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The Palgrave Handbook
of Disability at Work
Edited by
Sandra L. Fielden
Mark E. Moore
Gemma L. Bend
The Palgrave Handbook of Disability at Work
Sandra L. Fielden
Mark E. Moore • Gemma L. Bend
Editors
The Palgrave
Handbook
of Disability at Work
Editors
Sandra L. Fielden Mark E. Moore
Manchester Business School Department of Kinesiology
University of Manchester East Carolina University
Manchester, UK Greenville, NC, USA
Gemma L. Bend
The Open University Business School
Milton Keynes, UK
ISBN 978-3-030-42965-2 ISBN 978-3-030-42966-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42966-9
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2020

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the
whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does
not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective
laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are
believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors
give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or
omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affiliations.
Cover illustration: smartboy10, Getty Images
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This book is dedicated:
Sandra L. Fielden
To Kay, Adelina and Lynn—I am so lucky to have you in my life, and to my
co-editors, you have been a pure joy to work with.
Mark E. Moore
This book is dedicated to my late parents, Edward and June Moore. Your love,
assistance, dedication and encouragement have made this book as well as my
success as a scholar-teacher possible. Thank you for everything!
Gemma L. Bend
To Nathan, thank you for all your continued love and support.
Acknowledgements
A special thanks to all those who have contributed to the development of this
book allowing for the voices of those at the heart of our research to be heard.
We would also like to thank the authors for working so hard with us to
produce what we believe will be the best and most comprehensive book of its
kind—you are all amazing.
vii
Contents
1 Introduction 1
Sandra L. Fielden, Mark E. Moore, and Gemma L. Bend
Part I Legal Aspects 23
2 Generating Interdisciplinary Insights to Regulate

for Inclusive Employment 25
Liz Oliver
3 Confronting Episodic Disability in the Workplace:

The Canadian Experience 45
Odelia Bay and Roxanne Mykitiuk
4 Determining Work Capacity 63

Jerome Edmund Bickenbach
5 Laws for the Right to Work of Disabled People:

The Italian Experience 79
Massimiliano Agovino and Agnese Rapposelli
ix
x Contents
Part II Transitions 97
6 Career Management: The Transition Process for Workers

with Disability 99
Hannah Meacham, Timothy Bartram, and Jillian Cavanagh
7 From Education to Employment: A Transition Story115

Valerie Critten
8 Innovative Strategies: Successful Transition to Work

for People with Disabilities131
Joyce Bender
9 Supporting Meaningful Employment for Individuals

with Autism151
Jennifer R. Spoor, Darren Hedley, and Timothy Bartram
Part III Types of Employment 167
10 Supported Employment: A Case Study to Highlight

Experiences and to Inform Support Practices169
Gemma L. Bend
11 Strategic Planning for the Inclusion of People with

Disabilities into Work Organizations187
Mark E. Moore and Lana L. Huberty
12 Levels of Employment: Considerations and Interventions

for the 21st Century Labour Market203
Roy J. Del Valle
13 Breaking Barriers by Patterning Employment Success219

Mukta Kulkarni, W. Scot Atkins, and David C. Baldridge
Part IV Levels of Employment 237
14 The Impact of Pain on Work and Professional Careers239

Sandra L. Fielden and Piers J. A. Lesser
Contents xi
15 Understanding (Disabled People as) Ghosts in Professional

Work: The Contribution of Feminist Research255
Deborah Foster and Jannine Williams
16 Temporary Status in Work Organizations for People

with Disabilities: An Opportunity or Barrier273
17 European Union Law Relating to Access to Online

Technology for Disabled People in the Context
of the Workplace293
Catherine Easton
Part V Disabilities 313
18 Serving Customers with Dementia: Lessons

for Café Owners315
Adelina Broadbridge and David Johnston
19 Managing Invisible Disabilities in the Workplace:

Identification and Disclosure Dilemmas for Workers
with Hidden Impairments331
Alecia M. Santuzzi and Robert T. Keating
20 An Effective Approach to Mental Health Challenges:

A Framework for Best Practice in the Workplace351
Sarah Riding
21 Seeking New Solutions: Best Practices in Workplace

Accommodation for Psychiatric Impairments367
Katherine Breward
Part VI Intersections 385
22 Finding Our Voices: Employment and Career Development

for Women with Disabilities387
Lauren Lindstrom, Kara Hirano, and Angela Ingram
xii Contents
23 Masculinity, Disability and Work: A New Materialist

Perspective403
Gemma L. Bend
24 Privileges and Prejudices: Intersectionality and Disability

Accommodation417
Katherine Breward
25 The Role of Leadership Behaviour for the Workplace

Inclusion and Job Retention of Employees
with Psychological Disabilities433
Stephan A. Boehm, Miriam K. Baumgärtner, and Anna Z. Brzykcy
Part VII Dynamics 449
26 Taken for Granted: Ableist Norms Embedded

in the Design of Online Recruitment Practices451
Frederike Scholz
27 Adaptive Leadership: An Opportunity for Increasing

the Representation of People with Disabilities
in the Workplace471
28 Organizational Blindness: Why People with Disabilities

Do Not ‘Fit’485
Gemma L. Bend and Sandra L. Fielden
29 The Economic Impact of Employing Disabled Persons:

Macro and Micro Perspectives505
Part VIII The Way Forward 521
30 The Way Forward523

Index 539
Notes on Contributors
Massimiliano Agovino is Assistant Professor of Economic Policy at the

University of Naples “Parthenope”. His research focuses on macroeconomic
approach to the labour market, spatial econometrics, disability and employ-
ment, environmental economics and environmental policy. He has conducted
major studies on the Law 68/99 whose aim is the regulation and promotion
of the employment of persons with disabilities in Italy.
W. Scot Atkins has over 19 years of experience in human resources, organi-
zational development and training in the corporate sector. He is an assistant
professor at the Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT) at NTID, teaching
management and entrepreneurship primarily to deaf and hard-of-hearing stu-
dents. Atkins earned his doctorate degree from the University of St. Thomas
in Minnesota and his dissertation topic was “Exploring the Lived Experiences
of Deaf Entrepreneurs/Business Owners”. He is working on several research
initiatives regarding entrepreneurship in the deaf community, access technol-
ogy and career success among deaf and hard-of-hearing individuals.
David C. Baldridge is a Newcomb Fellow and Associate Professor of
Management for the Oregon State University College of Business and
Research Associate for the National Technical Institute for the Deaf. He holds
a PhD in Management from the University of Connecticut, Storrs. His
research interests include diversity and inclusion, in particular in relation to
disability and age, access technology utilization, disability accommodation,
and career success and sustainable. His research has appeared in the Academy
of Management Review, Strategic Management Journal, Journal of Management,
Journal of International Business Studies, Human Relations, Human Resource
Management and in other leading management publications.
xiii
xiv Notes on Contributors
Timothy Bartram is Professor of Management in the School of Management

at RMIT University. His research interests include HRM, employment rela-
tions and high performance work systems. His recent research has examined
how participation in Men’s Sheds is related to well-being and employment
outcomes, and how HRM can support employment of individuals with
disabilities.
Miriam K. Baumgärtner works as a project leader and postdoctoral
researcher at the Center for Disability and Integration (CDI-HSG), University
of St. Gallen. She holds a PhD in Management from the University of St.
Gallen and an MSc in Psychology from the University of Mannheim. She
worked several years for GESIS, Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences, and
gained practical experience as a consultant at the Kenexa GmbH in Munich.
Her research focuses on human resource management, leadership and work-
place diversity. She has a special interest in the workplace inclusion of people
with disabilities and health-focused leadership.
Odelia Bay is a doctoral student at Osgoode Hall Law School in Toronto
where she holds a Canada Graduate Scholarship to Honour Nelson Mandela
from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC), and a
Helena Orton Memorial Scholarship from York University. Her dissertation
project examines how workers with episodic disabilities balance the compet-
ing needs of self-care and work. Odelia completed her Master of Laws at
Columbia Law School in New York City. She has a Juris Doctor in English
Common Law from the University of Ottawa and a Bachelor of Journalism
from Ryerson University in Toronto. Odelia articled in union-side labour law
and is called to the Ontario Bar. She has taught courses on labour law, statu-
tory interpretation and critical race theory at the University of Victoria’s
Faculty of Law in British Columbia, Canada.
Gemma L. Bend area of research is diversity in organizations looking specifi-
cally at exploring the intersection of gender and disability in organizations.
Her work engages with identity, embodiment, materiality, performativity and
power/resistance in mainstream and sheltered employment. She is completing
her PhD at The Open University Business School in the Department for
People and Organisations. She completed her Masters by Research (MRes) at
The Open University Business School and her master’s dissertation was titled:
‘An Exploration of Gender and Disability in the Workplace’. She presented
her research at numerous conferences such as Gender, Work & Organisation,
Critical Management Studies, and British Academy of Management in the
Notes on Contributors xv
last two years. Her chapter on gender and disability has appeared in the
Research Handbook of Diversity and Careers.
Joyce Bender is an international disability leader, a business woman and
advocate, living with epilepsy, who has impacted disability inclusion, employ-
ment, empowerment and digital accessibility, for over two decades. As founder
and CEO of Bender Consulting, Joyce has built models and methods to scale
and sustain training and employment programs; two signature programs
include iDisability, an eLearning software product with nearly two million
business users on platform, and Careers2B, a workforce development pro-
gram, focused on growing a pipeline of people with disabilities, while meeting
today’s business needs for talent.
Joyce has impacted national policies and programs through her board lead-
ership and stakeholder engagement with the American Association of People
with Disabilities, the Epilepsy Association, and her advisory board efforts
with the National Technical Institute for the Deaf. She has shared best employ-
ment practices with members of Congress and US government officials to
promote the development of sensible policies and programs. Joyce has served
as a disability employment expert for the U.S. State Department in Japan,
South Korea, Indonesia, Panama and Kazakhstan and has been featured in
periodicals including Reader’s Digest, New York Times, Investor’s Business Daily,
Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, and Chicago Tribune. She holds a Bachelor of Science
degree in Psychology from Geneva College and hosts the radio show, Disability
Matters with Joyce Bender on www.voiceamerica.com.
Jerome Edmund Bickenbach is a lawyer and health scientist who has
worked for the past 40 years on disability epidemiology, disability law and
policy, and rehabilitation health systems research. He worked at the WHO on
the development of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability
and Health and with the Rehabilitation and Disability team before moving to
Swiss Paraplegic Research and the University of Lucerne, Switzerland, to con-
tinue research and writing on disability and ageing, assistive technology and
implementation science in the context of the learning health system for
rehabilitation.
Stephan A. Boehm is Adjunct Professor of Organizational Behavior at the
University of St. Gallen, Switzerland. He also serves as the director of the
Center for Disability and Integration at the University of St. Gallen (CDI-
HSG). His research focuses on leadership, human resource management,
diversity as well as change management. He has a special interest in the voca-
tional inclusion of employees with disabilities, health-focused leadership, as
xvi Notes on Contributors
well as the management of demographic change. Most recently, he investi-

gates the relationship of digitalization with employees’ long-term health.
Stephan has written and edited several books, and his articles have appeared
in top-tier management journals including The Academy of Management
Journal, Journal of Management, Journal of Management Studies, Personnel
Psychology, The Leadership Quarterly, Journal of Organizational Behavior,
Human Resource Management, Journal of Managerial Psychology as well as the
Harvard Business Manager. He has won several prizes for his scientific contri-
bution including the Journal of Organizational Behavior Best Paper Award
(2012), the Journal of Managerial Psychology Highly Commended Article
Award (2014), the Swiss Public Health Award (2014), the Vontobel Award for
Research on Age(ing) (2014) as well as the Academy of Management’s Saroj
Parasuraman Award for the Outstanding Publication on Gender and
Diversity (2015).
Katherine Breward is an associate professor at the University of Winnipeg.
Her work focuses on disability accommodation and labour market outcomes
of historically marginalized workers. Katherine’s research has appeared in the
Canadian Journal of Disability Studies; Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion: An
International Journal; the British Journal of Management; and the Journal of
Immigrant and Minority Health. Her teaching cases featuring disability accom-
modation issues appear in the Case Research Journal.
Adelina Broadbridge is a senior lecturer in the Division of Management,
Work and Organisation, Stirling Management School. Her main research
interests, and focus of her PhD, are around the broad area of management
careers, particularly in the UK retail industry. She has also researched issues
connected with stress, age and work–life balance. She additionally has con-
ducted various research with Generation Y undergraduates and graduates and
their perceptions and experiences of the initial stages of their careers. Adelina
is the editor of Gender in Management: An International Journal, an editorial
board member of Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal
and track chair of the Gender in Management stream at the British Academy
of Management Conference. She founded the Gender in Management Special
Interest Group, which has membership from around the world. She has
devised and delivered programmes on personal and professional development
of women working in the higher education sector and is an Aurora role model.
Anna Z. Brzykcy is a PhD candidate at the University of St. Gallen and
works as doctoral researcher at the Center for Disability and Integration
(CDI-HSG). She graduated from a psychology master’s program in the
Notes on Contributors xvii
Learning Sciences at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. She

