental relationships.
Note This figure builds upon operational management
tools (cf. Lindskog et al., 2016; Rahman et al., 2018)
to create a simplified pathway map of the stages
present within developmental relationships. Figure 3.1
seeks to aid organizations and leaders in the process
of identifying where breakdowns in developmental
relationships may have occurred. This framework provides
a simplified outlook of the developmental relationship
components across multiple levels of an organization (i.e.
individual, group, and organizational levels) 43
Fig. 3.2 The integrated relationship process map of engagement.
Note This figure builds directly off the previously
mentioned Linear Value Stream of Developmental
Relationships, but looks to address the intricacies of each
individual step of developmental relationships. The
aforementioned idea of why, when, what, who, and how
components of developmental relationships are each
individually linked to a specific stage in the model 44

xxv
xxvi LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 3.3 Developmental relationship styles. Note This figure

is utilized to address the idea that developmental
relationships are not limited to cascading relationships,
but rather, can be created and nurtured through four
different relationship scenarios. Figure 3.3 provides
a visual representation of the varying levels, directions,
and possibilities of developmental relationships and their
potential for reciprocity. Additionally, this figure seeks
to further the potential creation of developmental
relationships by addressing the potential for them to be
created across different departments or specializations
(diagonal relationships) 48
Fig. 4.1 CIPS scales 73
Fig. 4.2 Logic model 73
Fig. 4.3 Coaching strategies 83
Fig. 7.1 Watkins and Marsick (1993) model of dimensions
of a learning organization Source Watkins K. and Marsick
V. (1997) Dimensions of the learning organization
questionnaire, Partners for the Learning Organization
(used by permission) 159
Fig. 7.2 Upstream and downstream scaffolding of leadership
development at GBC (adapted from Watkins &
deMarrais, 2010) 164
Fig. 10.1 ERGs developmental relationship model
for justice-principled organizations 229
Fig. 13.1 Conceptual framework of work-life boundaries
and developmental relationships 309
Fig. 15.1 Information richness and communication channels. Note
The integration of virtual/augmented reality has begun
to impact all of the areas above with the breadth of future
availability and use yet to be determined 378
Fig. 17.1 MCHub mentoring model 430
Fig. 17.2 Phase 1 Visual metaphors 442
Fig. 17.3 Phase 2 Visual metaphors 443
Fig. 18.1 Taxonomy of needs assessment approaches (Taxonmy
based on Sleezer et al., 2014) 455
Fig. 19.1 Antecedents and Outcomes of Developmental Networks
with optimal Structure and Content. Note These
antecedent factors in some cases may act as moderators,
mediators or variables at higher levels of analysis 480
 List of Tables

Table 4.1 Demographics 72

Table 5.1 Key differences between diagnostic and dialogic
approaches to OD 102
Table 5.2 Types of developmental relationships with diagnostic
and dialogic approaches to OD 106
Table 6.1 Intergenerational developmental networking alternatives 142
Table 7.1 Developmental relationships through coaching 155
Table 10.1 Selected companies from diversityInc’s best companies
for ERGs 228
Table 11.1 My coach Amanda women’s leadership coaching
plan for powerful presence, minimal minimizers
(communication) 259
Table 11.2 Culturally responsive strategies mentors and coaches
can use to help mentees and coachees address injustice
and aggressions in organizations 263
Table 11.3 Racial and cultural broaching style and corresponding
cultural competence 265
Table 12.1 Barriers, possible solutions and the role of developmental
relationships in building trust within virtual teams 280
Table 13.1 Boundary-crossing behaviors 315
Table 13.2 Implications for HRD research and practice 323
Table 14.1 Key themes from the review 345
Table 15.1 Cultural dimensions: Hofstede (1980) 370
Table 15.2 Intercultural learning tools and exercises 385
Table 16.1 Summary of the findings 408

xxvii
xxviii LIST OF TABLES

Table 17.1 Summary of evaluation phases 432

Table 19.1 Assessment questions for network size 471
Table 19.2 Assessment questions for network strength 472
Table 19.3 Assessment questions for network density 474
Table 19.4 Assessment questions for network range 475
Table 19.5 Assessment questions for demographic diversity
of networks 477
Table 19.6 Assessment questions for network support 479
 CHAPTER 1

Situating Developmental Relationships

Within HRD Research and Practice

Holly M. Hutchins and Rajashi Ghosh

Introduction
When asked to reflect on the important events that have made a differ-
ence in their careers and lives, individuals will quickly reference the
people and connections that made these experiences noteworthy. These
relationships are decidedly “developmental” as they promote interdepen-
dent generative connections that result in growth and learning among
individuals. The role of developmental relationships has been acknowl-
edged as critical in supporting both workplace learning (de et al., 2014;
Lankau & Scandura, 2007) and performance (Carter & Youssef-Morgan,
2019; Scandura & Hamilton, 2002), the two overarching purposes often

H. M. Hutchins
University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
e-mail: holly.hutchins@unt.edu
R. Ghosh (B)
Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
e-mail: rajashi.ghosh@drexel.edu

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2022
R. Ghosh and H. M. Hutchins (eds.), HRD Perspectives
on Developmental Relationships,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-85033-3_1
2 H. M. HUTCHINS AND R. GHOSH

debated to represent the goals of human resource development (HRD)

as a discipline (Kuchinke, 1998). Moreover, the benefit of developmental
relationships has also been evident for career development (Abalkhail &
Allan, 2015; Headlam-Wells et al., 2005; Hunt & Michael, 1983),
long considered a primary function of HRD (Hite & McDonald, 2008;
McDonald & Hite, 2005a, b).
In her seminal work on the utility of developmental relationships,
Ragins (2011) describes these connections as critical for imparting
portable skills, knowledge, and abilities needed to advance one’s career
and can originate from within the workplace and in communities existing
outside formal organizational boundaries (Eby et al., 2007; Higgins &
Kram, 2001). Although the labels of “mentors,” “coaches,” and “devel-
opers” are often used interchangeably (D’Abate et al., 2003), “devel-
opers” are a broader category than mentors and coaches. While mentors
mostly refer to senior colleagues who provide developmental support
and coaches refer to internally or externally hired individuals who are
tasked to specifically focus on an executive’s development in organiza-
tions (Murphy & Kram, 2014), developers include individuals from one’s
personal spheres of life outside organizational boundaries (e.g., family,
friends, neighbors) and one’s professional sphere (e.g., peers, juniors, and
seniors enacting mentoring and/or coaching) who may be invested in
their growth and development and can provide varying amounts and
types (e.g., career and psychosocial support) of developmental support
(Dobrow et al., 2012).
Even though the significance of developmental relationships is both
conceptually and empirically irrefutable, its relevance has been limited to
learning, performance, and career development areas, yet the implications
are much more integral to how we understand developing individuals
within their personal and professional communities. We posit the need for
understanding developmental relationships is especially critical given how
the disruptive events of 2020 have exposed the necessity to grasp the
dynamics of how and why we relate to one another. These include the
exponential rise in social justice activism in response to police brutality
on Black and Indigenous People of Color (BiPOC) communities, how
we continue to adapt to socially distanced professional and personal
spaces, and the deepening political differences that both divide and draw
people together. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic has electrified
these issues on a global scale especially as we are increasingly reliant on
technology to support, challenge, lead, and console each other.
 1 SITUATING DEVELOPMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS … 3

Given the HRD field’s transdisciplinary reach (Ruona, 2016; Wang,

2019) to accommodate a myriad of topics including globalization, knowl-
edge sharing, engagement, diversity and equity, and the application of
technology at work (Ghosh et al., 2014; Yoo et al., 2019), it is impor-
tant to explore how developmental relationships manifest within these
areas of inquiry and practice. Identifying and assessing how developmental
relationships and networks are impacting talent development, knowl-
edge management, organization development, social justice and inclusion,
online and virtual connections, and global and national capacity building
can help scholars and practitioners better understand how to situate devel-
opmental relationships as a strategic and thoughtful HRD intervention.
In our opening chapter, we provide a brief review of developmental rela-
tionships and describe the current state of inquiry within HRD research
since 2010. We also raise the question of “what is at risk” for the HRD
field if we fail to fully integrate how and in what ways developmental
relationships are situated across our diverse scholarship and practice areas.
Finally, we provide an overview of how the topical foci of the different
sections in our book can assist scholars and practitioners in centering and
disentangling the role of developmental relationships in their work.