gained practical experience as research assistant at the TUM (Technical
University of Munich) School of Management and working student at
Siemens Global Learning Campus in Munich. Her main research focus lies
on the interface between flexible work arrangements, relational demography
and health.
Jillian Cavanagh is a senior lecturer in the School of Management at RMIT
University. Cavanagh’s commitment to research is predominantly in the areas
of management and organisations that employ workers with disability, and
Men’s Sheds and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Men’s Groups. Her
works have been published in top tier peer-reviewed journals including
Personnel Review, International Journal of Human Resource Management,
Journal of Vocational Education and Training and the Journal of Business Ethics.
Cavanagh is currently on the editorial board of the Asia Pacific Journal of
Human Resources.
Valerie Critten has worked as a teacher both in mainstream and in special
schools. She has taught children with moderate-to-severe learning difficulties,
children on the autistic spectrum and children with physical disabilities.
Many of the children had communication disabilities. Her interest in IT led
to her becoming an IT subject coordinator and enabled her to use IT as a
facilitator for children who were unable to communicate. Valerie taught many
children with cerebral palsy who had unexpected difficulties with learning to
read. Her thesis examined the cognitive difficulties which coordinated with
the children’s reading abilities including a new finding of the influence of
specific areas of visual and spatial perception. After gaining a doctorate in
education (Open University), Valerie has worked on published research proj-
ects involving an app to help people with communication difficulties to
express their thoughts and ideas. Her interest in the visual and spatial percep-
tions of children with cerebral palsy has led to research (under review) on the
children’s difficulties with learning mathematical skills. Her interest on help-
ing people to communicate their thoughts and ideas and her work with young
people with cerebral palsy have led to this research on transitions into
employment.
Roy J. Del Valle, PhD, CRC, is the district manager of the Michigan
Department of Health and Human Services, Michigan Rehabilitation Services
(MRS), Marquette, MI District Office. He received his doctorate in
Rehabilitation Counselor Education from Michigan State University. His
professional experience includes provision of VR services in private, non-
xviii Notes on Contributors
profit and the state-federal VR program. He possesses over 20 years of direct

service provision to individuals with disabilities including Deaf/Harding of
Hearing, severe and persistent mental illness and intellectual disabilities. He
has taught classes in Disability in a Diverse Society, Professional Issues in
Rehabilitation Counseling, Job Placement Strategies for Individuals with
Disabilities, and presented at multiple state and national conferences. His
research interests include rehabilitation counsellor supervision, case manage-
ment and evidence-based practices. He has co-authored six peer reviewed
scholarly articles, several manuscripts in review and a monograph on Multiple
Case Studies on Effective Vocational Rehabilitation Service Delivery Practices
as part of the Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Effective
Vocational Rehabilitation Service Delivery Practices (RRTC-EBP-VR).
Catherine Easton is Reader in Law and Technology at Lancaster University.
Her research interests focus upon internet governance, access to technology
for disabled people, driverless cars, robotics, domain name regulation, intel-
lectual property and human/computer interaction. Catherine previously held
the role of Chair of BILETA and is working on a British Academy funded
project to investigate how driverless cars can improve the lives of dis-
abled people.
Sandra L. Fielden, PhD, is Honorary Senior Lecturer in Organizational
Psychology in the Manchester Business School at the University of Manchester,
a Chartered Occupational Psychologist, an Associate Fellow of the British
Psychological Society and suffers from fibromyalgia, Chron’s disease and other
complex health problems. Over the last 15 years she has been involved in
applied diversity research within the public and private sector and has
researched in several areas, including gender and ethnic entrepreneurship,
gender in management, coaching and mentoring, sexual harassment and eval-
uation studies. She was involved in the Cabinet Office’s campaign for the
promotion of diversity on public boards and is well known globally for her
work in gender and management. Sandra is well published with numerous
journal papers and book chapters and has co-authored/co-edited eleven books.
Deborah Foster is Professor of Employment Relations and Diversity at
Cardiff Business School, Wales, UK. She has a disciplinary background in
sociology and an interest in trade unions, employment relations and equality
and diversity in organizations. Deborah has been a regular member of the
editorial team of the British Sociological Association journal and Work,
Employment & Society, has held grants from the ESRC, European Union, and
is leading a DRILL (Disability Research into independent Living and
Notes on Contributors xix
Learning) funded project examining the careers of disabled people in the legal
profession. Previous research projects have investigated gender inequalities
and management in China and Taiwan; the role of trade unions in represent-
ing disabled people in the workplace; how disabled people secure workplace
adjustments in the UK and Industrial relations and work accommodation
practices to support disabled and older workers in Estonia, Hungary and
Poland. As someone who identifies as disabled, Deborah is particularly inter-
ested in co-production as a methodology and to this end works with Disabled
People’s Organisations on action-orientated outcomes.
Darren Hedley is a research fellow in the Olga Tennison Autism Research
Centre (OTARC). His research interests include employment in individuals
with ASD, face recognition and emotion processing, early assessment and
diagnosis and confidence-accuracy calibration in diagnostic decision making.
At OTARC he is researching the transition to employment in adults with
ASD, focusing on social impact factors and the barriers and enablers to work-
place success; this research is funded by DXC Technology and the Australian
Government Department of Human Services.
Kara Hirano is Assistant Professor of Special Education at Illinois State
University. Over a decade working with children, youth and families in com-
munity mental health programs and most recently with students underrepre-
sented in higher education have influenced her interest in issues of access,
equity and opportunity. She is particularly interested in secondary special
education and planning for the transition from high school to adult roles. Her
recent research focuses on the role of families in these processes and factors
that influence their decision to become involved.
Lana L. Huberty joined the faculty at Concordia University, St. Paul, sum-
mer of 2013. Lana’s expertise in health and wellness include 25 years of group
and individualized fitness training for which she holds numerous professional
certifications including NETA, LMI, PHI, MOSSA and YogaFit. Research
interests and publications focus on sport marketing and sponsorship, diversity
within sport management, sustainability and general health and wellness.
Angela Ingram is a recent doctoral graduate from the Secondary Special
Education and Transition Program at the University of Oregon. Her experi-
ence in special education has included teaching a wide range of diverse stu-
dents with disabilities in the US and internationally in China, Qatar and
Zambia. Her main research has focused on social justice issues related to dis-
abilities and understanding barriers faced by transgender youth with disabili-
xx Notes on Contributors
ties. She is the head of special education at the American Embassy International
School of Lusaka.
David Johnston is a graduate student in Management, Work and
Organisation from the University of Stirling, Scotland.
Robert T. Keating is a graduate student in the Social and Industrial-
Organizational Psychology program at Northern Illinois University. His
research focuses on the psychological experience of inclusion, particularly
among individuals who have concealable stigmatized identities.
Mukta Kulkarni is Professor and the Mphasis Chair for Digital Accessibility
and Inclusion at the Indian Institute of Management Bangalore. Her research
interests include social inclusion and diversity management. She has been a
member of the Confederation of Indian Industry’s National Committee on
Special Abilities, has authored reports on disability for the Government of
India and continues her attempts to understand workplace inclusion of per-
sons with a disability. Her papers have appeared in journals such as Academy
of Management Journal, Human Relations, Human Resource Management,
Journal of Organizational Behavior, and The Leadership Quarterly.
Piers J. A. Lesser is an established consultant in pain medicine and anaesthe-
sia at the Calderdale Royal Hospital, Halifax. He has 40 years of experience of
pain clinics since 1979, and he established his own clinic in 1989, in a District
General Hospital, having trained in eight clinics in the UK and attended
courses in other hospitals. He is a long-standing member of the British Pain
Society and the International Association for the Study of Pain as well as
regional and local pain groups. Working in secondary care in chronic pain has
provided a great deal of insight into the impact of chronic pain. During the
last four decades there have been many changes in the understanding and
treatment of pain but the clinical application of pain medicine continues to
be focused on the individual who is affected by pain.
Lauren Lindstrom is a professor and dean of the School of Education at
University of California Davis. Lindstrom has focused her career on develop-
ing innovative career development programs and improving post-school
employment outcomes for young adults with disabilities. Her research exam-
ines the interplay of individual factors such as gender, socioeconomic status,
disability and family expectations, with system-level factors such as school
services, educational policies and barriers in the workplace. She has developed
school- and community-based interventions and disseminated findings
through publications, products and conference presentations. Her most
Notes on Contributors xxi
recent work focuses on intersections of gender and disability. In 2017, she

received the Zero Project Innovative Practice award in recognition of her work
focused on improving employment outcomes for young women with
disabilities.
Hannah Meacham is a lecturer at Monash Business School. Hannah holds a
PhD in the creation of meaningful and inclusive work for people with intel-
lectual disabilities. Recently, her articles appeared in Personnel Review and
Journal of Business Ethics. Hannah’s research interests include workers with
disabilities, mental health in the workplace, diversity and inclusion, and stra-
tegic HRM. Prior to her appointment, Hannah worked within the HR indus-
try in both Australia and the UK specializing in strategic HR management
and workplace relations.
Mark E. Moore is a faculty member in the Department of Kinesiology at
East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA. His research
interests relate to the examination of organizational and marketing theories as
they apply to sport organizations. His work has appeared in journals such as
Vocational Behavior, Gender in Management, Equality, Diversity and Inclusion:
An International Journal, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Journal of Marketing
Channels, Sport Management Education Journal and British Journal of
Management.
Roxanne Mykitiuk is a professor at Osgoode Hall Law School in Toronto
and is the founding director of the Disability Law Intensive clinical education
program, partnered with ARCH Disability Law Centre. Professor Mykitiuk
is the author/co-author of numerous publications investigating the legal
construction and regulation of embodiment and disability. Recently her
research has begun to create and investigate arts-based methods—digital sto-
ries and drama-based narratives—as a means of challenging and re-representing
experiences and conceptions of disability and normalcy. Mykitiuk is also
working on a SSHRC funded research project exploring the accommodation
of episodic disabilities in the workplace.
Liz Oliver is Lecturer in Employment Law and active member of the Centre
for Employment Relations Innovation and Change and the Centre for
Disability Studies at the University of Leeds. Her research is socio-legal, and
she uses empirical socio-legal methods within her work. Liz’s research interests
relate to UK national and EU employment law with an emphasis on equality
and inclusion. She has published in the area of gender equality in employ-
ment, careers and pay, contingent employment such as fixed-term employ-
ment and work through platforms. Her research focuses on disability work
xxii Notes on Contributors
and employment. She is part of a community-university participatory research