The State of Developmental Relationship

Research in HRD: Where to go from Here
To say that a scholarly focus on developmental relationships is a new
area of inquiry in the HRD field would be an understatement. Devel-
oping people is at the heart of the HRD discipline and is enriched by the
multiple perspectives and ways we examine how individuals, groups and
teams, and organizations develop and change. As a field, HRD scholars
began examining the roles of mentoring and coaching in the mid-1990s
likely inspired by Kram’s (1985) seminal book, Mentoring at Work: Devel-
opmental Relationships in Organizational Life, which examined the role
of mentoring and other kinds of developmental relationships within a
work setting. Douglas and McCauley (1999) offered one of the first
descriptive studies of formal developmental relationships within organi-
zations and\expanded our definition to also include apprenticeships, team
coaching, peer coaching, executive coaching, action learning, and struc-
tured networks. Bierema (1999), in her response to the article, noted the
glaring omission of exploring diversity representation in such relationships
4 H. M. HUTCHINS AND R. GHOSH

since persons of color and white women were limited in access to develop-
mental opportunities. She also suggested that future researchers explore
additional outcome variables to assess the impact of developmental rela-
tionships and in considering the utility of informal learning pioneered by
Marsick and Watkins (1990) as part of the development of individual,
team, and organization learning and performance.
In the years since, the field of HRD has certainly responded to Biere-
ma’s call with increased attention to how and in what ways developmental
relationships are critical to learning and development. Ellinger’s emer-
gent work in examining leader–follower relationships through coaching
(Ellinger & Bostrom, 1999) would establish the theoretical foundation
for guiding studies on managerial effectiveness in supporting employee
learning and performance (Ellinger et al., 2011; Hamlin et al., 2006).
McCauley’s (2005) edited issue of Advances in Developing Human
Resources (ADHR, 7:4) on mentoring explored multiple perspectives and
mechanisms in how mentoring occurred in organizations. Featured were
studies on the emergent role of virtual mentoring (Bierema & Hill,
2005), CEO perspectives on the utility of mentoring (Rosser, 2005), the
interplay of race and gender in peer mentoring (Thomas et al., 2005),
the role of learning (Hezlett, 2005) and learning goal orientation (Egan,
2005) within mentoring relationships. McDonald and Hite’s (2005a, b)
article on the role of HRD in addressing ethical issues of dysfunctional
mentoring experiences would also seed the beginnings of their even-
tual book, Career Development: A Human Resource Perspective (2015)
where they explored mentoring as one of many developmental interven-
tions supporting career development. Marsick and Watkins also continued
to refine and extend the role of informal and incidental learning as a
source of development in relationships not only in modeled practice as
co-authors, but in their collective research (Marsick, 2009; Marsick &
Watkins, 2001; Watkins et al., 2014) that situated informal learning as a
foundational area of HRD inquiry among researchers and practitioners.
We found similar trends and critiques in our own review of devel-
opmental relationship research (2010–2020) within the four Academy
of Human Resource Development’s (AHRD) four sponsored journals
suggesting that the field has moved some steps forward. Researchers are
still overwhelmingly focused on examining the efficacy of mentoring and
coaching on workplace career development. In 2014, Ellinger, Egan, and
Kim co-edited an ADHR special issue (16:2) that provided conceptual,
implementation, and assessment direction to scholars and practitioners
 1 SITUATING DEVELOPMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS … 5

interested in coaching as a developmental intervention. Indeed, HRD

scholars have been some of the first to lead studies on co-mentoring
(Deptula & Williams, 2017) and in using a relational perspective to
explore how mentoring partners can mutually benefit from their devel-
opmental relationship (Ghosh et al., 2020). We were also pleased to find
increased attention on how women’s career advancement can benefit from
mentoring and networking in Saudi Arabia and the UK (Abalkhail &
Allan, 2015), through US-based university developmental initiatives to
promote STEM women faculty progression (Hutchins & Kovach, 2019),
and how urban women entrepreneurs in India utilized collective learning
to support their own career goals (Chaudhuri et al., 2020).
Still lacking, however, were studies that examined BiPOC access to
and experiences with developmental relationships (Nickels, & Kowalski-
Braun, 2012), the role of virtual HRD (Hart, 2016), expatriate assimila-
tion and skill development (Holtbrügge & Ambrosius, 2015; van Bakel
et al., 2017), and in assessing the outcomes of developmental relation-
ships on past coaching and mentoring interventions (Ellinger et al.,
2014). Moreover, there were only a couple of studies in the AHRD
journals that connected the concept of developmental relationships to
organizational-level phenomenon. For instance, Mendy (2020) noted
that HRD interventions such as mentoring can be used to build indi-
vidual and collective resilience in organizations against workplace stress.
Deptula and Williams (2017) also examined synergistic co-mentoring as a
tool for enabling employees with cross-domain expertise to “collaborate
as an enduring unit to accomplish collective goals” (p. 390) in organiza-
tions. In light of this, it is important to acknowledge that there is much
scope for HRD scholars to examine how developmental relationships can
inform different strands of inquiry beyond learning, performance, and
career development at the individual level to encompass understanding of
phenomena such as knowledge management, change, diversity and inclu-
sion culture and collaboration at the group, organizational, community,
and national levels. Not doing so would limit the impact that HRD can
have at a multi-system level.
6 H. M. HUTCHINS AND R. GHOSH

Why We Need to Situate

Developmental Relationship Research
Centrally in the Field of HRD
Given our review, we suggest that the HRD field adopt an ecolog-
ical perspective that would enable the field to situate the notion of
developmental relationships at the intersection of complex social and
psychological systems studies (Chandler et al., 2011). Without an ecolog-
ical perspective, we risk falling short of exploring the full scope of how
developmental relationships can interact with the ontological system (e.g.,
individual-level personality and demographics), the dyadic and organiza-
tional microsystem (e.g., workplace relationships and contexts), and social
macrosystem (e.g., social, political, economic, technological advances
impacting the nation and world) to advance HRD research and prac-
tice. Recently, a study by Shirmohammadi et al. (2020) identified how
major topic clusters within HRD scholarship (e.g., nature and identity of
HRD, HRD interventions and outcomes, national HRD, career develop-
ment, and HRD in academia) are not very well connected. Specifically, the
cluster of research on HRD interventions which includes developmental
relationships (e.g., coaching, mentoring, etc.) was found to stand far apart
from the clusters of national HRD, HRD in academia, and nature and
identity of HRD implying that there is not much work linking these topics
even though co-examining them might yield new avenues of research
and practice for the field of HRD. To address this gap, Shirmohammadi
et al. (2020) recommended collaborative boundary work through which
scholars can utilize theories and research-driven evidence from one cluster
to inform underexamined inquiries in another cluster. In absence of such
collaborative boundary work, HRD scholarship will not contribute nor
lead boundary spanning transdisciplinary insights that can revolutionize
our understanding of developing human resources (Wang, 2019).
Our book addresses this call by inviting authors who are experts in
different topical clusters within HRD scholarship to discuss and explore
the relevance of developmental relationships within those areas. In doing
so, we highlight how research on developmental relationships can be the
underlying thread connecting the otherwise disconnected varied topical
foci of research and practice at the intersections of different systems
(ontological, micro, macro) relevant to the field of HRD.
 1 SITUATING DEVELOPMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS … 7

Overview of Book Foci

In light of our prior review, readers will find some familiar names who
pioneered the work of developmental relationships over the last three
decades of HRD research and practice. We are also excited to spotlight
emerging researchers in HRD whose perspectives are constantly shaping
and challenging the field’s understanding of developmental relationships.
We are grateful to hear their voices in sharing updates to their current
ideas on developing self and others. “Connecting and Relating—HRD
Perspectives on Developmental Relationships” is presented in six sections:
(1) Talent Development: Learning and Performance perspectives; (2)
Knowledge Management and OD perspectives; (3) Inclusion and Social
Justice perspectives; (4) Online and Virtual Relating perspectives; (5)
Globalization and National Capacity building perspectives; and (6) Eval-
uation and Assessment perspectives. In each of these sections, our team
of expert authors who are well-acclaimed for their work discuss how they
envision the connection of these topics to developmental relationships.
Collectively, these chapters help us to embark on collaborative
boundary work as recommended by Shirmohammadi et al. (2020) to
address questions such as:

• How can developmental relationships aid in developing leaders from

all ethnicities and backgrounds?
• How are developmental relationships utilized as tools for dialogic
OD processes?
• How can developmental relationships enable organizational knowl-
edge creation and sharing and national HRD?
• How are critical perspectives on diversity, inclusiveness, and equity
incorporated in the theories and perspectives on developmental
relationships?
• How are developmental relationships critical in developing socially
just organizations?
• How does participation in developmental relationships affect one’s
engagement at work?
• How can developmental relationships contribute toward building
a learning organization through fostering informal, incidental, and
transformative learning?
• How is emotional closeness and proximity redefined within the
context of virtual developmental relationships?
8 H. M. HUTCHINS AND R. GHOSH

• How are developmental relationships evaluated at programmatic

levels?