partnership to employ learning disabled peer workers in community-sup-
ported accommodation.
Agnese Rapposelli has obtained her PhD in Statistics from “G. D’Annunzio”
University of Chieti-Pescara, Italy. She was research fellow in Statistics at the
Department of Economic Studies of “G. D’Annunzio” University of Chieti-
Pescara, and she was visiting student at Warwick Business School, University
of Warwick, UK. Her research interests concern efficiency evaluation meth-
ods, in particular Data Envelopment Analysis technique, with a special focus
on environmental application, and Stochastic Frontiers Analysis. In addition,
she has conducted major studies on the inclusion of disabled people in the
Italian labour market.
Sarah Riding has been Lecturer in Social Work at the University of Salford
since 2013. Sarah worked as a child and family’s social worker and as a special-
ist social worker in Child and Adolescent Mental health services in the North
West of England for a number of years before joining a large Further Education
College where as well as teaching she was the lead for Equality and Diversity
at the college. She also works as a specialist advisor to the Care Quality
Commission focusing on mental health and substance misuse and was privi-
leged to be a member of the team that contributed to “Are we listening? A
Review of Children and Young People’s Mental Health Services”, published in
March 2018. Sarah’s research interests focus on childhood and adult trauma
and embedding equality and inclusion in social work practice.
Alecia M. Santuzzi, PhD, is Associate Professor of Social and Industrial-
Organizational Psychology at Northern Illinois University. Her research has
generally focused on the social experiences of individuals in highly evaluative
situations (e.g., job interviews). She applies those broad concepts and theories
to understand the experiences of individuals with concealable stigmatized
identities as they decide whether or not to disclose their identities. Her recent
research focuses specifically on self-labelling and disclosure decisions among
workers with disabilities, and how those decisions affect worker performance
and well-being.
Frederike Scholz is a postdoctoral researcher in Diversity and Inclusion for
SEIN Identity, Diversity & Inequality Research, Faculty of Business
Economics, Hasselt University, Belgium. Her main focus of research is on
disabled people and employment inequality. She has acquired her PhD degree
from Leeds University Business School, UK, by undertaking research that
explored how online recruitment as a process, and technological and legal
Notes on Contributors xxiii
developments, impact on disabled people in the UK labour market. Further,

she has engaged in research that explores in what way welfare systems and
labour market activation programs lead to further inequality for disabled peo-
ple, in particular for individuals with mental health conditions, in finding
employment. Her work on digital exclusion for disabled people in Europe has
appeared in the special issue ‘Internet use and disability’ of Cyberpsychology:
Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace.
Jennifer R. Spoor is Lecturer in Management in the La Trobe Business
School. Her research interests include emotion, group and intergroup rela-
tions, and diversity and inclusion, particularly with respect to gender and
people with disabilities. Her research examines human resource management
(HRM) strategies for supporting volunteers with disabilities, attitudes towards
people with disabilities and employee engagement with ASD employment
programs.
Jannine Williams is Lecturer in Human Resource Management at QUT,
Australia. From her background in working with D/deaf and disabled people,
research on disabled academics’ career experiences and gender projects,
Jannine has developed research interests in the development and organization
of socially responsible work which is developed through a concern for the
meaning and experiences of work and how work practices can be developed
to be inclusive. Her research encompasses processes of organizing; categories
of social relations and constructions of difference, particularly disability and
gender. She has co-edited two books: Deaf Students in Higher Education:
Current Research and Practice, and Gender, Media and Organization: Challenging
Mis(s)Representations of Women Leaders and Managers. Her work has appeared
in Work, Employment & Society, British Journal of Management, Studies in
Higher Education, the International Journal of Management Reviews, Disability
& Society, Human Resource Development Review and Gender in Management:
An International Journal.
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Rates of employment across disability variants. (Adapted from

Mirza-Davies and Brown, 2016, p. 4) 3
Fig. 11.1 Strategic planning model as it relates to preparation for the
inclusion of individuals with disabilities 191
Fig. 11.2 Predictors of the prevalence of employees with disabilities 199
Fig. 16.1 The professional development process model 285
Fig. 16.2 Factors contributing to permanent employment 288
Fig. 20.1 The 5 C’s Model. (Adapted from Alyson Malach from Equality
and Diversity UK) 355
xxv
List of Tables
Table 5.1 Flexicurity indices, annual average values (2006–2011) 89

Table 5.2 Estimates of augmented matching functions 90
Table 7.1 Entry pathways programme of study: preparation for work
(Welsh Exam Board 2017) 120
Table 10.1 Participant demographics 175
Table 26.1 Interviews with disabled jobseekers with learning difficulties
(LD) or/and visual impairments (VI) and their employment
advisors456
Table 26.2 Interviews with employers 456
xxvii
1
Introduction
Disability is a dynamic and evolving construct that requires ongoing discus-

sion of emergent perspectives from different academic disciplines. Yet, despite
international and national guarantees of equal rights, there remains a great
deal to be done to achieve global employment equality for people with dis-
abilities. However, just focusing on the rights of individuals does not provide
an adequate understanding of the actual experiences of people with disabili-
ties in the workplace (Nyanjom et al. 2018). Research has, to some degree,
provided an understanding of stigmatized identities and the self-esteem of
people with disabilities, as well as how organizations accommodate the spe-
cific problems of employees with disabilities (Oliver and Barnes 2012). While
this approach is valuable and interesting it does not really consider the experi-
ences of people with disabilities in the workplace, and for many of these
S. L. Fielden (*)
Manchester Business School, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
e-mail: sandra.fielden@mbs.ac.uk
M. E. Moore
Department of Kinesiology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA
e-mail: Mooremar@ecu.edu
G. L. Bend
The Open University Business School, Milton Keynes, UK
e-mail: gemma.bend@open.ac.uk
© The Author(s) 2020 1

S. L. Fielden et al. (eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Disability at Work,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42966-9_1
2 S. L. Fielden et al.
individuals their career progress is a far more complex interaction between

disability (and other intersectional variables such as gender, ethnicity and
race), work and the workplace. In contrast to other publications that have
focused on one element of disability in the workplace, for example legal
aspects, the approach we take is to follow and analyse the encounters of those
with disabilities throughout the work process.
Regardless of the route taken into employment the journey to enter, secure
and maintain employment for people with disabilities is fraught with chal-
lenges, both good and bad, that has a significant impact on individual’s well-
being (UK: Baumberg 2015; USA: Dunn and Burcaw 2013). Despite
advancements in legislation and policies in western societies that should give
people with disabilities equal opportunities and rights on par with people
without disabilities in employment, research still finds that people with dis-
abilities remain in a disadvantaged position (Baumberg 2015). In the UK 22
per cent (7.5 million) of the population report having disabilities, specific to
employment 51.3 per cent (3.9 million) are in employment compared to 81.4
per cent of people without disabilities; 9.3 per cent of people with disabilities
are unemployed compared to 3.7 per cent of people without disabilities; and
44 per cent (3.3 million) are economically inactive (Office of National
Statistics 2018). In addition, employment rates for people with disabilities by
different characteristics were as follows:
Age: highest for those aged 25–49 (56.4 per cent), lowest for those aged 16–24
(38.2 per cent),
Education: highest rates for those with a degree (or equivalent) (71.7 per cent)
and lowest for those without a qualification (17.0 per cent),
Gender: women (50.8 per cent) and men (51.9) have similar rates,
Part-time: 24.1 per cent aged 16–64 were working part-time compared to 36.0
per cent of people without disabilities of the same age.
When you further investigate these statistics, it becomes evident that there
is a disparity of employment rates across the disability spectrum when com-
paring the gap in employment rates for specific people with disabilities against
figures for those without.
As can be seen in Fig. 1.1 there is a huge 56.2 per cent employment gap
between those with a learning difficulty (23.9 per cent) and those with no
disability; comparatively there is a much smaller gap, 19.8 per cent, for indi-
viduals with a hearing disability, such as hard of hearing or deafness, and those
without (60.3 per cent employment rate). Furthermore, employment rates
were 61 per cent for those with one health condition, 52 per cent for two
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
23.9 70
L E A R N I N G D I F F I C U LT I E S 56.2
25.3
M E N TA L I L L N E S S 54.8
31.6
EPILEP SY 48.5
37.5
PROGRESSIVE ILLNESS (I.E. MS) 42.6
D E P R ESSION, ANXIETY 42
and Brown, 2016, p. 4)

38.1
HEART/ BLOOD PROBLEMS 45.3
34.8
O T H E R H E A LT H P R O B L E M S O R D I S A B I L I T I E S 51.6
28.5
D I A B E TES 52.2
27.9
CHEST OR BREATH ING P ROBLEMS 53.2
26.9
BACK OR N ECK IM PA I R M E N T 53.8
26.3
LEGS OR FEET IMPA I R M E N T 53.9
26.2
ARMS OR HANDS IMPA I R M E N T 56.4
23.7
VISUAL IMPA I R M E N T 57.5
22.6
STOMACH, LIVER KIDNEY OR DI GEST IVE PROBLEMS 59
21.1
HEARING IM PA I R M E N T 60.3
19.8
SE VERE D IS FI GUREMENT, SKIN COND ITI ONS, ALLERGIES 66.5
13.6
disabled
Disabled
1 Introduction
employment rate
employment rate
Fig. 1.1 Rates of employment across disability variants. (Adapted from Mirza-Davies
Gap between non-
3
conditions, 44 per cent for three conditions, 38 per cent for four conditions
and 23 per cent for five or more conditions. Although this book is not specifi-
cally aimed at increasing the numbers of people with disabilities in the work-
place, by providing an in-depth understanding of the benefits, barriers and
difficulties they encounter as they enter and progress through work, we hope
that employers, employees, policymakers and all relevant individuals and
organizations will contribute to increasing the number of people with dis-
abilities entering and remaining in paid work.
Definitions
The concept of disability is complex, and there are historical, social, legal and
philosophical influences on its interpretation. The experience of disability is
unique to each person but there are common barriers and issues in terms of
peoples’ rights to access specific disability services, provided directly or indi-
rectly by governments. The need for some agreed definitions, largely to ensure
that disability support programmes are fair about who is to receive benefits
and why, has prompted much discussion and debate. However, here are a few
definitions that are widely accepted:
The World Health Organization (WHO)
Disability is an umbrella term, covering impairments, activity limitations and

participation restrictions. An impairment is a problem in body function or
structure; an activity limitation is a difficulty encountered by an individual in
executing a task or action; while a participation restriction is a problem expe-
rienced by an individual in involvement in life situations. Disability is thus
not just a health problem. It is a complex phenomenon, reflecting the interac-
tion between features of a person’s body and features of the society in which
he or she lives. Overcoming the difficulties faced by people with disabilities
requires interventions to remove environmental and social barriers
(WHO 2018).
United Nations (UN)
The convention protects all persons with disabilities, who are defined in
Article 1 as including “those who have long-term physical, mental, intellec-
tual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may
1 Introduction 5
hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with
others” (UN 2012). This broad definition adopts what is known as the social
model of disability. It recognizes that disability is an evolving concept, and
that we are often prevented from exercising all of our human rights and fun-
damental freedoms by barriers of attitude and environment which have been
placed in our way.
he International Classification of Impairments,

T
Disabilities and Handicaps
The current version of the international classification of impairments, dis-

abilities and handicaps (ICIDH) (Wood 1980) contains definitions and
examples that are highly culture-specific (e.g. references to ‘pouring tea’) or
that are inappropriately characterized according to sex. Consequently a new
version of the ICIDH is now being drafted to embrace developments since
1980 and address criticism of the first ICIDH. One of the major develop-
ments is the more specific recognition of the social construction of the third
dimension of disability. It is being proposed that this third dimension be
renamed ‘participation’, and that its definition recognize the critical role
played by environmental or contextual factors in restricting full participation.
The draft definition is as follows:
• Impairment: is a loss or abnormality in body structure or of a physiological or

psychological function.
• Activity: is the nature and extent of functioning at the level of the person.
Activities may be limited in nature, duration and quality.
• Participation: is the nature and extent of a person’s involvement in life situa-
tions in relationship to impairments, activities, health conditions and contex-
tual factors. Participation may be restricted in nature, duration and quality.
Participation is considered within seven broad domains: personal mainte-
nance; mobility; exchange of information; social relationships; education,
work, leisure and spirituality; economic life and civic and community life.
• Context: includes the features, aspects, attributes of, or objects, structures,
human-made organizations, service provision and agencies in, the physical,
social and attitudinal environment in which people live and conduct their lives.
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA—USA)
The ADA defines a person with a disability as a person who has a physical or
mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activity.
This includes people who have a record of such an impairment, even if they
do not currently have a disability. It also includes individuals who do not have
a disability but are regarded as having a disability. The ADA also makes it
unlawful to discriminate against a person based on that person’s association
with a person with a disability (ADA 2018). It is important to remember that
in the context of the ADA, ‘disability’ is a legal term rather than a medical
one. Because it has a legal definition, the ADA’s definition of disability is dif-
ferent from how disability is defined under some other laws, such as for Social
Security Disability related benefits.
The Equality Act 2010 (UK)
You are disabled under the Equality Act 2010 if you have a physical or mental
impairment that has a ‘substantial’ and ‘long-term’ negative effect on your
ability to do normal daily activities.
• ‘substantial’ is more than minor or trivial, e.g. it takes much longer than it
usually would to complete a daily task like getting dressed
• ‘long-term’ means 12 months or more, e.g. a breathing condition that
develops as a result of a lung infection
The Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (Australia)
To be deemed a disability, the impairment or condition must impact daily

activities, communication and/or mobility, and has lasted or is likely to last
six months or more. This includes:
• total or partial loss of the person’s bodily or mental functions

• total or partial loss of a part of the body
• the presence in the body of organisms causing disease or illness
• the malfunction, malformation or disfigurement of a part of the
person’s body
• a disorder or malfunction that results in the person learning differently
from a person without the disorder or malfunction
• a disorder, illness or disease that affects a person’s thought processes, per-
ception of reality, emotions or judgment, or that results in disturbed
behaviour;
1 Introduction 7
including disability that:
• presently exists
• previously existed but no longer exists
• may exist in the future
• is imputed to a person (meaning it is thought or implied that the person
has disability but does not).
The breadth of impairments and medical conditions covered by the DDA are:
• Physical—affects a person’s mobility or dexterity

• Intellectual—affects a person’s abilities to learn
• Mental Illness—affects a person’s thinking processes
• Sensory—affects a person’s ability to hear or see
• Neurological—affects the person’s brain and central nervous system
• Learning disability
• Physical disfigurement or
• Immunological—the presence of organisms causing disease in the body
Definitions of disability reflect the historic, social and legal background in

relation to physical, mental and psychological disability, and have tradition-
ally been constructed as an assumed opposite of ableism, that is the normative
expectation of non-disability (Williams and Mavin 2012). Disability can
come about in various ways: it may be congenital or arise later in life through
sickness or injury, and for some their disability has little or no effect on their
ability to work (Williams 2006). For others some form of workplace accom-
modation is required, whereas some are precluded from working at all in
mainstream employment. For those people, definitions rarely acknowledge
the complexity of disabilities, as many people with disabilities must deal with
multiple health or disability issues with pain and mobility being the top
impediments when engaging with the workforce (Williams 2006).
There are many more definitions which are country dependent but, as with
the definitions above, there is a general consensus of what constitutes a dis-
ability for legal purposes, as well as for medical, treatment and benefit applica-
tions and so on. For the purpose of this publication we respect the individual
author’s preference for the actual definition they use, depending on the con-
text within which their research is set, for example legal or medical. Definitions
not only act to separate out people with disabilities from those without but
they also influence the terminology that surrounds disability and, as a conten-
tious issue, when presenting chapters on disability it is a topic that requires
explanation.
Terminology
Over the years a large amount of terminology concerning disability has evolved
which denies the social construction of disability and is now considered offen-
sive by many people in the British Disabled People’s civil rights movement.
These terms have originated and been perpetuated by the likes of the medical,
religious and welfare professions. Many are patriarchal in nature, evoking the
notion that Disabled People need looking after. Others are based on false prem-
ises that have since been rejected as norms. The language that people use reflects
what they think and can influence how they deal with situations. If they behave
as if the problem is with the individual, they will take a different approach than
if they regard the problem as being with the attitudes, systems and practices that
create disabling barriers. (‘The Language of Disability’, by Clark and Marsh 2002)
Terminology relating to disability has changed radically over the last two
decades and is a highly sensitive subject, both for researchers and for those
who live with disabilities. For example, where it was once deemed acceptable
to use the term ‘mental retardation’ the preferred term now is ‘intellectual dis-
ability’. This term has superseded ‘mental retardation’ in accordance with ter-
minology used by the International Association for the Scientific Study of
Intellectual Disabilities, as the word ‘retardation’ has historically negative con-
notations. This is linked to changing definitions as well, for example, the
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare explains intellectual disability as
difficulty learning, applying knowledge and making decisions, with individu-
als having difficulty adjusting to a change and interacting with unfamiliar
people (Meacham et al. 2017). The definition of the term ‘mental retardation’
is less explicit in its description of the condition, just calling it “a condition,
usually present from birth, characterized by intellectual functioning that is
below average” (Collins Dictionary 2018), which is both unhelpful and
derogative.
In some languages there appears to be no single suitable term. The official
French-language version, for example, uses ‘handicap’ as an umbrella term,
stressing that it does not cover a monolithic reality, but is the result of differ-
ent levels of experience; this version also uses a term signifying ‘disadvantage’
for the third level of experience in the classification (as do the Italian, Japanese,
and Portuguese versions). French-speaking Canadians, on the other hand,
appear to prefer the word ‘handicap’ for this third level and do not make use
of an umbrella term (WHO 2018). Producing a publication that has con-
tributors from around the globe we are conscious of the different terminology
that is used in different countries, especially as the struggles around language
1 Introduction 9
are not merely semantic. A major bone of contention is the continued use of
the term ‘handicap’ by the WHO schema, which is an anathema to many
individuals with disabilities because of its connections to ‘cap in hand’ and the
degrading role that charity and charitable institutions played in our lives of
disabled people (Oliver 2017). The continued use of such terms contributes
significantly to the negative self-image of disabled people, while at the same
time perpetuating discriminatory attitudes and practices among the gen-
eral public.
The UK government advocates the use of the term ‘disabled people’
(Department of Work and Pensions 2014) and, according to SPECTRUM
(2018), the term ‘Disabled People’ has been redefined to mean people with
impairments who are disabled by socially constructed barriers. The word
‘Disabled’ before ‘People’ or ‘Person’ has come to signify identification with a
collective cultural identity and SPECTRUM claim that writing Disabled
People with a capital ‘D’ and ‘P’ is now commonplace as a way of emphasizing
the term’s political significance (SPECTRUM 2018). More recently some
groups have chosen to adopt ‘people-first’ or ‘person-first’ language as a way
of describing disability that involves putting the word ‘person’ or ‘people’
before the word ‘disability’—as in ‘people with disabilities’. This term is used
by many of the authors in this publication, as it is the idea that disability is
just a label and not the defining characteristic of the individual, as well as not
being a political label. In other chapters authors use the terminology that is
current in their geographical location, which we believe increases our under-
standing of the way in which people with disabilities are viewed in different
countries.
One key issue in the use of terminology is that the term ‘people with dis-
abilities’ describes membership to a specific social group, which in turn gives
a social identity. It has been argued that the current literature seems to treat
disability identity as a social identity that conveys membership of a socially
stigmatized group (Bogart 2014). Indeed this social model has been favoured
over a biological or medical model because social and cultural factors are
believed to create universal challenges that people with disabilities face regard-
less of differences in biological features of impartments, or congenital com-
pared to acquired disability (Barnes and Mercer 2001; Bogart 2014). In an
attempt to personalize the way in which we look at people with disabilities at
work, the majority of chapters include at least one case study of the experi-
ences of individuals in order to provide a real-life lens over the subject being
discussed. A short summary of the history of disability in the workplace from
both a global north and global south perspective, followed by an outline of
the models of disability that are drawn upon in this handbook will be pre-
sented next.
he Historical Context of Disability

T
and Employment
Whilst is it not possible to give a detailed historical overview on the concep-
tualization of ‘disability’, as it would be a book in itself, it is important to
include an overview of key events to situate the current framing of a disability
discussed in the chapters within this handbook. The term ‘disability’ has not
always been used, for instance the terms cripple, handicap, and imbecile have
been used throughout history, and even today the terms used to refer to peo-
ple with disabilities are also subject to countries or regional language
differences.
Global North
Disability scholars from the global north have historically conceptualized dis-
ability employment experiences in three phases: (1) pre-industrialization, (2)
the rise of capitalism/industrial revolution and (3) technological advancement/s
(see Finkelstein 1980; Stone 1984). It has been argued that during pre-
industrialization many individuals with a disability were able to work in their
communities, such as within the domestic home, and even where they could
not participate fully, they were still able to make a contribution. Oliver and
Barnes (2012) suggest that although having a disability was seen to be ‘indi-
vidually unfortunate’ individuals were not segregated from the rest of society.
This claim, however, is too reductive and Borsay’s (1998), for example, con-
tests the argument that an impairment did not hinder economic participation
prior to industrialization. Nonetheless, it is widely accepted that the industrial
revolution was a major influence in the reframing of organizational performa-
tivity, which consequently led to the exclusion of those with a bodily/cogni-
tive difference. This was gleaned from the primary data on men and women
with a disability who were admitted into institutional care, especially for those
suffering from mental health conditions. However, it was context specific;
those who had a work opportunity and could participate in some form would
not be segregated. In contrast, those who did not have a viable work opportu-
nity, or could not perform the work task, would not only be excluded from
the work environment but placed in institutions.
The technological developments in the nineteenth and twentieth century,
across many northern countries, began an industrial revolution where work
transitioned from self-employment in or around the home to working in a
factory, which controlled the wages and rules of employment. Oliver (1990),
1 Introduction 11
the key initiator of the social model of disability, argued that, “[c]hanges in
the organisation of work from a rural based, cooperative system where indi-
viduals contributed what they could to the production process, to an urban,
factory-based one organised around the individual waged labourer, had pro-
found consequences”. When factory work became the main source of employ-
ment, individuals with a disability were scrutinized when factory owners
compared their bodily performance to other workers (Connell 2011): these
observations showcased their inabilities in adhering to the rigid and regula-
tory work environments (Slorach 2016). Within these new factories, in a new
age of capitalism, human beings became a commodity to be controlled like
machines for profit which benefited the business owners (Russell and Malhotra
2002). The treatment of individuals with disabilities and the capitalist age
imposed systemic and invariable performative expectations, which led to
treating “mentally distressed human beings as malfunctioning machines”
(Slorach 2016, p. 81). As a consequence of these changes in the early twenti-
eth century, many individuals with a disability were excluded from main-
stream society and often placed in rehabilitative or state institutions (e.g.
workhouses, asylums, special schools or colonies) (Oliver 1990). By historian’s
approximation there were around 10,000 individuals with a disability in
workhouses in the UK in the early 1900s (Jarrett 2012). Thus, there is a direct
link between the rise of capitalism thus contributed to the current conceptu-
alization and exclusion of disability from the workplace.
We are currently situated within a technological phase of development,
although capitalist norms are still deeply entrenched in global organizational
contexts. Importantly, “as capitalism becomes more sophisticated in its pro-
ductions methods, so the impairments it creates becomes more diverse … In
every field of industry, employers push workers harder to keep pace with com-
petitors” (Slorach 2016, p. 238). Foster (2018) claims that:
If the ideal worker in contemporary capitalism is to now be defined according

to their aesthetic value, how resilient they are and as self-managing able-bodied
entrepreneurial subjects, the logical outcome is that many more people will fall
short of this, with the consequence that they will potentially be socially con-
structed as dis-abled.
The impact of entrenched capitalist, organizational and societal cultural