To address these questions and center the role of developmental rela-

tionships within the frame of HRD scholarship and practice, we present
a collection of conceptual articles and evidence-based studies utilizing
mixed methodologies that explore how developmental relationships are
cultivated within and outside of the workplace settings. We offer this
collection of ideas and practices to broaden our understanding of the
relevance and implementation of developmental relationships within the
HRD field.
We also acknowledge the developmental relationship we personally
experienced with each other in imagining and leading this book. We could
not ask for a more thoughtful, creative, and devoted co-editor team expe-
rience. Our mutual insight on developmental relationship research and
network of thought leaders in the field helped shape this book in valuable
ways. While we had published together, co-editing a book together was
altogether different! Shepherding an idea to a reality takes patience, a lot
of humor, courage in having difficult conversations, understanding, and
a great leader heart. We found all of these in each other in our roles as
co-editor, wing women, friend, mentor, and developer.

References
Abalkhail, J. M., & Allan, B. (2015). Women’s career advancement: Mentoring
and networking in Saudi Arabia and the UK. Human Resource Development
International, 18(2), 153–168.
Bierema, L. L. (1999). Invited reaction: Setting the stage for further study of
developmental relationships. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 10(3),
221–224.
Bierema, L. L., & Hill, J. R. (2005). Virtual mentoring and HRD. Advances in
Developing Human Resources, 7 (4), 556–568.
Carter, J. W., & Youssef-Morgan, C. M. (2019). The positive psychology of
mentoring: A longitudinal analysis of psychological capital development and
performance in a formal mentoring program. Human Resource Development
Quarterly, 30(3), 383–405.
Chandler, D. E., Kram, K. E., & Yip, J. (2011). An ecological systems perspec-
tive on mentoring at work: A review and future prospects. The Academy of
Management Annals, 5(1), 519–570.
 1 SITUATING DEVELOPMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS … 9

Chaudhuri, S., Ghosh, R., & Abichandani, Y. (2020). Exploring the risky terrain
of entrepreneurship with support from developmental relationships: Narratives
from Indian women entrepreneurs. Advances in Developing Human Resources,
22(2), 137–149.
D’Abate, C. P., Eddy, E. R., & Tannenbaum, S. I. (2003). What’s in a
name? A literature-based approach to understanding mentoring, coaching, and
other constructs that describe developmental interactions. Human Resource
Development Review, 2(4), 360–384.
de Tormes Eby, L. T., Brown, B. L., & George, K. (2014). Mentoring as
a strategy for facilitating learning: Protégé and mentor perspectives. Inter-
national handbook of research in professional and practice-based learning,
1071–1097.
Deptula, B. J., & Williams, E. A. (2017). An intersubjective perspective on the
role of communal sharing in synergistic co-mentoring: Implications for human
resource development. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 28(3), 369–
400.
Dobrow, S. R., Chandler, D. E., Murphy, W. M., & Kram, K. E. (2012). A review
of developmental networks: Incorporating a mutuality perspective. Journal of
Management, 38(1), 210–242.
Douglas, C. A., & McCauley, C. D. (1999). Formal developmental relationships:
A survey of organizational practices. Human Resource Development Quarterly,
10(3), 203–220.
Eby, L. T., Rhodes, J. E., & Allen, T. D. (2007). Definition and evolution of
mentoring. In T. D. Allen & L. T. Eby (Eds.), The Blackwell handbook of
mentoring: A multiple perspectives approach (pp. 3–7). Blackwell.
Egan, T. M. (2005). The impact of learning goal orientation similarity on formal
mentoring relationship outcomes. Advances in Developing Human Resources,
7 (4), 489–504.
Ellinger, A. D., & Bostrom, R. P. (1999). Managerial coaching behaviors in
learning organizations. Journal of Management Development, 18, 752–771.
Ellinger, A. D., Egan, T. M., & Kim, S. (2014). Coaching and human resource
development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 16(2).
Ellinger, A. D., Ellinger, A. E., Bachrach, D. G., Wang, Y. L., & Elmadağ, A. B.
(2011). Organizational investments in social capital, managerial coaching, and
employee work-related performance. Management Learning, 42(1), 67–85.
Ghosh, R., Kim, M., Kim, S., & Callahan, J. L. (2014). Examining the dominant,
emerging, and waning themes featured in select HRD publications: Is it time
to redefine HRD? European Journal of Training and Development, 38(4),
302–322.
Ghosh, R., Hutchins, H. M., Rose, K. J., & Manongsong, A. M. (2020).
Exploring the lived experiences of mutuality in diverse formal faculty
mentoring partnerships through the lens of mentoring schemas. Human
Resource Development Quarterly, 31(3), 319–340.
10 H. M. HUTCHINS AND R. GHOSH

Hart, R. K. (2016). Informal virtual mentoring for team leaders and members:
Emergence, content, and impact. Advances in Developing Human Resources,
18(3), 352–368.
Headlam-Wells, J., Gosland, J., & Craig, J. (2005). ‘There’s Magic in the
Web’: E-Mentoring for Women’s Career Development. Career Development
International, 10(6/7), 444–459.
Hezlett, S. A. (2005). Protégés’ learning in mentoring relationships: A review of
the literature and an exploratory case study. Advances in Developing Human
Resources, 7 (4), 505–526.
Higgins, M. C., & Kram, K. E. (2001). Reconceptualizing mentoring at work: A
developmental network perspective. Academy of Management Review, 26(2),
264–288.
Holtbrügge, D., & Ambrosius, J. (2015). Mentoring, skill development, and
career success of foreign expatriates. Human Resource Development Interna-
tional, 18(3), 278–294.
Hunt, D. M., & Michael, C. (1983). Mentorship: A career training and
development tool. Academy of Management Review, 8(3), 475–485.
Hutchins, H. M., & Kovach, J. V. (2019). ADVANCING women academic
faculty in STEM careers: The role of critical HRD in supporting diversity
and inclusion. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 21(1), 72–91.
Kram, K. E. (1985). Mentoring at work. Scott, Foresman & Co.
Kuchinke, K. P. (1998). Moving beyond the dualism of performance versus
learning: A response to Barrie and Pace. Human Resource Development
Quarterly, 9(4), 377–384.
Lankau, M. J., & Scandura, T. A. (2007). Mentoring as a forum for personal
learning in organizations. The handbook of mentoring at work: Theory, research,
and practice, 95–122.
Marsick, V. (2009). Toward a unifying framework to support informal learning
theory, research and practice. Journal of Workplace Learning, 21(4), 265–275.
McCauley, C. D. (2005). The mentoring tool. Advances in Developing Human
Resources, 7 (4), 443–445.
Mendy, J. (2020). Bouncing back from workplace stress: From HRD’s indi-
vidual employee’s developmental focus to multi-facetted collective workforce
resilience intervention. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 22(4),
353–369.
Nickels, A., & Kowalski-Braun, M. (2012). Examining NIARA: How a student-
designated program for women of color is impacting mentors. Advances in
Developing Human Resources, 14(2), 188–204.
Hamlin, R. G., Ellinger, A. D., & Beattie, R. S. (2006). Coaching at the heart
of managerial effectiveness: A cross-cultural study of managerial behaviours.
Human Resource Development International, 9(3), 305–331.
 1 SITUATING DEVELOPMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS … 11