norms underpins many of the chapters in this handbook; therefore, we urge
the reader to critically consider the wider discourses that impact their own
and others’ lives.
Global South
The majority of the chapters for this handbook are considered from a global
north position; however, it is important to consider the historical and cultural
differences that affect the conceptualization and experiences of disability in
the global south. Scholars have criticized research from the global north that
places stereotypical and homogenous assumptions on the experiences of dis-
ability in the global south: “these generalisations operate through a discourse
that simplifies the disability experience in line with the social model as one of
disproportionate oppression, intensified by a homogenised ‘third world’ con-
structed as backward, undeveloped and often brutal towards its weaker mem-
bers” (Grech 2011).
It is important to remember that the experiences of individuals with a
disability are embedded in their geographical location, cultural and social
norms and the political system in place at a specific time. For example, in
India, a historical analysis has shown that experiences of disability are entan-
gled with gender, religion, cultural, political (local and national) norms and
socioeconomic status. Disabled women have been found to experience the
most social and economic exclusion throughout the recent history in India
and, although changes are being made, instilled gender cultural norms that
prioritize boys and men prevail (Buckingham 2011). Buckingham’s (2011)
historical analysis concludes that: “those with disabilities in India and their
advocates increasingly understand the historical and contemporary margin-
alisation of disabled persons as socially constructed and redeemable by a just
distribution of appropriate resources”. Similarly for authoritarian regimes
such as China, there has been a lack of research that explores the lived expe-
riences of those with a disability, both from a historical and current perspec-
tive (Zhang 2017).
Not only is it important to consider the internal geographical and socio-
political context of the global south, but also the impact of militarized con-
flicts between western and developing countries. Connell (2011) aptly states
that: “one of the key dynamics in the construction of world society was the
social embodiment of power—a deployment of force that, in addition to leav-
ing disabled individuals, collectively disabled whole populations”. Individuals
who are disabled as a result of war and other conflicts are then subjected to
social and economic exclusion for the rest of their lives. The rise of capitalism
has also had a significant impact (i.e. neo-colonial-colonial relations of power)
in creating and excluding disability in the global south. For example, there are
1 Introduction 13
many Asian countries which are exploited to supply cheap clothing to meet
the demands of the global north capitalist consumer market and the increas-
ing trend of people wanting more product for less money. The impact of this
exploitation is precarious and unsafe working conditions for those in factories
that have resulted in death and injury (as well as resulting disability (Chouinard
2015). Likewise in Africa, the British colonial influence on African employ-
ment practices has had an impact on determining who is ‘fit’ or ‘unfit’ for
industrial employment:
From the 1930s onward, men who sought work in the South African mines—a
virtually ubiquitous experience among African men in south eastern
Bechuanaland, due in part to colonial policies—faced a medical examination to
determine their ‘fitness’ for work. Those whose bodies were deemed ‘unfit’ for
industrial employment by virtue of their age, weight, perceived impairments, or
other criteria were economically and thereby to some extent socially marginal-
ized. Bodily differences that had previously seemed economically inconsequen-
tial began to take on greater social and economic valence and to remake
particular hierarchies. (Livingston 2006)
Although it is not possible to give a more detailed analysis of the global south
there are other handbooks and sources that provide a detailed analysis of the
topic (e.g. Watermeyer et al. 2019; Grech 2015). However, it is therefore
important for readers, researchers and activists to consider the reach of their
research, and to consider the differences in experiences of disability according
to the global region and the national and international history of events that
have contributed towards these experiences.
Models of Disability
There are three main models of disability which are referred to throughout
this handbook that offer different definitions of a disability: the medical
model, the social model and the social-relational model (Goodley 2014;
Palmer and Harley 2012). These models at different times and in different
regions have been challenged and developed. Often the main criticism from
political and human right activists is that ‘disability’ is far more complex than
the models conceptualize (Anderson and Carden-Coyne 2007). Each of these
models will now be summarized in turn to briefly situate the reader.
The Medical Model
Those who draw upon the medical model of disability argue that a disability
is bio-medical in origin and is the consequence of an individual’s functional
impairment (e.g. the result of injury, health condition, or disease), which
causes a loss of bodily functionality and social participation (Grue 2011),
implying that the responsibilities of a disability reside within an individual’s
“own personal misfortune—devoid of social cause or responsibility” (Areheart
2008). A consequence of the dominance of the medical model of disability is
the establishment of the normative categories of ‘disabled’ and ‘non-disabled’,
which have become deeply entrenched globally (Areheart 2008). Although
the ways in which we understand disability has changed over the last few
decades, due to legislation and education, medicalization of disability contin-
ues to dominate in some important contexts, for example benefit systems
(Beresford 2016).
Researchers drawing on the medical model of disability in the 1950s
described illness and impairments as “deviant” behaviour when individuals
could not “fulfil (sic) the institutionally defined expectations of one or more
of the roles in which the individual is implicated in the society” (Parsons
1951): a reflection of the current socio-political climate. Historians, who have
explored the experiences of those with a disability, stress that the voices and
day-to-day lives of the ‘disabled’ were often not recorded. Instead, scholars
have found evidence available was from professionals and institutions that
“disabled people only existed in the sphere of the doctors’ examination room,
in records in institutions or in the propaganda of charities” (Anderson and
Carden-Coyne 2007). One of the main critiques of the medical model, how-
ever, is the failure to consider or recognize the impact of society (e.g. social
discourses, architecture, design etc.) on the ability to perform a societal role
(Oliver 1990). Furthermore, the presumption that those with a disability or
ill health are ‘unable’ to live ‘normal’ lives has been widely challenged (see
Morris 1991; Jammaers et al. 2016).
The Social Model
The social model’s fundamental belief is that it is society, and not an impair-
ment, which is disabling (Oliver and Barnes 2012). Those who adhere to this
model view ‘disability’ as a social construct and critically assess “the ways in
which disability is socially produced” (Hughes and Paterson 1997) and, in
comparison to the medical model, the debates shift from biomedically
1 Introduction 15
dominated agendas to discourses about politics and citizenship. Activists, for

example, stress that it is society’s fault when an individual in a wheelchair can-
not access a public building or use public transport because of a lack of eleva-
tors and ramps (Poria et al. 2011). Although the social model is the dominant
model adopted by academics and activists in western society (e.g. UK, USA
and Canada) there are parts of the medical model remain in use across a num-
ber of societal practices such as welfare provisions and accessing benefits. In
the USA the Americans with Disabilities Act reproduces the medical defini-
tion by defining disability as an inability to perform a “‘normal’ life activity”
(Donoghue 2003) and, equally in the UK, the Equality Act (2010) defines
disability as an inability to perform ‘normal’ day-to-day activities. In many
countries an individual’s physical and mental health are reassessed in regular
intervals to (re)confirm if they are (un)fit for work and the welfare benefit
systems in the UK also supports an individualized medial model of disability.
Those who have a physical or psychological impairment(s) have to undergo a
clinical assessment, providing medical evidence in order to receive disability
and/or employment benefits, a system that has been severely criticized in the
last decade (Bloom 2019). There have been many reports of individuals being
declared ‘fit for work’, despite evidence to the contrary, and appeals of these
decision to withdraw benefits in independent tribunals are often successful
(e.g. Fricker 2016; Siddique 2019). In the UK the Department for Work and
Pensions (DWP) has been scrutinized by Parliament and activists for their
continual dehumanizing approach, which fails to account for the lived experi-
ences of a ‘disability’, and the impact of their decisions on the psychological
health of claimants (McNiell et al. 2017). In some cases this has even resulted
in suicide.
The Social Relational Model
Those who favour the social relational model argue that disability is the effect
of individual impairments (functional limitations) and socially imposed
exclusions (Shakespeare 2014), encapsulating the personal and the social
experience of disability. Thomas (1999), positioning her argument within a
social relational model, defined disability as “a form of oppression involving
the social imposition of restrictions of activity on people with impairments
and the socially engendered undermining of their psycho-emotional well-
being”. Although there is agreement that the causes of disability should be
firmly located in the social environment, rather than with the individual, it
has been suggested that to define disability entirely in terms of oppression
risks overlooking the positive dimension of social relations, which enable as

opposed to [dis]able people with impairments (Nyanjom et al. 2018). Instead
disability is defined as “the outcome of the interaction between individual and
contextual factors, which includes impairment, personality, individual atti-
tudes, environment, policy and culture” (Shakespeare 2014). For example,
providing ramps, lifts and disabled toilets does not reduce functional impair-
ment but it does make individuals less disabled than if those facilities were not
in place impairments (Nyanjom et al. 2018). Yet people with functional
impairments continue to experience higher levels of disability than necessary,
simply because organizations do not provide satisfactory access facilities (Poria
et al. 2011).
The different definitions of disability demonstrate the tensions that sur-
round identity and research has shown that a conflict exists between an indi-
vidual’s self-identity and the projected norms of a social identity. As will be
discussed in multiple chapters throughout this handbook binary identity
labels, such as disabled/non-disabled and women/men, are imbued with his-
torical and cultural normative discourses. It has been argued, however, that
that binary “[d]istinctions are in themselves not problematic and are indeed
fundamental to analysis. It is only when the distinctions are reified and reflect
and reinforce discriminatory and hierarchical judgments that they can be
classed as binary in structure and content” (Knights 2015, original emphasis).
Feely (2016) suggests that when an individual is ascribed an identity label,
such as disabled (or a type of disability), the body is ‘over-coded’ and this
prevents us from thinking creatively about the infinite number of things a
body could do in different contexts. It is also important to recognize the his-
torical and cultural development of ‘disability’ identity across different global
regions and historians have shown the instability and the changeable ‘bound-
aries’ in which bodily and behavioural characteristics are viewed as the norm:
Elites will always generate outgroups, as modern elites do around ethnicity, gen-
der and sexuality, and the anxieties that go with them. However, alongside these
will be an extreme example that is not just inferior by degree but is seen as con-
tradicting the very essence of what that particular era considers to be human.
Their very species membership is in question—hence the belief that they con-
travene natural and biological norms. Once intelligence or cognitive ability
came to be the chief marker of the individual’s natural human status, replacing
earlier markers such as medieval ‘honour’ or, in religious terms, divine ‘grace’,
only then did people with intellectual and learning disabilities become the
extreme outgroup. The long historical perspective shows them to be not just the
target of an enduring social phobia, but also, in historical terms, the temporary
product of it. (Goodey 2015)
1 Introduction 17
Outline of the Book

This publication endeavours to address the current gap in the market and has
a number of important features, in that it looks at a wide range of the work-
place aspects that impact on the experiences of people with disabilities. It
follows them through each aspect of the workplace, and provides case studies
to highlight the actual experiences of people with disabilities. In doing so the
book examines the experiences of people with disabilities in diverse contexts
within the workplace. As people with disabilities have historically been
excluded from discussions about disability (Oliver and Barnes 2012), each
chapter includes at least one case study to give a voice to people with disabili-
ties and highlight their lived experiences of the issues under discussion.
Beginning by looking at the legislation pertaining to the placement and sup-
port of people with disabilities in the workplace from a global perspective it
goes on to consider where the work experience begins, with the transition
between non-work and work, and the subsequent acts of people with disabili-
ties depend on the industry sector an individual enters, the type of work they
undertake, their specific disability and other elements of diversity which can
lead to further disadvantage, bias and/or discrimination, for example gender.
The book comprises 28 chapters, with 4 chapters in each of 7 sections, with a
final summary chapter of the key issues raised in the book, identification of
the gaps in the research and recommendations for future research, organiza-
tional interventions and legislation. The seven key sections are:
• Legal Aspects—considering the impact of the law on assisting individuals with

disabilities in to work and supporting those in work;
• Transitions—between education and employment, between careers, between
employment and non-work, promotion/demotion;
• Types of Employment—looking at people with disabilities employed within
specific industry sectors, for example private, public, mainstream, sheltered,
volunteers, self-employed and underemployment;
• Levels of Employment—exploring low, mid and high levels (including
blue/white collar, supervisory, professional and managerial);
• Disabilities—looking at the impact of certain disabilities, for example con-
genital, acquired, physical and mental;
• Intersections—between disability and other identity characteristics, for exam-
ple gender, race and age;
• Dynamics—investigating the relationship between organizational dynamics
and disability.
We have endeavoured to present chapters from researchers who are

renowned in their field around the globe, representing: Australia, Canada,
Czech Republic, India, Italy, Switzerland, UK and the USA, and would like
to offer our sincere gratitude for their time, dedication and effort. We would
also like to thank all of those who took part in the case study aspect of the
chapters for their openness and their generosity in giving their time. The pro-
duction of this book has been a hard but enjoyable experience for us all and
we hope that you as the reader find this unique collection of chapters interest-
ing, informative and thought-provoking.
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Part I
Legal Aspects
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a prayer but chiefly ecstatic description of his power, the worshipper
is really endeavouring to charge himself with higher religious magic
by this outpouring. In fact, here and elsewhere, a magic origin for the
practice of theologic exegesis may be obscurely traced; narrative
might acquire an apotropaeic effect; thus tablets containing the
narrative of the achievements of the plague-god, hung up before the
houses, could avert pestilence,296.2 or, again, the reading aloud the
tablet narrating the victory of Shamash and Ramman over the seven
demons who attacked the moon-god Sin served to defeat the seven
demons by the same sympathetic magic as would be worked by a
dramatic representation of that event.296.3
There is no record or hint that the Hellenes recited hymns to
Demeter or wrote up passages of Homer to avert demons.
It belongs to the magic use of formulae that minute exactness in
respect of every syllable is necessary to the power of the spell or the
spell-prayer. An Assyrian king who is consulting the sun-god
concerning success in a war with which he is threatened, prays that
the ritual which the enemy may be employing may go wrong and fail;
and in this context occurs the curious petition, “May the lips of the
priest’s son hurry and stumble over a word.”297.1 The idea seems to
be that a single slip in the ritual-formulae destroyed their whole
value; and such a view belongs to magic rather than to religion.
Now it is probable that in his earliest mental stage the Hellene had
been in bondage to the religious magic of sacred formulae and
sacred names; and as a tradition of that stage, the divine epithet
whereby he appealed to his deities according to his needs retained
always for him a mysterious potency; but otherwise we have no
proof that he worked word-magic by means of his sacred texts.
Babylonian sorcery, whether legitimate or illegitimate, was
intended to work upon or through demons; and its familiarity with the
names and special qualities of demons is its peculiar mark. In the
ritual of exorcism of the demons, idols play a prominent and often
singular rôle. The following performance is probably unique: in the
exorcism of disease two idols, male and female, were set up before
the sick man, then the evil spirits of sickness are invited thus: “Oh ye
all wicked, all evil, who pursue so-and-so, if thou art male, here is thy
wife; if thou art female, here is thy husband.”297.2 The intent of the
exorciser seems to be to attract the demon of disease, of whose sex
he is not sure, into one or the other of these images, and he lures it
by amorous enticement into the figure of opposite sex to its own;
having got the demon into the image, he doubtless takes it out and
burns or buries it. Or the evil spirit may be attracted from the patient
by means of its own image placed near him. One document
prescribes various images of bestial form, all of which are to be
taken by night to the bank of the river, probably that they may be
thrown in and carry the impurity of sickness away.298.1 Another
shows us how to deal with Labartu, the daughter of Anu;298.2 her
image, made of clay, is placed above the head of the sick man, so as
to draw her or her power out from him; it is then taken out, slain, and
buried. And this exorcism is all the more notable because Labartu is
rather an evil goddess than a mere demon, being styled in another
text “August lady,” “Mistress of the dark-haired men.”298.3 Such
magical drama, in which the demon-image might be slain to annul its
potency, seems characteristically Babylonian: it entered also into the
ritual of the high gods. For, at the feast of the New Year, when Nebo
arrived from Borsippa, two images are brought before him and in his
presence decapitated with the sword. Dr. Langdon interprets
them298.4 as representing probably “the demons who aided the
dragon in her fight with Marduk; they are the captive gods of
darkness which ends with the Equinox.” This is dramatic magic
helpful to the gods.
The elaboration of exorcism must have led to a minuter articulation
of the demon-world; the exorciser is most anxious to know and
discover all about his unseen foes: he gives them a name, a sex if
possible, and a number: he says of the powerful storm-demons Utuk
“they are seven, they are seven, they are neither male nor female,
they take no wife and beget no children;”299.1 for knowledge of the
name or nature of the personality gives magic power.
Many of these examples, which might easily be multiplied, show
us magic applied to private but beneficent purposes, the healing of
disease, the exorcism of spirits of moral and physical evil. It was also
in vogue for national purposes—for instance, for the destruction of
the enemies of the king; one of our documents describes such a
process as the making of a tallow-image of the enemy of the king
and binding his face with a cord, so as to render the living foe
impotent of will and speech.299.2
We have already noticed that the Babylonian gods themselves
work magic, and that it was also worked on behalf of the gods.299.3
And in the ritual-records much that might be interpreted as religion
may find its truer account from the other point of view; for instance,
the ritual of placing by the bedside of a sick man the image of Nergal
or those of the “twins who overthrow the wicked Gallu”299.4 might
appear at first sight as a religious appeal to the deities to come to his
aid; but as in form it is exactly similar to the use made on the same
occasion, as noted above, of the images of demons, we may rather
suppose that the intention was magical in this act also, and that the
divine idols were supposed to combat the demon of sickness by their
magical influence. Or, again, in part of the ritual of exorcism we find
acts that bear the semblance of sacrifice, such as throwing onions
and dates into the fire; but they were charged with a curse before
thrown, and the act is more naturally interpreted as a magic
transference of evil.300.1
For the purpose of the exorcism, to deliver a “banned” person, the
high god, Marduk or another, might be called in; but Marduk also
works the effect by magic: a rope is woven by Ishtar’s maidens,
which Marduk (or his priest) turns round the head of the sufferer,
then breaks it through and throws it out into the desert.300.2 This
looks like symbolic magic; the knotted rope represents the ban,
which is then broken and thrown away.
There are many features in these methods of exorcism, such as
the apotropaeic use of idols, that are common to other peoples at a
certain stage of culture; there remains much also that seems
peculiar to Babylon.
But what is uniquely characteristic of this Mesopotamian people,
and at the same time most un-Hellenic, is the all-pervading
atmosphere of magic, which colours their view of life and their theory
of the visible and invisible world. Babylonia, at least, was the one
salient exception to the historic induction that a distinguished
writer300.3 has recently sanctioned—“religion once firmly established
invariably seeks to exclude magic; and the priest does his best to
discredit the magician.” The psalmody of Babylon, with its occasional
outbursts of inspiration and its gleams of spiritual insight, would have
appealed to an Isaiah; its magic would have appealed to many a
modern African. The Babylonian prophet does not frown on it; the
high gods accept it, the priest is its skilled and beneficent
practitioner. And at no other point, perhaps, is the contrast between
the Hellenic and the Mesopotamian religions so glaring as at this.
This comparison of Eastern and Western ritual may close with
some observations on another religious function that may be of
some value for the question of early ethnic influence.
It has been remarked that divination played an important, perhaps
a dominant part in the Babylonian ritual of sacrifice, divination, that
is, by inspection of the victim’s entrails, especially the liver; and that
this method was adopted in Greece only in the later centuries.301.1
But there are other salient differences between the Babylonian and
the more ancient mantic art of Hellas.301.2 Another method much in
vogue in the former was a curious mode of divining by mixing oil and
water and watching the movements and behaviour of the two
liquids.301.3 The first and only indication of a similar practice in Hellas
is a passage in the Agamemnon of Æschylus, of which the true
meaning has hitherto escaped the interpreters.301.4 And here, as
usual, an obvious example of Mesopotamian influence on Hellenic
custom belongs only to a late epoch. It is also true that the ancient
divination of the two peoples agreed in certain respects, namely, in
that both used, like most communities at a certain stage of culture,
the auguries of birds and the revelations of dreams. As regards the
facts relating to the former, we know more about Greece than at
present about Babylon. But in the matter of dream-oracles, it is
manifest that the Hellenic phenomena are entirely independent of
Mesopotamian fashion. The Assyrian and Babylonian documents
reveal the fashion of dream-prophecy in its simplest and highest
form: the high deity of his own pleasure sends a dream, and the
divining priest or skilled interpreter interprets it. No hint has so far
been detected of that artificial method of provoking prophetic dreams
by “incubation” or ἐγκοίμησις, the fashion of laying oneself down in
some sacred shrine and sleeping with one’s ear to the ground, that
was much in vogue in ancient Hellas and still survives in parts of the
modern Greek world and which may be regarded as an immemorial
tradition. In this divination, the divine spokesman was the power of
the underworld. And this was the most important difference between
the Western and the Eastern society in respect of the divine agency.
In an early period of Hellenic history that may be called pre-Apolline,
the earth-mother was conspicuously oracular by the vehicle of
dreams; and this power of hers was generally shared by the nether
god and buried heroes. Nor could the religion of Apollo suppress this
“chthonian” divination. But in Mesopotamia the earth-powers and the
nether world have no part or lot in this matter. It is almost the
prerogative of Shamash, the sun-god, though Adad is sometimes
associated with him;302.1 both being designated as “Bēlē-Biri” or
“Lords of Oracles.”303.1
Another remarkable distinction is the fact that the ecstatic or
enthusiastic form of prophecy, that of the Shaman or Pythoness
possessed and maddened by the inworking spirit of god, is not found
in the Babylonian record, which only attests the cool and scientific
method of interpreting by signs and dreams and the stars. Perhaps
Mesopotamia from the third millennium onward was too civilised to
admit the mad prophet and prophetess to its counsels. But such
characters were attached to certain Anatolian cults, especially to
those of Kybele,303.2 and also to the Syrian goddess at
Hierapolis;303.3 we have evidence of them also in a record of the
Cretan Phaistos in the service of the Great Mother.303.4 Some
scholars have supposed that prophetic ecstasy was only a late
phenomenon in Hellas, because Homer is silent about it. But there
are reasons for suspecting that demoniac possession was
occasionally found in the pre-Homeric divination of Hellas,303.5 an
inheritance perhaps from the pre-Hellenic period.
In any case, the theory that primitive Hellas was indebted to
Babylonia for its divination-system is strongly repugnant to the facts.
CHAPTER XIV.
Summary of Results.
This comparative exposition of the Sumerian-Babylonian and the