Hite, L. M., & McDonald, K. S. (2008). A new era for career development and
HRD. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 10(1), 3–7.
Marsick, V. J., & Watkins, K. E. (1990). Informal and incidental learning in the
workplace. Routledge.
Marsick, V. J., & Watkins, K. E. (2001). Informal and incidental learning. New
Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 89, 25–34.
McDonald, K. S., & Hite, L. M. (2005). Reviving the relevance of career
development in human resource development. Human Resource Development
Review, 4(4), 418–439.
McDonald, K. S., & Hite, L. M. (2005). Ethical issues in mentoring: The role
of HRD. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 7 (4), 569–582.
Murphy, W. M., & Kram, K. E. (2014). Strategic relationships at work: Creating
your circle of mentors, sponsors, and peers for success in business and life.
McGraw-Hill Education.
Ragins, B. R. (2011). Relational mentoring: A positive approach to mentoring
at work. In K. Cameron & G. Spreitzer (Eds.), The handbook of positive
organizational scholarship (pp. 519–536). New York, NY: Oxford University
Press.
Rosser, M. H. (2005). Mentoring from the top: CEO perspectives. Advances in
Developing Human Resources, 7 (4), 527–539.
Ruona, W. E. (2016). Evolving human resource development. Advances in
Developing Human Resources, 18(4), 551–565.
Scandura, T. A., & Hamilton, B. A. (2002). Enhancing performance through
mentoring. Psychological management of individual performance, 293–308.
Shirmohammadi, M., Mehdiabadi, A. H., Beigi, M., & McLean, G. N. (2020).
Mapping human resource development: Visualizing the past, bridging the
gaps, and moving toward the future. Human Resource Development Quarterly.
https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21415.
Thomas, K. M., Hu, C., Gewin, A. G., Bingham, K., & Yanchus, N. (2005).
The roles of protégé race, gender, and proactive socialization attempts on
peer mentoring. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 7 (4), 540–555.
van Bakel, M., van Oudenhoven, J. P., & Gerritsen, M. (2017). Expatriate
contact with a local host: An intervention to increase social support. Human
Resource Development International, 20(3), 215–235.
Wang, J. (2019). Crossing boundaries: How are we doing in HRD? Human
Resource Development Review, 18(4), 407–410.
Watkins, K. E., Marsick, V. J., & de Álava, M. F. (2014). Evaluating informal
learning in the workplace. In Promoting, assessing, recognizing and certifying
lifelong learning (pp. 59–77). Springer.
Yoo, S., Jang, S., Byun, S. W., & Park, S. (2019). Exploring human resource
development research themes: A keyword network analysis. Human Resource
Development Quarterly, 30(2), 155–174.
 PART I

Talent Development: Learning &

Performance Perspectives
 CHAPTER 2

Using Developmental Relationships

to Navigate Career Transitions: Implications
for Diverse Populations

Tomika W. Greer and Sarah E. Minnis

Boundaryless careers are hallmarked by movement and mobility between

employment situations and career fields (Sullivan & Arthur, 2006).
Successful transitions between career options allow boundaryless careers
to flourish. Boundaryless career transitions involve human resource
development (HRD) processes and practices, which can include lever-
aging developmental relationships between colleagues, mentors, or peers
intended to foster professional growth and yield individual, organiza-
tional, and societal outcomes. Developmental relationships are vital to

T. W. Greer (B)
University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
e-mail: twgreer@Central.UH.EDU
S. E. Minnis
Western Carolina University, Cullowhee, NC, USA
e-mail: sminnis@email.wcu.edu

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 15

Switzerland AG 2022
R. Ghosh and H. M. Hutchins (eds.), HRD Perspectives
on Developmental Relationships,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-85033-3_2
16 T. W. GREER AND S. E. MINNIS

career development and career transitions (Motulsky, 2010). Specifically,

we explore the role of developmental relationships in boundaryless career
transitions in this chapter. We use illustrative vignettes based on our
experiences engaging in career development practice to provide greater
understanding of the value of mentoring, coaching, and other develop-
mental relationships to successful outcomes for those individuals going
through career transitions.
As individuals seek advancement and change in their careers, they
should understand the ways in which such opportunities can be realized
with the aid of developmental relationships. Developmental relation-
ships can be a source of encouragement to pursue multiple career
paths, supplemental learning opportunities, and career and job-related
information (Thiry et al., 2015). In this chapter, we explain how devel-
opmental relationships help individuals navigate career transitions and
offer evidence-based suggestions for achieving successful developmental
relationships. We begin the chapter by describing two phases of career
transitions and defining developmental relationships. Next, we offer
examples using vignettes to demonstrate how developmental relationships
can help individuals navigate through the career transitions process, and
consider threats to successfully building a diverse developmental network.
Finally, we explore the implications of personal characteristics, communi-
cation processes, and other contextual factors that impact developmental
relationships.

Career Transitions and HRD

A career transition refers to “the period during which an individual adjusts
to a different setting and/or work role” (Louis, 1982, p. 73). Career
transitions can give employees a sense of accomplishing a goal, increase
the breadth of their work experiences, and provide new opportunities to
develop additional skills and competencies that can enhance employability
(Chudzikowski, 2012). Career transitions can occur within an organiza-
tion as employees move to different hierarchical levels (e.g., promotion)
and/or to different functions in the organization (e.g., job rotation).
However, career transitions are not tied to a single organizational struc-
ture, particularly in the case of boundaryless career transitions. Within
the boundaryless career concept, individual employees direct their own
career transitions to span multiple organizations as they gain transfer-
able skills and seek psychologically meaningful work (Arthur & Rousseau,
 2 USING DEVELOPMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS … 17

1996). As noted by Sullivan (1999), boundaryless career experiences

include: “(1) transitions across occupational boundaries; (2) transitions
across organizational boundaries; (3) changes in the meaning of employ-
ment relationships; (4) network relationships; (5) transitions across the
boundaries between roles; and (6) transitions across boundaries within
roles” (p. 464–465). Thus, career transitions happen throughout all
career stages. They can be demanding and will usually require a shift in
work-related thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (Louis, 1982).
Career transitions can be conceptualized as a process comprised of
two phases: career preparation and occupational identity formation. To
complete the career transition process successfully, the primary objectives
within both phases must be accomplished. Both phases require learning
processes in which HRD interventions can be used to enhance learning
and achieve the desired goals of each phase (Black & Warhurst, 2019;
Terblanche, 2020).
In the first phase of a boundaryless career transition, the learning
goal is to prepare the transitioning individual for the new employment
context. This phase may involve HRD processes and practices to include
training to gain new knowledge and skills (Greer, 2013), mentoring
(McDonald & Hite, 2014), or career coaching and exploration of indi-
vidual values and preferences (Cameron, 2009; Ng et al., 2007). In the
second phase of a boundaryless career transition, the focus of learning is
on occupational identity formation (Duberley & Carrigan, 2013; Ibarra,
1999; Schnatter et al., 2018) with the goal of helping the transitioning
individual adapt to the new employment context. Occupational identity
formation is a dynamic process by which individuals learn and ascribe
personal meaning to their work role by engaging in work activities
and relating to other people within a community of practice (Brown,
1997). In this phase of the career transition, proper onboarding, informal
learning activities, and socialization into the new employment context are
paramount. As shown in Fig. 2.1, developmental relationships are one
category of HRD interventions that can play a role in facilitating both
phases of the career transition process.

Defining Developmental Relationships

Through a successful career transition, individuals must intentionally seek
and cultivate developmental relationships that will foster their profes-
sional competence with respect to the work-related knowledge needed to
18 T. W. GREER AND S. E. MINNIS

Phase 1: PreparaƟon for Phase 2: OccupaƟonal

New Employment IdenƟty FormaƟon

Training Onboarding
Mentoring Informal Learning
Career Coaching Socialization

Developmental RelaƟonships: Formal Mentoring,

Informal Mentoring, Coaching, Developmental Networks

Fig. 2.1 Career transition phases supported by developmental relationships

grow further in their career, as well as the professional competence neces-

sary to engage professionally within the career field and, many times, a
new organization. Podolny and Baron (1997) presented a typology of
developmental relationships and networks based on the content of the
interactions. They characterized the relationships as task-advice, buy-in,
strategic information, and social support. Within a task-advice network,
information and resources directly associated with a job position are
shared, resulting in improved task/job performance. An employee’s buy-
in network relationships can control their career fate because of the
relative organizational, social, and political power of the people in this
network who also transmit role expectations and organizational identity
to the employee. Strategic information relationships are less formal, based
on interpersonal attraction between the members, and can include sharing
organizational gossip and personal advice regarding career movement.
The social support relationships are also based on interpersonal attrac-
tion, providing friendship, and supporting an employee’s membership and
sense of belonging to the organization.
As demonstrated through the typology offered by Podolny and
Baron (1997), developmental relationships can be distinguished by their
content—specifically, which resources and information are shared among
the actors in the relationship. Additionally, developmental relationships
can be characterized by whether the relationships are formed informally
 2 USING DEVELOPMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS … 19

or due to job interdependence. However, each relationship type can play

a role in facilitating successful career transitions. In HRD practice, the
types of relationships identified by Podolny and Baron (1997) materi-
alize as mentoring and coaching. For this chapter, we have identified
four types of developmental relationships that can improve the career
transition process: formal mentoring, informal mentoring, coaching, and
developmental networks. As posited by Podolny and Baron (1997),
the relationships can be characterized by their content and structure as
discussed below.

Formal Mentoring
Mentoring has been linked to learning new skills, improving self-
confidence, developing career goals, identifying new opportunities for
advancement, and receiving more promotions (Chandler et al., 2010;
Dreher & Ash, 1990; Kram & Brager, 1992; Ragins & Cotton, 1999;
Scandura, 1992)—all of which contribute to successful career transi-
tions. The benefits of formal mentoring have been well documented
and warrant the wide use of this HRD intervention. Formal mentoring
programs are sanctioned by an organization and designed to replicate the
benefits of mentoring as a structured developmental process in which
organizations control who is mentored, when they are mentored, and
how they are mentored (Chao, 2009).
The developmental relationships that arise from formal mentoring
programs are typically formed from matching a mentor and a mentee
(Wanberg et al., 2006). These relationships are arranged for a specific
duration and are usually shorter in duration than a spontaneous devel-
opmental relationship (Blake-Beard, 2001; Chao, 2009; Wanberg et al.,
2006). Within formal mentoring relationships, the mentor often advises
the career development of the mentee, who typically has less organiza-
tional experience than the mentor. This career advisement can include
providing support, promoting and sponsoring the mentee, teaching, and
counseling. The primary focus in formal mentoring relationships is on
the mentee’s development toward professional goals, usually set by the
organization that initiated the mentoring program (Chao, 2009).
20 T. W. GREER AND S. E. MINNIS

Informal Mentoring
Informal mentoring relationships emerge organically out of unstructured
social interactions and are not governed by the timelines and guidelines
that characterize formal mentoring programs (Wanberg et al., 2006).
Informal mentoring develops out of interpersonal comfort rather than
assignment by an organization and includes many of the same activi-
ties as formal mentoring, such as sponsoring, teaching, and additional
career support (Douglas, 1997; Wanberg et al., 2006). The informal
mentoring relationships can last up to 8–10 years as the mentor guides the
care and psychological development of the mentee in addition to other
types of support (Douglas, 1997). When compared to formal mentoring,
informal mentoring relationships can result in more intense and more
committed developmental relationships, adding more value and mutual
support for both parties (Chao, 2009; Raabe & Beehr, 2003). Whereas
formal mentors are likely to improve their visibility in the organization
because of the organizational support of the mentoring relationships,
informal mentoring is often invisible and unconstrained (Chandler et al,
2010; Chao, 2009).

Coaching
Coaching is a short-term, task-oriented developmental relationship that
focuses on specific learning and development goals related to improving
employee performance (Egan & Hamlin, 2014; Ellinger & Kim, 2014).
According to Hamlin et al. (2008), coaching “is designed to improve
existing skills, competence and performance, and to enhance their
personal effectiveness or personal development or personal growth”
(p. 295). Cox et al. (2014) conceptualized coaching as a developmental
relationship comprised of four elements of relatively equal importance:
“(a) the client as individual, (b) the coach as individual, (c) coaching rela-
tionships and processes, and (d) context” (p. 142). Given the personal
nature of coaching goals, the coaching relationship can be customized
and uniquely designed for a coach-coachee dyad (Egan & Hamlin, 2014).
Accordingly, coaches can choose the coaching methods and tactics that
are most appropriate for the stated goals of the developmental relationship
(Cox et al., 2014).
A coach has four responsibilities to accomplish within the coaching
process, including encouraging the coachee’s self-discovery; clarifying,
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Malleco, south of Bio-Bio, is peculiar in the fact that it alone of the
Provinces touches neither the Pacific nor Argentina, having a strip of
Bio-Bio and Cautín on the east and Arauco on the west. The
mountainous eastern section is heavily wooded and the fertile
central plain with a mild damp climate is celebrated for its crops of
wheat.
Cautín, extending all the way across the country, touches three
Provinces on the north, Arauco, Malleco, and Bio-Bio. Here are
plains, mountains, and valleys, with much rainfall and luxuriant
vegetation of forest, grass, and agriculture. Excellent timber and
tannin extracts, fruit and cattle, produce wealth, and coal and gold
await exploitation.
Valdivia, south of Cautín, also extends across the country. Here
are lower mountains, many passes into Argentina, extensive forests,
several lakes, much rain; but a healthful climate, luxuriant
vegetation, with profitable agriculture, forest products, and cattle
breeding.
Llanquihue follows, extending south to the Gulf of Ancud and
beyond. The present southern terminus of the Longitudinal Railway
is the capital, Puerto Montt, at the head of the Gulf. This is largely a
forest region, though in the valley of the lakes are fertile lands suited
to grazing and agriculture, both of which industries are increasingly
followed. The climate is rather cool but equable.
Chiloé, the last of the Provinces, consists of the large island of
that name covering about 560 square miles, other islands much
smaller, and a long archipelago called Chonos extending to the
peninsula of Taitao. The island, Chiloé, is largely covered with
forests which, strange to say, have a somewhat tropical character,
with fine timber, dense undergrowth, and trailing vines; for the
climate, with excessive rainfall, is extremely mild for the latitude,
which corresponds to that of Massachusetts. Cereals, potatoes, and
fruit are grown, and many pigs are raised; though forestry, and
fishing are of greater importance.
The Territory of Magallanes extends from the 47th parallel south
including the mainland and islands, with mountains, rivers, forest,
and plains. On the coast the climate is not severe; in the interior it is
more rigorous. Cattle and sheep raising are the most profitable
industries; whaling and forestry are important.
 CHAPTER XXXI
CHILE: PORTS AND TRANSPORTATION

Ports

Although Chile cannot boast of many excellent harbors, with her

extended coast line her ports are naturally numerous; 59 is the
official number, of which 15 are primary ports with custom houses,
while the rest are dependent, save Punta Arenas, which is proudly
apart as a free port, the only one in this part of the world. The
primary ports are not necessarily those with the best harbors, but
were made such on account of the demands of commerce.
The service along the coast is similar to that of Peru except that
the boats of the Peruvian Steamship Line do not go beyond their
own shores, while there is additional service by Chilian steamers.
Before the War 40 per cent of the engaged shipping was British.
Service to and from Europe, formerly by way of the Straits, long
ended at Valparaiso, later extending to Callao, and for one or two
sailings to Panamá. The exigencies of war interfered with the
execution of plans which are now being carried out or modified.
European express service below Panamá is likely to be confined to
the ports of Callao, Mollendo, Arica, Iquique, Antofagasta,
Valparaiso, and Punta Arenas, with a possible call for coal at
Coronel. Other express service may include Coquimbo and
Talcahuano. Aside from the leading coastal lines a few companies
operate smaller ships locally; on the sea, and 843 miles on the
several navigable rivers at the south. There is also service among
the southern islands and to Juan Fernandez, 400 miles to the west.
Valparaiso, as the most important Pacific port south of Panama,
deserves especial attention. This rapidly growing city, population
about 200,000, to one coming from the north seems quite European,
with an atmosphere more crisp and businesslike than that of courtly
Lima or picturesque La Paz. The semicircular bay is called a good
harbor except when the north winds blow, as they are liable to do in
winter. Some years ago a British steamer lying at anchor, in an
unusually strong blow was sunk with all on board. A breakwater
expected to avert such danger, has for some time been in
construction; but the depth of water off shore has made the work
difficult. Freight was formerly discharged into lighters and people into
rowboats, the steamers anchoring at some distance from shore.
Now, however, a fiscal mole 100 feet long, one half with a depth of
water of 43 feet, the rest of 36 feet, provides all facilities. Valparaiso
has fair hotels, providing insufficient accommodation for the rapidly
increasing travel and business. In many respects the city is quite up
to date, but unhappily here and in Santiago Americans in winter
suffer more with the cold when sitting indoors than in La Paz and
Lima, though for walking outside it is comfortable enough with the
temperature near freezing. As a rule dwelling houses have no
heating apparatus, no stoves, but in some hotel dining rooms electric
heaters are employed, and oil stoves may be provided for Americans
in their rooms. While Chile has coal mines, their production is
insufficient for the use of shipping and of their varied industries, and
the people are not accustomed to use either the native or the
imported article for heating purposes.
The business section of Valparaiso is on a narrow strip of shore
between the bay and the amphitheatre of hills, the level sector
varying in width from two blocks to half a mile. Climbing up the
slopes and crowning the hill tops is most of the residential district.
The business section, largely destroyed by an earthquake in 1906,
has been rebuilt in a more substantial manner, and it well compares
with other cities of its size. Ascensors run by cable on inclined
planes are in general use for the ascent of the bluffs, though paths
and a few carriage roads wind steeply upward in the cañons here
and there separating the hills, some of which rise to a height of 1000
feet. The suburb of Viña del Mar, population 34,000, a fashionable
summer resort with a fine beach and club house, distant a half hour
by rail, is much frequented by the foreign devotees of golf, tennis,
and other athletic sports.
Other Ports. Of the other principal ports we have observed that
Arica is the terminus of the Arica-La Paz Railway, that Iquique is
important for nitrates, Antofagasta for nitrates, copper, and as the
medium of commerce with Bolivia by the old railway to Oruro and
now to La Paz; Coquimbo as the port of a province with both mineral
and agricultural wealth. Below Valparaiso are better harbors.
Concepción, the largest city south of Santiago, 350 miles distant, is
spoken of as the outlet of the rich Province of that name, but being
12 miles from the mouth of the Bio-Bio River it is not a real seaport
and is served by Talcahuano, 9 miles away, which has one of the
best harbors on the coast. For this reason, though a much smaller
city, population 24,000, it was selected as a military port and for the
Government dry docks. A little farther south on Arauco Bay are
Coronel and Lota, both important coaling stations, at one of which all
steamers call; Lota, the larger city, has all conveniences for shipping.
At the tip of the mainland in the Straits is Punta Arenas, not visited
by the regular coasting steamers, but a port where every passing
ship is likely to make a brief call.