most complex and developed pre-Christian religion of Europe cannot
claim to be complete or at any point finally decisive, but it may at
least have helped to reveal the high value and interest of these
phenomena for the workers in this broad field of inquiry. This was
one of the main objects of this course. The other was the discussion
of a question of religious ethnology, concerning the possible
influence of Mesopotamia on the earliest development of Hellenic
religion. The verdict must still remain an open one, awaiting the light
of the new evidence that the future will gather. But the evidence at
present available—and it may be hoped that none of first importance
has been missed—constrains us to a negative answer or at least a
negative attitude of mind.
Confining ourselves generally to the second millennium B.C., we
have surveyed the religions of the adjacent peoples between the
valley of the Euphrates and the western shores of the Aegean; and
have observed that morphologically they are generally on the same
plane of polytheism, but that those of Mesopotamia and Hellas
reveal inner differences, striking and vital enough to be serious
stumbling-blocks to a theory of affiliation. These differences concern
the personality of the divinities and their relations to the various parts
of the world of nature; the most salient being the different attitude of
the two peoples to the divine luminaries of heaven and to the
chthonian powers of the lower world. They concern the cosmogonies
of East and West, their views of the creation of the world, and the
origin of man; on these matters, certain myths which are easily
diffused do not appear to have reached Hellas in this early period.
They concern the religious temperaments of the Babylonian and
Hellene, which appear as separate as the opposite points of the
pole; the rapturous fanatic and self-abasing spirit of the East
contrasting vividly with the coolness, civic sobriety, and self-
confidence of the West. They concern the eschatologic ideas of the
two peoples: the cult of the dead and some idea of a posthumous
judgment being found in early Hellas, while the former was rare, and
the latter is scarcely discoverable, in Mesopotamia. They concern,
finally, the ritual; and here the salient points of contrast are the
different views of the sacrifice, of the sacrificial victim, and the
sacrificial blood; the different methods of purification and the
expulsion of sin; the ritual of sorrow associated with the death of the
god, so powerful in Babylonia and so insignificant (by comparison) in
Hellas; the un-Hellenic Mylitta-rite, and the service of the
“hierodoulai”; and, to conclude with the most vital difference of all,
the manifestations of magic and its relation to the national religions,
so complex, so pregnant for thought and faith, and so dominant in
Mesopotamia; on the other hand, so insignificant and unobtrusive in
Hellas.
Two other points have been incidentally noticed in our general
survey, but it is well in a final summing up to emphasise their great
importance as negative evidence. The first concerns the higher
history of European religion: the establishment of religious mysteries,
a phenomenon of dateless antiquity, and of powerful working in
Hellenic and Aegean society, has not yet been discovered in the
Mesopotamian culture. The second is a small point that concerns
commerce and the trivialities of ritual: the use of incense, universal
from immemorial times in Mesopotamia, and proved by the earliest
documents, begins in Greece not earlier than the eighth century B.C.
This little product, afterwards everywhere in great demand, for it is
pleasant to the sense, soothing to the mind, and among the
harmless amenities of worship, was much easier to import than
Babylonian theology or more complex ritual. It might have come
without these, but they could scarcely have come without it. Yet it did
not come to Hellenic shores in the second millennium. And this
trifling negative fact is worth a volume of the higher criticism for the
decision of our question.
Those who still cling to the faith that Babylonia was the centre
whence emanated much Mediterranean religion, may urge that the
negative value of the facts exposed above may be destroyed by
future discoveries. This is true, but our preliminary hypotheses
should be framed on the facts that are already known. Or they may
urge that the generic resemblances of the two religious systems with
which we have been mainly concerned are also great. But, as has
been observed, the same generic resemblance exists between
Greek and Vedic polytheism. And for the question of religious origin
general resemblances are far less decisive than specific points of
identity, such, for instance, as the identity of divine names or of some
peculiar divine attribute. Later we can trace the migrations of Isis and
Mithras throughout Europe by their names or by the sistrum or by the
type of the fallen bull, of the Hittite god Teschub in the Graeco-
Roman guise of Jupiter Dolichenos as far as Hungary, perhaps as
far as Scandinavia, by the attribute of the hammer. It is just this sort
of evidence of any trace of Babylonian influence that is lacking
among the records of early Greece. No single Babylonian name is
recognisable in its religious or mythologic nomenclature; just as no
characteristically Babylonian fashion is found in its ritual or in the
appurtenances of its religion. This well accords with what is already
known of the Mediterranean history of the second millennium. For
long centuries the Hittite empire was a barrier between the
Babylonian power and the coastlands of Asia Minor.
So far, then, as our knowledge goes at present, there is no reason
for believing that nascent Hellenism, wherever else arose the
streams that nourished its spiritual life, was fertilised by the deep
springs of Babylonian religion or theosophy.
INDEX OF NAMES AND
SUBJECTS.
Adad (Ramman), 62, 101-102, 142, 143.
Adonis, 251, 255, 273-274.
Alilat, 44.
Allatu, 57, 206, 218.
Aniconic worship, 225-230.
Animism, 43.
Anthropomorphism, in Greece, 10-12, 75-80; in Mesopotamia, 51-
52, 55-57; in Canaan, 57-58; in Hittite religion, 60-61; in Phrygia,
63-64; in Crete, 64-75.
Aphrodite, Cretan-Mycenaean, 96; in Cyprus, 261; Ourania, 272-
273.
Apollo, 49, 295; theory of Lycian origin, 90; Agyieus, 136; Delphinios,
291; Lykeios, 76.
Arabian divinities, 85, 263.
Aramaic divinities, 85.
Artemis, of Brauron, 244; in Cilicia, 89; at Ephesos, 91; aboriginal
Mediterranean goddess, 96.
Aryan migration into Greece, 34.
Asshur, 58, 225.
Astarte, 57, 58, 59, 86, 107.
Astral cults, in Mesopotamia, 102; in Greece, 111-114.
Atargatis (Derketo), 57.
Athena, aboriginal Mediterranean goddess, 96.
Athtar, Arabian deity, 85, 263.
Attar, in Arabia, 168.
Attis, 91, 254-258, 266; Παπαῖος, 95.
Axe-cult, in Crete, 70, 93.
Baalbec, 273-274.
Baptism, 284.
Bau, Babylonian goddess, 263.
Belit, Babylonian goddess, 83, 84, 104.
Birds, cult of, 63, 69-73.
Boghaz-Keui, reliefs of, 47, 60, 125; cuneiform texts at, 61.
Borrowing, tests of, in religion, 37.
Boundaries, sanctity of, 127-128.
Bouphonia, in Attica, 237-238.
Britomartis, 170.
Bull, Hittite worship of, 252-253.
Burial-customs, 208-210.
Byblos, Adonis-rites at, 273-274.
Chemosh, of Moab, 59, 86.
Cilicia, Assyrian conquests in, 35 (vide Typhoeus).
Cities, religious origin of, 118.
Communion-service with dead, 209.
Confessional-service in Mesopotamia, 151, 288.
Convent-system in Mesopotamia, 268-269.
Cook, Mr., 66, 69, 73.
Cosmogonies, 179-182.
Courtesans, sacred, 269-283.
Cowley, Dr., 90.
Creation of man, 184-185.
Cyprus, religious prostitution in, 273-274.
Days, sacred character of, 293-295.
Dead, worship of, 122, 210, 211, 213; tendance of, 211, 212;
evocation of, 214-215.
Death of deity, 27-28, 238-240, 249-263.
Demeter, 80.
Demonology, 154, 206-208, 297-300.
Dionysos, 239-240; marriage with Queen-Archon, 267.
Divination, through sacrifice, 248-249, 301-302; ecstatic, 303.
Dualism, 19, 158.
Ea, Babylonian god, 53, 102, 117, 121.
Eagle, Hittite worship of, 63.
Earth, divinity of, in Mesopotamia, 103; in Greece, 114.
Enlil, Babylonian god, 59, 103-104, 142.
Eros, cosmic principle, 181.
Eschatology, 204-220.
Esmun, Phoenician god, 57.
Eunostos, Tanagran vegetation-hero, 262.
Eunuchs, in Phrygian religion, 92, 256-258.
Euyuk, relief at, 61.
Evans, Sir Arthur, 17, 30, 64, 69-71, 73-74, 91, 97, 211, 227.
Evil gods, 19, 142-143.
Faith, not a religious virtue in Greece, 23-24.
Fanaticism, in Mesopotamia, 197-203.
Fassirlir, Lion-goddess at, 88.
Father-god, 48, 95.
Fetichism, 225-228.
Fire-god, in Greece and Babylon, 146-147, 285.
Fire-purification, 285-286.
Frazer, Dr., 17, 60, 79, 89, 257 n. 1, 277, 282.
Functional deities (Sondergötter), 110, 133.
Goddess-worship, importance of, 5, 81-82; in Mesopotamia, 17, 82-
84; among Western Semites, 85-86; Hittites, 87-88; on Asia-
Minor coast, 88-91; in Crete, 92-94; Aryan tradition of, 94-96; in
early Greece, 96-98.
Hammer, sacred Hittite symbol, 63.
Hammurabi, code of, 129-132, 212.
Harpalyke, legend of, 239.
Harrison, Miss Jane, 67, 69-70.
Hartland, Mr. Sidney, 271 n. 1, 280-281.
Hearth-worship, 132-133.
Helios, at Tyre and Palmyra, 107; in Greece, 110-111.
Hell, Babylonian conception of, 205-206.
Hera, ? Aryan-Hellenic, 96; βοῶπις, 76.
Hierodoulai, 272.
Hittite ethnology, 36.
Hogarth, Dr., 74.
Homicide, Babylonian laws concerning, 129-130; Hellenic religious
feeling about, 138-140; purification from, 287-288.
Hyakinthos, 262.
Ibriz, Hittite monument at, 47.
Idolatry, in Greece, 12-13, 228.
Incense, 231-232, 306.
Incest, Babylonian laws concerning, 131.
Incubation, divination by, 302.
Ira, goddess of plague, 143.
Ishtar, 55, 83, 103, 120, 142, 164-167; descent of, 204, 208.
Jastrow, Prof., 37, 58.
Katharsis, Homeric, 289-291.
Kingship, divine character of, in Mesopotamia, 119, 122-123; among
Western Semites, 123; among Hittites, 124-125; in Phrygia, 125;
in Crete, 125-126; in Greece, 126-127.
Knots, magic use of, 300.
Kybele, 63, 91-92, 109, 170, 226.
Labartu, demon-goddess, 298.
Langdon, Dr., 56, 205 n. 1, 296, 298.
Leto ? Lycian origin of, 89-90.
Leukothea, 261.
Linos, 197, 262.
Lion-divinity, Phrygian Hittite Mesopotamian type, 62-63.
Lykaon, Arcadian sacrifice of, 239.
Ma, Anatolian goddess, 169, 272.
Magic, in Greece, 158, 176-179, 292-293; in Babylon, 291-301.
Male deity, predominant among Semites, 85-86; at Olba and Tarsos
and in Lycia, 89.
Mannhardt, 276.
Marduk, 103, 120, 265.
Marriage of god and goddess, 263-268; marriage ceremonies in
Babylon, 134.
Mercy, attribute of divinity, 158-160.
Minotaur, 74, 266-267.
Mitani inscriptions, 46.
Monotheism, 187-189.
Monsters, in Cretan art, 74-75.
Moon-worship, Semitic, 85; Hellenic, 112.
Morality and religion, 20.
Mylitta, rites of, 269-271.
Nature-worship, 40-41, 97; in Mesopotamia, 99-106; West-Semitic,
106-107; Hittite, 108; Hellenic, 110-114.
Nebo, 52, 102, 119, 121, 188.
Nergal, 101, 142.
Νηφάλια, wineless offerings, 112.
Ninib, 101, 117, 127, 263.
Ninlil, 84.
Ninni, relief of, 52.
Nusku, 117.
Omnipotence, divine attribute, 173-175.
Orotal, Arabian deity, 44.
Pan-Babylonism, 30-33.
Pantheism, 161-162.
Perjury, 147-149.
Personal religion, 191-196.
Pessimism, in Babylonian hymns, 155.
Petrie, Professor, 223.
Phallic cults, 228-230.
Phratric system, religious sanction of, in Greece, 138; non-existent
(?) in Mesopotamia, 138.
Poseidon, 146.
Punishment, posthumous, 215-216.
Purification, 155-158, 282-291.
Purity, 163-172.
Qadistu, meaning of, 269.
Ramman, vide Adad.
Ramsay, Sir William, 117, 170, 273, 277.
Rewards, posthumous, 216-218.
Sacrament, 25-26, 236-242, 250.
Sacrifice, theory of, 24-26, 235-236, 240-242; bloodless, 230-231;
chthonian, 233; human, 244-246; at oath-taking, 247-248;
“sober,” 231-232; vicarious, 242-244.
Sandon, 252-253.
Sayce, Professor, 169, 253.
Scapegoat, 247.
Science, relation to religion, in Greece and Mesopotamia, 23.
Sentimentality, in Babylonian religion, 196-197.
Sex, confusion of, 58-60.
Shamash, Babylonian sun-god, 99, 100, 120-121, 127, 142, 208,
302.
Sin, Babylonian moon-god, 99, 100.
Sin, non-moral ideas of, 152-154.
Sinjerli, relief at, 61.
Smith, Prof. Robertson, 25, 226, 235, 238, 241.
Snake-goddess, in Crete, 64-65; snake-cult, 78.
Tammuz, 105-106, 219-220, 242, 250-263.
Tanit, Carthaginian goddess, 168.
Taurobolion, 253.
Temples, erection of, 223-225; deification of, 225.
Teshup, Hittite god, 46, 62.
Teukridai, at Olba, 89.
Theanthropic animal, 77-78.
Theism, 7-9, 40-49.
Theriomorphism, in Egypt, 15; in Mesopotamia, 14, 52-55; in other
Semitic communities, 57-58; Hittite, 60-62; in Crete, 66-75; in
Greece, 75-80.
Tiâmat, in Babylonian cosmogony, 181.
Tiele, Professor, 40, 42, 81, 199.
Tralles, religious prostitutes at, 275.
Trinities, 185-187.
Truthfulness, religious virtue, 148.
Typhoeus, legend of, 182-183.
Van Gennep, 279.
Ver Sacrum, in Greece, 137.
Virgin-goddesses, not found among Aryans, 95; Mediterranean, 96.
Virginity, sacrifice of, 269-281.
Virgin-Mother, idea of, 166-171.
Westermarck, Professor, 41 n. 1, 278.
Wilde, Dr., 1.
Word, mystic value of, 15, 56, 57, 176-179, 295-297.
Worship, ambiguity in term, 67, 77.
Zeus, 49; grave of, in Crete, 93, 259-260; Herkeios, 149-150; Horios,
152; Kouros, 259; Panamaros in Caria, 90; Polieus, 238;
Thunderer in Bithynia, 95.
ENDNOTES
CHAPTER I NOTES
11.1 I am aware that there are exceptions to this principle, which I
propose to consider in a future course; no single formula can ever
sum up all the phenomena of a complex religion.
14.1 Vide Langdon, in Transactions of Congress of the History of
Religions, 1908, vol. i. p. 251.
15.1 P. 382, C.
15.2 Vide Petrie, in Transactions of Congress of the History of
Religions, 1908, vol. i. p. 192.
17.1 Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, 1904.
17.2 Vide Jastrow, Religion Babyloniens u. Assyriens, vol. i. p. 545.
20.1 Vide my Evolution of Religion, pp. 139-152.
21.1 1. 132.
25.1 Transactions of Congress of History of Religions, 1908, vol. i.
p. 192.
25.2 Hibbert Journal, 1904, “Sacrificial Communion in Greek
Religion.”
CHAPTER II NOTES
31.1 Vide the critical remarks on such a view by Prof. Jastrow in
Transactions of the Third International Congress of the History of
Religions, vol. i. pp. 234-237.
34.1 Vide Annual of the British School, 1909, 1910.
35.1 Vide Zimmern, Die Keilinschriften und das alte Testament
(K.A.T.)3, pp. 37-38.