Railways

While the Chilians have always cultivated a taste for the sea, for
strategical more than commercial reasons railway construction has
of late been strongly favored. In this medium of traffic Chile in
proportion to her area is far ahead of the other West Coast countries.
It is true that the difficulties of topography are less. The oldest
existing line in Latin America was here constructed in 1849 by a
Bostonian, William Wheelright, who later founded the Pacific Steam
Navigation Company, the earliest giving regular steamship service to
Europe from the West Coast. This first railway line was from the port
Caldera to the mining town Copiapó. The line from Valparaiso to
Santiago, also constructed by Americans, was finished in 1863.
Government ownership is popular in Chile, and of the 8000 miles of
road in operation the State owns over 5000, with considerable
extensions planned. Unfortunately six different gauges have been
used, varying from 2 feet 6 inches on the Antofagasta Bolivia Line to
5 feet 6 inches on the Central Railway.
 The Central Railway. This is a Government Line connecting
Valparaiso with the capital Santiago, express trains with American
parlor cars making the run of 117 miles in four hours. The road is
now to be electrified. South along the rich Central Valley, the same
Railway runs through sleeping cars to Valdivia and to Puerto Montt,
the latter city 750 miles from Santiago. This section is well worth a
visit, whether from a scenic or a business point of view. A bridge
1400 feet long and 300 above the bed of the Malleco River cost over
$1,000,000.
There are many branches from the main line, some of these
privately owned; most of them to coast ports, a few towards the
Cordillera. Valdivia is the most southern ocean port to which a
branch extends. Farther north, the third city of Chile, Concepción, is
favored, and Talcahuano near by. From Concepción a coast road
leads south to Lota, Coronel, and beyond. From Talca a line goes to
Constitución, of some importance for agriculture, shipyards, and gold
mining. Another branch goes to the port Pichilemu; from Santiago
one extends 72 miles to the port San Antonio, nearer the capital than
is Valparaiso but a secondary port to be improved by the building of
docks. The Central Railway obviously forms a very important part of
the real longitudinal railway, but the section which has the name
Longitudinal begins farther north.
The South Longitudinal. From Calera on the Valparaiso-Santiago
Railway a branch leads 45 miles to Cabildo, where begins the
Longitudinal proper. This because of construction difficulties is of
narrow gauge, one metre. On account of poor equipment and
service, and the competition of steamship lines along the coast, its
traffic is at present small; but with better facilities and increase of
population it will be of much value. At last accounts there was weekly
service to Antofagasta with two changes of cars, not counting the
one from Valparaiso or Santiago in order to reach Cabildo. Here,
three hours from Santiago, the South Longitudinal is taken to the city
of Copiapó; for the Longitudinal has two sections. The ride is through
a fairly pleasant country with varied scenery, the region being partly
agricultural and partly mineral. In this section are heavy grades,
rising to 6 per cent, requiring 28 miles of the rack system. Branches
or other connecting lines here and there reach the sea. The road
passes through the important port Coquimbo, and the adjoining
Serena, at which point, 200 miles from Valparaiso, the desert land
begins; though in river valleys there is still some verdure. From
Vallenar on the main line a branch runs 31 miles to the port Huasco.
A private line from the port Carrizal, 92 miles north of Huasco and 73
south of Caldera, crosses the Longitudinal. At Copiapó we come to
the old line from Caldera, a fairly good port, shipping copper and
doing considerable other business, though not a port of the first
class. A branch in the other direction extends to San Antonio.
The North Longitudinal. At Copiapó we change to the North
Longitudinal from which there is a branch to Chañaral, about 50
miles north of Caldera, on a large but exposed bay in one of the
richest mineral districts of Atacama, with large smelting works, and
exporting gold, silver, and copper. A private (British) railway system
of 184 miles, crossing the Longitudinal, serves a nitrate district and
the port of Taltal, 100 miles south of Antofagasta; a primary port on a
well protected bay, with piers fitted with steam cranes, a centre of the
nitrate and copper industries. Taltal is a modern town with important
business houses. Besides gold, silver, and copper, the Province has
some undeveloped nitrate land.
Farther on at Aguas Blancas, a railway belonging to the Bolivia-
Antofagasta Company runs to Caleta Coloso, a port six miles south
of Antofagasta and connected by rail with that city as well as with
various nitrate properties. Farther still the Longitudinal crosses the
Antofagasta-Bolivia Railway at Baquedano, where some traffic is
exchanged. It is the intention of the Government to construct its own
line to Antofagasta and to the port of Mejillones some miles north.
Beyond this crossing, from Toco on the Longitudinal, the Anglo-
Chilian Nitrate and Railway Company’s Line branches to the port of
Tocopilla. At last Pintados, the one time terminus is reached, where
connection is made with the Nitrate Railways, which go on to Iquique
and Pisagua. But in spite of this the Government Line is now being
prolonged to the former city. It is intended ultimately to extend the
main line to Arica, 175 miles farther, a section likely to be
unprofitable commercially but desired for other reasons. From Arica
there is a railway to Tacna, near the Peruvian border, hence on
completion of this section there would be through rail service from
near the northern border to Puerto Montt in the far south, a primary
port on the Gulf of Reloncavi. The length of the road from Puerto
Montt to Jazpampa the present terminus, east of Pisagua, is 1902
miles; to Taratá, the most northern town in the mountains, the
distance is 207 miles more.
The Antofagasta-Bolivia Railway. The Bolivian section of the
important Antofagasta Railway has already been referred to. That in
Chile deserves further consideration. British owned, like most of the
Chilian railways not belonging to the State, it is the longest and most
important of these. Although uncommonly narrow with a 2 foot 6 inch
gauge, the sleeping cars are more comfortable than some with
double the width. The road operates 835 miles of main track to La
Paz, 518 of these in Chile. There is semi-weekly service to La Paz in
practically two days, besides local trains. One thousand, two
hundred and fifty miles of track are controlled by the Company. The
climb begins at once, the road in 18 miles getting 1800 feet above
the sea. At km. 36 a branch 70 miles long goes to the Boquete
Nitrate Fields, altitude 5622 feet. At Prat, km. 59, a branch goes
down to Mejillones, a new port, opened by the Company in 1906,
called the finest harbor on the coast, capable of holding the fleets of
the world (it was said when these were smaller) and so protected
that shipping suffers no inconvenience from bad weather. Tocopilla,
37 miles north of Antofagasta, has direct rail connection with that city
by a line 43 miles long. The main Antofagasta line, crossing the
Longitudinal at km. 96, at km. 116 enters the principal nitrate district
of this region and leaves it 35 miles beyond. In this section are 24
oficinas, as the nitrate plants are called, some of them models of
their kind.
Going in either direction this part is traversed at night; otherwise
one might be refreshed by the sight of a little green at Calama, 149
miles from Antofagasta, at six a.m. This was a copper mining centre
in Inca days and a smelter is here now. At this altitude some persons
stop a day, a good plan if one is not sure of his heart; though oxygen
is now carried for use in emergency. At km. 254 is a short branch, 6
miles, to Chuquicamata, to be referred to later. Just beyond the
Conchi station is a graceful viaduct with six lattice girder spans of 80
feet each, supported on steel trestle towers. This, called the highest
viaduct in the world, is 336 feet above the water of the Rio Loa, at an
altitude of nearly 10,000 feet. Here a branch line runs to the copper
mines of Conchi Viejo. At San Pedro station, 195 miles, at 10,600
feet altitude, are reservoirs blasted from the solid rock, on which the
Company spent $6,000,000 to supply Antofagasta, the nitrate fields,
and the railway with water. The water comes from three different
places, one of them 37 miles northeast and 14,500 feet above the
sea: this source capable of supplying 6000 tons of water daily
through 11-inch pipes.
The road now passes two snow capped volcanoes, from one of
which smoke may be rising, and crosses a stream of lava one-third
of a mile wide and several miles long, to the summit of the main line,
13,000 feet. Soon after, a borax lake belonging to a British company
may be seen; 24 miles long, it is the largest single deposit in the
world and the chief source of the world’s supply. At Ollague, where
snow storms occasionally impede traffic, is a branch to the rich
copper mines at Collahuasi. The Bolivian frontier is soon afterward
crossed, and at Uyuni a change is made to the broader gauge line to
La Paz.
The Trans-Andine Railway. Of all the railroads of Chile, the
Trans-Andine is naturally the most famous, as a part of the only
trans-continental railway south of Panama; but financially, as yet it is
hardly a success. With post-war increase of traffic, there will
doubtless be an improvement. The Trans-Andine section of metre
gauge begins at Los Andes, altitude 2723 feet, 88 miles from
Valparaiso. A change is here made from the State Line, 5.5-foot
gauge. It is a distance of 43 miles to the tunnel, a steep climb up the
Aconcagua River Valley, with a maximum grade of 8 per cent; 20
miles of rack railway are employed. There are 25 tunnels, and on the
Aconcagua River or its branches, 118 bridges. The scenery is wild
and the journey delightful. Sheds have been erected against snow
and land slides. Up to 1916 the road was closed for several months
each winter; but with an increase of sheds and with a force of men
continually digging, the road was kept open through the years 1916,
’17 and ’18; it was seriously blocked in July, 1919. While previously
passenger traffic was the more remunerative, in 1916 unusual efforts
were made for the benefit of important freight which it was
impossible to ship by sea.
The tunnel is at a height of 10,486 feet, its length is 10,385 feet,
each practically two miles. The boundary line is near the middle,
each country building to that point; but the whole is operated as one
line from Los Andes to Mendoza. The line was opened in the
Centennial year, April 16, 1910, in time for the Exposition at Buenos
Aires. The cost of the Chilian section was about $15,000,000.
Operation is at a loss, interest being paid by the Government. The
capitalization is $317,000 a mile. Fifteen Trans-Andine projects have
been put forward, most of them for the south, one from near Puerto
Montt. One in construction is from Talcahuano to Bahia Blanca by
way of Temuco. A road from Punta Arenas to the Loreto coal fields is
the most southern railway in the world, as that is the most southern
city. The early construction is expected of an important road at the
north from Salta in Argentina by Huaytiquina on the border to
Antofagasta. Of wagon roads there are said to be 20,000 miles.
The Arica-La Paz Railway is described on page 222.
 CHAPTER XXXII
CHILE: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES

Although Chile is often compared to California, to which State it

has some but not a close resemblance in length, partial dryness,
earthquakes, and fruit, the specialty of Chile is not shared by
California. Chile and nitrates are almost synonymous terms. A
thought of one suggests the other. The greater part of the nitrate
country earlier belonged to Peru, some also to Bolivia; and both
countries still bewail their loss.

Mining

The Nitrate Fields we know are in the north, chiefly in the

Provinces of Tarapacá, Antofagasta, and Atacama. If this desert land
does not blossom as the rose, it produces the wherewithal to make
other fields blossom, and the wealth to purchase the roses. The
richest deposits are mainly along a stretch of 300 miles from Pisagua
in Tarapacá, to Coquimbo. With an average width of 2¹⁄₂ miles, the
fields are at a distance of from 10 to 80 miles back from the coast,
and at a height of 2000-5000 feet. The deposits, which are not in
continuous fields, are sometimes on the surface, but oftener overlaid
with strata of earth several feet thick. The raw material called caliche
contains from 20 to 65 per cent nitrate of soda. After pickling in tanks
8-12 hours, the liquid, caldo, is run off, the sand and refuse dropping
to the bottom. When ready for export the article carries 15-16 per
cent nitrogen and 36 per cent sodium. Commercial nitrate is a white
cheese-like substance, which is used in manufacturing the highest
grade of gunpowder, also to produce nitric and sulphuric acid; but
the bulk of it in ordinary times is employed as a fertilizer, doubling
and tripling the harvest. Within recent years the demand and in
consequence the production has greatly varied, the partial recovery
in 1920 being soon followed by a depression.
 A by-product is a yellow liquid, which being chemically treated
leaves a blue crystal, iodine, which costs as much an ounce as
saltpetre per 100 pounds. Being worth $700-$800 a cask it is
shipped in treasure vaults with bullion. The nitrate establishments
called oficinas provide good salaries, and the best possible quarters
for their officials, and they are interesting to visit. As a mineral, the
nitrate is distinguished from guano although believed by some to
have the same origin. British companies have long been engaged in
this industry. American interests have more recently acquired
holdings. The Du Ponts have three properties covering 14,000 acres.
The chief ports of this region are Iquique and Antofagasta,
Pisagua being a smaller port visited only by the caletero or the
strictly freight boats. Iquique is a more agreeable city than in former
days, when water was sometimes $2 a gallon, and people drank
champagne, they said, because water was too expensive. Now the
dust of the streets is laid by sprinklers, some people have bath
rooms, a few even fountains in patios. Antofagasta is also a desert
place, unattractive to look at, but with good shops, business houses,
and fair hotels. The water comes a distance of nearly 200 miles, the
source more than two miles above the sea.
Potash. In addition to nitrates Chile possesses extensive beds of
useful potash one of which is estimated to contain nearly 7,000,000
tons easy of exploitation.
Copper. The property of the Chile Copper Company (one of the
Guggenheim interests) at Chuquicamata is said to be the largest
copper deposit known in the world. About 2000 of the 9600 acres of
the claim are mineralized. The outcrop of copper is one and a half
miles in length. It has been proved below to a width of 1800 feet and
a length of 7500 feet. Ten of the 2080 shafts are over 1000 feet in
depth, and at 1500 feet the ore is of commercial value. Over
700,000,000 tons of positive and probable ore have been developed,
carrying an average value of 2.12 per cent copper. The reduction
plant has a capacity of 15,000 tons a day, the refinery of
180,000,000 pounds a year. With a 90 per cent extraction the yield is
96 pounds of copper per ton. At the port of Tocopilla, north of
Antofagasta, the Company has a power station where oil from
California is used to generate a power of 24,000-27,000 kilowatts
needed at Chuquicamata. This is transported by wire across country
a distance of 100 miles. At normal prices the cost of copper
production with delivery in New York or Europe is $121 a ton, or
about 6 cents a pound; higher with war time conditions which still
obtain (1921). From the 15,000 ton plant in full service 175,000,000
pounds of copper would be produced annually. In 1920, 55,617,000
pounds were produced, the largest amount from any mine in Chile.
In 1916 important mines belonging to the Calama Mining Company
were added to the Chile Company’s holdings.
The Braden Copper Company, another Guggenheim interest,
owns about 2300 acres in the Province of O’Higgins. They have a
concentrator, a smelting and converting plant, a hydro-electric power
plant with 800 kilowatt capacity and an electric and a steam railway;
the latter, 43 miles long, connecting the property with Rancagua,
which is on the Central Railway 43 miles southeast of Santiago. The
ore is of concentrating copper, a sulphide in brecciated andesite,
around an extinct volcano. It runs about 2.5 per cent, with an earlier
production cost in New York of 6.5 cents a pound, but now higher. In
1916, 1500-1800 men were employed. The plant, recently enlarged,
is not working to capacity. In 1917, 64,000,000 pounds were
produced, over 77,000,000 in 1918, with diminishing demand,
40,000,000 in 1920.
Another American syndicate has acquired the Tamaya Copper
Mines in the Province of Coquimbo between Ovalle and Tongoy, the
latter, a minor port 27 miles south of Coquimbo, sheltered from north
winds, with smelting works in the place. With an efficient pumping
plant and other improvements installed, the mines are expected to
yield large production. Other companies, native, British, and French
are engaged in copper mining at Carrizal and elsewhere.
Iron. Coquimbo, a Province with local importance for agriculture,
is notable for its deposits of iron ore, said to amount to a billion tons.
Only one of these has been worked, a deposit located at Tofo, about
four miles east of Cruz Grande, and 30 north of the city of
Coquimbo. This property was leased in 1913 by the Bethlehem Steel
Company from a French Company which had developed the mine to
some extent and produced ore. The ore appearing as the top of a
large hill will be mined by electric shovels and transported by an
electric railway to docks at Cruz Grande. The amount of ore is very
large though with exact tonnage undetermined. The Company is still
exploring the deposit at depth.
The mines and railway are completely equipped. At Cruz Grande a
basin dock has been constructed with large storage pockets into
which the ore will be discharged from the railway cars, and from
which it will go directly into the vessels. The Steel Company is
constructing steamers of 20,000 tons to carry the ore to the United
States for use in their furnaces. The ore is very pure averaging about
67.50 per cent iron. It is a dense ore reddish black in color, a mixture
of magnetite and hematite.
The French Company formerly controlling Tofo had erected a steel
plant at Corral intending to transport the ore thither. There is no iron
ore near there and the plant is not operating.
Of the other deposits in Coquimbo and farther north some are of
considerable size, but none is located so near the coast as Tofo and
none has been developed.
Other metals existing in Chile are at present of less importance
and slight operation. A moderate gold output accompanies the
production of copper, and there is some placer mining, especially in
the south. Deposits are known to exist in many Provinces from
Tacna to Tierra del Fuego. Silver too exists, but its production is
chiefly as a by-product. Lead, zinc, molybdenum, and tungsten are
exported in limited quantities.
Coal, following nitrates, is of the first importance among ordinary
minerals, a source of large wealth though the production, about
1,700,000 tons yearly, is insufficient for the needs of the country.
Little is therefore exported and a good deal is normally imported from
Great Britain and Australia; until recently a little only from the United
States. Most of the mines in operation, owned by ten companies, are
near the ports of Talcahuano, Coronel, and Lota. The coal is not
equal in quality to the British, but it has been used by steamships,
railways, and mines with fair results. Coronel or Lota, five miles apart
on Arauco Bay, one or the other, is a regular port of call for
steamships. The Cousiño property at Lota was purchased in 1852
and later was conducted by the son’s widow, under her
administration the greatest financial enterprise carried on by a
Chilian. At her death she was called the richest woman in the world,
leaving a property of $70,000,000. The capital of the company is
$20,000,000. The mines are one-fourth of a mile deep and extend
under the sea, where there is good rock and no drip. Here are
streets, restaurants, offices, stalls for horses, blacksmith shops, etc.
A British Company, the Arauco, in addition to coal properties
operates its own railway with 62 miles of main line and branches,
besides mining spurs. It has four daily trains from Concepción to
Lota, Coronel, and beyond, passing over the Bio-Bio River by a
bridge of 1¹⁄₄ miles, the longest in South America. Of coal about 1¹⁄₂
million tons are produced and as much more is imported.
Petroleum is believed by Chilians to exist in large quantities, but
the present development is infantile. It has been found in southern
Chile, on the Island of Chiloé and in the Patagonas district, as well
as in the north near the Bolivian frontier. Large quantities are
imported principally from Peru, normally about 400,000 tons a year.
Oil recently found in the Magallanes Territory is stated by experts to
be equal in quality to that found in Argentina. The extent of the
deposits seems to rival that of the famous fields of Comodoro
Rivadavia. Legislation to regulate the well drilling is proposed to
prevent inundation of deposits by subterranean streams, to restrict
the ownership to native Chilians or foreigners with Chilian families,
and to secure to the Government a 10 per cent royalty. A strong flow
of petroleum of great purity from a well about 300 feet deep has
recently been reported from Chiloé.
Sulphur comes from a largely producing mine at the foot of Mt.
Ollague, and from one of growing importance at Tacora on the Arica-
La Paz Railway. The deposits of Tacora are believed to contain 10 to
45 million tons of sulphur. In 1915 about 10,000 tons were produced
in Chile.
 Salt. From various salt deposits, the salinas of Punta de Lobos
and several mountain lagoons, about $300,000 worth of salt was
produced, supplying the domestic market.
Borax is important, Chile furnishing about half of the world supply.

Agriculture

Of large importance and value are the agricultural interests

including fruit, although the imports of such products are nearly
double the exports in value. About one eighth of the area of Chile
consists of arable land. The production should be greatly increased.
Twenty million acres are still available, and with better methods
excellent results might be secured. In 1914-15 about 25,000,000
bushels of wheat were raised, half as many potatoes, and more than
half as much hay; besides barley, oats, beans, corn, etc.
Considerable wheat is exported with some barley, oats, rye, and
legumes. Of 15,000,000 acres suitable for wheat, only one fifth is in
cultivation. It grows well from Aconcagua to Cautín inclusive, but
farther south the crops are uncertain. They average 15-20 bushels
an acre. Six hundred thousand acres are devoted to alfalfa, which in
favorable places gives three crops a year and has roots ten feet
long, a distinctive variety being formed here. In irrigated valleys from
Coquimbo north, corn gives two fine crops annually. Potatoes
flourish from Concepción south, in Chiloé yielding 250-350 bushels
to the acre. Flax and sugar beets might be raised. Some agricultural
machines are now employed, in the neighborhood of 30,000.
Fruit. Delicious fruits of all temperate zone varieties and some of
the subtropical are raised, chiefly for home consumption, but with
export possibilities. Drying and canning of these is practised to some
extent, but might be done on a much larger and more profitable
scale. Excellent table grapes are raised; many vineyards devote their
product to wine making, the industry being especially developed in
the Provinces of Santiago, O’Higgins, and Colchagua. In the north,
wine is made of the port and sherry classes; in the central section
light wines of excellent quality, some of which are exported to the
neighboring countries. More wine however is imported of expensive
varieties. The vineyards are in general owned by natives, and
according to location are worth $200-$1000 an acre. Raisins are
produced in quantity.

Forestry

This might become a more important industry, though now

practised to a considerable extent. It has been customary to burn a
section of forest at the close of summer, February, to get rid of the
underbrush, and later to cut down the trees, which must have
suffered some injury. The forest area is below the Bio-Bio River. On
a tract of 100 square miles extending from near Valdivia north to
Temuco, the timber averages about 9000 feet to the acre. Farther
south the woods are denser, as on the Island of Chiloé. The greatest
extent of forest is in Valdivia, the next in Llanquihue and in Chiloé.
On this Island a 60 mile railway was constructed by the Government
from Ancud at the northwest to Castro south, on the east side,
making a part of the forest accessible. Oak, Chilian mahogany,
laurel, ash, pine, and other hard and soft woods are available. There
are in Chile 3000 saw-mills and some pulp and shingle mills. The
first and second grades of wood, used for floors and finished boards,
bring $12-$18 per 1000 feet, ash $25; the third grade is worth $8.
Shingles are $3 per thousand. From the forests comes the quillay
bark with a soapy substance for cleaning silk and fine linen, of which
$200,000 worth is annually exported to France, after being prepared
by two Chilian factories. Tannin, of which 15,000 tons are annually
used, is derived from bark of several kinds. With additional railways
planned and Government data furnished, there is opportunity for
good investments with moderate capital.

Stock Raising

Stock raising of various kinds is carried on quite extensively by

some large companies under British, German, or Chilian control,
often paying 20 per cent dividends. Sheep are in the lead,
numbering probably 6,000,000, cattle 3,000,000, horses 725,000,
half as many goats, a third as many pigs, fewer donkeys, mules,
alpacas, and llamas. The horses are good, larger than those in Peru,
and noted for their excellent trotting, some making this as easy as a
good pace or canter. In 1916, 20,000,000 pounds of wool were
produced, half of this in Magallanes Territory not far from Punta
Arenas, where there are more than 3,000,000 sheep. The meat is of
the finest quality; the farther south the better the wool in thickness
and length of staple.
The cattle are improving with the introduction of Shorthorns and
Herefords; there is some export, especially to Bolivia. The 3,000,000
at present might be increased ten fold. A British company is
constructing a frigorifico at Puerto Montt. The dairy industry is
important, with good cheese, bottled milk, and some condensed.
Goats are numerous in the mountains. Apiculture is practised and
fine honey is made. Fisheries are of great importance and value, at
Juan Fernandez, as also along the coast.

Manufacturing

Such industries are more developed in Chile than in any of the

countries previously considered. The 6200 manufactories with
80,000 operatives and an investment of $250,000,000 show great
diversity. There are saw mills, flour mills, breweries, sugar refineries,
some coarse sugar being imported from Peru, tanneries, furniture,
and shoe factories, with others commonly found. A cement factory
pays a quarterly dividend of 5 per cent, a brewery gave a semi-
annual dividend of 15 per cent. A new one is planned for Arica. More
than $12,000,000 are invested in the leather industries, with an
output worth $20,000,000. Twenty-two or more shoe factories are
scattered in various cities. Clothing and textiles are next in value of
production, followed by $10,000,000 worth of furniture and
woodwork. Ship building is important.

Investments
 Activities in Chile in the immediate future for which about
$15,000,000 have been appropriated by the Government include
work or equipment on railways, roads, bridges, barracks,
waterworks, sewer systems, building construction, and port works.
These furnish opportunities to which many others may be added.
The possibilities in agriculture, fruit raising and canning are obvious;
those in fisheries, saw mills and lumber, development of water
power, in factories of various kinds may be noted, as well as for large
capitalists in mining. A $10,000,000 contract for the electrification
and equipment of four zones of the Government railways has been
concluded with a combination of several American interests.
THE EAST COAST