CHAPTER III NOTES
40.1 Vide supra, p. 9.
41.1 Westermarck maintains the view in his Origin and
Development of Moral Ideas, pp. 663-664, that in many savage
religions the gods have no concern with ordinary morality; but the
statistics he gives need careful testing.
42.1 Op. cit., p. 170; as far as I know, only one fact might be cited in
support of Tiele’s view, a fact mentioned by Jastrow, op. cit., p. 52,
that the ideogram of Enlil, the god of Nippur, signifies Lord-Daimon
(Lil = Daimon); but we might equally well interpret it “Lord of Winds.”
42.2 Vide Hüsing, Der Zagros und seine Völker, p. 16.
43.1 Vide Plate in Winckler, “Die Gesetze Hammurabi,” in Der Alte
Orient, 1906.
43.2 Perrot et Chipiez, Histoire de l’art, Assyrie, p. 109, fig. 29
(Roscher, Lexikon, ii. p. 2358).
44.1 3, 8.
45.1 Messerschmidt, Die Hettiter, p. 9; Stanley Cook, Religion of
Ancient Palestine, p. 73.
45.2 So Cook, op. cit., p. 73, who interprets her as Astarte.
45.3 Winckler, Tel-El-Amarna Letters, 17.
46.1 Vide Winckler, Mittheil des deutsch. Orientgesellsch., 1907,
No. 35.
46.2 Winckler, Die Völker Vorderasiens, p. 21; Messerschmidt, op.
cit., p. 5; Kennedy, Journ. Royal Asiat. Soc., 1909, p. 1110, declares
that their language has been proved to belong to the Ural-Altaic
group and to be akin to Vannic.
46.3 Vide Messerschmidt, p. 25 (plate); Von Oppenheim, Der Tel-
Halaf und die verschleierte Gottin, p. 17, publishes a somewhat
similar figure holding a kind of club.
47.1 Perrot et Chipiez, Histoire de l’art, iv. p. 354 (fig.).
47.2 Vide Garstang, The Land of the Hittites, pl. lxiii.-lxxi.;
Messerschmidt, op. cit., pp. 26-27.
48.1 e.g. Outlines of Greek Religion, by R. Karsten, p. 6.
48.2 Vide supra, p. 46; cf. E. Meyer, Das erste Auftreten der Arier in
der Geschichte in Sitzungsb. d. konigl. Preuss. Akad. Wissensch.,
1908, pp. 14 seq.
CHAPTER IV NOTES
52.3 Vide Roscher, Lexikon, vol. iii. p. 48, s.v. “Nebo.”
52.4 Vide Roscher, op. cit., iii. p. 67 (Mitth. aus dem Orient.
Sammlung. zu Berlin, Heft xi. p. 23).
52.5 Monuments of Nineveh, i. p. 65 (Roscher, op. cit., ii. p. 2350).
52.6 P. 43.
52.7 Roscher, op. cit., vol. iv. p. 29.
53.1 Roscher, op. cit., iii. p. 254-255.
53.2 Schrader, Keil. Bibl., ii. p. 141.
53.3 Frag. Hist. Graec., ii. p. 496. Frag. 1, 3.
53.4 Nineveh and Babylon, pl. vi. (Roscher, op. cit., iii. p. 580).
54.1 Layard, Nineveh and Babylon, fig. 2. Roscher, op. cit., iii. p.
580.
54.2 In the Amer. Journ. Archael., 1887, pp. 59-60, Frothingham
cites examples from Assyrian cylinders of birds on pillars or altar with
worshippers approaching: one of these shows us a seated god in
front of the bird (pl. vii. 1); on another, a warrior approaches a
tabernacle, within which is a horse’s head on an altar, and near it a
bird on a column (pl. vii. 2; cf. the boundary-stone of
Nebuchadnezzar I., published by Miss Harrison, Trans. Congr. Hist.
Rel., 1908, vol. ii. p. 158); we find also a winged genius adoring an
altar on which is a cock. But cocks and other birds were sacrificial
animals in Babylonian ritual, and might be interpreted in all these
cases as mere temporary embodiments of the divinity’s power; the
human-shaped divinity is once represented by the side of the bird,
and might always have been imagined as present though unseen.
55.1 Roscher, Lexikon, iii. p. 268.
55.2 Vide chapter i. pp. 14-15.
56.1 Langdon, Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms, p. 127.
56.2 Schrader, Keilinsch. Bibl., ii. pp. 79, 83.
56.3 Op. cit., p. xix.
57.1 Langdon, op. cit., p. 159, n. 18. Compare with this the
personification of abstract ideas; the children of Shamash are Justice
(Kettu) and Law (Mésaru), and remain impersonal agencies, unlike
the Greek Θέμις. A deified Righteousness (sedek) has been inferred
from personal names that occur in the Amarna documents; vide
Cook, Palestine, p. 93.
57.2 Vide his article on “Eschmun-Asklepios,” in Orient. Stud. zu
Th. Nöldeke am 70ten Geburtstag gewidmet: the proofs are doubtful,
but snake-worship in Phoenicia is attested by Sanchuniathon, Eus.
Praep. Ev., 1, 10, 46.
57.3 Cook, Religion of Ancient Palestine, pp. 30-31.
58.1 Praep. Ev., 1, 10, 31. Glaser, Mittheilungen uber einige
Sabaeische Inschriften, p. 3-4, gives reasons for affirming the
worship of black bulls in heathen Arabia; but it is not clear in what
relation these stood to the high personal divinities.
58.2 Op. cit., p. 545.
59.1 Langdon, op. cit., p. 223.
59.2 Zimmern, Babyl. Hymn. w. Gebete, p. 11.
59.3 C. I. Sem., 250.
60.1 For references, vide my Cults of the Greek States, vol. ii.,
“Aphrodite,” R. 113a.
60.2 Vide Head, Hist. Num., p. 586.
61.1 Perrot et Chipiez, Histoire de l’art, iv. fig. 329; cf. Garstang, op.
cit., p. 256.
61.2 Supra, p 43.
61.3 Messerschmidt, op. cit., p. 23.
61.4 Journ. Roy. Asiat. Soc., 1909, p. 971.
62.1 Luschan, Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli, Heft iii. Taf. 42, 43; cf.
Garstang, op. cit., p. 274.
62.2 Vide Roscher, op. cit., iii., s.v. “Ramman.”
62.3 Perrot et Chipiez, op. cit., iv. p. 549, fig. 276; cf. fig. 278.

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Work Sandra Fielden

ISBN 978-3-030-42965-2 ISBN 978-3-030-42966-9 (eBook)

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2020

Cover illustration: smartboy10, Getty Images

Part I Legal Aspects 23

2 Generating Interdisciplinary Insights to Regulate

3 Confronting Episodic Disability in the Workplace:

4 Determining Work Capacity 63

5 Laws for the Right to Work of Disabled People:

6 Career Management: The Transition Process for Workers

7 From Education to Employment: A Transition Story115

8 Innovative Strategies: Successful Transition to Work

9 Supporting Meaningful Employment for Individuals

Part III Types of Employment 167

10 Supported Employment: A Case Study to Highlight

11 Strategic Planning for the Inclusion of People with

12 Levels of Employment: Considerations and Interventions

13 Breaking Barriers by Patterning Employment Success219

Part IV Levels of Employment 237

14 The Impact of Pain on Work and Professional Careers239

15 Understanding (Disabled People as) Ghosts in Professional

16 Temporary Status in Work Organizations for People

17 European Union Law Relating to Access to Online

18 Serving Customers with Dementia: Lessons

19 Managing Invisible Disabilities in the Workplace:

20 An Effective Approach to Mental Health Challenges:

21 Seeking New Solutions: Best Practices in Workplace

22 Finding Our Voices: Employment and Career Development

23 Masculinity, Disability and Work: A New Materialist

24 Privileges and Prejudices: Intersectionality and Disability

25 The Role of Leadership Behaviour for the Workplace

26 Taken for Granted: Ableist Norms Embedded

27 Adaptive Leadership: An Opportunity for Increasing

28 Organizational Blindness: Why People with Disabilities

29 The Economic Impact of Employing Disabled Persons:

Part VIII The Way Forward 521

30 The Way Forward523

Massimiliano Agovino is Assistant Professor of Economic Policy at the

Timothy Bartram is Professor of Management in the School of Management

well as the management of demographic change. Most recently, he investi-

Learning Sciences at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. She

profit and the state-federal VR program. He possesses over 20 years of direct

recent work focuses on intersections of gender and disability. In 2017, she

and employment. She is part of a community-­university participatory research

developments, impact on disabled people in the UK labour market. Further,

Fig. 1.1 Rates of employment across disability variants. (Adapted from

Table 5.1 Flexicurity indices, annual average values (2006–2011) 89

Disability is a dynamic and evolving construct that requires ongoing discus-

© The Author(s) 2020 1

individuals their career progress is a far more complex interaction between

and Brown, 2016, p. 4)

The World Health Organization (WHO)

Disability is an umbrella term, covering impairments, activity limitations and

United Nations (UN)

 he International Classification of Impairments,

The current version of the international classification of impairments, dis-

• Impairment: is a loss or abnormality in body structure or of a physiological or

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA—USA)

The Equality Act 2010 (UK)

The Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (Australia)

To be deemed a disability, the impairment or condition must impact daily

• total or partial loss of the person’s bodily or mental functions

Part I Legal Aspects 23

2 Generating Interdisciplinary Insights to Regulate

3 Confronting Episodic Disability in the Workplace:

4 Determining Work Capacity 63

5 Laws for the Right to Work of Disabled People:

6 Career Management: The Transition Process for Workers

7 From Education to Employment: A Transition Story115

8 Innovative Strategies: Successful Transition to Work

9 Supporting Meaningful Employment for Individuals

Part III Types of Employment 167

10 Supported Employment: A Case Study to Highlight

11 Strategic Planning for the Inclusion of People with

12 Levels of Employment: Considerations and Interventions

13 Breaking Barriers by Patterning Employment Success219

Part IV Levels of Employment 237

14 The Impact of Pain on Work and Professional Careers239

15 Understanding (Disabled People as) Ghosts in Professional

16 Temporary Status in Work Organizations for People

17 European Union Law Relating to Access to Online

18 Serving Customers with Dementia: Lessons

19 Managing Invisible Disabilities in the Workplace:

20 An Effective Approach to Mental Health Challenges:

21 Seeking New Solutions: Best Practices in Workplace

22 Finding Our Voices: Employment and Career Development

23 Masculinity, Disability and Work: A New Materialist

24 Privileges and Prejudices: Intersectionality and Disability

25 The Role of Leadership Behaviour for the Workplace

26 Taken for Granted: Ableist Norms Embedded

27 Adaptive Leadership: An Opportunity for Increasing

28 Organizational Blindness: Why People with Disabilities

29 The Economic Impact of Employing Disabled Persons:

Part VIII The Way Forward 521

30 The Way Forward523

and employment. She is part of a community-university participatory research

Table 5.1 Flexicurity indices, annual average values (2006–2011) 89

The World Health Organization (WHO)

United Nations (UN)

he International Classification of Impairments,

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA—USA)

The Equality Act 2010 (UK)

The Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (Australia)

he Historical Context of Disability

The Medical Model

The Social Model

The Social Relational Model

Outline of the Book